,*APT] #ab 
,A ,=AG]'S ,MECCA3 ,DREAMS ( ,P[] 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,PET] ,GELD]LOOS 

,TEXT 3 

,X,I,I4 ,A ,=AG]'S ,MECCA3 ,DREAMS ( ,P[] 

,ON ! F]TILE PLA9S & RIV] VALLEYS NOR? & WE/ ( ! ,BLACK ,SEA--! CORRIDOR ?R\< :I* AGRICULTURE 5T]$ ! ,EUROPEAN SUBCONT95T--! /ORIES ( SOME ( ! FIR/ AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES %$ LI<T ON BO? ! EFFECTS ( AGRICULTURE ON SOCIETY1 & ON ! HI/ORY ( ! ,/ATE4 ,! ,CUCUT5I-,TRYPILLIAN CULTURE EXI/$ FROM #dh TO #c ,B,C,E 9 ! >EA ?AT IS N[ WE/]N ,UKRA9E1 ,MOLDOVA1 & EA/]N ,ROMANIA4 ,!Y PRACTIC$ AN AGRICULTURE BAS$ ON ! CULTIVATION ( :EAT1 RYE1 & PEAS4 ,WOM5 C>RI$ \T TEXTILE & POTT]Y MANUFACTUR+1 & M5 HUNT$ & H]D$1 ESPECIALLY CATTLE4 ,?IS CULTURE BUILT SOME ( ! L>GE/ SETTLEM5TS 9 ! WORLD ( ?AT TIME1 9CLUD+ CITIES ( UP TO FIFTE5 ?\S& PEOPLE4 ,!Y 9V5T$ ! OLDE/ KN[N PROTO-WRIT+ SY/EM 9 ! WORLD1 MANUFACTUR$ & TRAD$1 & LIV$ 9 PIT H\SES ?AT GAVE WAY OV] TIME TO ABOVE-GR\ND CLAY H\SES ) ?AT*$ RO(S4 

,CONTR>Y TO ASSUMPTIONS AB\T ! /ATE BE+ A MORE ADVANC$ =M ( POLITICAL ORGANIZATION1 ! ,CUCUT5I-,TRYPILLIAN CULTURE WAS /ATELESS1 EGALIT>IAN1 PEACEFUL1 & NON-PATRI>*AL1 ) A MATRIFOCAL SPIRITUALITY4 ,IT 5D$ ) ! >RIVAL ( ! ! PATRI>*AL & MILIT>I/IC ,9DO-,EUROPEAN ,KURGAN OR ,YAMNA CULTURE1 :I* WAS /ATELESS BUT AT LEA/ MILDLY HI]>*ICAL 7= EXAMPLE1 !Y BURI$ !IR W>RIOR-K+S 9 SPECIAL1 LAVI% GRAVES74 ,H[ ?IS DISPLACEM5T PLAY$ \T IS UNC]TA91 & ,M>IJA ,GIMBUTAS'S HYPO!SIS ( A PATRI>*AL ,9DO-,EUROPEAN 9VASION IS DISPUT$4 ,!RE IS EVID5CE ( COEXI/5CE BETWE5 ! TWO CULTURES4 ,IT IS KN[N ?AT !Y TRAD$ GOODS1 & ! ,CUCUT5I-,TRYPILLIAN 9HABITANTS MIGRAT$ WE/1 AB&ON+ SETTLEM5TS & CREAT+ NEW ONES1 :I* IS EVID5CE ( SOME K9D ( NEGATIVE PRESSURE COM+ FROM ! EA/4 ,SU* A SETTLEM5T DISRUPTION SUGGE/S A MORE GRADUAL PROCESS RA!R ?AN 9VASION1 SLAU<T]1 & CONQUE/4 ,H[EV]1 ! P]MAN5T SETTLEM5TS ( ! ,YAMNA CULTURE W]E 9 ! ,DON BAS9 AT ?IS TIME1 F> TO ! EA/4 ,RADIOC>BON DAT+ SUGGE/S ?AT !RE WAS ALMO/ NO TIME W9D[ 9 :I* ,YAMNA & ,CUCUT5I-,TRYPILLIAN SETTLEM5TS EXI/$ 9 ADJAC5T T]RITORIES4 ,ONE POSSIBILITY IS ?AT TRADE WAS C>RI$ \T BY 9T]M$I>Y POPULATIONS :O BECAME 9CREAS+LY HO/ILE AS A RESPONSE TO ,YAMNA EXPANSION1 OR ?AT E>LY WAVES ( ,YAMNA CAME TO TRADE OR MAKE W> BUT NOT TO SETTLE P]MAN5TLY4 

,F>!R S\?1 ! ,BOIAN CULTURE EXI/$ 9 SIMIL> CONDITIONS1 BUT ) DIFF]5T SOCIAL ORGANIZATION & A DIFF]5T 5D4 ,EXI/+ BETWE5 #dc & #ce ,B,C,E 9 :AT IS N[ ,ROMANIA & ,BULG>IA1 ! ,BOIAN CULTURE PRACTIC$ AGRICULTURE1 LIV$ 9 WATTLE & DAUB H\SES ) WOOD5 PLAT=M FLOORS & ?AT*$ RO(S1 & MADE F9E DECORATIVE POTT]Y ?AT WAS TRAD$ ?R\<\T ! REGION4 ,! CULTURE DESC5D$ FROM ! ,GUMELNITA CULTURE1 :I* WAS FAM\S = ITS AN?ROPOMORPHIC & ZOOMORPHIC >T4 ,EV5TUALLY1 ! ,BOIANS TRANSITION$ SMOO?LY 9TO SEV]AL SUBSEQU5T CULTURES ( ! REGION4 ,UNLIKE ! ,CUCUT5I-,TRYPILLIAN1 />T+ >\ND #da ,B,C,E !Y DEVELOP$ HI]>*IES )9 & BETWE5 SETTLEM5TS1 SUGGE/+ ! DEVELOPM5T ( A NON-/ATE ELITE ?AT BEGAN TO C5TRALIZE POLITICAL P[] 9 F$]ATIONS L9K+ MULTIPLE VILLAGES & T[NS4 ,LAT] 9 !IR DEVELOPM5T1 !SE SETTLEM5TS GREW TO 9CLUDE DEF5SIVE =TIFICATIONS1 SUGGE/+ AN 9CREASE 9 W>F>E4 ,! ,BOIAN CULTURE MAY HAVE 9T]M+L$ ) OR BE5 ABSORB$ BY >RIV+ ,9DO-,EUROPEAN POPULATIONS1 RA!R ?AN HAV+ BE5 DE/ROY$ OR EXPELL$4 

