,9TRODUCTION 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,MURRAY ,BOOK*9 

,TEXT 3 

,9TRODUCTION 

  

,! CITY HAS BE5 A FAVORITE T>GET ( HO/ILITY FROM BIBLICAL TIMES ONW>D--& IT IS NO LESS SO TODAY4 ,VIEW$ AS A FE/]+ S\RCE ( MORAL DEPRAVITY BY MANY PEOPLE1 IT HAS BE5 V>I\SLY ASSAIL$ AS AN UGLY BLI<T ON A SEEM+LY PRI/9E NATURAL L&SCAPE1 AS ! S9FUL EMBODIM5T ( A HUMAN NATURE ?AT IS AGGRESSIVE1 DOM9E]+1 OR EV5 AS 0MALE0 9 ITS 0RAPE0 ( A C>+ ,MO!R ,E>? & 0H]0 G5TLE ABORIG9AL FOLK & ANIMAL (FSPR+4 ,I WILL LEAVE ! METAPHORIC1 (T5 T]RIBLY FUZZY RUM9ATIONS ( ?IS G5RE ( ANTI-CITY S5TIM5T ASIDE4 ,A F> /RONG] CASE CAN BE MADE = AN ANTI-CITY S5TIM5T ?AT REG>DS MOD]N1 G5]ALLY SPRAWL+ & =MLESS URBAN AGGLOM]ATIONS AS S\RCES ( ANOMIE1 FE>1 SELF-9T]E/1 & A HO/ ( 5VIRONM5TAL PROBLEMS4 ,URBANIZATION1 AS ,I CALL ?IS EV]-5CROA*+ & EV]-GR[+ PH5OM5ON ?AT WE SO (T5 FACILELY ID5TIFY ) CITIES AS SU*1 CAN 9DE$ BE AS TOXIC TO ! HUMAN SPIRIT AS IT CAN BE TO A REGION'S NATURAL 9TEGRITY4 

,BUT :AT1 !N1 IS A CITY8 ,& >E ! PEOPLE TRAPP$ 9 MOD]N-DAY URBAN AGGLOM]ATIONS REALLY CITIZ5S8 

,URBANIZATION ,)\T ,CITIES RAISES !SE QUE/IONS 9 A REFLECTIVE & HOPEFUL WAY4 ,F> FROM JO9+ ! *ORUS ( CITY-D5\NC]S1 ,I WI% TO EXPLORE ! 5ORM\S VALUE ( CITIES--& T[NS--AS REM>KABLE HUMAN CREATIONS4 ,9 RESPOND+ TO ! ABOVE QUE/IONS1 ,I HAVE TRI$ TO EXAM9E FROM A HI/ORICAL VIEWPO9T ! ORIG9S ( CITIES1 !IR ROLE 9 %AP+ HUMANITY AS A HI<LY UNIQUE & CREATIVE SPECIES1 & ! PROMISE !Y (F] AS >5AS = A NEW POLITICAL & SOCIAL DISP5SATION4 ,I HAVE TRI$ TO EXAM9E H[ ! CITY EVOLV$1 :AT =MS IT ASSUM$ OV] TIME1 H[ IT FUNCTION$ AS MORE ?AN A M]E M>KET OR C5T] ( PRODUCTION1 & H[ CITIZ5S ( A CITY 9T]ACT$ ) ONE ANO!R TO PRODUCE A =M ( :AT ! GREAT ,ROMAN ?9K] ,CIC]O CALL$ 0SECOND NATURE0--?AT IS1 A HUMANLY MADE 0NATURE0--?AT EXI/$ 9 BALANCE ) ! 0FIR/ NATURE0 WE USUALLY CALL ! NATURAL 5VIRONM5T4 ,H5CE ! CITIZ5S ( A CITY >E ( NO LESS CONC]N TO ME ?AN ! CITY ITSELF1 = ! CITY AT ITS BE/ ULTIMATELY BECAME AN E?ICAL UNION ( PEOPLE1 A MORAL AS WELL AS A SOCIOECONOMIC COMMUNITY--NOT SIMPLY A D5SE COLLECTION ( /RUCTURES DESIGN$ M]ELY TO PROVIDE GOODS & S]VICES = ITS ANONYM\S RESID5TS4 

,:AT ,I WI% TO DO IS TO R$EEM ! CITY1 TO EXPLORE IT HOT AS A CORROSIVE PH5OM5ON BUT AS A UNIQUELY HUMAN1 E?ICAL1 & ECOLOGICAL COMMUNITY :OSE MEMB]S (T5 LIV$ 9 BALANCE ) NATURE & CREAT$ 9/ITUTIONAL =MS ?AT %>P5$ HUMAN SELF-AW>5ESS1 FO/]$ RATIONALITY1 CREAT$ A SECUL>IZ$ CULTURE1 5HANC$ 9DIVIDUALITY1 & E/ABLI%$ 9/ITUTIONAL =MS ( FRE$OM4 ,MY REPEAT$ REF]5CES TO ! AGR>IAN WORLD CAN EASILY BE REG>D$ AS REF]5CES TO ! NATURAL WORLD AS WELL4 ,MY EMPHASIS ON CIVIC P>TICIPATION CAN BE TAK5 AS ! SOCIAL C\NT]P>T ( BIOLOGICAL MUTUALISM2 CITIZ5%IP1 AS ! SOCIAL C\NT]P>T ( BIOTIC 9VOLVEM5T 9 %AP+ ! =MS ( NATURAL ECOCOMMUNITIES2 & CIVIC HI/ORY1 AS ! SOCIAL C\NT]P>T ( NATURAL HI/ORY4 ,9 US+ ! WORD C\NT]P>T H]E1 H[EV]1 ,I DO NOT MEAN ?AT CIVIC P>TICIPATION1 CITIZ5%IP1 & CIVIC HI/ORY >E R$UCIBLE TO NATURAL MUTUALISM1 ECOCOMMUNITIES1 & BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION2 !Y DIFF] 9 F> TOO MANY WAYS TO BE CONGRU5T4 ,BUT ?IS IS A PHILOSOPHICAL QUE/ION ,I HAVE DEALT ) 9 A BROAD DISCUSSION ( FIR/ & SECOND NATURE 9 MY  
,! ,PHILOSOPHY ( ,SOCIAL ,ECOLOGY 7,MONTREAL3 ,BLACK ,ROSE ,BOOKS1 #a#i#i74 ,SUFFICE IT TO SAY H]E ?AT MY GOAL 9 ?IS BOOK HAS BE5 TO R$EF9E ! CITY & ! CITIZ5 9 ! LANGUAGE ( SOCIAL ECOLOGY4 ,IT IS MY HOPE ?AT ?\<TFUL PEOPLE TODAY WILL ATTEMPT TO UND]/& :AT ! CITY & CITIZ5%IP US$ TO BE 9 ORD] TO BETT] UND]/& :AT !Y C\LD BE 9 A FREE1 RATIONAL1 & ECOLOGICAL SOCIETY4 

