,BOOK #a#a1 ,*APT] #a 
#ahab 

#ahfiahfi 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,LEO ,TOL/OY 

,TEXT 3 

,ABSOLUTE CONT9UITY ( MOTION IS NOT COMPREH5SIBLE TO ! HUMAN M9D4 
 ,LAWS ( MOTION ( ANY K9D BECOME COMPREH5SIBLE TO MAN ONLY :5 HE 
 EXAM9ES >BITR>ILY SELECT$ ELEM5TS ( ?AT MOTION2 BUT AT ! SAME 
 TIME1 A L>GE PROPORTION ( HUMAN ]ROR COMES FROM ! >BITR>Y DIVISION 
 ( CONT9U\S MOTION 9TO DISCONT9U\S ELEM5TS4 ,!RE IS A WELL-KN[N1 
 SO-CALL$ SOPHISM ( ! ANCI5TS CONSI/+ 9 ?IS1 ?AT ,A*ILLES C\LD 
 NEV] CAT* UP ) A TORTOISE HE WAS FOLL[+1 9 SPITE ( ! FACT ?AT 
 HE TRAVEL$ T5 TIMES AS FA/ AS ! TORTOISE4 ,BY ! TIME ,A*ILLES HAS 
 COV]$ ! DI/ANCE ?AT SEP>AT$ HIM FROM ! TORTOISE1 ! TORTOISE 
 HAS COV]$ ONE T5? ( ?AT DI/ANCE AHEAD ( HIM3 :5 ,A*ILLES HAS 
 COV]$ ?AT T5?1 ! TORTOISE HAS COV]$ ANO!R ONE HUNDR$?1 & SO 
 ON =EV]4 ,?IS PROBLEM SEEM$ TO ! ANCI5TS 9SOLUBLE4 ,! ABSURD 
 ANSW] 7?AT ,A*ILLES C\LD NEV] OV]TAKE ! TORTOISE7 RESULT$ FROM 
 ?IS3 ?AT MOTION WAS >BITR>ILY DIVID$ 9TO DISCONT9U\S ELEM5TS1 
 :]EAS ! MOTION BO? ( ,A*ILLES & ( ! TORTOISE WAS CONT9U\S4 

,BY ADOPT+ SMALL] & SMALL] ELEM5TS ( MOTION WE ONLY APPROA* A 
 SOLUTION ( ! PROBLEM1 BUT NEV] REA* IT4 ,ONLY :5 WE HAVE ADMITT$ 
 ! CONCEPTION ( ! 9F9ITELY SMALL1 & ! RESULT+ GEOMETRICAL 
 PROGRESSION ) A COMMON RATIO ( ONE T5?1 & HAVE F\ND ! SUM ( 
 ?IS PROGRESSION TO 9F9ITY1 DO WE REA* A SOLUTION ( ! PROBLEM4 

,A MOD]N BRAN* ( MA!MATICS HAV+ A*IEV$ ! >T ( DEAL+ ) ! 
 9F9ITELY SMALL CAN N[ YIELD SOLUTIONS 9 O!R MORE COMPLEX PROBLEMS ( 
 MOTION :I* US$ TO APPE> 9SOLUBLE4 

,?IS MOD]N BRAN* ( MA!MATICS1 UNKN[N TO ! ANCI5TS1 :5 DEAL+ 
 ) PROBLEMS ( MOTION ADMITS ! CONCEPTION ( ! 9F9ITELY SMALL1 & 
 SO CON=MS TO ! *IEF CONDITION ( MOTION 7ABSOLUTE CONT9UITY7 & 
 !REBY CORRECTS ! 9EVITABLE ]ROR :I* ! HUMAN M9D CANNOT AVOID 
 :5 IT DEALS ) SEP>ATE ELEM5TS ( MOTION 9/EAD ( EXAM9+ 
 CONT9U\S MOTION4 

,9 SEEK+ ! LAWS ( HI/ORICAL MOVEM5T JU/ ! SAME ?+ HAPP5S4 
 ,! MOVEM5T ( HUMANITY1 >IS+ AS IT DOES FROM 9NUM]ABLE >BITR>Y 
 HUMAN WILLS1 IS CONT9U\S4 

,TO UND]/& ! LAWS ( ?IS CONT9U\S MOVEM5T IS ! AIM ( HI/ORY4 
 ,BUT TO >RIVE AT !SE LAWS1 RESULT+ FROM ! SUM ( ALL ?OSE HUMAN 
 WILLS1 MAN'S M9D PO/ULATES >BITR>Y & DISCONNECT$ UNITS4 ,! FIR/ 
 ME?OD ( HI/ORY IS TO TAKE AN >BITR>ILY SELECT$ S]IES ( CONT9U\S 
 EV5TS & EXAM9E IT AP>T FROM O!RS1 ?\< !RE IS & CAN BE NO 
 BEG9N+ TO ANY EV5T1 = ONE EV5T ALWAYS FL[S UN9T]RUPT$LY FROM 
 ANO!R4 

