,*APT] #g 
,! ,SOCIAL ,ECOLOGY ( ,URBANIZATION 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,MURRAY ,BOOK*9 

,TEXT 3 

,*APT] ,SEV53 ,! ,SOCIAL ,ECOLOGY ( ,URBANIZATION 

  

,FROM ! SIXTE5? C5TURY ONW>D1 ,EUROPE WAS ! /AGE = A DRAMA UNIQUE 9 HI/ORY3 ! DEVELOPM5T ( NATION-/ATES & NATIONAL CULTURES 9 :I* POPULATIONS T5D$ TO ID5TIFY ) :AT WE1 TODAY1 ACCEPT AS A COMMONPLACE--A S5SE ( P]SONAL NATIONALITY4 ,EV5 ! NOTION ( CITIZ5%IP1 LONG-ROOT$ 9 LOYALTY TO A CITY & ! PUBLIC BODY ?AT OCCUPI$ IT1 BEGAN TO %IFT T[>D A L>GE T]RITORIAL 5TITY1 ! 0NATION10 & TO ITS 0CAPITAL0 CITY4 ,POLITICS1 TOO1 BEGAN TO ACQUIRE A NEW DEF9ITION4 ,IT 9CREAS+LY D5OT$ ! PR(ESSIONALIZATION ( P[] ) ROOTS 9 ! /ATE & ITS 9/ITUTIONS4 

,WE W\LD BE GRAVELY MI/AK5 TO ASSUME ?AT !SE *ANGES & R$EF9ITIONS OCCURR$ )9 ! SPAN ( A FEW C5TURIES OR ?AT !Y HAVE BE5 COMPLET$ EV5 9 \R [N TIME4 ,! DEVELOPM5T T[>D NATIONALISM WAS SL[1 UNEV51 & V]Y MIX$4 ,NOR IS IT SECURE 9 ITS MAJOR ,EUROPEAN C5T]S4 ,!RE IS A /RONG HUMAN PROCLIVITY1 REA*+ BACK TO ! SOCIALIZATION PROCESS ITSELF & FAMILIAL C>E1 ?AT ID5TIFIES 0HOMEL&0 ) HOME RA!R ?AN NATIONALI/ AB/RACTIONS1 H5CE EV5 ! MO/ CONSOLIDAT$ NATION-/ATES >E MORE DIVID$ 9T]NALLY ?AN NATIONALI/ MY?S W\LD HAVE US BELIEVE4 ,= EXAMPLE1 ! 9T5SE DOME/IC CONFLICTS ?AT BELEAGU] ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES--NOTABLY BETWE5 E?NIC GR\PS1 REGIONS1 & EV5 LOCALITIES1 NOT TO SPEAK ( ECONOMIC CLASSES & 9T]E/S-->E TE/IMONY TO ! HOLD ( SPECIFIC CULTURAL & T]RITORIAL ID5TITIES AMONG POPULATIONS1 EV5 ?OSE ?AT BELONG TO HI<LY NATIONALI/IC 0SUP]P[]S40 ,!SE DIVISIONS >E MORE /RONGLY EVID5T 9 MOD]N ,RUSSIA4 

,NATIONALISM EX]CISES ITS /RONGE/ P[] OV] ! POPUL> IMAG9ATION 9 OPPOSITIONAL WAYS :5 A NATION IS 9 SOME S5SE UND] ATTACK4 ,AS AN 9T]NALLY COHESIVE FDRCE1 IT HAS ALWAYS BE5 FRAGILE4 ,! SUCCESS ( ,NATIONAL ,SOCIALISM 9 0UNIFY+0 ! ,G]MAN PEOPLE HAS DEEP] ROOTS 9 ,G]MAN HI/ORY ?AN 9 A S5SE ( NATIONAL ALLEGIANCE1 A HI/ORY ?AT IS NOTABLE = ! TRAGIC DECL9E ( ,G]MAN SOCIAL LIFE AFT] ! ,RE=MATION & ! NE$ = COMP5SATORY ME*ANISMS TO C\NT]ACT ! SLUMP ?AT M>K$ ?AT BLOODY & 5N]VAT+ P]IOD4 

,BUT H[ DID !SE NATION-/ATES COME 9TO EXI/5CE8 ,:AT ROLE DID ,EUROPEAN CITIES PLAY 9 =M+ !M8 ,& :AT BEGAN TO HAPP5 TO CITIES--& ) !M1 POLITICS & CITIZ5%IP--:5 ! NATION-/ATE ASS]T$ ITS SOV]EIGNTY OV] PUBLIC FIFE8 

,WE HAVE SE5 ?AT NATIONALISM EXI/$ ONLY 9 AN 9CIPI5T =M 9 ! ANCI5T WORLD :]E1 ) FEW EXCEPTIONS1 PEOPLE PSY*OLOGICALLY & CULTURALLY ID5TIFI$ !MSELVES ) !IR VILLAGES1 T[NS1 CITIES1 & IMM$IATE T]RITORIAL >EA4 ,CLASSICAL ANTIQUITY WAS MA9LY AN ]A ( EMPIRE BUILD+1 NOT ( NATION BUILD+1 & ANCI5T IMP]IALISM TOOK A V]Y SPECIAL =M4 ,IT WAS PATRIMONIAL1 NOT /RICTLY POLITICAL2 ITS C5T] WAS ! ROYAL H\SEHOLD1 NOT A CAPITAL 9 ANY NATIONALI/ S5SE4 ,IF 0ALL ROADS LEAD TO ,ROME10 IT IS NOT BECAUSE ,ROME2 WAS1 A CITY ?AT COMM&$ A HI< DEGREE ( NATIONAL LOYALTY BUT'RA!R BECAUSE IT WAS ! HUB ( ANCI5T P[] & ORD]4 ,ITS C5TRALITY WAS D]IV$ FROM ITS ADM9I/RATIVE SIGNIFICANCE1 NOT1 AS IS ! CASE ) ,J]USALEM1 ITS SYMBOLIC SIGNIFICANCE4 ,9DE$1 9S(> AS ,ROME WAS SYMBOLIC ( ANY?+1 IT WAS SE5 AS A SYMBOL ( OPPRESSION4 ,CRUCIFIXION1 A MODE ( PUNI%M5T NORMALLY RES]V$ = REBELS & 9TRANSIG5T SLAVES1 IMP>T$ TO ! CROSS A SYMBOLIC MEAN+ NOT UNLIKE ?AT :I* WAS ATTA*$ TO ! ,NAZI SWA/IKA DUR+ ! ,WORLD ,W> ,I,I4 ,! ADOPTION ( ?IS SYMBOL BY ! ,*UR* 9/EAD ( ! FI%1 :I* E>LY ,*RI/IANS US$ AS AN EXPRESSION ( PL5TITUDE & CONV]SION1 REFLECT$ ! ACCOMMODATION ( ! HEAV5LY CITY TO ! WORLDLY CITY--,ROME--& ( A REBELLI\S CRE$ TO ! 9/ITUTIONS IT ORIG9ALLY OPPOS$4 ,ROME1 ONCE ! :ORE ( ! WORLD2 TO ! E>LY ,*RI/IANS BECAME ! HOLY CITY ( ! PAPACY & ACQUIR$ A SPIRITUAL /ATUS 9 ! V]Y ACT ( S$UC+ ITS MO/ 9TRANSIG5T REBELS1 A LESSON 9 /ATECRAFT ?AT F> TOO MANY REBELS HAVE FAIL$ TO LE>N4 

,M$IEVAL ,EUROPE DID1 NOT HAVE NATIONS AT ALL4 ,LOYALTIES W]E MA9LY LOCALI/ 9 *>ACT]1 NOTABLY TO ONE'S1 VILLAGE1 P>I%1 T[N1 CITY1 B>ONS1 & RA!R T5U\SLY TO ONE'S MON>*4 ,/RONG K+S SU* AS ,H5RY ,I,I ( ,5GL& & ,PHILIP ,AUGU/US ( ,FRANCE HAD AN UNUSUAL AM\NT ( P[] = !IR TIMES &1 BY !IR 9NOVATIONS AS WELL AS !IR ACTIONS1 EX]CIS$ A GREAT DEAL ( AU?ORITY OV] !IR B>ONS & CL]ICS4 ,MORE (T5 ?AN NOT1 H[EV]1 TLIEIR HEIRS W]E WEAKL+S & ROYAL AU?ORITY WAS EASILY SUBV]T$ BY FEUDAL LORDS UNTIL ANO!R /RONG MON>* SURFAC$ & MANAG$ TO C5TRALIZE P[] = A BRIEF P]IOD ( TIME4 ,P]SONAL AU?ORITY & ! =CEFULNESS ( A MON>*'S *>ACT] CREAT$ ! ILLUSION ( A NATION-/ATE1 BUT IT WAS /ILL ALONG PATRIMONIAL L9ES4 ,! ASSOCIATION ( ! MON>* ) ! 0NATION10 SU* AS IT WAS1 WAS SO CLOSE ?AT 0NATIONALISM0 9 ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES R>ELY SURVIV$ ! P]SON ( ! K+4 ,! WIDE SW+S 9 ROYAL AU?ORITY ?AT WE 5C\NT] 9 ,EUROPEAN FEUDALISM /EM FROM ! T5U\S BASIS ( C5TRALIZ$ AU?ORITY AS SU* 9 ! ANCI5T >ID M$IEVAL WORLDS4 ,C5TRALIZ$ P[] WAS LIMIT$ BY ! H>D FACTS ( A PRIMITIVE COMMUNICATIONS SY/EM & A L>GELY ,NEOLI?IC TE*NOLOGY4 ,>MIES & (FICIALS C\LD MOVE NO FA/] ?AN HORSES2 ROADS W]E V]Y POOR1 (T5 ALMO/ TRACKLESS2 & WEAPONRY HAD B>ELY EM]G$ FROM ! ,BRONZE ,AGE4 ,! SIMPLE FACT ?AT OB$I5CE DEP5D$ HEAVILY UPON P]SONAL TIES & A REASONABLE MODICUM ( FE> ( A RESOLUTE K+ RESULT$ 9 A LOOSELY HANG+ POLITICAL SY/EM BAS$ ON 9DIVIDUAL' COMMITM5TS & ! USE ( BRUTAL PUNITIVE MEASURES4 ,! TIMES W]E CRUEL RA!R ?AN B>B>\S BECAUSE ( ! NATURE ( /ATECRAFT 9 A WORLD :]E AU?ORITY WAS EXTREMELY FRAGILE & PUNI%M5T TOOK A V]Y H>% =M 9 ORD] TO SU/A9 MON>*ICAL & B>ONIAL P[]4 