,! USUAL K9DS ( ANSW]S GIV5 TO ! QUE/ION ( :AT CON/ITUTES A CITY >E (T5 SPATIAL & DEMOGRAPHIC 9 *>ACT]1 VIEW+ ! ! CITY AS AN >EA OCCUPI$ BY A CLOSELY 9T]LOCK$1 D5SELY POPULAT$ HUMAN COMMUNITY4 ,?IS DEF9ITION1 CA/ 9 L>GELY QUANTITATIVE T]MS1 HAS BE5 ADVANC$ = A LONG TIME4 ,9 FACT1 IT IS ! POPUL> CRIT]ION = ! PRE/IGE 5JOY$ BY SOME CITIES OV] O!R ONES1 & ( CITIES G5]ALLY OV] T[NS & VILLAGES4 ,TRADITION HAS IT ?AT ! L>G] A CITY IS1 ! BETT] IT IS CULTURALLY & ECONOMICALLY1 BY COMP>ISON ) SMALL] COMMUNITIES4 ,IT IS WOR? NOT+ ?AT YE>S AGO1 ,AM]ICAN C5SUS-TAK]S REG>D$ COMMUNITIES ( FIVE ?\S& PEOPLE OR MORE AS URBAN & ?OSE ) SMALL] POPULATIONS AS RURAL4 ,MORE REC5T CRIT]IA ( :AT CON/ITUTES A CITY HAVE *ANG$ ONLY QUANTITATIVELY4 ,! WORD CITY1 9 FACT1 HAS TURN$ 9TO SOME?+ ( A SOCIAL EUPHEMISM1 ! PRODUCT ( A TIME LONG PA/4 ,TODAY1 /ATI/ICIANS & MANY URBANOLOGI/S FAVOR ! USE ( SU* CATEGORIES AS ! ,/&>D ,METROPOLITAN ,/ATI/ICAL ,>EA 7,S,M,S,A7-SPRAWL+1 D5SELY OCCUPI$ REGIONS ?AT ORD9>ILY EMBRACE MILLLIONS ( PEOPLE4 ,9 REALITY1 CITIES >E BE+ SUPPLANT$ BY >EAS SO IMM5SE 9 SIZE ?AT !Y >E LOS+ !IR CONT\RS1 SPECIFICITY1 & UNIQU5ESS4 ,MANY URBAN AGGLOM]ATIONS TODAY HAVE L>G] POPULATIONS ?AN MANY C\NTRIES HAD A C5TURY AGO & >E 9 MANY RESPECTS H>DLY DIFF]5T FROM SMALL NATION-/ATES4 

,MY [N DEF9ITION ( A CITY CANNOT BE R$UC$ TO A S+LE PROPOSITION4 ,LIKE RATIONALITY1 SCI5CE1 & TE*NOLOGY1 :I* ,I REG>D AS DEF9$ BY !IR [N HI/ORIES1 ,I VIEW ! CITY AS !  
HI/ORY ( ! CITY4 ,?AT IS TO SAY1 ,I VIEW ! CITY AS ! CUMULATIVE DEVELOPM5T--OR DIALECTIC--( C]TA9 IMPORTANT SOCIAL POT5TIALITIES & ( !IR PHASES ( DEVELOPM5T1 TRADITIONS1 CULTURE1 & COMMUNITY FEATURES4 ,LEA/ ( ALL DO ,I SEE CITIFICATION--A PROCESSUAL N\N = ! CITY 9 HI/ORY--AS A M]E 0SY/EM ( SPACE10 TO USE ,H5RI ,LEFEBVRE'S PHRASE1 9 :I* ! GEOMETRICAL T]M SPACE BECOMES A QUASI-MY/ICAL CATEGORY = SOCIAL1 ECONOMIC1 & CULTURAL RELATION%IPS-RELATION- %IPS ?AT ,I FEEL %\LD BE EXPLOR$ QUITE DIRECTLY1 )\T ! CONVOLUT$ 0DECOD+0 ?AT 5T]S 9TO ! WORK ( C]TA9 PO/MOD]NI/S & NEO-,M>XI/S TODAY4 ,NEI!R FROM SIMPLE PROPOSITIONAL DEF9ITIONS NOR FROM SOME:AT MY/ICAL PO/MOD]NI/ GYMNA/ICS W\LD ,I HAVE ANY WAY ( KN[+ H[ CITIES & !IR VILLAGE1 TEMPLE1 & T[N PROG5ITORS CAME 9TO BE+1 H[ !Y DEVELOP$1 OR :AT !Y \<T TO BE IF !IR POT5TIALITIES W]E TO BE FULFILL$ 9 A FREE & RATIONAL SOCIETY4 

,DEF9+ ! E>LY CITY1 ,I MA9TA91 BEG9S ) ! RECOGNITION ( ! CITY AS A CREATIVE BREA* ) HUMANITY'S ESS5TIALLY BIOLOGICAL H]ITAGE1 9DE$ ! 0METAMORPHOSIS0 ( ?AT H]ITAGE 9TO A NEW SOCIAL =M ( EVOLUTION4 ,! CITY WAS 9ITIALLY ! >5A P> EXCELL5CE = ! TRANS=MATION ( HUMAN RELATION%IPS FROM ASSOCIATIONS BAS$ ON BIOLOGICAL FACTS1 SU* AS K9%IP1 TO DI/9CTLY SOCIAL FACTS1 SU* AS RESID5TIAL PROP9QUITY2 = ! EM]G5CE ( 9CREAS+LY SECUL> =MS ( 9/ITUTIONALIZATION2 = (T5 RAPIDLY 9NOVATIVE CULTURAL RELATIONS2 & = UNIV]SALIZ+ ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES ?AT HAD BE5 PREVI\SLY ASSOCIAT$ ) AGE1 G5D]1 & E?NIC DIVISIONS4 ,9 %ORT1 ! CITY WAS ! HI/ORIC >5A 9 :I*--& AS A RESULT ( :I*--BIOLOGICAL AFF9ITIES W]E TRANS=M$ 9TO SOCIAL AFF9ITIES4 ,IT CON/ITUT$ ! S+LE MO/ IMPORTANT FACTOR ?AT *ANG$ AN E?NIC FOLK 9TO A BODY ( SECUL> CITIZ5S1 & A P>O*IAL TRIBE 9TO A UNIV]SAL  
CIVITATIS1 :]E1 9 TIME1 ! 0/RANG]0 OR 0\TSID]0 C\LD BECOME A MEMB] ( ! COMMUNITY )\T HAV+ TO SATISFY ANY REQUIREM5T ( REAL OR MY?IC BLOOD TIES TO A COMMON ANCE/OR4 ,NOT ONLY DID POLITICAL RELATION%IPS REPLACE K9%IP RELATION%IPS2 ! NOTION ( A %>$ HUMANITAS REPLAC$ ! EXCLUSIVITY ( ! CLAN & TRIBE1 :OSE BIOSOCIAL CLAIMS TO BE 0! ,PEOPLE0 HAD (T5 EXCLUD$ ! 0\TSID]0 AS AN 9ORGANIC1 EXOG5\S1 OR EV5 ?REAT5+ 0O!R40 