,& TO ! WE/1 9 ! G5TLE VALLEY :]E ! ,LJUBLJANICE ,RIV] SNAKES PA/ WOOD$ HILLS1 A /ATELESS PEOPLE LIV$ = MILL5NIA1 UNTIL >\ND #a ,B,C,E1 9 PILE DWELL+S AMID ! M>%ES & LAKES1 US+ /ONE & WOOD5 TOOLS UNTIL LATE 9 !IR EXI/5CE4 ,!Y SU/A9$ !MSELVES ) HUNT+1 FI%+1 & PRIMITIVE AGRICULTURE1 TRAVEL+ 9 DUG\T CANOES4 ,?\< !Y MI<T APPE> ESPECIALLY PRIMITIVE 9 \R EYES1 !Y HAPP5 TO BE ! 9V5TORS ( ! OLDE/ KN[N WOOD5 :EEL 9 ! WORLD4 ,IT SEEMS ?AT !Y W]E PEACEFUL1 NON-PATRI>*AL1 & EGALIT>IAN4 ,!Y MAY HAVE BE5 ! ONES TO BUILD ! FIR/ =TIFI$ HILLTOP SETTLEM5TS 9 ! VALLEY1 OR ?IS MAY HAVE BE5 ! WORK ( NEW >RIVALS2 9 ANY CASE !IR =TUNES *ANG$ ) ! 9FLUX ( V>I\S W>LIKE ,9DO-,EUROPEAN TRIBES4 

,! ,ILLYRIANS W]E A GR\P+ ( HI]>*ICAL ,9DO-,EUROPEAN TRIBES :O E/ABLI%$ A K+DOM 9 ! ,BALKANS & E>N$ ! HATR$ ( !IR COMM]CE-FOCUS$ S\!RN NEI<BORS ) CON/ANT PIRACY & W>F>E4 ,!Y W]E EV5TUALLY DEFEAT$ & CONQU]$ BY ! ,ROMANS4 ,AFT] ! >RIVAL ( V>I\S ,CELTIC POPULATIONS1 ! ,TAURISCI1 A MILIT>I/IC ,GALLIC F$]ATION1 SETTL$ H]E FOLL[+ !IR DEFEAT BY ! ,ROMANS AT ! BATTLE ( ,TELAMON 7#b#b#e ,B,C,E74 ,!Y SUBSEQU5TLY ALLI$ ) ! ,ROMANS BUT W]E DEFEAT$ BY 9VAD+ ,G]MANIC TRIBES1 ! ,CIMBRI & ,TEUTONS1 9 #aab ,B,C,E4 ,! ,ROMANS EXT5D$ !IR P[] TO ! EA/]N %ORE ( ! ,ADRIATIC & ! REGION ( ! ,LJUBLJANICE ,RIV] >\ND #b ,B,C,E1 BUILD+ A CITY 9 #e ,B,C,E :]E ,LJUBLJANA N[ /&S4 ,IT WAS ! DEF9ITIVE >RIVAL ( /ATE P[]1 ?\S&S ( YE>S AFT] ! ADV5T ( AGRICULTURE4 

,9 ! ,PYR5EES & ON ! ,M$IT]RANEAN COA/ ( ! ,IB]IAN ,P59SULA1 :]E ,I N[ SIT F9I%+ ?IS BOOK1 ! 9DIG5\S 9HABITANTS W]E ,IB]S & ,VASCONES1 A NON-,9DO-,EUROPEAN PEOPLE :O >E ! ANCE/ORS ( ! PRES5T-DAY ,BASQUES1 & :O SETTL$ 9 ! P59SULA SOMETIME >\ND #d ,B,C,E4 ,CELTIC & ,LUSITANIAN 7BO? ,9DO-,EUROPEAN7 TRIBES HAD >RIV$ SOME TIME AFT] #b ,B,C,E1 BUT !Y MOV$ ON & SETTL$ PRIM>ILY 9 ! WE/]N HALF ( ! P59SULA4 ,! ,IB]S1 ! 9DIG5\S 9HABITANTS MO/ 9FLU5C$ BY ! ,PHO5ICIANS & ,GREEKS1 LIV$ 9 =TIFI$ HILLTOP SETTLEM5TS1 RAIS$ CROPS1 MADE BRONZE TOOLS1 H]D$ ANIMALS1 & OSCILLAT$ BETWE5 W> & PEACE1 5GAG+ PRIM>ILY 9 RAID+ RA!R ?AN T]RITORIAL CONQUE/4 ,!IR SOCIETY WAS ORGANIZ$ 9 TRIBAL CONF$]ATIONS ?AT C\LD UNITE >\ND W> LEAD]S BUT W]E RELATIVELY EGALIT>IAN4 ,! ,VASCONES LIV$ 9 MORE M\NTA9\S REGIONS4 ,!Y PRACTIC$ PA/ORALISM1 HUNT+1 & GA!R+1 & US$ EV5 MORE DEC5TRALIZ$1 NON-PATRI>*AL1 & HORIZONTAL =MS ( SOCIAL ORGANIZATION4 ,/>T+ >\ND #aa ,B,C,E1 ! ,IB]S BEGAN TRAD+ ) ,PHO5ICIAN SAILORS1 :O E/ABLI%$ COMM]CIAL COLONIES ACROSS ! ,M$IT]RANEAN COA/ 79 FACT IT WAS PROBABLY ?IS COMM]CIAL CONTACT ?AT BEGAN TO DI/+UI% ! ,IB]S FROM ! ,VASCONES74 ,9 SUBSEQU5T C5TURIES1 ! ,PHO5ICIANS W]E SUPPLANT$ BY ! ,GREEKS1 :O E/ABLI%$ EV5 MORE TRAD+ COLONIES1 9CLUD+ ONE :]E ,B>CELONA N[ /&S4 ,9CREAS+LY1 ! ,IB]S W]E 9TEGRAT$ 9TO A WORLD ECONOMY1 BUT !Y REMA9$ 9DEP5D5T & /ATELESS4 