,! SECOND ME?OD IS TO CONSID] ! ACTIONS ( SOME ONE MAN--A K+ 
 OR A COMM&]--AS EQUIVAL5T TO ! SUM ( MANY 9DIVIDUAL WILLS2 
 :]EAS ! SUM ( 9DIVIDUAL WILLS IS NEV] EXPRESS$ BY ! ACTIVITY ( 
 A S+LE HI/ORIC P]SONAGE4 

,HI/ORICAL SCI5CE 9 ITS 5DEAVOR TO DRAW NE>] TO TRU? CONT9UALLY 
 TAKES SMALL] & SMALL] UNITS = EXAM9ATION4 ,BUT H[EV] SMALL ! 
 UNITS IT TAKES1 WE FEEL ?AT TO TAKE ANY UNIT DISCONNECT$ FROM O!RS1 OR 
 TO ASSUME A BEG9N+ ( ANY PH5OM5ON1 OR TO SAY ?AT ! WILL ( MANY 
 M5 IS EXPRESS$ BY ! ACTIONS ( ANY ONE HI/ORIC P]SONAGE1 IS 9 
 ITSELF FALSE4 

,IT NE$S NO CRITICAL EX]TION TO R$UCE UTT]LY TO DU/ ANY D$UCTIONS 
 DRAWN FROM HI/ORY4 ,IT IS M]ELY NECESS>Y TO SELECT SOME L>G] OR 
 SMALL] UNIT AS ! SUBJECT ( OBS]VATION--AS CRITICISM HAS EV]Y 
 RI<T TO DO1 SEE+ ?AT :ATEV] UNIT HI/ORY OBS]VES MU/ ALWAYS BE 
 >BITR>ILY SELECT$4 

,ONLY BY TAK+ 9F9ITESIMALLY SMALL UNITS = OBS]VATION 7! 
 DIFF]5TIAL ( HI/ORY1 ?AT IS1 ! 9DIVIDUAL T5D5CIES ( M57 & 
 ATTA9+ TO ! >T ( 9TEGRAT+ !M 7?AT IS1 F9D+ ! SUM ( 
 !SE 9F9ITESIMALS7 CAN WE HOPE TO >RIVE AT ! LAWS ( HI/ORY4 

,! FIR/ FIFTE5 YE>S ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY 9 ,EUROPE PRES5T AN 
 EXTRAORD9>Y MOVEM5T ( MILLIONS ( PEOPLE4 ,M5 LEAVE !IR CU/OM>Y 
 PURSUITS1 HA/5 FROM ONE SIDE ( ,EUROPE TO ! O!R1 PLUND] & 
 SLAU<T] ONE ANO!R1 TRIUMPH & >E PLUNG$ 9 DESPAIR1 & = SOME 
 YE>S ! :OLE C\RSE ( LIFE IS ALT]$ & PRES5TS AN 9T5SIVE 
 MOVEM5T :I* FIR/ 9CREASES & !N SLACK5S4 ,:AT WAS ! CAUSE ( 
 ?IS MOVEM5T1 BY :AT LAWS WAS IT GOV]N$8 ASKS ! M9D ( MAN4 

,! HI/ORIANS1 REPLY+ TO ?IS QUE/ION1 LAY BE=E US ! SAY+S & 
 DO+S ( A FEW DOZ5 M5 9 A BUILD+ 9 ! CITY ( ,P>IS1 CALL+ 
 !SE SAY+S & DO+S 0! ,REVOLUTION02 !N !Y GIVE A DETAIL$ 
 BIOGRAPHY ( ,NAPOLEON & ( C]TA9 PEOPLE FAVORABLE OR HO/ILE TO HIM2 
 TELL ( ! 9FLU5CE SOME ( !SE PEOPLE HAD ON O!RS1 & SAY3 ?AT IS 
 :Y ?IS MOVEM5T TOOK PLACE & ?OSE >E ITS LAWS4 

,BUT ! M9D ( MAN NOT ONLY REFUSES TO BELIEVE ?IS EXPLANATION1 BUT 
 PLA9LY SAYS ?AT ?IS ME?OD ( EXPLANATION IS FALLACI\S1 BECAUSE 9 IT 
 A WEAK] PH5OM5ON IS TAK5 AS ! CAUSE ( A /RONG]4 ,! SUM ( HUMAN 
 WILLS PRODUC$ ! ,REVOLUTION & ,NAPOLEON1 & ONLY ! SUM ( ?OSE 
 WILLS FIR/ TOL]AT$ & !N DE/ROY$ !M4 