,H5CE ! CITY WAS HI/ORICALLY ! >5A = ! EM]G5CE ( SU* UNIV]SALI/IC CONCEPTS AS 0HUMANITY0--& IS POT5TIALLY ! >5A = ! REEM]G5CE ( CONCEPTS ( POLITI- CAL SELF-REGULATION & CITIZ5%IP1 = ! ELABORATION ( SOCIAL RELATIONS1 & = ! RISE ( A NEW CIVIC CULTURE4 ,! /EPS FROM A CONSANGU9E\S CLAN1 TRIBE1 & VILLAGE TO A POLIS1 OR POLITICAL CITY2 FROM BLOOD BRO!RS & SI/]S :O W]E BORN 9TO !IR SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITIES TO CITIZ5S :O 9 ! BE/ ( CIRCUM/ANCES C\LD FREELY DECIDE ON !IR CIVIC RESPONSIBILITIES & DET]M9E !IR [N AFF9ITIES BAS$ ON REASON & SECUL> 9T]E/S--!SE /EPS CON/ITUTE A MEAN+FUL DEF9ITION ( ! CITY4 ,CITIES1 TO BE SURE1 CAN RISE & FALL4 ,!Y CAN 5JOY GOOD =TUNE = A TIME OR1 [+ TO CONFLICTS1 TOTALLY DISAPPE>4 ,BUT ONCE ! CITY E/ABLI%$ FIRM ROOTS 9 ! HI/ORY ( SOCIAL DEVELOPM5T1 IT ACQUIR$ A CONCEPTUAL REALITY ?AT /ILL P]SI/S1 & IT CAN /ILL UND]GO MANY METAMORPHOSES DESPITE ! DISAPPE>ANCE OR /AGNATION ( 9DIVIDUAL CITIES4 ,! CITY1 9 EFFECT1 HAS BECOME A HI/ORIC TRADITION--(T5 A HI<LY MORAL ONE--?AT T5DS TO EXP& UNIQUELY HUMAN TRAITS & NOTIONS ( FRE$OM1 & AN IDEA ( CIVIC COMMONALITY ?AT CORRODES ! P>O*IAL BONDS ( BLOOD TIES1 G5D] DI/9CTIONS1 AGE /ATUS-GR\PS1 & E?NIC EXCLUSIVITY4 

,WE CAN ?US LEGITIMATELY SPEAK ( ! HI/ORY ( ! CITY )\T FOCUS+ ON ! RISE1 DEVELOPM5T1 & DECL9E ( ANY ONE CITY 9 P>TICUL>4 ,& WE CAN SPEAK ( ?IS HI/ORY AS CUMULATIVE4 ,! LATE M$IEVAL CITY1 = EXAMPLE1 UNIT$ CIVIC & IDEOLOGICAL TRADITIONS ?AT HAD ORIG9AT$ 9 ,A!NS1 ,J]USALEM1 & ,ROME1 & ?AT P]SI/$ LONG AFT] ?OSE CITIES HAD DECL9$ AS 9NOVATIVE CIVIC 5TITIES4 ,LAT]1 ! CITIES ( ! ,R5AISSANCE1 ! ,B>OQUE ]A1 & ! ,5LI<T5M5T >OSE AS REWORK$ >5AS ( ANCI5T & M$IEVAL CITIES1 BORR[+ FROM !M !IR >*ITECTURE1 LIT]ATURE1 >T1 RELIGIONS1 & PHILOSOPHIES1 YET TRANS=M+ !M TO MEET ! NE$S ( A NEW TIME4 

,! WAYS 9 :I* ACTUAL CITIES PROVIDE ,U,S ) PROCESSUAL DEF9ITIONS ( ! CITY =M MU* ( ! CONT5T ( ?IS BOOK4 ,9S(> AS ,I AM GUID$ BY ! ,GREEK NOTION ?AT A CITY OR POLIS IS AN E?ICAL UNION ( CITIZ5S1 ,I AM COMMITT$ TO AN OV]>*+ VISION ( :AT ! CITY \<T TO BE1 NOT M]ELY :AT IT IS AT ANY GIV5 TIME4 ,! T]M \<T IS ! /UFF \T ( :I* E?ICS IS USUALLY MADE--) ! DIFF]5CE ?AT 9 MY VIEW ! 0\<T0 IS NOT A =MAL OR >BITR>Y REGULATIVE CR$O BUT ! PRODUCT ( REASON+1 ( AN UNFOLD+ RATIONAL PROCESS ELICIT$ OR D]IV$ $UCTIVELY FROM ! POT5TIALITIES ( HUMANITY TO DEVELOP1 H[EV] FALT]+LY1 MATURE1 SELF-CONSCI\S1 FREE1 & ECOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES4 ,I CALL ?IS 9TEGRATION ( ! BE/ 9 FIR/ OR 0BIOLOGICAL0 NATURE & SECOND OR 0SOCIAL0 NATURE AN EM]G5TLY NEW 0?IRD0 OR FREE NATURE--?AT IS1 AN E?ICAL1 HUMANLY SCAL$ COMMUNITY ?AT E/ABLI%ES A CREATIVE 9T]ACTION ) ITS NATURAL 5VIRONM5T4 ,FROM A PROCESSUAL /&PO9T1 ,I REFUSE TO BIFURCATE ?AT CONT9UUM WE CALL 0,NATURE0 9TO A BIOLOGICAL WORLD & A SOCIAL WORLD ?AT /& 9 FLAT OPPOSITION TO EA* O!R4 ,BO? >E 9 A V]Y REAL S5SE  
NATURAL1 & !IR NATURALNESS F9DS ITS EVOLUTION>Y REALIZATION 9 ?OSE REM>KABLE PRIMATES CALL$ HUMAN BE+S :O1 CONSCI\SLY RESPOND+ TO A S5SE ( OBLIGATION TO ! ECOLOGICAL 9TEGRITY ( ! PLANET1 BR+ !IR RATIONAL1 COMMUNICATIVE1 RI*LY SOCIAL1 IMAG9ATIVE1 & ES!TIC CAPACITIES TO ! S]VICE ( ! NONHUMAN WORLD AS WELL AS ! HUMAN4 