,/ATE P[] WAS F9ALLY IMPOS$ >\ND #ba ,B,C,E1 :5 FIR/ ! ,C>?AG9IANS UND] ,HANNIBAL1 & !N ! ,ROMANS1 DEFEAT$ ! ,IB]IAN & ,CELTIC CONF$]ATIONS 9 A S]IES ( W>S & SUBJECT$ !M TO A SY/EM ( TOTAL COLONIZATION & =C$ PRODUCTION4 ,SOME1 LIKE ! ,LUSITANIAN W> LEAD] ,VIRIA?US1 PROV$ 9DOMITABLE2 ,ROME PUT AN 5D TO ! RESI/ANCE ( ! TRIBAL CONF$]ATION HE L$ BY PAY+ SOME ( HIS [N TO ASSASS9ATE HIM AFT] LUR+ HIM TO PEACE TALKS4 ,TO !IR CR$IT1 !Y !N EXECUT$ ! HIR$ KILL]S ) ! REASON+ ?AT 0,ROME DOESN'T PAY TRAITORS40 ,MANY W>-CAPTIVES W]E =C$ 9TO SLAV]Y & MADE TO WORK ON ! VILLAS ( ! LEGION>IES :O HAD DEFEAT$ !M4 

,!RE IS A COMMON ELEM5T 9 ALL ( !SE /ORIES4 ,AGRICULTURE C\LD BE ADOPT$ AS AN 9T5SIVE PRACTICE OR AS A LI<T COMPLEM5T TO H]D+1 HUNT+1 & GA!R+4 ,IT MADE UP A V>IABLE P>T ( ! REP]TOIRE ( /ABLE1 NON-PATRI>*AL1 EGALIT>IAN SOCIETIES = ?\S&S ( YE>S4 ,SOME SU* SOCIETIES 5GAG$ 9 TRADE1 O!RS W]E RELATIVELY ISOLAT$2 SOME W]E PEACEFUL1 O!RS W]E W>LIKE1 AL?\< !IR BELLICOSE PRACTICES W]E G5]ALLY LIMIT$ TO RAID+ & NOT ! CONQUE/ ( T]RITORY4 ,HI]>*ICAL1 NON-/ATE1 PATRI>*AL SOCIETIES SU* AS ! ,ILLYRIANS OR ,KURGANS FREQU5TLY DISRUPT$ OR UPROOT$ ! NON-HI]>*ICAL ALT]NATIVES4 ,O!R TIMES IT WAS A FULLY =M$ /ATE1 SU* AS ! ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE4 ,9 BO? CASES1 ! CONQU]ORS US$ AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION AS A SORT ( WEAPON & A WAY TO SU/A9 P]MAN5T MILIT>Y MOBILIZATION4 ,SU* A PRACTICE IS NOT A CONSEQU5CE ( AGRICULTURE BUT A SPECIFICALLY CULTUR$ WAY TO UND]/& & TO ORGANIZE AGRICULTURE REFLECT+ A WORLDVIEW & A /RATEGY4 ,:AT'S MORE1 AT LEA/ A FEW HI]>*ICAL SOCIETIES1 SU* AS ! ,B9I & ! ,>YANS1 RESULT$ :5 A NOMADIC SOCIETY TOOK OV] AN AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY4 ,! CULTURE ?AT REPRODUCES AN AU?ORIT>IAN & EXPLOITIVE WORLDVIEW & DEPLOYS MILIT>I/IC & OPPRESSIVE /RATEGIES WILL DO SO NO MATT] :AT MAT]IAL CONDITIONS !Y >E PRES5T$ )4 

,WE HAVE SE5 5\< EXAMPLES1 DEMON/RAT+ MYRIAD PA?WAYS ( SOCIAL EVOLUTION1 TO PUT TO RE/ ! PROGRESSIVI/ ASSUMPTION ?AT AGRICULTURE & S$5T>Y LIV+ 9EXORABLY LEAD TO /ATE =MATION4 ,H[EV]1 AGRICULTURE DOES SEEM TO BE A CLE> PRECONDITION = /ATE =MATION4 ,S$5T>Y HUNT]-GA!R] SOCIETIES 7TYPICALLY ?OSE ) P]MAN5T VILLAGES NE> 9EXHAU/IBLE FI%+ SPOTS7 DID NOT DEVELOP /ATES1 & ! NOMADIC EMPIRES1 ?\< !Y DID DEVELOP COMPLEX HI]>*IES 9CORPORAT+ HUGE POPULATIONS1 ONLY F\ND$ /ATES 9 ! MOM5T :5 !Y CONQU]$ PREEXI/+ AGRICULTURAL POLITIES4 ,IS !RE ANY?+ 9 ! 9V5TION ( AGRICULTURAL TE*NIQUES ?AT MI<T %$ A LITTLE LI<T ON /ATE =MATION8 

