[1] Karl Marx, Capital (Chicago: Charles H. Kerr & Co.), 1:387.

[2] G.C. Vaillant, Aztecs of Mexico, rev. e.d. (New York: Penguin Books, 1962). p. 225.

[3] Ibid.

[4] Ibid., p. 129.

[5] Ibid.

[6] Ibid., p. 134.

[7] Edward Hyams, Soil and Civilization (London: Thames and Hudson, 1952), pp. 228–229

[8] Kart Marx, “Preface to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy,” Selected Works (Mew York: International Publishers, n.d), 1: 357.

[9] This viewpoint is developed in considerable detail id Karl Wittfogel’s Oriental Despotism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1957). Although Wittfogel simplifies this approach and has been criticized with good reason by Robert M. Adams and Jacques Garnet, the essential thrust of his thesis is, in my view, correct. Irrigation fostered cooperation if only on a local scale. And if centralized empires were a later development, it is hard to believe that they could have been sustained for centuries without the communication afforded by great river systems and the need for large irrigation works.

[10] Christopher Dawson, The Age of the Gods (London. Shred and Ward, 1934), pp. 155–156.

[11] William F. Fowler, The City State of the Greeks and Romans (New York: Macmillan, 1952), p. 64.

[12] George Thompson, Aeschylus and Athens (New York] International Publishers, 1950), pp, 61–62.

[13] Fowler. The City State of the Greeks and Romans. p 168.

[14] Paul Landis, Preface to Seven Famous Greek Plays (New York: Modern Library, Inc., 1931), p vi.

[15] H.D F. Kitto, The Greeks (New York: Penguin Books. 1951), p. 152.

[16] Lewis Mumford, The Culture of Cities (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1938), p 35.

[17] Ibid, p. 55.

[18] Ibid, p. 64.

[19] Quoted by Mumford, ibid, pp. 63–64.

[20] Ibid., p. 64.

[21] “Henri Pirenne, Medieval Cities (Princeton, NJ, Princeton Universify Press. 1948), pp. 209 — 210.

[22] Karl Marx, Capital (Chicago: Charles H. Kerr & Co., 1906), 1. 373.

[23] Thomas More, Utopia (New York: Washington Square Press, 1965), p. 14.

[24] Although by no means in England alone, as is commonly supposed. Even the supposedly benign Scandinavian countries, for example, were victimized b y an enclosure movement of their own. Perhaps the most serious of these developments occurred in Sweden, where legislative challenges led to enclosures and the breakup of the traditional open-field system, This subversion of the peasant economy resulted in enormous urban congestion with a severe deterioration of Swedish cities. During the latter half of the nineteenth century, more than a million people emigrated From Sweden — mostly to the United States — and an equal number were obliged to abandon agriculture for work in crafts and in the new factories which emerged in the cities. The same development, although the product largely of agricultural mechanization and the “green revolution,” is taking place today in France. Asia, Latin America, and Africa.

[25] Donn: Martindale, “Prefatory Remarks” to Max Weber’s The City (New York: The Free Press, 1958), p. 21.

[26] Jerome P. Pickard, “US. Metropolitan Growth and Expansion. 1970–2000” (Washington, DC. Urban Land Institute, 1972), pp. 6–7.

[27] Peter Hall. The World Cities (New York: McGraw-Hill World University Library, 1966), pp. 198–100.

[28] Max Horkheimer, The Eclipse of Reason (New York; Oxford University Press, 1947), p. 135.

[29] Max Horkeimer and Theodor Adorno, The Dialectic of Enlightenment (New York: Herder and Hereder, 1972), p. 137.

[30] “Frank Fisher, “Where City Planning Stands Today,” Commentary (January 1954), p. 75.

[31] Lewis Mumford, The City in History (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1961), p. 163.

[32] Quoted by Slumlord, ibid.

[33] Aristotle, “Politica,” in The Basic Works of Aristotle (New York; Random House, 1941). p. 1284.

[34] Pau! D. Spreiregen, Urban Design: The Architecture of Towns and Cities (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1965), p. 3.

[35] Mumford, The City in History, p. 297.

[36] Ibid., p. 277.

[37] Ibid., p. 306.

[38] Ibid.

[39] Leonardo Benevolo, The Origins of Town Planning (Cambridge, Mass; MIT Press, 1971), p. xi.

[40] E.A. Gautkind, The Twilight of Cities (New York; The Free Press, 1962), p. 7.

[41] Ibid., p. 5.

[42] Kevin Lynch and Lloyd Rodwin, “A World of Cities,” in The Future Metropolis, ed. Lloyd Rodwin (New York: George Braziller 1961) p. 9.

[43] Aristotle, Politico, p. 1161.

[44] Alexander Tzonis, Towards a Non-Oppressive Environment (Boston: i Press, 1972), pp. 19–20.

[45] Spreiregen, Urban Design, p. 1.

[46] Tzonis, Towards a Non-Oppressive Environment, p. 49.

[47] Ibid., p. 66.

[48] Ibid., p. 37.

[49] Ibid., p. 91.

[50] Mel Scott, American City Planning (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), p 1.

[51] Robert Owen, “Report to the County of Lanark,” in A New View of Society and Other Writings (London: Everyman Editions, 1927), pp. 274–276.

[52] Charles Fourier, Selections. Londor: S. Sonnenschein & Co., 1901, p. 138.

[53] Engels’s essential argument, in my view, is well worth repeating:

“The housing question can be solved only when society has been sufficiently transformed for a start to he made towards abolishing the contrast between town and country, which has been brought to its extreme point by present-day capitalist society. Far from being able to abolish this antithesis, capitalist society on the contrary is compelled to intensify it day by day. On the other hand, already the first modern utopian socialists, Owen and Fourier, correctly recognized this, In their model structures the contrast between town and country no longer exists.
... To want to solve the housing question while at the same time desiring to maintain the modern big cities is all absurdity. The modern big cities, however, will be abolished only by the abolition of the capitalist mode of production, and when this is once set going there will be quite other issues than supplying each worker with a little house of his own.” (Friedrich Engels, The Housing Question [Moscow: Progressive Publishers, 1970], p. 49).

Unfortunately, many “Marxists" have yet to be reminded that these views were expressed by one of the “founders of scientific socialism” and were emphatically repealed, again, in Engels’s later work, Anti-Duhring.

[54] Benevolo, Origins of Town Planning, pp. xii-xiii.

[55] Fisher. “Where City Planning Stands Today” p. 76,

[56] Ebenezer Howard, Garden Cities of Tomorrow (Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1963), p. 51.

[57] Ibid., p. 150.

[58] Fisher, “Where City Planning Stands Today,” p. 82.

[59] Murray Bookchin, Post-Scarcitiy Anarchism (San Francisco Ramparts Press, 1971), p. 25.

[60] “Blueprint for a Communal Environment” in Sources. ed. Theodore Roszak (New York: Harper Row, 1972) p. 393.

[61] Ibid., p. 394.

[62] Ibid., p. 395.

[63] Ibid., pp, 399, 400.

[64] Ibid., pp. 411–412.

[65] Ibid., p. 405.