,?IS E?ICS ( COMPLEM5T>ITY1 AS ,I CALL$ IT YE>S AGO1 W\LD NOT ONLY BE A CULM9AT+ PO9T ( EONS ( NATURAL EVOLUTION1 ONCE IT GUID$ HUMAN BEHAVIOR 9 ! CITIES ( AN ECOLOGICAL SOCIETY2 IT W\LD EM95TLY BE A CULM9AT+ PO9T ( REASON ITSELF--A CONDITION 9 :I* RATIONAL GOALS C\LD BE E/ABLI%$ = CITIZ5%IP NOT ONLY 9 NEW1 ECOLOGICALLY ORI5T$ NETWORKS ( CITIES BUT 9 TRULY RATIONAL BE+S CALL$ CITIZ5S4 ,= CITIZ5%IP1 TOO1 IS A PROCESS--AS ! ,GREEKS SO BRILLIANTLY SAW--A PROCESS 9VOLV+ ! SOCIAL & SELF-=MATION ( PEOPLE 9TO ACTIVE P>TICIPANTS 9 ! MANAGEM5T ( !IR COMMUNITIES4 ,AS ?IS BOOK /RESSES1 CITIZ5S TODAY NO LONG] EV5 APPROXIMATE ! HI< & EM95TLY HUMAN /&>D ( CITIZ5%IP ?AT WAS E/ABLI%$ 9 ! ,HELL5IC WORLD--A MEAN+ ?AT MU/ BE RECOV]$1 AS WELL AS ! P]SONAL & SOCIAL TRA9+1 OR PAIDEIA1 = PRODUC+ CITIZ5S4 

,TO ?IS HI< CIVIC & E?ICAL CALL+1 SO TO SPEAK1 WE >E SUMMON$ BY REASON3 TO NETWORKS ( NEW1 HUMANLY SCAL$ CITIES1 TO CITIZ5%IP1 TO DIRECTLY DEMOCRATIC POLITICAL 9/ITUTIONS1 & TO A VA/LY EXP&$ IDEAL ( FRE$OM4 ,! CITIES ,I HAVE DISCUSS$ 9 ?IS BOOK APPROXIMATE ! FULFILLM5T ( ?IS CALL+--SOME MORE ?AN O!RS1 A FEW MORE HI<LY CONSCI\S ( FREE CIVIC IDEALS ?AN ! RE/--9 CIVIC CULTURES ?AT HELD TO SU* 9TITUITIVE1 (T5 NAIVE NOTIONS ( CITIZ5%IP ?AT !Y W]E HI<LY VULN]ABLE TO DE/RUCTIVE =CES2 & 9 ?9K]S :O PROJECT$ 7(T5 9 REVOLUTION>Y SITUATIONS17 9 ?\<T :AT !Y BELIEV$ %\LD HAVE BE5 A*IEV$ 9 ACTUALITY BUT1 ALAS1 WAS NOT4 

,:5 ,I USE ! WORD NETWORKS 9 ?IS BOOK1 ,I AM ALLUD+ NOT TO AD HOC 9T]ACTIONS1 T5TATIVE AGREEM5TS1 CONTRACTS1 OR TRANSI5T ASSOCIATIONS AMONG CITIES-AL?\< !SE W]E COMMON 5\<1 IF USUALLY V]Y %ORT-LIV$1 9 ! PA/4 ,RA!R1 ,I AM REF]R+ TO :AT HAS LONG BE5 A !ORETICAL IDEAL & AT TIMES AN IMPRESSIVE MUNICIPAL REALITY3 NAMELY1  
CONF$]ATIONS4 ,I CANNOT /RESS H[ 9TEGRALLY ! CONF$]AL ASSOCIATION ( CITIES & T[NS IS P>T ( ! DEVELOPM5T ( A FREE1 ECOLOGICALLY ORI5T$ SOCIETY4 ,LOCALISM1 9 ! N>R[ S5SE ( A VIRTUALLY AUT>*ICAL LOCALITY ?AT ASPIRES TO 0SELF-SUFFICI5CY0--9 ! S5SE SO POPUL> 9 ! ECOLOGY MOVEM5T TODAY--C\LD EASILY PRODUCE A P>O*IALISM NOTABLE = SU* EVILS AS RACISM1 CULTURAL 9SUL>ITY1 & A /AGNANT TRADITIONALISM4 ,CONCEIV$ LOCALI/ICALLY1 MUNICIPALITIES W\LD BE AS REGRESSIVE AS AU?ORIT>IAN NATION-/ATES4 

,CONF$]ALISM IS EXPLICITLY NOT 0LOCALI/0 BUT IS RA!R  
9TEGRATIVE1 AS ,I EXPLA9 9 ! APP5DIX TO ?IS BOOK4 ,IT RE/S ON ! MUTUAL OBLIGATIONS ( CONF$]AT$ MUNICIPALITIES TO SY/EMATICALLY ADJUDICATE CONFLICT+ CLAIMS1 COORD9ATE COMMON EF=TS1 & SEE TO ! ADM9I/RATION ( MUNICIPAL POLICIES )\T 9FR++ ON ! RI<T ( ! MAJORITY ( ITS P>TICIPANTS4 ,?AT CONS5SUAL =MS ( AGREEM5T :]E POSSIBLE W\LD BE ! MO/ DESIRABLE DECISION-MAK+ PROC$URE DOES NOT MEAN ?AT MAJORITY DECISION-MAK+ %\LD NOT BE ADOPT$ IF A CONF$]ATION RISKS ! PROSPECT ( BE+ TYRANNIZ$ BY ! FEW AT ! EXP5SE ( ! MANY4 ,MOREOV]1 CONF$]ATION1 IF IT IS TO BE SUCCESSFUL1 MU/ NOT ONLY FUNCTION 9 ACCORDANCE ) MAJORIT>IAN =MS ( DECISION-MAK+2 IT MU/ DIM9I% ! AU?ORITY ( CONF$]AL C\NCILS1 ! HI<] !Y >E1 9 COORD9AT+ ! POLICIES =MULAT$ AT ! BASIC LEVEL ( DECISION-MAK+--! CITIZ5 ASSEMBLY ( A MUNICIPALITY4 