,! ONE 9/ITUTION ?AT COMM&$ WIDESPREAD ALLEGIANCE BEYOND ?AT :I* ANY MON>* C\LD HOPE TO A*IEVE WAS ! ,ROMAN ,*UR* & ! PAPACY4 ,%AP$ OV] C5TURIES 9TO A VA/ HI]>*ICAL BUREAUCRACY1 ! ,CA?OLIC ,*UR* EV5TUALLY BECAME ! MO/ UNIFY+ & C]TA9LY ! MO/ C5TRALIZ$ APP>ATUS 9 WE/]N ,EUROPE4 ,IT C\LD REA* 9TO VILLAGES ) AN EFFECTIV5ESS ?AT WAS ! 5VY ( ANY ROYAL AU?ORITY1 & ITS COMM& ( RES\RCES HAD NO PREC$5T ON ! CONT95T4 ,I REF] NOT ONLY TO ITS 5ORM\S WEAL? & L&HOLD+S BUT ALSO TO ITS SPIRITUAL P[]--ULTIMATELY ! P[] ( EXCOMMUNICATION & 9T]DICTION ?AT BR\<T EV5 EMP]ORS SU* AS ,FR$]ICK ,B>B>OSSA TO !IR KNEES4 

,YET H]E ONE 5C\NT]S A P>ADOX TO :I* ,J4 ,R4 ,/RAY] GIVES DES]V$ EMPHASIS4_<#f#c_> ,! PAPACY AS E>LY AS ! ELEV5? C5TURY1 DUR+ ! TIME ( ,GREGORY ,V,I,I1 WAS AN EMPIRE UNTO ITSELF4 ,MORE IMPORTANT ?AN ITS C5TRALIZ$ 9/ITUTIONAL /RUCTURE IS ! COMPELL+ FACT ?AT IT WAS AN ELABORATE /ATE3 A VA/ APP>ATUS NOT ONLY ) ITS BLACK-ROB$ BUREAUCRACY BUT A SY/EM ( LAW & A JURIDICAL MA*9]Y ADEQUATE 5\< TO MAKE ITS LEGAL SOV]EIGNTY EFFECTIVE4 ,! EM]G5CE ( ECCLESIA/ICAL LAW S]V$ TO OP5 A CRUCIAL >EA = ! DEVELOPM5T ( SECUL> LAW4 ,9 ! GREAT DIVISION ( P[] ?AT ,GREGORY ,V,I,I CREAT$ BETWE5 *UR* & /ATE1 ! LATT] ESS5TIALLY DIS5TANGL$ ITSELF FROM ! =M]4 ,SECUL> LAW1 R>ELY FREE 9 ! PA/ ( ECCLESIA/ICAL 9FLU5CE & PRIE/LY FUNCTION>IES1 C\LD N[ COME COMPLETELY 9TO ITS [N4 ,9 ! V]Y ACT ( *>T+ & FIRM+ UP ITS [N AU?ORITY1 ! ,*UR* CREAT$ AN EV]-GR[+ SPACE = ! EXPANSION ( ! /ATE & = A L>GELY NONRELIGI\S =M ( /ATECRAFT ?AT NO LONG] REQUIR$ SUP]NATURAL SANCTION & LEGITIMATION4 ,H[EV] MU* MON>*S W]E TO CLAIM DIV9E RI<T TO SUPPORT !IR AU?ORITY1 !IR RI<TS W]E DIV9E1 NOT !IR ORIG9S--ORIG9S ?AT EV5 ! ,ROMAN ,CAES>S CLAIM$4 ,H5CE1 LIKE ALL RI<TS1 !Y C\LD BE *ALL5G$ EV5 ON RELIGI\S GR\NDS BY ! *UR*1 ! B>ONS1 & LAT] BY ! PEOPLE4 ,RI<TS >E ALWAYS SUBJECT TO RATIONAL EVALUATION & LEGITIMATE DEFIANCE1 A PROBLEM ?AT MON>*S SU* AS ,*>LES ,I ( ,5GL& & ,L\IS ,X,V,I ( ,FRANCE W]E TO FACE BE=E ACCUS+ REGICIDES4 ,?AT ! ,*UR*1 TOO1 BY CLAIM+ A LEGAL DOMA9 ( ITS [N1 WAS TO PAY A HEAVY P5ALTY BY BE+ REMOV$ LAT] ON FROM EV]Y SPH]E O!R ?AN ITS SPIRITUAL AU?ORITY IS A P>T ( HI/ORY ?AT ADDS A DIM5SION ( IRONY & P>ADOX TO ALL ASS]TIONS ( P[]--! P>ADOXICAL REALITY ( HI/ORY'S [N DIALECTICAL PROCESS4 

,! GREAT DIVISION BETWE5 /ATE & *UR*1 MON>* & POPE1 SECUL> & DIV9E CAN BE TAK5 AS A SYMBOLIC EXPRESSION = ! MANY DIVISIONS ?AT RIDDL$ M$IEVAL SOCIETY & MADE ! NATION-/ATE POSSIBLE4 ,HAD M$IEVAL SOCIETY BE5 5TIRELY UNIT>Y1 IT MI<T V]Y WELL HAVE BE5 BLANKET$ BY L>GE1 SUFFOCAT+1 PATRIMONIAL EMPIRES ?AT W\LD HAVE DRA9$ ITS RES\RCES & DIV]T$ IT 9TO A RELATIVELY /AGNANT DEAD 5D4 ,IRONICALLY1 IT WAS ! FRAGM5TATION ( ! ,EUROPEAN WORLD ?AT MADE ITS UNIFICATION 9TO SEV]AL NATION-/ATES POSSIBLE4 ,9 CONTRA/ TO EMPIRES1 NATIONS >E RELATIVELY SELF-CONTA9$2 !IR EXI/5CE1 AT LEA/ BETWE5 ! SIXTE5? & EI<TE5? C5TURIES1 WAS POSSIBLE ONLY BECAUSE EMPIRE BUILD+ BY ONE /ATE WAS BLOCK$ BY ! P[] ( ANO!R4 ,NATION BUILD+1 9 EFFECT1 OCCURR$ NOT ONLY BECAUSE MON>*S ACCUMULAT$ SUFFICI5T P[] TO E/ABLI% A C5TRAL AU?ORITY 9 P>TS ( WE/]N ,EUROPE BUT ALSO BECAUSE !IR ABILITY TO EXT5D ?AT P[] BEYOND A REGION WAS >RE/$ BY C\NT]VAIL+ P[]S EXT]NAL TO !M4 ,*>LES ,V'S EF=TS TO CREATE AN EMPIRE 9 ! SIXTE5? C5TURY FAIL$ BECAUSE O!R /ATES ACQUIR$ 5\< P[] TO SUCCESSFULLY RESI/ HIM & HIS SON1 ,PHILIP ,I,I4 ,! SUCCESSFUL REVOLT ( ! ,NE!RL&S & ! DEFEAT ( ! ,SPANI% ,>MADA BY ,5GL& 5D$ ANY S]I\S ATTEMPT TO CREATE AN EMPIRE )9 ,EUROPE UP TO \R [N TIME1 DESPITE ! ,NAPOLEONIC W>S & ,G]MANY'S EXPANSION FROM #aid TO #a#i#d#e4 ,NATION-/ATES & NATIONALISM HAVE VITIAT$ ALL EF=TS TO CREATE EMPIRES ON ! CONT95T1 AT LEA/ BY DIRECT MEANS4 ,RUSSIAN EXPANSION T[>D ! WE/1 SEEM+LY VIGOR\S AFT] #a#i#d#e1 HAS VISIBLY BEGUN TO EBB4 ,AM]ICAN P[] 9 ,EUROPE1 AL?\< R>ELY EX]CIS$ 9 A DIRECT MANN]1 /&S AT ODDS ) ITS /RONGLY REPUBLICAN 9/ITUTIONS4 