0,BUT EV]Y TIME !RE HAVE BE5 CONQUE/S !RE HAVE BE5 CONQU]ORS2 
 EV]Y TIME !RE HAS BE5 A REVOLUTION 9 ANY /ATE !RE HAVE BE5 GREAT 
 M510 SAYS HI/ORY4 ,&1 9DE$1 HUMAN REASON REPLIES3 EV]Y TIME 
 CONQU]ORS APPE> !RE HAVE BE5 W>S1 BUT ?IS DOES NOT PROVE ?AT ! 
 CONQU]ORS CAUS$ ! W>S & ?AT IT IS POSSIBLE TO F9D ! LAWS ( A 
 W> 9 ! P]SONAL ACTIVITY ( A S+LE MAN4 ,:5EV] ,I LOOK AT MY WAT* 
 & ITS H&S PO9T TO T51 ,I HE> ! BELLS ( ! NEI<BOR+ *UR*2 
 BUT BECAUSE ! BELLS BEG9 TO R+ :5 ! H&S ( ! CLOCK REA* T51 
 ,I HAVE NO RI<T TO ASSUME ?AT ! MOVEM5T ( ! BELLS IS CAUS$ BY ! 
 POSITION ( ! H&S ( ! WAT*4 

,:5EV] ,I SEE ! MOVEM5T ( A LOCOMOTIVE ,I HE> ! :I/LE & SEE ! 
 VALVES OP5+ & :EELS TURN+2 BUT ,I HAVE NO RI<T TO CONCLUDE ?AT 
 ! :I/L+ & ! TURN+ ( :EELS >E ! CAUSE ( ! MOVEM5T ( 
 ! 5G9E4 

,! PEASANTS SAY ?AT A COLD W9D BL[S 9 LATE SPR+ BECAUSE ! OAKS 
 >E BUDD+1 & REALLY EV]Y SPR+ COLD W9DS DO BL[ :5 ! OAK IS 
 BUDD+4 ,BUT ?\< ,I DO NOT KN[ :AT CAUSES ! COLD W9DS TO BL[ :5 
 ! OAK BUDS UNFOLD1 ,I CANNOT AGREE ) ! PEASANTS ?AT ! UNFOLD+ 
 ( ! OAK BUDS IS ! CAUSE ( ! COLD W9D1 = ! =CE ( ! W9D 
 IS BEYOND ! 9FLU5CE ( ! BUDS4 ,I SEE ONLY A CO9CID5CE ( 
 OCCURR5CES SU* AS HAPP5S ) ALL ! PH5OM5A ( LIFE1 & ,I SEE ?AT 
 H[EV] MU* & H[EV] C>EFULLY ,I OBS]VE ! H&S ( ! WAT*1 & 
 ! VALVES & :EELS ( ! 5G9E1 & ! OAK1 ,I %ALL NOT DISCOV] ! 
 CAUSE ( ! BELLS R++1 ! 5G9E MOV+1 OR ( ! W9DS ( SPR+4 
 ,TO ?AT ,I MU/ 5TIRELY *ANGE MY PO9T ( VIEW & /UDY ! LAWS ( ! 
 MOVEM5T ( /EAM1 ( ! BELLS1 & ( ! W9D4 ,HI/ORY MU/ DO ! 
 SAME4 ,& ATTEMPTS 9 ?IS DIRECTION HAVE ALREADY BE5 MADE4 

,TO /UDY ! LAWS ( HI/ORY WE MU/ COMPLETELY *ANGE ! SUBJECT ( \R 
 OBS]VATION1 MU/ LEAVE ASIDE K+S1 M9I/]S1 & G5]ALS1 & /UDY 
 ! COMMON1 9F9ITESIMALLY SMALL ELEM5TS BY :I* ! MASSES >E MOV$4 
 ,NO ONE CAN SAY 9 H[ F> IT IS POSSIBLE = MAN TO ADVANCE 9 ?IS WAY 
 T[>D AN UND]/&+ ( ! LAWS ( HI/ORY2 BUT IT IS EVID5T ?AT 
 ONLY ALONG ?AT PA? DOES ! POSSIBILITY ( DISCOV]+ ! LAWS ( 
 HI/ORY LIE1 & ?AT AS YET NOT A MILLION? P>T AS MU* M5TAL EF=T 
 HAS BE5 APPLI$ 9 ?IS DIRECTION BY HI/ORIANS AS HAS BE5 DEVOT$ TO 
 DESCRIB+ ! ACTIONS ( V>I\S K+S1 COMM&]S1 & M9I/]S & 
 PROP\ND+ ! HI/ORIANS' [N REFLECTIONS CONC]N+ !SE ACTIONS4 

,FROM 3 ,GUT5B]G4ORG4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,NOVEMB] #c1 #ahfh 3 ,BOOK #a#a1 ,*APT] #a -- ,PUBLICATION4 
,FEBRU>Y #a#a1 #bag 3 ,BOOK #a#a1 ,*APT] #a -- ,ADD$4 

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