,A CLE> DI/9CTION MU/ BE DRAWN BETWE5 ADM9I/RATION & POLICY-MAK+3 ! =M] W\LD FALL )9 ! PROV9CE ( ! CONF$]AL C\NCILS1 :ILE ! LATT] W\LD FALL )9 ! PROV9CE ( ! MUNICIPAL ASSEMBLIES4 ,! TRADITIONAL HI]>*IAL PYRAMID ( AU?ORITY W\LD ?US BE LIT]ALLY 9V]T$ 9 CONF$]AL MUNICIPALISM2 ! 0APEX0 ( ALL AU?ORITY W\LD LIE ) ! MUNICIPAL ASSEMBLIES1 GUID$ BY MAJORITY RULE BO? 9 ! ASSEMBLY & AMONG ! ASSEMBLIES ( A CONF$]AL REGION2 ! 0BASE0 W\LD LIE ) ! BROADE/ CONF$]AL C\NCILS :OSE WORK IS SIMPLY ADM9I/RATIVE & ADJUDICATORY1 & :OSE DEPUTIES1 DRAWN FROM SMALL] CONF$]AL BODIES1 W\LD BE EASILY RECALLABLE & SUBJECT TO C>EFUL POPUL> OV]SI<T4 

,IS ?IS A *IM]ICAL S*EME8 ,HI/ORY HAS %[N ?AT ! V]Y CONTR>Y IS TRUE4 ,AL?\< CONF$]ATIONS 9 ! PA/ (T5 FELL AP>T1 EA* = V]Y SPECIFIC REASONS ?AT W\LD REQUIRE A FULL VOLUME TO EXPLORE1 !Y W]E (T5 %ATT]$ OR CONF9$ TO LIMIT$ >EAS BY IMP]IAL /ATES &1 MORE REC5TLY1 ! NATION-/ATE4 ,CONF$]ATIONS1 9 FACT1 HAVE A LONG & IMPRESSIVE HI/ORY4 ,!Y W]E ! PR9CIPAL POLITICAL WEAPONS = RESI/+--&1 = A TIME1 DIM9I%+--/ATE P[]4 ,! /RUGGLES ( CONF$]AT$ ,RH5I% CITIES 9 ! LATE ,MIDDLE ,AGES AGA9/ ! ,HOLY ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE & ( ! CONF$]AT$ ,SPANI% CITIES AGA9/ ,*>LES ,V DUR+ ! ,RE=MATION ]A CAN BE CIT$ AS P>TIALLY SUCCESSFUL ATTEMPTS TO ABORT OR RE/RICT IMP]IAL & NATIONAL P[]4 ,9 ,SPA91 CONF$]AL MOVEM5TS HAD AN IMPACT ON PUBLIC LIFE ?AT WAS FELT WELL 9TO ! #a#i#cS4 

,9 MANY RESPECTS1 ?IS CONTE/ BETWE5 CONF$]ALISM & ! NATION-/ATE IS REEM]G+ TODAY1 AL?\< V]Y LITTLE CONSCI\SNESS GUIDES 9TUITIVE OPPON5TS ( ! NATION-/ATE1 A %ORTCOM+ ?AT HAS MORE TO DO ) ! ATROPHI$ CONSCI\SNESS ( SO-CALL$ 0,LEFT0-W+ MOVEM5TS ?AN ) ANY O!R S+LE FACTOR4 ,9DE$1 IF ! CLOS+ DECADE ( ?IS C5TURY IS P]MITT$ TO PASS )\T ! EM]G5CE ( A /RONG1 SELF-CONSCI\S1 & WELL-ORGANIZ$ MOVEM5T ?AT IS COMMITT$ TO MUNICIPAL CONF$]ATION1 RADICAL !ORY & PRACTICE WILL DES]VE ! IGNOM9I\S OBLIVION 9TO :I* ,M>XI/ & 9DIVIDUALI/IC 0AN>*I/0 T5D5CIES HAVE BE5 DRIFT+ = SOME TIME N[4 ,TODAY'S DOGMATIC OR SUBCULTURAL RADICAL MOVEM5TS MAY ONE DAY BE VIEW$ ) CONTEMPT IF !Y REJECT ! LA/--& 9 MY VIEW !IR ONLY--PROSPECT ( FUNCTION+ AS POPUL> MOVEM5TS1 & IF !Y FAIL TO CROSS ! L9E FROM ACADEMIC OR P]SONALI/IC SUBCULTURES 9TO ! PUBLIC SPH]E :]E !Y C\LD /ILL REA* MILLIONS ( EAG] BUT CONFUS$ PEOPLE4 ,POPUL> ALBEIT 9*OATE IMPULSES T[>D !SE SAME IDEAS--LOCAL CONTROL1 CONF$]ATION1 & A NEW POLITICS--MAY WELL BE US$1 9 ALT]$ =M1 & MANIPULAT$ BY REACTION>Y =CES 9 ! S]VICE ( RACI/1 P>O*IAL1 & ULTIMATELY AU?ORIT>IAN 5DS4 

,URBANIZATION ,)\T ,CITIES ?US ADVANCES AN APPEAL--P]HAPS ! LA/ ?AT CAN BE MADE 9 ?IS P]IOD--NOT ONLY = A NEW !ORETICAL FRAMEWORK 9 :I* TO DEVELOP A NEW POLITICS 79 ?IS T]M'S ,HELL5IC MEAN+ RA!R ?AN 9 ! P>LIAM5T>Y MEAN+ IMP>T$ TO IT BY ! NATION-/ATE74 ,IT ALSO ADVANCES AN APPEAL = A SELF-CONSCI\S PRACTICE 9 :I* CONF$]AL MUNICIPALI/S 5GAGE 9 LOCAL ELECTORAL ACTIVITY TO ALT] CITY & T[N *>T]S1 RE/RUCTURE CIVIC 9/ITUTIONS TO PROVIDE ! PUBLIC SPH]E = DIRECT DEMOCRACY1 & BR+ ! MEANS ( PRODUCTION UND] CITIZ5 CONTROL--NOT UND] ! P>TICU#a>I/IC =MS ( 0WORK]S' CONTROL0 ?AT T5D TO DEG5]ATE 9TO A =M ( COLLECTIVI/IC CAPITALISM1 OR UND] =MS ( NATIONALIZ$ PRODUCTION1 :I* 5HANCE ! /ATE'S AU?ORITY ) GREAT] ECONOMIC P[]4 