,IT IS N[ KN[N ?AT AGRICULTURE WAS DEVELOP$ 9DEP5D5TLY 9 AT LEA/ ELEV5 DIFF]5T REGIONS ( ! GLOBE1 9CLUD+ MULTIPLE SITES 9 ,ASIA1 ,AFRICA1 & ,NOR? & ,S\? ,AM]ICA4 ,! FIR/ >EA :]E IT APPE>$ WAS 9 ! ,NE> & ,MIDDLE ,EA/4 ,REC5T RESE>* %[S ?AT AGRICULTURE WAS NOT A S+UL> 9V5TION 9 ! ,F]TILE ,CRESC5T BUT ?AT IT WAS FIR/ DEVELOP$ ACROSS A BROAD REGION SPANN+ :AT IS N[ ,SYRIA1 ,PALE/9E1 ,TURKEY1 ,IRAN1 & PO9TS 9 BETWE54 .<#b#f.> ,AT MULTIPLE SITES ?R\<\T ?IS REGION1 #a#a1#e YE>S AGO 7#i#e ,B,C,E7 HUNT]-GA!R]S />T$ S[+ WILD B>LEY1 :EAT1 & L5TILS4 ,= ?\S&S ( YE>S PREVI\SLY1 !Y W\LD HAVE ALREADY BE5 EAT+ ! SE$S ( !SE WILD-GR[+ GRASSES1 BUT N[ !Y />T$ TAK+ EXTRA /EPS TO 5C\RAGE !IR SPREAD1 COLLECT+ & S[+ SE$S RA!R ?AN EAT+ ALL ( !M1 !N /OR+ SE$S1 & EV5TUALLY TAK+ ! /EP ( CLE>+ L& & PLANT+ DIRECTLY1 & ALSO SELECT+ SE$S FROM ! PLANTS ) ! *>ACT]I/ICS !Y PREF]R$4 ,NO?+ AB\T ! BEG9N+ ( ?IS PROCESS IS UNIQUE 9 HUNT]-GA!R] PRACTICE1 S9CE SU* SOCIETIES REGUL>LY 9FLU5CE !IR 5VIRONM5TS TO MAKE !IR FOOD SUPPLY MORE ABUNDANT1 ! SAME WAY BEAV]S1 ANTS1 & MANY O!R SPECIES DO4 ,P]HAPS IT BECOMES USEFUL TO DISP5SE ) ! MY? ( PRI/9E NATURE & DI/+UI% BETWE5 9FLU5C$ & >TIFICIAL 5VIRONM5TS4 

,= SOME REASON1 C]TA9 HUNT]-GA!R]S ( ! ,F]TILE ,CRESC5T />T$ EXP5D+ ! EXTRA EF=T TO /ORE1 TO CLE>1 & TO PLANT1 SETTL+ AT SITES ?AT MAY FIR/ HAVE BE5 SEASONAL CAMPS & LAT] P]MAN5T VILLAGES4 ,! CRITICAL PO9T ?AT SIGNALS ! BEG9N+ ( AGRICULTURE IS DOME/ICATION3 ! SELECTION & GUID$ EVOLUTION ( A SPECIES1 PLANT OR ANIMAL1 UNTIL A NEW SPECIES IS CREAT$1 CORRESPOND+ TO ! *>ACT]I/ICS DESIR$ BY ! CULTIVATOR & NOT TO ! SPECIES' RELATION%IP ) ITS ORIG9AL ECOSY/EM4 ,! E>LIE/ DOME/ICAT$ PLANT SPECIES F\ND 9 EA/]N ,TURKEY1 ,SYRIA1 & ,LEBANON DATE TO #a1#e YE>S AGO 7#h#e ,B,C,E74 

,*O<A ,GOLAN1 9 ,IRAN1 WAS CONT9U\SLY 9HABIT$ = #b1#b YE>S />T+ #a#b1 YE>S AGO 7#a1 ,B,C,E74 ,PEOPLE BEGAN CULTIVAT+ WILD B>LEY1 :EAT1 & L5TILS MORE ?AN #a#a1#e YE>S AGO 7#i#e ,B,C,E71 ) DOME/ICAT$ SPECIES APPE>+ !RE #i1#h YE>S AGO 7#g#h ,B,C,E71 A FEW HUNDR$ YE>S LAT] ?AN 9 ! WE/]N ,F]TILE ,CRESC5T1 ?\< ,D,N,A TE/+ CONFIRMS ?AT DOME/ICATION WAS AN 9DEP5D5T EV5T AT DIFF]5T PLACES 9 ! ,F]TILE ,CRESC5T RA!R ?AN A ONE-TIME 9V5TION ?AT SPREAD ACROSS ! REGION4 .<#b#g.> ,AT ,*O<A ,GOLAN !Y ALSO KEPT WILD GOATS 9 P5S1 A TRANSITION /AGE BETWE5 ! HUNT+ ( WILD1 FREE-RANGE ANIMALS & ! BRE$+ ( DOME/IC SPECIES4 