,?IS EXT]NAL SY/EM ( 0*ECKS & BALANCES0 ?AT M$IEVAL ,EUROPE PRODUC$ ON A CONT95TAL LEVEL HAS ITS P>ALLEL 9 AN 9T]NAL SY/EM ( 0*ECKS & BALANCES0 ?AT EXI/$ ON A DOME/IC LEVEL4 ,! 9T]CITY TRADE ?AT PROVID$ ECONOMIC UND]P9N+S TO ! =MATION ( NATION-/ATES REPEAT$LY CAME UP AGA9/ /RONG LOCALI/ B>RI]S-->TISAN GILDS1 RELATIVELY SELF-SUFFICI5T VILLAGE ECONOMIES1 POPUL> HO/ILITY TO TRADE ?AT =M$ ! LEGACY ( M$IEVAL ,*RI/IANITY1 & A V]Y /RONG 9DIVIDUAL DESIRE1 P>TICUL>LY AMONG CRAFTSM5 & FREE PEASANTS1 TO LIVE DIRECTLY BY !IR [N SKILLS & ON !IR [N PROP]TY ) M9IMAL COMM]CIAL 9T]C\RSE--A /ATE ( M9D WE W\LD CALL 0SELF-SUFFICI5CY10 TODAY1 :I* HAS ITS ROOTS 9 ! ,GREEK CONCEPT ( AUT>KEIA4 ,NOR CAN WE IGNORE ! IMM5SE HOLD ( ! ,GEME9DE1 ! LOCAL COMMUNITY1 ON4 ! M9DS ( PEOPLE DUR+ ?AT P]IOD1 A S5SE ( COMMUNAL LOYALTY ?AT WAS RE9=C$ NOT ONLY BY CULTURAL BONDS BUT BY A TRADITION ( COMMUNAL L& [N]%IP & MUTUAL AID4 

,! CONSID]ABLE ATT5TION ?AT REC5T ECONOMIC HI/ORIANS HAVE GIV5 TO ! ROLE ( =EIGN TRADE 9 PRODUC+ A CAPITALI/IC SOCIETY & ! NATION-/ATE IS SOME:AT +5U\S4 ,?AT ! E>LIE/ =MS ( CAPITALISM 9 ! ANCI5T AS WELL AS M$IEVAL WORLDS W]E COMM]CIAL & ?AT PORT & RIV]9E CITIES (T5 5RI*$ !MSELVES 5ORM\SLY1 PROMOT+ A DOME/IC M>KET = GOODS ACQUIR$ ABROAD1 DOES NOT REMOVE ! NE$ = A BALANC$ P]SPECTIVE T[>D ! REA* ?IS ECONOMY HAD 9TO ! DEP?S ( EM]G+ ,EUROPEAN1 NATIONS4 ,[+ TO ! POOR CONDITION ( ! ROADS ?AT EXI/$ 9 ,EUROPE1 ! CO/ ( COMMODITIES BR\<T FROM ABROAD ROSE 5ORM\SLY AS !Y MOV$ 9L&4 ,A C>TLOAD ( HAY PRIC$ AT #f D5>I DUR+ ,DIOCLETIAN'S TIME 9CREAS$ BY #b D5>I EV]Y MILE SO ?AT ! CO/ ( TRANSPORT+ IT AS LITTLE AS #c MILES R5D]$ ITS SALE 9 A NE>BY M>KET PROHIBITIVE4 ,UNLESS A GOOD NETWORK ( WAT]WAYS EXI/$1 =EIGN TRADE HAD A LIMIT$ ECONOMIC IMPACT ON ! 9T]IOR ( A REGION4 ,G5]ALLY1 ! COMMODITIES ?AT PASS$ FROM PORT & RIV]9E CITIES TO 9L& T[NS W]E LUXURY ITEMS OR DIRELY NE$$ GOODS 9 LIMIT$ SUPPLY4 ,SPICES1 EXP5SIVE CLO?S1 SKILLFULLY CRAFT$ >TIFACTS & WEAPONS1 & EXOTIC FOODS FROM ABROAD W]E ! USUAL F>E ?AT W]E C>RI$ FROM PORT CITIES 9TO ! 9T]IOR ( ,EUROPE4 ,)9 ! HE>TL& ( ! NEWLY EM]G+ NATIONS1 TRADE WAS (T5 LOCAL RA!R ?AN NATIONAL4 ,9T]CITY TRADE BR\<T T[NS & VILLAGES TOGE!R BUT 9 REGIONAL NETWORKS & LOCAL1 M>KETS1 NOT 9 NATIONAL ONES4 

,?IS 0P>O*IALISM10 TO USE A T]M ?AT IS DI/9CTLY PEJORATIVE TODAY1 GAVE 9L& T[NS A C]TA9 DEGREE ( ECONOMIC /R5G?3 !IR RELATIVE SELF-SUFFICI5CY & +R[N CULTURES PROVID$ !M ) ! MAT]IAL & SPIRITUAL =TITUDE TO RESI/ ! OV]BE>+ EFFECTS ( ! NATION-/ATE1 P>TICUL>LY DUR+ ! 0,AGE ( ,ABSOLUTISM10 :5 /RONG MON>*S CAME TO ! =EGR\ND ( ,EUROPEAN POLITICAL LIFE4 ,DEC5TRALISM REMA9$ A MAJOR OB/ACLE--&1 = G5]ATIONS1 AN ABID+ CIVIC IMPULSE--9 C\NT]ACT+ ! EXT5SION ( ROYAL P[]4 ,H5CE1 EM]G+ ,EUROPEAN NATION-/ATES W]E (T5 *ECK$ 9T]NALLY AS WELL AS EXT]NALLY FROM SUCCESSFULLY 5GAG+ 9 EMPIRE BUILD+4 ,EUROPEAN EMPIRE BUILD+ F\ND AN \TLET NOT 9 ! 0OLD0 CONT95T BUT ABROAD1 9 SO-CALL$ 0NEW0 CONT95TS SU* AS ! ,AM]ICAS1 :]E 9DIG5\S PEOPLES1 LIV+ 9 TRIBAL COMMUNITIES W]E EASILY QUELL$ BY REC5TLY DISCOV]$ FIRE>MS1 &1 9 NO SMALL P>T1 BY DAZZL+ ,EUROPEAN TR9KETS4 ,NE$LESS TO EMPHASIZE1 ,EUROPEAN EPIDEMICS1 TOO1 PLAY$ A MAJOR ROLE 9 DEPLET+ ABORIG9AL POPULATIONS & DEMORALIZ+ !M44 

,! RISE ( ,EUROPEAN NATION-/ATES1 SO UNIQUE :5 COMP>$ ) ! IMP]IAL SY/EMS ( ANTIQUITY & ! FRAGM5T$ SOCIAL /RUCTURES ( FEUDALISM1 CAN ?US BE EXPLA9$ BY A SPECIAL CONJUNCTION ( =CES4 ,A FEW >E SIMPLY NEGATIVE3 ! 9T]NAL RESI/ANCE )9 EM]G+ NATIONS TO C5TRALISM ?AT MADE A HI<LY ORGANIZ$ PATRIMONIAL /ATE DIFFICULT TO A*IEVE & ! BALANCE BETWE5 NEW /ATES ?AT CONF9$ !M TO A 0NATIONAL0 SCALE4 ,O!R1 FACTORS1 MORE POSITIVE 9 NATURE1 CONSI/ ( ! FAIRLY ORGANIC L9KS E/ABLI%$ BETWE5 MUNICIPALITIES PRIM>ILY BY LOCAL & REGIONAL TRADE & SECOND>ILY BY ! EXCEPTIONALLY RI* REW>DS ?AT PORT CITIES ACQUIR$ FROM =EIGN COMM]CE4 ,! ROYAL P[] ?AT BUILT ! NATION-/ATE1 VIRTUALLY BRICK BY BRICK AS IT W]E1 US$ ! 9T]NAL 9T]CITY NETWORKS AS POLITICAL R\TES = EXT5D+ ITS BUREAUCRACIES 9TO ! DEP?S ( ! C\NTRY JU/ AS ! ,*UR*1 C5TURIES E>LI]1 S5T ITS MISSION>IES & HOLY ORD]S 9TO ! =E/S & F>ML&S ( B>B>IAN ,EUROPE ALONG TRAILS & FOOTPA?S4 

,DESPITE ! 5ORM\S WEAL? MON>*S GA9$ FROM ! TAXES !SE COMM]CIAL NETWORKS PROVID$1 NATION BUILD+ WAS /ILL PRIM>ILY A POLITICAL PH5OM5ON4 ,ECONOMIC EXPLANATIONS TO ! CONTR>Y NOT)/&+1 ! ABSOLUTE MON>*S ( ! SIXTE5? C5TURY :O DOM9AT$ ! EM]G+ ]A ( ,EUROPEAN NATIONALISM DRA9$ ! ECONOMY AS MU* AS !Y FO/]$ ITS DEVELOPM5T2 ,! REMOVAL ( FEUDAL TOLLS ON ROADS & RIV]WAYS1 ! DOME/IC TRANQUILITY PROVID$ BY ! 0,K+'S PEACE10 ! CREATION ( A NATIONAL CURR5CY & PRESUMABLY A RELIABLE MONET>Y SY/EM W]E VITIAT$ BY ! 5ORMITY ( ROYAL TAXES1 ! ONGO+ W>S BETWE5 NATION-/ATES ?AT PLAC$ ,EUROPE 9 A *RONIC /ATE ( SIEGE1 & ! MONET>Y 9/ABILITY PRODUC$ BY ROYAL LOANS & DEFAULTS4 