,?IS PRACTICE IS NOT A M]E 0/RATEGY10 TO USE ! LANGUAGE ( ! TRADITIONAL ,LEFT--9DE$1 ! LANGUAGE ( ALL /ATI/ MOVEM5TS4 ,IT IS NOT A 0MEANS0 TO AN 5D1 LEA/ ( ALL A V]Y UNCLE> & MUDDL$ 5D4 ,RA!R1 IT IS ! UNFOLD+ ( AN 5D3 ! FAM\S 0,COMMUNE ( COMMUNES10 TO :I* SOCIALI/S & AN>*I/S ALIKE LONG ASPIR$1 ESPECIALLY AFT] ! LEG5D>Y ,P>IS ,COMMUNE ( #a#h#g#a1 :I* EXPLICITLY US$ ?IS T]M4 ,9 ?IS PROCESS OR DIALECTIC ( UNFOLD+1 ! A*IEVEM5T ( A ,COMMUNE ( COMMUNES--OR 9 LESS COLORFUL T]MS1 A CONF$]ATION ( MUNICIPALITIES--REQUIRES A COMPLETELY UNCOMPROMIS+ POLITICS4 ,IT RE/S ON ! NOTION ( A FUNDAM5TAL  
DUALITY ( P[] 9 :I* 9CREAS+LY 9DEP5D5T & CONF$]AT$ MUNICIPALITIES EM]GE 9 FLAT OPPOSITION TO ! C5TRALIZ$ NATION-/ATE4 ,9DE$1 :ATEV] P[] CONF$]AT$ MUNICIPALITIES GA9 CAN BE ACQUIR$ ONLY AT ! EXP5SE ( ! NATION-/ATE1 & :ATEV] P[] ! NATION-/ATE GA9S CAN BE ACQUIR$ ONLY AT ! EXP5SE ( MUNICIPAL 9DEP5D5CE4 

,9 ! =CE-FIELD ?AT EXI/S BETWE5 ! TWO1 EI!R ! MUNICIPALITIES & !IR CONF$]ATIONS WILL 9CREASE !IR P[] BY DIM9I%+ ! ! P[] ( ! RATION-/ATE1 OR ! NATION-/ATE WILL 9CREASE ITS P[] BY DIM9I%+ ! AU?ORITY ( ! MUNICIPALITIES & !IR CONF$]ATIONS4 ,?US1 = A MUNICIPALI/ MOVEM5T TO RUN C&IDATES = /ATE1 PROV9CIAL1 OR NATIONAL (FICE W\LD BE AN ABSURD1 9 FACT1 OXYMORONIC SUBV]SION ( ITS V]Y CLAIM TO SEEK A 0GRASSROOTS0 OR 0P>TICIPATORY DEMOCRACY10 IF ONLY BECAUSE  
ANY (FICE BEYOND ! MUNICIPAL LEVEL IS1 ALMO/ BY DEF9ITION1 A =M ( REPRES5TATION RA!R ?AN P>TICIPATION4 ,EV5 MORE SIGNIFICANTLY1 IT W\LD IGNORE ! CRUCIAL FACT ?AT AS !Y RUN C&IDATES = LOCAL (FICES1 CONF$]AL MUNICIPALI/S >E ALSO RUNN+ !M AGA9/ /ATE1 PROV9CIAL1 & NATIONAL (FICES & 9/ITUTIONS4 ,! DEM& = MUNICIPAL CONF$]ATIONS IS SIMULTANE\SLY A DEM& = OPPOSITION TO ! NATION-/ATE 9 ALL ITS =MS1 & TO ! ILLUSION ?AT ! CONTROL ( /ATE1 PROV9CIAL1 OR NATIONAL LEGISLATIVE BODIES ON ! 0TOP0 IS A PRECONDITION = ! ATTA9M5T ( LOCAL P[] AT ! 0BOTTOM40 

,NOT ONLY W\LD CAMPAIGNS = /ATE1 PROV9CIAL1 & NATIONAL (FICE RELAX ! T5SION BETWE5 ! 0TOP10 :I* IS ! REALM ( /ATECRAFT1 & ! 0BOTTOM10 :I* IS ! REALM ( AN AU!NTIC POLITICS2 !Y W\LD DIM9I% ! $UCATIONAL FUNCTION ( POLITICS AT ! 0BOTTOM10 :I* ALONE CAN BECOME ! REALM ( A NEW POLITICS4 ,F> FROM REA*+ GREAT] NUMB]S ( PEOPLE BY RUNN+ C&IDATES = ! SUMMITS ( /ATE P[]1 SU* CAMPAIGNS W\LD CONFUSE ! DI/9CTION BETWE5 POLITICS & /ATECRAFT1 BETWE5 ! P>TICIPATORY & ! REPRES5TATIVE1 BETWE5 ! CONF$]AL & ! NATIONAL4 ,NOT ONLY W\LD ! T5SION BETWE5 !SE TWO UTT]LY OPPOS+ SPH]ES ( ACTIVITY BE RELAX$ & ITS DIALECTIC ABORT$2 & NOT ONLY W\LD ! TRULY DEMOCRATIC NATURE ( POLITICAL $UCATION1 :I* IS BAS$ ON FACE-TO-FACE DISC\RSE BETWE5 NEI<BORS & CITIZ5S1 BE REPLAC$ BY ! M$IA2 BUT ! V]Y MORAL & $UCATIONAL ?RU/ ( A LIB]T>IAN OR CONF$]AL MUNICIPALI/ APPROA* W\LD BE LO/ AS A HEAVY MI/ BECL\D$ ! DI/9CTION BETWE5 POLITICS & /ATECRAFT4 ,A 0,COMMUNE ( COMMUNES0 IS NOT A 0,REPUBLIC ( COMMUNES0 OR A 0,COMMONWEAL? ( COMMUNES02 9DE$1 AS A CONF$]ATION ( MUNICIPALITIES1 IT /&S UNCOMPROMIS+LY OPPOS$ TO ANY SPECI\S ATTEMPTS TO R$UCE A CONF$]ATION OR COMMUNE TO A REPUBLIC OR A COMMONWEAL?4 