,BECAUSE AGRICULTURE WAS DEVELOP$ SIMULTANE\SLY AT SO MANY SITES ACROSS SU* A WIDE >EA1 & 9 MULTIPLE REGIONS ACROSS ! GLOBE1 SCI5TI/S--AT LEA/ >*AEOLOGI/S1 PALEOECOLOGI/S1 >*AEOBOTANI/S1 & MEMB]S ( SIMIL> DISCIPL9ES--9SI/ ?AT F>M+ WAS 09EVITABLE0 ONCE ! ,ICE ,AGE 5D$ & CONDITIONS = A B\NTIFUL AGRICULTURE SPREAD & IMPROV$4 .<#b#h.> ,ON ! ONE H&1 WE CAN ACCEPT ! SIMPLE PROPOSITION ?AT1 GIV5 A L>GE 5\< HUMAN POPULATION DIVID$ 9TO A DIV]SE 5\< RANGE ( SEP>ATE SOCIETIES 7AS UNIFICATION & C5TRALIZATION T5D TO /IFLE 9NOVATION71 ANY?+ ?AT CAN BE 9V5T$ EV5TUALLY WILL BE 9V5T$4 ,BUT !RE >E C]TA9 CULTURAL VALUATIONS ?AT 9FILTRATE DISC\RSES ON 9EVITABILITY ?AT WE W\LD DO WELL TO QUE/ION1 NOT ONLY BECAUSE !Y NORMALIZE & NATURALIZE OCCURR5CES ?AT P]HAPS %\LD SP>K \R E?ICAL DISGU/ & CONDEMNATION1 BUT ALSO BECAUSE !Y T5D TO ]ASE A L>GE P>T ( ! HUMAN PANORAMA4 ,9 ?IS CASE1 :AT AB\T ALL ! HUMAN SOCIETIES ?AT DID NOT DEVELOP AGRICULTURE8 

,9 FACT1 !RE IS A HUGE BODY ( EVID5CE REG>D+ ! REJECTION ( AGRICULTURE & A WIDESPREAD AV]SION TO LABOR+ TO A*IEVE :AT NATURE CAN PROVIDE US FREELY4 ,MANY HUNT]-GA!R] GR\PS 7& TODAY1 PROBABLY ALL ( !M7 HAVE DEMON/RAT$ KN[L$GE ( AGRICULTURE1 BUT *OOSE NOT TO P>TAKE4 ,PROBABLY MO/ ( ! HUNT]-GA!R] SOCIETIES ?AT HAVE ADOPT$ AGRICULTURE & S$5T>Y LIV+ 9 ! LA/ ?REE HUNDR$ YE>S--SOCIETIES ?AT COV]$ A SIGNIFICANT PORTION ( ! GLOBE--W]E =C$ TO DO SO BY PROCESSES ( COLONIALISM1 & SOME /ILL RESI/ DEEP 9 ! ,AMAZON OR ! ,KALAH>I ,DES]T4 

,CLA/RES DISCUSSES A NUMB] ( SOCIETIES ?AT PRACTIC$ AGRICULTURE & GAVE IT UP1 SU* AS ! ,LAKOTA ( ! ,NOR? ,AM]ICAN ,GREAT ,PLA9S1 ! 9DIG5\S 9HABITANTS ( ! ,*ACO REGION 9 ,S\? ,AM]ICA1 & ! ,GUAYAQUI 9 ! ,AMAZON4 ,!RE >E ALSO NUM]\S EXAMPLES ( SOCIETIES ?AT MAY HAVE TRANSITION$ DIRECTLY FROM HUNT+ & GA!R+ TO NOMADIC PA/ORALISM1 SU* AS ! ,SAMI ( >CTIC ,EUROPE1 ! ,KHOIKHOI ( S\!RN ,AFRICA1 & MAYBE EV5 ! E>LY ,9DO-,EUROPEANS4 

,AGRICULTURE WAS NOT 9DEP5D5TLY DEVELOP$ :]EV] IT WAS ECOLOGICALLY FEASIBLE4 ,9 FACT1 IT W\LD BE SAF] TO SAY IT WAS ONLY DEVELOP$ 9 ! PLACES & DUR+ ! CLIMATES :]E IT WAS MO/ FAVOR$ & W\LD BE MO/ ABUNDANT4 ,?IS IS NO SURPRISE1 GIV5 ?AT AGRICULTURE CON/ITUT$ A MAJOR DECL9E 9 HUMAN WELL-BE+1 ) MORE WORK OR POOR] HEAL?4 .<#b#i.> 

,! E>LIE/ =MS ( PROTO-AGRICULTURE 7! COLLECT+1 /OR+1 & WILD S[+ ( SE$S7 W]E NOT AS LABOR-9T5SIVE AS ! LAT] PRACTICE ( CLE>+ FIELDS TO PLANT DOME/ICAT$ SPECIES4 ,! PRACTITION]S ( PROTO-AGRICULTURE /ILL SU/A9$ !MSELVES ON A DIV]SE & HEAL?Y DIET 9CLUD+ HUNDR$S ( SPECIES ( HUNT$1 GA!R$1 & CULTIVAT$ FOOD S\RCES4 ,AT ,*O<A ,GOLAN1 >*AEOLOGI/S F\ND #aaf DIFF]5T PLANT TAXA & ! REMA9S ( DOZ5S ( HUNT$ ANIMAL SPECIES1 FROM GAZELLES TO BO>S TO ROD5TS TO REPTILES TO BIRDS TO FRE%WAT] CRU/ACEANS4 ,:EAT ONLY CON/ITUT$ #b P]C5T ( ! PLANT REMA9S F\ND DUR+ ! LA/ C5TURIES ( ! SETTLEM5T1 AFT] A MORE ?AN TWO-?\S&-YE>-LONG TRAJECTORY T[>DS AGRICULTURE4 .<#b#a.> 