,! ROLE CITIES PLAY$ 9 ?IS DEVELOPM5T WAS V]Y MIX$2 9DE$1 TO UND]/& IT1 WE MU/ KN[ :AT K9D ( CITY WE >E TALK+ AB\T & :AT PHASE ( NATION BUILD+ WE >E EXAM9+4 ,G5]ALLY1 ! SMALL]1 >TISAN-ORI5T$ T[NS T5D$ TO OPPOSE ! NATION-/ATE & (T5 GA9$ SUPPORT = !IR OPPOSITION FROM ! RELATIVELY FREE PEASANTRY 9 !IR 5VIRONS4 ,9DE$1 IT C\LD BE SAID 9 A V]Y BROAD WAY ?AT :]E >TISANS W]E ! MAJORITY ( A FREE T[N1 !Y ELECT$ = MUNICIPAL FRE$OM & W]E MORE PR$ISPOS$ TO =M+ T[N CONF$]ATIONS ?AN L>G]1 COMM]CIALLY ORI5T$ CITIES4 ,!IR HI< S5SE ( 9DEP5D5CE & !IR /RIK+ DEFIANCE ( AU?ORITY WAS NOT TO 5D ) !IR OPPOSITION TO ROYAL RULE2 :E!R AS MA/] CRAFTSM5 OR AS SKILL$ WORK]S1 !Y %>$ AN 9TUITIVE 9CL9ATION T[>D A VAGUE K9D ( REPUBLICANISM1 (T5 EV5 DEMOCRACY1 ?AT CLA%$ ) ! POLITICALLY MORE CONS]VATIVE M]*ANT1 BANK+1 & PR(ESSIONAL /RATA 9 !IR [N COMMUNITIES & 9 /RONGLY COMM]CIAL CITIES4 

,! RADICAL ROLE PLAY$ BY SKILL$ >TISANS 9 PRECAPITALI/ SOCIETY & 9 P]IODS ( TRANSITION TO ! NATION-/ATE & CAPITALISM IS ONLY REC5TLY GA9+ ! ATT5TION IT DES]VES4 ,?IS IS NOT TO SAY ?AT ?IS ON-GO+ /RATUM ?AT WAS NOT TO DISAPPE> AS A MAJOR SOCIAL =CE EV5 AFT] ! ,9DU/RIAL ,REVOLUTION1 :I* VIRTUALLY DE/ROY$ IT1 %>$ A COMPLETELY UNIFI$ \TLOOK4 ,BETWE5 A MA/] CRAFTSMAN :O 5JOY$ ! PRIVILEGES CONF]R$ BY GILD MEMB]%IP & A SKILL$ WORK] :O WAS B>R$ FROM ! /ATUS ( A MA/] BY 9CREAS+ GILD EXCLUSIVITY1 A S]I\S GAP DEVELOP$ ?AT C\LD R5D COMMUNITIES 9 VIOL5T /RUGGLES4 ,WE HAVE SE5 EVID5CE ( SU* /RUGGLES 9 ,FL&]S & ,ITALY1 :]E SKILL$ AS WELL AS UNSKILL$ WORK]S W]E PROLET>IANIZ$ & R$UC$ TO EXPLOIT$ WAGE E>N]S4 ,BUT ELSE:]E 9 ,EUROPE1 ! TRADITIONAL BRIDGES BETWE5 MA/] CRAFTSM5 & SKILL$ WORK]S S]V$ EFFECTIVELY TO CLOSE ! GAP ?AT HAD BE5 CREAT$ BY /ATUS DIFF]5CES2 9DE$1 9 MANY PLACES GILD DOORS REMA9$ FAIRLY OP5 WELL 9TO ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES4 

,:AT IS SO NOTICEABLE AB\T ?IS T[N /RATUM1 TAK5 AS A :OLE1 IS ! FAIRLY HI< $UCATIONAL LEVEL IT ATTA9$4 ,>TISANS W]E (T5 WELL-READ1 SURPRIS+LY WELL-9=M$1 & 9TELLECTUALLY 9NOVATIVE4 ,CRAFTSMAN%IP %>P5$ NOT ONLY ONE'S DEXT]ITY & ES!TIC S5SE2 IT %>P5$ ONE'S M9D AS WELL4 ,! RADICAL H]ETICAL MOVEM5TS )9 M$IEVAL ,*RI/IANITY CONSI/$ ( L>GE NUMB]S ( WELL-READ >TISANS1 NOT SIMPLY 0MILL5>IAN0 PEASANTS1 AS ,M>XI/ HI/ORIANS SU* AS ,]IC ,HOBSBAWN W\LD HAVE US BELIEVE4_<#f#d_> ,! ,BRE?R5 ( ! ,FREE ,SPIRIT & MANY REVOLUTION>Y GNO/IC SECTS ?AT *ALL5G$ ! *UR*'S HI]>*ICAL SY/EM W]E FILL$ ) >TISANS4 ,T[N REVOLTS AGA9/ RUL+ BI%OPS1 B>ONS1 & COMM]CIALLY M9D$ PATRICIANS W]E 9ITIAT$ BY WELL-9=M$1 EV5 WELL-READ1 >TISANS :O C\LD >GUE HOLY WRIT ) DISQUIET+ ACUT5ESS4 ,!Y (T5 PROVID$ ! IDEOLOGICAL COH]5CE = !SE UPRIS+S ?AT HI/ORIANS (T5 IMPUTE TO PR(ESSIONAL /RATA1 NOT ONLY MASS SUPPORT4 ,?IS TRADITION DID NOT DIE \T ) ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES4 ,IT CONT9U$ = C5TURIES1 ?R\< ! ,RE=MATION1 :I* WAS BY NO MEANS ONLY A PEASANT W>1 ?R\< ! ]A ( ! DEMOCRATIC REVOLUTIONS1 & 9TO ! ,9DU/RIAL ,REVOLUTION1 9DE$ = SEV]AL G5]ATIONS AFT]W>DS4 

,SKILL$ WORK]S1 P>TICUL>LY CRAFTSM51 >E REM>KABLY SELF-CONTA9$ 9DIVIDUALS--! URBAN C\NT]P>T ( ! YEOMAN F>M] :O =M$ ! BASIS = ! DEMOCRATIC REVOLUTION>Y ]A4 ,SKILL & A M9IMAL COMPET5CE1 :E!R 9 ! =M ( A P]SONALLY [N$ %OP OR L& HOLD+1 CONF]S A S5SE ( 9DEP5D5CE & SELF-E/EEM UPON A P]SON4 ,IT IS \T ( !SE TRAITS ?AT ! CLASSICAL--&1 TO SOME EXT5T1 ! MOD]N--IDEAL ( CITIZ5%IP WAS FA%ION$4 ,! LACK ( A RESPECT$ SKILL & ! ABS5CE ( MAT]IAL 9DEP5D5CE MAKES = MOBILITY 9 ! PEJORATIVE S5SE ( ! T]M1 NOTABLY1 A WAYW>D1 FICKLE1 & FREE-FLOAT+ MOB ?AT IS EASILY MANIPULAT$1 NO LESS BY PATRICIAN DEMAGOGUES ?AN BY DISPOSSESS$ ONES4 ,REBELLION ?AT LACKS M5 & WOM5 ) ! MORAL SUB/ANCE PRODUC$ BY A S5SE ( MAT]IAL 9DEP5D5CE & SELF-E/EEM--OR1 AT LEA/1 A S5SE ( HOPE ?AT !SE ATTRIBUTES CAN BE ACQUIR$ BY CONC]T$ ACTION--T5DS TO DEG5]ATE AS EASILY 9TO NIHILI/IC C\NT]REVOLUTION AS IT DOES 9TO CON/RUCTIVE REVOLUTION>Y BEHAVIOR4 ,! GAP ?AT EM]G$ BETWE5 ! SKILL$ POPOLO ( ,ITALIAN CITIES DUR+ ! ,HI< ,MIDDLE ,AGES & ! MORE OR LESS LUMP5IZ$ PROLET>IAT WAS TO LA/ = C5TURIES & DISAPPE> ONLY :5 CRAFTSMAN%IP WAS DISSOLV$ BY ! FACTORY SY/EM4 

,EUROPEAN ABSOLUTISM REPEAT$LY CAME UP AGA9/ ?IS HUMAN ELEM5T 9 ITS 5DEAVOR TO PLACE ITS T]RITORIAL REALM UND] ROYAL AU?ORITY4 ,?AT MANY >TISANS W]E 9 ! S]VICE ( ! ROYAL C\RT AS PRODUC]S ( LUXURY ITEMS DOES NOT T>NI% ! *>ACT] ( ?OSE :O LIV$ \TSIDE ! ORBIT ( ABSOLUTISM & OPPOS$ IT4 ,!SE \TSID]S1 9 FACT1 W]E ! GREAT MAJORITY 9 ,EUROPE & G5]ALLY S]VIC$ LOCAL & REGIONAL M>KETS4 ,BY CONTRA/1 ! BANK]S1 PR(ESSIONALS1 & M]*ANTS :OSE 9COMES W]E D]IV$ FROM LOANS TO ! UPP] CLASSES1 BUREAUCRATIC POSITIONS1 & 9T]NATIONAL TRADE--!J 0BIG B\RGEOISIE10 AS IT W]E--W]E G5]ALLY ROYALI/ & MORE IRRESOLUTE ?AN ! >TISANS 9 !IR LOCALI/ LOYALTIES4 ,ABSOLUTISM PROVID$ !M NOT ONLY ) DOME/IC SECURITY & A HUGE S\RCE ( REV5UES2 BANK] & M]*ANT FOLL[$ 9 ! WAKE ( ROYAL >MIES1 G>N]+ ! SPOILS ACQUIR$ BY CONQUE/1 ! NE$ = >MS1 & ! OP5+ ( NEW M>KETS4 ,:]E !SE /RATA W]E DEEPLY 5TR5*$ 9 A MUNICIPAL E/ABLI%M5T1 !Y T5D$ TO RESI/ BUT R>ELY REBEL AGA9/ ROYAL AU?ORITY4 ,H]E !Y MI<T ACT AS AN 9]TIAL =CE AGA9/ NATION BUILD+ BUT SELDOM AS A MAJOR OB/ACLE4 ,H5CE !Y =M$ OPPORTUNI/IC ALLIANCES ) REBELLI\S >TISANS ?AT1 !Y READILY BETRAY$ :5 ?+S ?REAT5$ TO GET \T ( H& & DEM&S = CIVIC AUTONOMY ?REW MUNICIPALITIES 9TO VIOL5T & S]I\S OPPOSITION ) ! C5TRALIZ$ /ATE4 