,RADICALS1 SOCIAL-DEMOCRATS1 & LIB]ALS--NOT TO SPEAK ( ?AT HYBRIDIZ$ PH5OM5ON KN[N AS 0! ,GRE5S0--HAVE NEV] LE>N$ H[ TO DEAL ) ! PROBLEM ( /ATE P[]4 ,IF HI/ORY FROM E>LIE/ RECORD$ TIMES TO ! PRES5T HAS DEMON/RAT$ ANY?+1 IT IS ! IMPLACABLE FACT ?AT /ATE P[] IS CORRUPTIVE4 ,NONE ( ! MO/ IDEALI/IC & PR9CIPL$ REVOLUTION>Y LEAD]S ( ! PA/ LIV$ COM=TABLY ) ! CORRUPTIVE EFFECTS ( /ATE P[]4 ,EI!R !Y SUCCUMB$ TO IT1 OR !Y CONSCI\SLY TRI$ TO DIFFUSE IT4 ,! RET5TION ( /ATE P[] DE/ROY$ ! MORAL 9TEGRITY NOT ONLY ( ! MO/ RADICAL ,PURITANS ( ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY1 :O W]E EAG] TO GA9 IT1 BUT ?AT ( ! MO/ D$ICAT$ SOCIALI/S1 COMMUNI/S1 & AN>*I/S :O ACTUALLY HELD IT = A TIME4 ,! ,5GLI%1 ,FR5*1 ,RUSSIAN1 & ,SPANI% REVOLUTIONS PROVIDE COMPELL+ EVID5CE ( ! CAPACITY ( /ATE P[] TO CORRUPT--A CAPACITY ?AT CAN NO LONG] BE REG>D$ AS A MORAL TRUISM BUT1 GIV5 ITS UNREL5T+ NATURE1 MU/ BE SE5 AS AN EXI/5TIAL FACT4 ,TO PURSUE /ATE P[]--OR TO 0SEIZE0 IT1 TO USE ! LANGUAGE ( TRADITIONAL RADICALISM--IS TO GU>ANTEE ?AT IT WILL P]SI/ AS A =M ( ELITI/ MANIPULATION1 EXP&1 & BE BRUTALLY EX]CIS$ AS AN 9/RUM5T AGA9/ A POPUL> DEMOCRACY4 

,A LIB]T>IAN OR CONF$]AL MUNICIPALI/ POLITICS ADVANCES ! BE/ APPROA* AGA9/ 0SEIZURES0 ( /ATE P[] & ITS RET5TION BY AN ELITE1 BY SL[LY TRY+ TO ACCRETE P[] = MUNICIPALITIES--9ITIALLY1 BY ACQUIR+ MORAL P[] = MUNICIPAL ASSEMBLIES1 AS ,I HAVE 9DICAT$ 9 ! CLOS+ *APT] ( ?IS BOOK4 ,LIB]T>IAN OR CONF$]AL MUNICIPALISM SEEKS TO EXP& ! DEMOCRATIC 9/ITUTIONS ?AT /ILL L+] ON 9 ANY MOD]N REPUBLICAN SY/EM BY OP5+ !M TO ! WIDE/ PUBLIC P>TICIPATION POSSIBLE AT ANY GIV5 TIME4 ,H5CE ! SLOGAN ?AT ,I HAVE ADVANC$3 0,DEMOCRATIZE ! ,REPUBLIC6 ,RADICALIZE ! ,DEMOCRACY60 ,IT IS NOT ?AT /ATE P[] IS TO BE 0SEIZ$0--& !N NEV] REL9QUI%$--BUT ?AT POPUL> P[] IS TO BE EXP&$ UNTIL ALL P[] BELONGS TO ! 9/ITUTIONS ( A P>TICIPATORY DEMOCRACY4 

,FROM ?IS /&PO9T1 ! DI/9CTION BETWE5 POLITICS & /ATECRAFT MU/ BE MA9TA9$ 9 A CLE> & UNCOMPROMIS+ MANN]1 ALL ! MORE TO ASSURE ?AT NO 0PRAGMATIC0 EXIG5CIES OR P>LIAM5T>Y0 /RATEGIES0--EV5 IF !Y >E US$ ONLY TO PROPAG&IZE ONE'S VIEWS OR *ALL5GE ! 0TOP0 FROM ! 0TOP0-->E 9VOK$ = SEEM+LY CONF$]AL-MUNICIPALI/ 5DS4 ,9DE$1 ! MO/ EFFECTIVE IMPACT ( MUNICIPALI/ PROPAG&A COMES PRECISELY FROM ! FACT ?AT IT IS MUNICIPALI/--?AT IS TO SAY1 ?AT IT CAN BE CONDUCT$ ONLY BY P]SON-TO-P]SON CONTACT & ITS SCOPE HOPEFULLY EXT5D$ BY A MOVEM5T ?AT TRIES TO REA* EV]Y MUNICIPALITY 9 A REGION OR NATION4 ,IT IS ?IS K9D ( PROPAG&A ?AT MAKES = TRU/1 P]SONAL 9T]ACTION1 & FACE-TO-FACE $UCATION & ?AT FO/]S ! DEVELOPM5T ( A FACE-TO-FACE DEMOCRACY4 ,ITS AU!NTIC />T+ PO9T IS ! SMALL /UDY GR\P1 ! LOCAL LECTURE HALL1 ! NEI<BORHOOD PRESS1 & P]SONAL DISC\RSE-NOT ! ELECTRONIC M$IA ( /ATECRAFT ?AT HYPNOTIZ$ ! C\NT]CULTURAL 0M$IA FREAKS0 ( ! #a#i#fS4 