,ONCE ! H>D WORK ( DOME/ICATION & TOOL 9NOVATION WAS ACCOMPLI%$1 AGRICULTURE DID NOT NECESS>ILY SPREAD BY ADOPTION1 BUT BY POPULATION EXPANSION4 ,MO/ :ITE ,EUROPEANS >E G5ETIC DESC5DANTS ( F>M]S 9 ! ,F]TILE ,CRESC5T & ! ,LEVANT4 .<#b#a#a.> ,E>LY F>M]S1 BURI$ EI<T ?\S& YE>S AGO 9 :AT IS N[ ,G]MANY1 >E G5ETICALLY MO/ SIMIL> TO ! MOD]N 9HABITANTS ( ,TURKEY & ,IRAQ4 ,C]TA9LY !RE >E PL5TY ( CASES ( SOCIETIES VOLUNT>ILY ADOPT+ AGRICULTURE1 AL?\< WE %\LD ALSO TAKE 9TO ACC\NT ?AT ! SPREAD ( AGRICULTURE MAKES =AG+ 9 ! SAME ECOSY/EM UNT5ABLE1 AS =E/S >E CUT D[N & ANIMALS OV]-HUNT$4 ,BUT 9 MANY O!R CASES1 AGRICULTURE WAS SPREAD AS P>T ( A CULTURAL COMPLEX BY A SPECIFIC PEOPLE1 LIKE ! ,SUM]IANS1 ! ,BANTU1 OR ! ,HAN4 

,9 O!R WORDS1 AGRICULTURE CANNOT BE VIEW$ AS A M]E TE*NOLOGICAL %IFT1 & C]TA9LY NOT AS AN IMPROVEM5T4 ,IT WAS 9 L>GE P>T A CULTURAL *OICE & MANY CULTURES W]E EVID5TLY DISPOS$ TO AVOID+ IT4 ,:AT CULTURES1 !N1 W]E DISPOS$ T[>DS ! DEVELOPM5T ( AGRICULTURE8 ,IS !RE ANY?+ )9 SU* A CULTURAL MAKE-UP ?AT MI<T HAVE FAVOR$ ! 9T5SIFICATION ( HI]>*Y 9 SOME ( !SE SOCIETIES1 & NOT 9 O!RS8 

,WE KN[ ?AT :ILE ALL HUNT]-GA!R] SOCIETIES >E /ATELESS & 9 MAT]IAL T]MS EGALIT>IAN1 WE ALSO KN[ ?AT !Y COV] A GREAT RANGE FROM MILDLY PATRI>*AL & G]ONTOCRATIC TO RESOLUTELY ANTI-AU?ORIT>IAN4 ,A SOCIETY ( ! =M] TYPE C\LD POT5TIALLY DEVELOP K9%IP & RELIGI\S HI]>*IES ONCE AGRICULTURE GAVE !M ! OPPORTUNITIES = D5S] POPULATIONS1 FIX$ T]RITORIALITY1 CRAFT SPECIALIZATION1 & 9H]ITANCE4 

,EXAM9+ /UDIES ON ! E>LIE/ AGRICULTURE1 A FEW ?+S BECOME APP>5T4 ,= ONE1 S$5T>Y LIV+ PREC$$ FULL-SCALE AGRICULTURE4 ,AT ,*O<A ,GOLAN1 SETTLEM5T BEGAN >\ND #a1 ,B,C,E1 CULTIVATION ( WILD C]EALS BEGAN >\ND #ie ,B,C,E1 & ! FIR/ DOME/ICAT$ CROPS APPE>$ >\ND #< ,B,C,E1 R\<LY MIRROR+ ! TIMEL9E ELSE:]E 9 ! ,F]TILE ,CRESC5T4 ,?IS IS NO P>ADOX4 ,HUNT]-GA!R] SOCIETIES CAN BE R\<LY DIVID$ 9TO TWO MODES1 =AG]S & COLLECTORS4 ,! LATT]1 9 RESPONSE TO ECOLOGICAL CONDITIONS1 >E NOT FULLY NOMADIC4 ,RA!R1 9 C]TA9 SEASONS1 !Y SETTLE 9 SEMI-P]MAN5T CAMPS TO TAKE ADVANTAGE ( A TEMPOR>Y B\NTY 7E4G4 ! SALMON RUN OR ! RIP5+ ( AN ABUNDANT FRUIT1 NUT1 OR GRA97 OR TO PASS ! W9T]1 SURVIV+ (F SMOK$ MEATS1 NUTS & GRA9S1 OR O!R FOODS /OR$ UP ?R\<\T ! YE>4 ,COLLECTORS T5D TO SPECIALIZE MORE 9 ! GA!R+ ( ESPECIALLY ABUNDANT FOODS4 ,HUNT]-GA!R]S 9 ! ,F]TILE ,CRESC5T MAY HAVE HAD SEMI-P]MAN5T SETTLEM5TS 9 ! W9T] OR 9 ! SUMM] MON?S :5 ! ABUNDANT WILD C]EALS RIP5$1 & !Y MAY WELL HAVE RETURN$ TO ! SAME SETTLEM5TS YE> AFT] YE>1 EV5TUALLY BUILD+ P]MAN5T /RUCTURES4 