,! 0B\RGEOISIE0 ?AT IS SAID TO HAVE GIV5 SUPPORT TO ABSOLUTISM AGA9/ ! FEUDAL LORDS CONSI/$ MA9LY ( BANK]S & M]*ANTS & LAT]1 TO SOME EXT5T1 ( ! NEW 9DU/RIAL B\RGEOISIE1 ,9DE$1 ?IS 0B\RGEOISIE0 WAS /RIK+LY CONS]VATIVE2 IT CONSI/5TLY SUPPORT$ SOME K9D ( ROYAL P[]1 :E!R ABSOLUTI/ 9 ! SIXTE5? C5TURY OR CON/ITUTIONAL 9 ! EI<TE5?4 ,REPUBLICANISM & DEMOCRATISM 7A V]Y REVOLUTION>Y CONCEPT UNTIL WELL 9TO ! N9ETE5? C5TURY7 F\ND ITS MO/ /EADFA/ RECRUITS 9 >TISANS &1 LESS RELIABLY1 ! 0MOBILITY0 PEOPLE OR ROOTLESS1 /ATUSLESS1 & HOMELESS 0MOB10 :OM EV5 ! ,5GLI% ,LEVEL]S VIEW$ W>ILY BECAUSE ( !IR DEP5D5CE ON ! L>GESSE ( ! POSSESS+ CLASSES4 

,\R PICTURE IS FUR!R COMPLICAT$ BY ! ASPIRATIONS ( ! T]RITORIAL LORDS1 :O OP5LY ROSE 9 REBELLION TIME & AGA9 AGA9/ ! MON>*Y--&1 ( C\RSE1 BY ! PEASANTRY ?AT NEV] LIV$ ON COM=TABLE T]MS ) ! ROYAL P[]1 ! MANORIAL E/ATES1 OR ! T[NS4 ,! /ORY ( ! CONFLICT BETWE5 ! MON>*Y & NOBILITY1 A /RUGGLE ?AT REA*$ ITS VIOL5T Z5I? 9 ! ,FRONDE1 :I* LIT]ALLY *AS$ ! Y\NG ,L\IS ,X,I,V \T ( ,P>IS1 IS ! /UFF \T ( :I* ! CONV5TIONAL HI/ORY ( ,EUROPEAN ABSOLUTISM IS WRITT54 ,IT DOES NOT REQUIRE EMPHASIS H]E4 ,! PEASANT W>S 9 ,5GL& 9 ! LATE F\RTE5? C5TURY & 9 ,G]MANY 9 ! E>LY SIXTE5? W]E REALLY CLIMACTIC EV5TS 9 A *RONIC CONFLICT ?AT W5T BN = C5TURIES FROM ! ,HI< ,MIDDLE ,AGES TO \R [N TIME4 ,JOHN ,BALL & ,?OMAS ,MI9Z] W]E ! ANCE/ORS ( A HO/ ( LAT] AGR>IAN LEAD]S SU* AS ,EMILIAN ,PUGA*EV 9 ,RUSSIA & ,EMILIANO ,ZAPATA 9 ,MEXICO4 ,ALL ( !M %>$ ! C5TRAL GOAL ( PRES]V+ ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY1 ITS 9SUL> LIFEWAYS1 ITS NETWORKS ( MUTUAL AID1 ITS COMMON L&S & COMMUNIT>IAN ECONOMY4 

,NATION BUILD+ DUR+ ! ]A ( ABSOLUTISM WAS UNIQUE PRECISELY BECAUSE IT OCCURR$ )9--& BY ! T5SIONS IT PRODUC$ & FO/]$--A HI<LY DIV]SIFI$ & CREATIVE SOCIAL >5A = POLITICAL DEVELOPM5T4 ,! ANCI5T WORLD HAD BE5 DOM9AT$ BY MASSIVE1 G5]ALLY IMMOBILE EMPIRES ?AT SUFFOCAT$ SOCIAL DEVELOPM5T ) !IR P>ASITISM & MASSIVE BUREAUCRATIC /RUCTURES4 ,M$IEVAL ,EUROPE WAS AN EMBRYONIC WORLD--RI* 9 PROMISE1 TO BE SURE1 BUT L>GELY UN=M$1 LACK+ 9 COHESION1 9DE$ MORE P>TICUL>I/IC ?AN DEC5TRALI/IC4 ,ABSOLUTISM & ! E>LY ]A ( NATION BUILD+ /OOD SOME:]E 9 BETWE54 ,AS ,P]EZ ,ZAGOR9 TELLS US3 0,9 SPITE ( ! EXPANSION ( ABSOLUTISM & ITS CRITICAL COLLISIONS ) REBELLI\S SUBJECTS1 ROYAL GOV]NM5T NEV] BECAME UNI=M OR MONOLI?IC1 EV5 9 ! K+DOMS :]E IT SUFF]$ LEA/ LIMITATION4 ,CONFUSIONS ( JURISDICTIONS & RIVALRIES & CONFLICTS AMONG GOV]NM5TAL 9/ITUTIONS AB\ND$ UND] ITS RULE4 ,ITS ACTUAL P[] WAS MORE LIKE AN 9TRICATE MOSAIC ( P>TICUL> PR]OGATIVES1 RI<TS1 & P[]S ?AN A HOMOG5E\S1 ALL-9CLUSIVE AU?ORITY4 ,! ATTRIBUTES ( SOV]EIGNTY ?AT W]E ASCRIB$ TO ABSOLUTE K+S BY ROYALI/ LAWY]S & POLITICAL PHILOSOPH]S1 SU* AS ! ,FR5* ?9K] ,JEAN ,BOD91 W]E MORE (T5 ?AN NOT GREAT] 9 !ORY ?AN ! P[]S !SE SAME K+S C\LD DISPOSE ( 9 PRACTICE4 ,! MON>*IES ( \R E>LY MOD]N /ATES CONT9U$ TO BE 9 MANY REG>DS CONS]VATIVE & TRADITIONALI/IC1 AS BEFITT+ REGIMES RUL+ HI]>*IC SOCIETIES & ( C5TURIES-LONG GR[? FROM ANCI5T ORIG9S4 ,ABSOLUTI/ K+S DID NOT QU>REL ) SOCIAL PRIVILEGE1 ( :I* !IR [N POSITION WAS ! SUPREME MANIFE/ATION4 ,!Y QU>REL$ ONLY ) ! PRIVILEGES ?AT RESI/$ !IR AU?ORITIES OR CLAIM$ IMMUNITY FROM !IR GOV]NM5T .<:I*1 ONE IS OBLIG$ TO ADD1 SEEMS TO MEAN ?AT !Y OPPOS$ ALL SOCIAL PRIVILEGE BUT !IR [N.>4 ,9 BUILD+ !IR MORE C5TRALIZ$ /ATES1 !Y DID NOT SWEEP ! /AGE CLEAN ) A NEW BROOM & MANY OLD] & \TMOD$ POLITICAL =MS & 9/ITUTIONS SURVIV$ ! REIGN ( ABSOLUTISM1 LIKE SC5]Y LEFT /&+ :ILE A NEW PLAY WAS P]=M$40_<#f#e_> 

,:AT ,ZAGOR9 SEEMS TO REPROA* ! ABSOLUTI/ MON>*IES = -NAMELY !IR FAILURE TO 0SWEEP ! /AGE CLEAN ) A NEW BROOM0 & A*IEVE A MORE HOMOG5IZ$1 EFFICI5T1 & SMOO?LY WORK+ SOCIAL ORD]--IS :AT GAVE ! ]A ITS 9CR$IBLY MISM & CREATIVITY4 ,IT WAS PRECISELY ! RI* SOCIAL FEATURES ( ! SIXTE5?1 SEV5TE5?1 & EI<TE5? C5TUNES-! EXTRAORD9>Y DIV]SITY ( SOCIAL LIFE & ITS =MS1 ! CREATIVE T5SION FROM :FFIH SO MU* MOBILITY 9 /ATUS1 CULTURAL1 & 9TELLECTUAL F]VOR EM]G$--?AT MAKES ! ]A SO FASC9AT+ & PROVOCATIVE4 ,! ABSOLUTE MON>*IES1 CAU<T 9 A COMPLEX WEB ( ANCI5T PRIVELEGES & RI<TS1 ?US BECAME ! RELUCTANT CONS]VATORS & ! GNAW+ SUBV]SIVES ( AN ACCUMULAT$ WEAL? ( OLD CU/OMS AUTONOM\S JURISDICTIONS1 TRADITIONAL LIB]TIES1 & HI]>*ICAL CLAIMS TO AU?ORITY4 