,MO/ ( ! IDEAS ?AT APPE> 9 ?IS 9TRODUCTION >E ELABORAT$ 9 ! BODY ( ?IS BOOK4 ,!Y >E DEVELOP$ AGA9/ ! L>G] BACKGR\ND ( A HI/ORIC MOM5T 9 ! EVOLUTION--& ,I %\LD ADD1 ! DECL9E--( CITY LIFE1 NAMELY ! EM]G5CE ( A MAJOR ?REAT TO CITY & C\NTRYSIDE ALIKE3 URBANIZATION4 ,! EXI/5CE ( ?IS ?REAT--NOT M]ELY AS GEOGRAPHIC SPRAWL BUT AS A DEVA/AT+ DEHUMANIZATION ( CITY LIFE1 A DE/RUCTUR+ ( COMMUNITY & A D5ATUR+ ( AGR>IAN LIFE--9=MS ! VIEWS ?AT FOLL[4 ,MY >GUM5T RUNS C\NT] TO ! CONV5TIONAL WISDOM ?AT CITY & C\NTRYSIDE1 LIKE SOCIETY & NATURE1 >E NECESS>ILY 9 CONFLICT ) EA* O!R1 A !ME ?AT P]VADES SO MU* ( ! WRIT+ ON URBANITY 9 ,WE/]N SOCIETY4 ,QUITE TO ! CONTR>Y3 :ATEV] MAY BE ! WAYS 9 :I* CITY LIFE M>KS A DEP>TURE FROM ! MORE 0NATURAL0 =MS ( HUMAN ASSOCIATION SU* AS TRIBAL & K9%IP GR\PS1 ! CITY HAS BE5 MORE ( A GIFT TO SOCIAL LIFE & ! ECOLOGICAL L&SCAPE ?AN IT HAS BE5 H>MFUL4 ,TO RECOV] A FEEL+ = ! P>TICIPATORY CIVIC 9/ITUTIONS ?AT ONCE M>K$ CITY LIFE & CITIZ5%IP IS TO RECOV] ?OSE IDEALS ( CIVIC LIFE & CIVIC S5SIBILITY ?AT C\LD C\NT]VAIL ! MASSIVE DE/RUCTION ?AT URBANIZATION & ! NATION-/ATE 9FLICT ON CITY & C\NTRYSIDE ALIKE4 

,MY WRIT+ ( ?IS BOOK /EMM$ FROM MY CONVICTION AS A SOCIAL ECOLOGI/ & ECO-AN>*I/ ?AT !RE IS A PRESS+ NE$ TO VIEW ! CITY--MORE G5]ALLY1 ! MUNICIPALITY1 IF WE >E TO 9CLUDE T[NS AS WELL--AS AN ECOLOGICAL 5T]PRISE1 NOT M]ELY AS A LOGI/ICAL OR /RUCTURAL ONE4 ,! WORD ECOLOGICAL MEANS A GOOD DEAL MORE H]E ?AN IT DOES 9 ! CONV5TIONAL 5VIRONM5TALISM ( ! S+LE-ISSUE MOVEM5TS ?AT >E CONC]N$ ) POLLUTION1 ! RET5TION ( RELATIVELY UNT\*$ =E/S1 ! P]PETUATION ( WILDLIFE1 & ! LIKE4 ,ECOLOGY1 9 MY VIEW1 IS MORE A SOCIETAL PROJECT ?AN A BIOLOGICAL ONE4 ,IT %\LD BE CONCEIV$ 9 T]MS ?AT EXPLORE H[ NOTIONS ( DOM9ATION & ! HI/ORICAL DEVELOPM5T ( HI]>*Y HAVE L$ TO ! SOCIAL AS WELL AS NATURAL PROBLEMS WE FACE TODAY4 ,= A CLE>] UND]/&+ ( MY ECOLOGICAL P]SPECTIVE--SOCIAL ECOLOGY--! READ] IS ADVIS$ TO CONSULT MY MANY BOOKS ON ! SUBJECT1 P>TICUL>LY  
,! ,ECOLOGY ( ,FRE$OM & ,REMAK+ ,SOCIETY4 ,! PRES5T BOOK IS CONC]N$ ) :AT >E LOOSELY CALL$ 0URBAN PROBLEMS10 OR IF Y\ LIKE1 0URBAN ECOLOGY40 ,ITS GOAL IS PRACTICAL AS WELL AS !ORETICAL4 ,H5CE1 ! L>GE/ *APT] 9 ! BOOK 70,! ,NEW ,MUNICIPAL ,AG5DA07 ADVANCES A PROGRAMMATIC AG5DA = RECOV]+ NOT ONLY AN ECOLOGICAL CONCEPT ( ! CITY & AN ACTIVE CITIZ5RY BUT ! CREATION ( A NEW POLITICS ?AT COMB9ES ! HI< IDEAL ( A P>TICIPATORY CITIZ5%IP ) A RECOGNITION ( :AT ! CITY OR T[N CAN BE 9 A RATIONAL1 FREE1 & ECOLOGICAL SOCIETY4 

,9 ANY CASE1 ! CITY1 H[EV] MU* MORE DI/ORT$ IT MAY BECOME 9 ! FUTURE1 WILL REMA9 A PROBLEM4 ,AT ITS BE/1 IT HAS BE5 A CRUCIAL P>T ( HUMAN HI/ORY & A =CE 9 ! MAK+ ( ! HUMAN M9D = SOME SEV5 ?\S& YE>S4 ,CAN WE AF=D TO IGNORE IT8 ,MU/ WE ACCEPT IT AS IT IS--AS AN 5TITY ?AT SPRAWL+ URBANIZATION ?REAT5S TO OBLIT]ATE1 AS IT ?REAT5S TO DEV\R ! C\NTRYSIDE AS WELL8 ,OR CAN WE GIVE ! CITY A NEW MEAN+1 A NEW POLITICS1 A NEW S5SE ( DIRECTION-AS WELL AS PROVIDE NEW IDEALS ( CITIZ5%IP1 MANY ( :I* W]E 9 FACT ONCE ATTA9$ 9 PREVI\S TIMES8 ,WE IGNORE ! CITY & CITIZ5%IP AT ! P]IL ( BECOM+ ISOLAT$ FROM ! GREAT MASS ( HUMANITY1 :I* IS ?REAT5$ BY ! ANONYMITY & P[]LESSNESS CREAT$ BY URBANIZATION4 ,?IS IS AN ISSUE ?AT ALL SOCIALLY & 5VIROM5TALLY CONC]N$ PEOPLE MU/ FACE4 ,MY GOAL H]E IS TO POSE ! QUE/ION ( ! FUTURE ( CITIES & CITIZ5%IP AS CLE>LY AS ,I CAN & TO ADVANCE SOLUTIONS BAS$ ON ! PR9CIPLES ( SOCIAL ECOLOGY4 

,MURRAY ,BOOK*9 

 ,9/ITUTE = ,SOCIAL ,ECOLOGY 

 ,PLA9FIELD1 ,V]MONT 

 ,JANU>Y1 #aiib 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,JANU>Y #b1 #bba 3 ,9TRODUCTION -- ,ADD$4 
,JANU>Y #a#f1 #bbb 3 ,9TRODUCTION -- ,UPDAT$4 

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