,AT !SE SETTLEM5TS1 !Y W\LD HAVE NOTIC$ AN 9CREASE 9 ! GR[? ( ! V]Y C]EALS !Y COLLECT$1 AS A RESULT ( TRANSPORT$ SE$S FALL+ TO ! E>?1 SE$S PASS+ 9TACT ?R\< ! HUMAN DIGE/IVE TRACT1 & SO ON4 ,EV5TUALLY1 ) JU/ A LITTLE EXTRA EF=T1 !Y MI<T BEG9 TO PUT ASIDE A P>T ( !SE SE$S TO S[ LAT]1 MAK+ ! NATURAL SUPPLY EV5 MORE ABUNDANT4 ,BUT :Y TAKE ! LABOR-9T5SIVE NEXT /EPS1 :5 SO MANY O!R COLLECTOR SOCIETIES DID NOT8 ,:AT ELSE MI<T HAVE 9DUC$ HUNT]-GA!R]S TO TAKE ! /EP TO P]MAN5T S$5T>Y SETTLEM5T8 

,WE KN[ ?AT SACR$ SITES PLAY$ AN IMPORTANT ROLE 9 MANY E>LY /ATES & 9 ! /ATELESS AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES ?AT PREC$$ !M1 SOME HI]>*ICAL1 O!RS HORIZONTAL4 ,WE ALSO KN[ ?AT NOMADIC HUNT]-GA!R]S HAD SACR$ SITES :]E !Y MI<T GO = VISIONS OR TO P]=M C]TA9 RITUALS OR MAKE SPIRITUAL >T1 FROM ROCK C>V+S TO MORE EPHEM]AL K9DS ?AT HAVE NOT SURVIV$ ! PASSAGE ( TIME4 ,SU* SITES W]E (T5 9 \T-(-!-WAY PLACES OR ALONG SEASONAL MIGRATION R\TES1 & NOT CONNECT$ TO P]MAN5T SETTLEM5T4 

,IT TURNS \T1 ?\<1 ?AT !RE IS AT LEA/ ONE EXAMPLE ( HUNT]-GA!R]S ]ECT+ A P]MAN5T MONUM5TAL SITE1 & IT JU/ SO HAPP5S TO BE 9 ! ,F]TILE ,CRESC5T1 DAT+ TO A FEW HUNDR$ YE>S BE=E ! APPE>ANCE ( PROTO-AGRICULTURAL SETTLEM5TS4 

,! ,GOBLEKI ,TEPE SITE 9 ! S\!A/ ( MOD]N-DAY ,TURKEY DATES TO >\ND #a#a1#f YE>S AGO4 ,!RE1 HUNT]-GA!R]S MADE A MONUM5T CONSI/+ ( R+S ( L>GE /ONES1 UP TO FIVE MET]S HI<1 >RANG$ 9 CONC5TRIC CIRCLES & 5GRAV$ ) ANIMAL MOTIFS4 ,! /ONES WEI<$ BETWE5 T5 & TW5TY METRIC TONS2 PLAC+ !M !RE=E REQUIR$ A L>GE GR\P ( PEOPLE & ADVANC$ TE*NIQUES4 

,IF HUNT]-GA!R]S 9 ! REGION HAD P]MAN5T SITES1 :AT IF !SE SITES ALSO HAD P]MAN5T RESID5TS1 RELIGI\S H]MITS SUPPORT$ BY ! (F]+S ( VISIT+ PILGRIMS & BY !IR [N ACTIVITIES1 :I* CAME TO 9CLUDE AGRICULTURE8 ,IT MAY BE FEASIBLE ?AT OV]-HUNT+ 9 A REGION POPULAT$ BY MANY SEMI-S$5T>Y B&S ( COLLECTORS =C$ ! RESID5TS TO EI!R MOVE AWAY OR TAKE ! /EP TO MORE 9T5SIVE =MS ( PLANT CULTIVATION1 YET ! SYMBOLIC WEI<T ( SU* A DECISION & ! ROLE ( SPIRITUAL & CULTURAL CRIT]IA 9 ITS \TCOME %\LD NOT BE UND]E/IMAT$4 ,! %IFT TO AGRICULTURE C\LD NEV] HAVE BE5 A SIMPLE CALCULATION ( CALORIES P] UNIT ( LABOR BECAUSE IT CALL$ 9TO QUE/ION ! V]Y WORLDVIEW & RELATION%IP ) NATURE ( ?OSE :O UND]TOOK IT4 ,SU* A %IFT W\LD HAVE REQUIR$ A SITE ( SPIRITUAL PRODUCTION4 

,CONTR>Y TO IDEOLOGICAL MUMBO-JUMBO REG>D+ 0SURPLUS0 & 0SUBSI/5CE ECONOMIES10 HUNT]-GA!R] SOCIETIES >E P]FECTLY CAPABLE ( SUPPORT+ A L>GE PROPORTION ( NONPRODUCTIVE MEMB]S1 NAMELY ! OLD & ! Y\NG4 ,SUPPORT+ A SPECIALIZ$ GR\P ( HOLY PEOPLE W\LD HAVE BE5 P]FECTLY )9 !IR MEANS4 ,A M9ORITY ( RELIGI\S H]MITS LIV+ AT MONUM5TAL OR SACR$ SITES MI<T NOT ACC\NT = ! GREAT] P>T ( PROTO-AGRICULTURAL SETTLEM5TS4 ,BUT GIV5 ! WIDESPREAD USE ( SEMI-P]MAN5T1 SEASONAL DWELL+S BY COLLECTORS ACROSS ! WORLD1 ,I ?9K ?AT ! GREATE/ LEAP IS NOT BETWE5 PURE HUNT+ & GA!R+ & A DIV]SIFI$ CULTIVATION ( WILD PLANTS1 BUT BETWE5 ! LATT] & ! LABOR-9T5SIVE CLE>+ ( L& TO PLANT DOME/ICAT$ CROPS1 TOGE!R ) P]MAN5T SETTLEM5T4 