,)9 ?IS IMM5SE W>EH\SE ( HI/ORICAL RI<TS & DUTIES1 COMMUNITIES & 9DIVIDUALS1 9/ITUTIONS & 9T]E/S C\LD MOVE ) REM>KABLE FRE$OM & FUNCTION ) EXCIT+ FECUNDITY (T5 9VOK+ PA/ PREC$5T TO DEF5D REC5T 9NOVATION 9 AN OLD GUISE & PLAY HI/ORY AGA9/ PRES5T TO CREATE AMEW FUTURE ,M>X WAS TO REPROVE ! ,FR5* REVOLUTION>IES ( #ahdh = DRESS+ !IR RHETORIC1 CLAIMS1 & IDEALS 9 ! SLOGANS ( ! ,FR5* REVOLUTION>IES ( #a#g#h#i-#i#d1 :O 9 TURN BORR[$ ! LANGUAGE & PO/URES ( ! ,ROMAN ,REPUBLIC TO LEGITIMATE !N [N IDEALS4 ,YET IT WAS PRECISELY ?IS RI* S5SE ( HI/ORICITY & V>IETY ( =MS1 MANN]S1 & IDEAS-:OSE P[] & 9SI<TFULNESS WE WILL EXPLORE 9 ! CLOS+ *APT] ( ?IS BOOK-?AT GAVE SU* FECUNDITY TO BO? ,FR5* REVOLUTIONS & OP5$ SU* S5SE ( PROMISE 9 ,EUROPE TWO C5TURIES AGO4 ,:AT AN 9DIVIDUAL 0?9KS ( HIMSELF0--NOT SIMPLY ! HIDD5 ECONOMIC LAWS OR SOME UNKN[N 0SPIRIT0 ?AT O/5SIBLY GUIDES HI/ORY--HAS A V]Y PR(\ND EFFECT ON H[ HE OR %E ACTS AS A SOCIAL BE+ DEEPLY 9FLU5CES ! C\RSE ( SOCIAL DEVELOPM5T1 ,M>X TO ! CONTR>Y NOT)/&+4 ,! RI*LY V>IEGAT$ IMAGES ?AT PEOPLE HAD ( !IR [N TIME1 !IR RI<TS1 & !MSELVES PR(\NDLY TAP$ MU* ( ! HI/ORY ( ?AT TIME4 ,DIV]SITY MADE FO GREAT] *OICE & A MORE F]TILE SOCIAL L&SCAPE1 H[EV] (T5 PREC$5T WAS 9VOK$ & RE%AP$ TO S]VE NEW 5DS4 ,! T5SIONS CREAT$ BY ! ALT]NATE DEVELOPM5TAL PA?WAYS ?AT EM]G$ BE=E COMMUNITIES1 ORD]S1 CLASSES1 &1 YES1 9DIVIDUALS FO/]$ A HI<LY CREATIVE PRACTICE 9 ! A*IEVEM5T ( !IR 5DS4 

,NOR IS IT TRUE1 AS ,M>X TELLS US1 ?AT 0,NO SOCIAL ORD] EV] P]I%ES BE=E ALL ! PRODUCTIVE =CES = :I* !RE IS ROOM 9 IT HAVE DEVELOP$40_<#f#f_> ,I LEAVE ASIDE ! FACT ?AT ?IS DICTUM BEGS ! V]Y QUE/ION IT POSES3 WE PRESUPPOSE ?AT ! LIMITS ( A SOCIAL ORD] >E DEF9$ BY !IR 0PRODUCTIVE =CES10 NOTABLY TE*NOLOGY & ! V>I\S WAYS ( ORGANIZ+ LABOR1 9DE$ ?AT !Y CON/ITUTE ! ESS5CE ( A 0SOCIAL ORD]40 ,ACTUALLY1 WE HAVE NO WAY ( KN[+ H[ F> ! 0PRODUCTIVE =CES0 C\LD HAVE DEVELOP$ 9 PRECAPITALI/ SOCIETY1 NOR DO !RE SEEM TO BE ANY LIMITS TO ! DEVELOPM5T ( 0PRODUCTIVE =CES0 TODAY1 :I* MEANS1 BY 9F]5CE1 ?AT A M>KET SOCIETY WILL BE ) US =EV]4 

,BUT :AT IS MO/ DISQUIET+ AB\T ,M>X'S VISION ( SOCIAL *ANGE IS ! EXT5T TO :I* IT D5IES ! P[] ( SPECULATIVE ?\<T TO 5VISION A NEW SOCIETY LONG BE=E AN OLD ONE BECOMES 9TOL]ABLE OR IS B]EFT ( ANY ROOM = DEVELOPM5T4 ,>TISANS & PEASANTS 9 ! ]A ( NATION BUILD+ HAD MANY S\ND IDEAS AB\T ! K9D ( SOCIETY !Y WI%$ TO CREATE4 ,IT IS A ME*ANI/IC >ROGANCE ( ! MO/ EXTREME K9D TO PR$ET]M9E H[ F> COMMUNITIES CAN GO--:E!R =W>D1 BACKW>D1 OR BO?1 M !IR VISION ( ! GOOD SOCIETY & ! ELEM5TS ?AT COMPOSE IT--& LIT]ALLY DICTATE ! MAT]IAL OR PRODUCTIVE LIMITS ( !IR VISION1 ITS 0PRECONDITIONS10 ITS POSSIBILITIES1 & ITS PLACE 9 A !ORY ( HI/ORY /RUCTUR$ >\ND V>I\S 0/AGES0 & PRESUPPOSITIONS4 

,WE MAY SAY1 RETURN+ TO ,ZAGOR9'S DESCRIPTION ( ABSOLUTISM1 ?AT IT WAS NOT 9 SPITE ( A MON>*'S 0BRUTAL COLLISION ) REBELLI\S SPIRITS0 BUT BECAUSE ( ?IS COLLISION ?AT ! NATION BUILD]S ( ,BOD9'S TIME FAIL$ TO 0SWEEP ! /AGE CLEAN ) A NEW BROOM4440 ,5GLI%1 ,FR5*1 & ,SPANI% MON>*S1 LIKE !IR ANCI5T C\NT]P>TS :O BUILT HUGE EMPIRES1 WANT$ V]Y MU* TO A*IEVE 0HOMOG5E\S & ALL-9CLUSIVE AU?ORITY4 ,!Y DID NOT REQUIRE ! EXI/5CE ( LOCAL HI]>*IES TO JU/IFY ! DEVELOPM5T ( A NATIONAL HI]>*Y1 NOR DID !Y NE$ ! *ALL5GES CREAT$ BY LOCAL PRIVILEGES TO JU/IFY !IR [N CLAIMS TO NATIONAL PRIVILEGE4 ,TO ! EXT5T ?AT !Y TOL]AT$ LOCAL HI]>*IES & PRIVILEG$ /RATA1 IT WAS BECAUSE !Y DID NOT HAVE ! RES\RCES & ! ECONOMIC SUPPORTS TO REPLACE !M4 ,JEAN ,BOD9'S JU/IFICATION = ! ALL-9CLUSIVE AU?ORITY ( EV]Y NATIONAL GOV]NM5T OV] ! RI<TS CLAIM$ BY LESS]1 MORE LOCAL JURISDICTIONS IS EVID5CE ( A PREVAIL+ VISION AMONG ! MON>*IES ( HIS DAY ?AT CLA%$ ) ! REALITY ( !IR SITUATION & PR(\NDLY UNSETTL$ ! REAL WORLD4 ,:AT ,EUROPEAN MON>*S DID 0?9K0 ( !MSELVES--NAMELY1 ALL-P[]FUL RUL]S ( HI<LY C5TRALIZ$ /ATE'S--DEEPLY AFFECT$ ! DEVELOPM5T ( ,EUROPEAN HI/ORY4 ,!IR C5TRALI/S PROCLIVITIES CLE>LY 9FLU5C$ ! ?9K+ ( M5 LIKE ,ROBESPI]RE1 ,FRANCE'S C5TRALIZ] P> EXCELL5CE1 :O ALSO /RUGGL$ TO OV]?R[ ROYALISM AS SU*1 US+ ,R\SSEAU-LIKE PR9CIPLES ( A DEMOCRACY ?AT 0=CES0 M5 TO BE FREE4 ,H]E9 LIES ONE ( ! GREAT IRONIES ( ! MOD]N ]A3 LEAD]S ( ! POPUL> OPPOSITION TO ABSOLUTISM W]E TO FUNCTION 9 MANY WAYS LIKE ! MON>*S !Y PR(ESS$ TO OPPOSE &1 ULTIMATELY1 !Y W]E TO TURN AGA9/ ! V]Y POPUL> MOVEM5TS ?AT BR\<T !M TO P[]4 

,IT WAS ! >TISANS & PEASANTS--( ! AUTONOM\S T[NS :OSE WALLS C5TRALI/IC ROYALI/S SU* AS ,C>D9AL ,RI*ELIEU W]E TO DEMOLI%1 NOT ONLY SELF-GOV]N+ & P>O*IAL FEUDAL LORDS :O W]E TO RISE 9 REBELLIONS AGA9/ ! MON>*IES ( ,EUROPE4 ,I HAVE ALREADY EXAM9$ ! RESI/ANCE & ALT]NATIVE (F]$ BY ! ,COMUN]OS & ! ,G]MAN PEASANTS AS EXAMPLES1 TOGE!R ) O!RS :O TYPIFI$ ! MO/ IMPORTANT EF=TS TO >RE/ C5TRALISM & /ATI/ =MS ( NATION BUILD+4 ,! SEV5TE5? & EI<TE5? C5TURIES1 NO LESS ?AN ! SIXTE5?1 EXPLOD$ 9 NUM]\S ALBEIT MORE LOCALIZ$ CONFLICTS ( ! K9D ?AT PRODUC$ SO MU* CIVIL TURMOIL 9 ! SIXTE5?4 ,TO CATALOG !SE SMALL] BUT HI<LY NUM]\S REVOLTS1 P>TICUL>LY ?OSE ?AT OCCURR$ 9 ,FRANCE1 W\LD BE T$I\S4 ,!IR OV]ALL PATT]N1 H[EV]1 IS DESCRIB$ BY ,ZAGOR9 V]Y ABLY3  
  

,9 EV]Y CASE1 SOME NEW EXORBITANCY ( ROYAL F9ANCE1 A TAX ON TAV]NS1 = 9/ANCE1 OR ! ABOLITION ( AS EXEMPTION FROM C]TA9 IMPO/S1 SP>K$ ! \TBREAK4 ,!N ! RESID5TIAL QU>T]S ( ! POOR ]UPT$1 MOBS ( ?REE1 FIVE1 & EV5 T5 ?\S& TOOK TO ! /REETS1 & ! PURSUIT ( ! GABELEURS .<TAX COLLECTORS.> BECAME ! ORD] ( ! DAY4 ,RIOT & EXCITATION1 VIOL5CE C\PL$ ) ASPECTS ( A POPUL> FE/IVAL & ITS DRUNK5 9DULG5CE1 DOM9AT$ !SE \TBREAKS1 AS ! L[] ORD]S DROPP$ !IR WORKADAY R\T9E = ! COLLECTIVE ACTION ?AT DEMON/RAT$ !IR ANG] & MADE !M FEEL !IR /R5G?4 ,! MILITANT BASE WAS ALWAYS ! URBAN PLEBS3 NOT MADE UP 5TIRELY1 P]HAPS1 ( :AT ! PRESID5T ( ! P>LEM5T ( ,BORDEAUX CALL$ 0! L[E/ P>T ( ! PEOPLE10 BUT COM SI/+ ( >TISANS1 J\RNEYM51 DAY LABOR]S1 SMALL %OPKEEP]S1 & SOMETIMES WOM5FOLK1 TOO1 :O P>TICIPAT$ ) !IR M56 ,AT1 ,BORDEAUX A BOATMAN & A TAV]NKEEP]1 AT ,AG5 A MA/] GLOV]1 A PACK-SADDLE MAK]1 & AGA9 A TAV]NKEEP]1 AT ,P]IGEAU A PHYSICIAN1 /OOD \T AS LEAD]S & HAFANGU]S ( ! CR[D4 ,PEASANTS SW>M$ 9 FROM ! \TSKIRTS TO UNITE BRIEFLY ) ! REVOLT1 AS HAPP5$ 9 ,BORDEAUX1 ,AT ,AG51 SIX ?\S& PEASANTS :O TRI$ TO 5T] W]E KEPT \T BY ! B\RGEOIS MILITIA & BURN$ ! PROP]TY ( GABELEURS 9 ! VIC9ITY4_<#f#g_>  
  

,A MORE DETAIL$ ACC\NT W\LD 9CLUDE ATTACKS UPON ! T[N HALL1 ! RELEASE ( JAIL$ PRISON]S1 ! KILL+ ( TAX COLLECTORS & F9ANCE (FICIALS1 EV5 ( WEAL?Y 9DIVIDUALS :O W]E SUSPECT$ ( BE+ 9 COLLUSION ) ! /ATE4 ,)\T ! LEAD]%IP PROVID$ BY >TISANS1 SMALL PROPRIETORS1 OCCASIONALLY PR(ESSIONALS1 & EV5 MEMB]S ( ! LESS] NOBILITY1 IT IS UNLIKELY ?AT !SE UPRIS+S W\LD HAVE GONE V]Y F>4 ,APP>5TLY !IR EXT5T DEP5D$ UPON 0! PASSIVITY1 NEUTRAL OR AMBIGU\S BEHAVIOR1 & EV5 P>TIAL SUPPORT .<(.> ! NOTABLES & WELL-TO-DO4 ,! B\RGEOIS MILITIA ( ,BORDEAUX %[$ LITTLE WILL TO ACT44 ,AT ,P]IGEUX ! B\RGEOIS GU>D WAS SIMIL>LY SLACK4 ,ONLY AT ,AG51 :]E ! VIOL5CE WAS P>TICUL>LY 9T5SE & ACCOMPANI$ BY A DEF9ITE SOCIAL ANTAGONISM1 DID ELITES & AU?ORITIES TAKE CONC]T$ /EPS AGA9/ ! \TBREAK40 

,! LIMITS ( !SE 9SURRECTIONS1 RURAL AS WELL AS URBAN1 %\LD BE NOT$4 ,AGA91 ,ZAGOR9 COMES TO \R AID3  
  

,TAK5 AS A :OLE1 ,FR5* URBAN REBELLIONS W]E DEVOID ( PROGRAMS OR IDEAS4 ,9 ! SAME WAY AS ! CONCURR5T AGR>IAN REVOLTS1 !Y SEEM$ TO REFLECT A /ASIS 9 ,FR5* SOCIETY DESPITE ITS EXCEPTIONAL AM\NT ( VIOL5CE & 9SUBORD9ATION1 AN 9ABILITY BY 9SURG5T-=CES TO TRANSC5D ! EXI/+ /ATE ( ?+S ) ANY 9=M+ VISION ( AN ALT]NATIVE4 ,AL?\< AGA9 & AGA9 ! C5TRALI/ (F5SIVE L$ TO RESI/ANCE1 ! LATT] FAIL$ TO GIVE RISE TO DEM&S = POLITICAL *ANGES4444 ,URBAN REBELLION WAS ESS5TIALLY A DEF5SIVE RESPONSE BY ! :OLE COMMUNITY4 ,TO ! PLEBEIAN POPULACE1 ! PUNI%M5T ( GABELEURS WAS A DES]V$ ACT ( COMMUNAL JU/ICE4 ,IF SU* PEOPLE TOOK ! L>GE/1 MO/ ACTIVE P>T 9 !SE 9SURRECTIONS1 ?AT WAS BECAUSE !Y W]E ! MO/ S5SIBLE ( FISCAL OPPRESSION4 ,BUT ELITES USUALLY %>$ RESPONSIBILITY 9 SOME MEASURE4 ,!IR '[N OPPOSITION TO EXACTIONS HELP$ TO LEGITIMIZE RESI/ANCE1 & !Y 5C\RAG$ REVOLT1 :E!R BY ACTUAL 9/IGATION1 COV]T APPROVAL & SYMPA?Y1 OR 9ACTION1 :5 DISORD] BROKE \T4444 ,BUT !Y W]E HELPLESS TO HOLD BACK ! ADVANCE ( ABSOLUTISM & ITS C5TRALIZ+ GRIP BECAUSE !Y HAD NO POLITICAL RE=MS TO PROPOSE & CONCEIV$ ( NO NEW 9/ITUTIONAL LIMITS ON ! P[] ( ! ROYAL /ATE4 _<#f#h_>  
  

,ACTUALLY1 ,ZAGOR9'S ACC\NT ( ! WAY !SE *RONIC T[N 9SURRECTIONS UNFOLD$--ULTIMATELY LEAD+ TO ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION ITSELF A C5TURY OR SO LAT]--FAILS TO EXPLORE C]TA9 IMPORTANT DETAILS ?AT HELP US UND]/& ! EXT5T TO :I* ! UPRIS+S ACTUALLY DID 0HOLD ! ADVANCE ( ABSOLUTISM & ITS C5TRALIZ+ GRIP0 UND] CONTROL4 ,! ,FR5* MON>*S SU* AS ,L\IS ,X,I,I,I & ,L\IS ,X,I,V W]E /RONG K+S :O W]E GUID$ BY EV5 /RONG] ADVIS]S SU* AS ! C>D9ALS ,RI*ILIEU & ,MAZ>91 RESPECTIVELY4 ,!Y CREAT$ ! /RONGE/ >MIES & CREAT$ ! MO/ F>-REA*+ BUREAUCRACIES 9 WE/]N ,EUROPE 9 !IR DAY4 ,!Y W]E RU?LESS C5TRALIZ]S & PAT5TLY HO/ILE TO !IR [N NOBILITY1 (T5 5C\RAG+ TRADE & PLAY+ ! 0B\RGEOIS0 CLASSES AGA9/ ! NOBLE CLASSES :O W]E AS PROTECTIVE ( !IR P>TICUL>I/IC PRIVILEGES AS !Y W]E ( !IR ECONOMIC4 ,WE/]N ,EUROPE 9 ! SEV5TE5? & EI<TE5? C5TURIES WAS A /ATUS-ORI5T$ WORLD4 ,IT WAS MADE UP MORE ( 0ORD]S0--/ATUS GR\PS :O 5RI*$ !MSELVES1 DEVELOP$ EXTRAVAGANT PATT]NS ( CONSPICU\S CONSUMPTION1 & SPOKE 9 A MANN]$ LANGUAGE ACCORD+ TO AN ELABORATE BODY ( ETIQUETTE--RA!R ?AN ( CLASSES :O SIMPLY & UNADORN$LY PURSU$ !IR MAT]IAL 9T]E/S4 ,P[] & SOCIAL RECOGNITION W]E NO LESS IMPORTANT ?AN WEAL?2 9 FACT !Y W]E MAJOR S\RCES ( MAT]IAL WEAL?4 ,P]SONAL 5RI*M5T1 9 TURN1 WAS (T5 PURSU$ PRECISELY TO GA9 MORE P[] & GREAT] SOCIAL RECOGNITION4 ,CONSUMPTION 9 ALL ITS DAZZL+ =MS ?US ASSUM$ GREAT] SIGNIFICANCE ?AN PRODUCTION1 EV5 = ! B\RGEOISIE1 :I* TRI$ TO ELB[ ITS WAY 9TO ! SOCIAL HI]>*IES ( ! ]A4 ,M>Y ,BE>D'S ACC\NT ( ! M]*ANT'S VALUES 9 ! ,ROMAN WORLD HOLDS AS WELL 9 ! ]A ( ABSOLUTISM AS IT DOES 9 ! ]A ( EMPIRE1 A ?\S& YE>S E>LI]4 ,! TRAD]1 %E OBS]VES1 0HAD DRA9$ ! WEAL? ( ! ,WE/ = 'BONES & /ONES' .<GEMS & ORNAM5TS.> FROM ! ,EA/ & !REBY BR\<T ON CURR5CY TR\BLES = :I* !RE WAS APP>5TLY NO REM$Y4444 ,BECAUSE HE HAD YIELD$ MU* TO ! L&$ G5TLEMAN'S IDEAL1 HE T5D$ TO DRAW =TUNES AWAY FROM ! BUS9ESS TO ! L&1 TAK+ WEAL? \T ( CIRCULATION & 5]GY \T ( BUS9ESS 5T]PRISE4 ,HIS *ILDR51 GR[+ UP 9 ! C\NTRY1 W]E (T5 LO/ TO BUS9ESS 5TIRELY40_<#f#i_> 