,S$5T>Y RELIGI\S H]MITS NOT ONLY W\LD HAVE AID$ 9 ! PROCESS ( 9NOVATION & DOME/ICATION 7LIV+ AT A P]MAN5T SITE & )\T ! DI/RACTIONS ( SOCIETY !Y W\LD HAVE BE5 PRIVILEG$ OBS]V]S TO ! NATURAL PROCESSES ?AT L$ TO DOME/ICATION71 .<#b#a#b.> !Y W\LD ALSO HAVE PROVID$ AN EXAMPLE = ! HOL9ESS ( S$5T>Y LIV+ & ! MAGIC ( CO-OPT+ NATURAL PROCESSES1 %AP+ ! 5VIRONM5T1 TRAC+ HUMAN ES!TICS ON ! NATURAL WORLD 7EV] A FASC9ATION = A SYMBOLIC SPECIES71 & GIV+ BIR? TO O!R SPECIES4 

,OV] TIME1 AS S$5T>Y SETTLEM5TS GAVE RISE TO TRADE NETWORKS & POPULATIONS GREW1 ! SPIRITUAL PRACTICE W\LD HAVE 9T5SIFI$4 ,WE CAN IMAG9E %AMANS :O W]E SUPPORT$ BY (F]+S & GIFTS & :O E>N$ !IR /ATUS ?R\< *>ISMATIC P]=MANCES1 SKILL 9 HEAL+1 OR ABILITY 9 O!R >TI/IC TE*NIQUES1 :O LIV$ AT SITES ( SPIRITUAL SIGNIFICANCE ?AT BECAME ! DE/9ATION ( PILGRIMAGES & ?US NODES ( TRADE4 ,AS SPIRITUAL_/MAT]IAL TRADE EXP&$1 !SE HOLY PEOPLE C\LD TAKE ON DISCIPLES1 EV5TUALLY F\ND+ HI]>*ICAL RELIGI\S ORD]S ?AT SPREAD ?R\< ! V]Y TRADE NETWORKS ?AT SU/A9$ !M4 ,?OSE ORD]S ?AT EXECUT$ !IR FUNCTIONS MORE \T ( LOVE = /ATUS ?AN \T ( LOVE = GIFT-GIV+1 HEAL+1 & SPIRITUAL EXP]I5CES W\LD DEVELOP AU?ORIT>IAN VALUES ?AT W\LD RESULT 9 ! EXPANSION ( 9T]NAL HI]>*IES--9ITIALLY JU/ A P$AGOGICAL ORGANIZATION DIVID+ MA/]S1 9T]M$IATES1 & NOVICES4 ,AU?ORIT>IAN ORD]S )9 ! NETWORK W\LD UNITE1 S9CE !IR LOGIC FAVOR$ ! ACCUMULATION ( P[] OV] ! UNIMP$$ SE>* = TRU?1 MEAN+1 & EC/ASY4 ,A CLA% BETWE5 !SE DIFF]5T SPIRITUALITIES MAY ALSO BE A PO9T ( ORIG9 = ! FIR/ SPECIFICALLY ANTI-AU?ORIT>IAN1 /ATE-RESI/+ CULTURAL PRACTICES4 

,! DEVELOPM5T ( AGRICULTURE WAS ABOVE ALL A SPIRITUAL DEVELOPM5T1 & 9 EV]Y S+LE 9/ANCE 9 :I* ?IS SPIRITUAL ECONOMY >OSE1 IT HAD ! OPPORTUNITY TO PROMOTE A TOL]ANCE = HI]>*Y1 ! SPECIALIZATION ( RITUAL1 & ! MONOPOLIZATION ( OCCULT KN[L$GE1 OR TO PROMOTE SPIRITUAL COMMON+ & TO MAKE EC/ATIC1 TRANS=MATIVE EXP]I5CES AVAILABLE TO ALL4 ,9 ! =M] CASE1 ! E>LIE/ PR$ECESSOR TO A POLITOG5 W\LD BE 9TIMATELY CONNECT$ TO A CULTURAL COMPLEX B9D+ AGRICULTURAL ME?ODS1 SPIRITUAL VALUES1 & ORGANIZATIONAL PR9CIPLES4 ,AU?ORIT>IAN & ANTI-AU?ORIT>IAN V]SIONS ( ?IS CULTURAL COMPLEX SL[LY SPREAD ACROSS MULTIPLE CONT95TS4 

,9 ! ?\S&S ( YE>S ?AT FOLL[$1 !SE CULTURES HAD ! *ANCE TO BL5D1 TO REV]SE !IR DIRECTIONS1 OR TO 9T5SIFY4 ,ONCE AGRICULTURE WAS G5]ALIZ$ & BECAME ! PRACTICE1 NOT ( SPIRITUAL 5CLAVES BUT ( 5TIRE SOCIETIES1 HI]>*Y WAS PROBABLY =C$ TO TAKE SEV]AL /EPS BACK4 ,NEXT TO A GR[+ POPULATION ?AT WAS NO LONG] NOMADIC1 & !RE=E LESS 9CL9$ TO UND]TAKE PILGRIMAGES1 ! PREEXI/+ SPIRITUAL C5T]S PROBABLY FAC$ A %>P DECREASE 9 !IR RELATIVE IMPORTANCE4 ,IT W\LD TAKE A LONG TIME = SPIRITUAL HI]>*IES TO EI!R REEM]GE 9 EA* AGRICULTURAL SETTLEM5T1 OR = ! E>LI] SPIRITUAL C5T]S TO REE/ABLI% !MSELVES AS REGIONAL CAPITALS1 ONCE ! GR[? ( POPULATION & CRAFTS BROKE ! IMMOBILITY & SELF-SUFFICI5CY ( ! AGRICULTURAL SETTLEM5TS & ALL[$ SPIRITUAL_/MAT]IAL TRADE TO FL\RI% AGA94 

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