,9 WE/]N ,EUROPE1 ESPECIALLY 9 0CLASSICAL0 ,FRANCE--! C\NTRY ?AT SO MANY RADICAL & LIB]AL ?9K]S W]E TO REG>D AS ! MODEL = 0PURE0 FEUDALISM & ! 0B\RGEOIS-DEMOCRATIC0 REVOLUTION--?IS PROCESS ( MOV+ FROM ! /ATUS ( TRAD] TO ?AT ( NOBLEMAN WAS ESPECIALLY M>K$ & ADDS CONSID]ABLE AMBIGUITY TO :AT WE MEAN BY ! WORD 0B\RGEOIS40 ,MANY 0B\RGEOIS0 & NOBLE 9T]E/S COALESC$4 ,BO? ORD]S G5]ALLY HAD A GREAT] FE> ( ! 0MOB0 ?AN ( EA* O!R--&1 9 MOM5TS ( CRISIS1 ( ! MON>*Y4 ,! TWO ORD]S W]E UNIT$ BY BONDS ( M>RIAGE1 L& [N]%IP1 CULTURAL TA/ES1 VALUES1 &' A DESIRE = /ATUS & ! P[]1 POLITICAL AS WELL AS ECONOMIC1 ?AT IT CONF]R$4 

,! 0B\RGEOIS MILITIA0 ( ,BORDEAUX1 ,P]IGEAUX1 & ,AG5 PROBABLY 9CLUD$ MANY ASPIR+ MA/] CRAFTSM51 M]*ANTS1 & A GOOD SPR9KL+ ( 09DU/RIALI/S0 :O W]E EAG] TO ACQUIRE NOBLE /ATUS--EV5 IF ONLY 0NOBLES ( ! ROBE0 7NOBLES :O HAD NOBLE /ATUS CONF]R$ UPON !M = S]VICE TO ! /ATE OR1 QUITE CRASSLY1 = MONEY7 RA!R ?AN 0NOBLES ( ! SWORD0 7H]$IT>Y NOBILITY74 ,!Y W]E MORE LIKE M$IEVAL BUR<]S1 ?AN CAPITALI/S 9 ! PRES5T-DAY S5SE ( ! T]M4 ,9DE$ CAPITALISM1 CONCEIV$ NOT SIMPLY AS AN ECONOMIC SY/EM /RUCTUR$ >\ND COMM]CIAL TRANSACTIONS OR TRADE BUT1 9 ITS TRULY MOD]N S5SE1 AS AN ACCUMULATIVE SY/EM 7:AT ,M>X CALL$ 0EXP&+ REPRODUCTION07 9 :I* 9DU/RIAL EXPANSION BECAME AN 5D 9 ITSELF1 WAS A FEEBLE ?+ 9 WE/]N ,EUROPE 9 ! SEV5TE5? & EI<TE5? C5TURIES1 MORE *>ACT]I/ICALLY ,DUT* ?AN EI!R ,5GLI% OR ,FR5*4 ,H5CE1 IT W\LD BE ( VALUE TO DISCRIM9ATE BETWE5 ! WORDS 0B\RGEOISIE0 & 0CAPITALI/S0 RA!R ?AN TURN !M 9TO SYNONYMS4 

,BY ! SAME TOK51 ! 0L[E/ P>T ( ! PEOPLE10 :OM ! PRESID5T ( ! ,BORDEAUX ,P>LEM5T DESIGNAT$ AS ! PR9CIPAL ACTIVI/S 9 ! URBAN REBELLIONS ( ! #a#f#cS1 W]E NOT SIMPLY LABOR]S1 VAGABONDS1 & BEGG>S4 ,9 A /ATUS-ORI5T$ SOCIETY1 !Y C\LD ALSO BE SAID TO 9CLUDE MA/] CRAFTSM51 >TISANS1 %OPKEEP]S1 & SMALL-PROP]TY [N]S4 ,! FACT ?AT TAV]NKEEP]S1 MA/] GLOV]S1 PACK-SADDLE MAK]S1 &4 EV5 A PHYSICIAN 0/OOD \T AS LEAD]S & H>ANGU]S ( ! CR[D10 TO USE ,ZAGOR9'S WORDS1 TELLS US SOME?+ AB\T ! 0CR[D0 !Y L$ & H>ANGU$4 ,?AT NOBLES1 TOO1 OCCASIONALLY BECAME SU* 0LEAD]S0 TELLS US SOME?+ AB\T ! TRANSCLASS NATURE ( SU* UPRIS+S & ! EXT5T TO :I* NE>LY ALL SECTORS ( SOCIETY C\LD BE UNIT$ AGA9/ ! C5TRALIZATION ( P[] BY ! MON>*Y4 ,MO/ ( ! PEOPLE HAT$ M5 LIKE ,RI*ELIEU1 ,MAZ>91 & MEMB]S ( ! K+'S ADM9I/RATIVE BUREAUCRACY1 DESPITE'!IR RITUALI/IC EXPRESSIONS ( AFFECTION = ! K+4 ,SU* CRIES AS 0,LONG LIVE ! K+ )\T !  
GABELLE60 MEANT ?AT ! K+1 O/5SIBLY BELOV$ = HIS SYMBOLIC /ATUS AS A C>+ FA!R1 C\LD E>N POPUL> LOYALTY ONLY IF HE WAS %ORN2 ( ! ALL-IMPORTANT FISCAL MEANS = MA9TA9+ HIS COMM&+ POSITION 9 ! C\NTRY--A POSITION ?AT AM\NT$ TO V]Y LITTLE )\T ! MONEY = PROVISION+ HIS >MY1 PAY+ HIS BUREAUCRATS1 & C>RY+ ON DOME/IC W>S AGA9/ RECALCITRANT T[NS & NOBLES4 

,:I* RAISES ,ZAGOR9'S' QUE/ION ( H[ MU* ( A PROGRAM ,FR5* 9SURRECTION>IES ACTUALLY NE$$ IF ,FR5* SOCIETY WAS 9DE$ 9 A 0/ASIS40 ,ZAGOR9'S USE ( ! WORD /ASIS /&S AT ODDS )1 HIS NOTION ?AT ! 9SURRECTION>IES W]E 0HELPLESS TO HOLD BACK ! ADVANCE ( ABSOLUTISM & ITS C5TRALIZ+ GRIP40 ,! 0/ASIS0 ( ! TIME CONSI/$ PRECISELY ( A LA/+ BALANCE ( =CES BETWE5 ! C5TRAL P[] & ! REGIONS1 LOCALITIES1 ORD]S1 & CLASSES ( ! TIME1 NOT AN EV]-5CROA*+ C5TRAL P[]4 ,RI*ILIEU & ,MAZ>91 WORK+ RU?LESSLY ON BEHALF ( !IR MON>*S1 TRI$ TO =GE A COMPLETELY C5TRALIZ$ NATION-/ATE >\ND ! K+ & HIS BUREAUCRACY4 ,IT IS MY?1 9 MY VIEW1 TO BELIEVE ?AT ANY BUT ! MO/ NAIVE ( ! ABSOLUTI/ ,FR]I* K+S TRU/$ !IR NOBLES1 AL?\< ONE ,FR5* MON>*1 ,L\IS ,X,V,I1 TRI$ TO 5LI/ HIS NOBLES 9 #a<h AGA9/ AN EV]-DEM&+ 0,?IRD ,E/ATE40 ,!Y BETRAY$ HIM )\T SCRUPLES &1 9 ! MO/ SELF-SEEK+ MANN]1 BR\<T AB\T HIS D[NFALL AS WELL AS !IR [N4 

,?US ,RI*ELIEU & ,MAZ>9 DID NOT SUCCE$1 9 FACT4 ,!Y C>RI$ C5TRALIZATION F> 9 ,FRANCE1 BUT NOT SO F> ?AT IT C\LD PREV5T ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 :I* TRI$ 9 ITS E>LY PHASES TO REV]SE ! P[] ( ! K+ & ! >I/OCRATS ALIKE1 9ITIALLY DRIV+ T[>D A RELATIVELY DEC5TRALIZ$1 9DE$ M9IMAL1 /ATE4 ,IF C5TRALISM IS TO BE ID5TIFI$ ) ! 9T]E/S ( ! NEWLY EM]G+ CAPITALI/ ECONOMY 9S(> AS ! 0B\RGEOISIE0 SEEKS A POLITICALLY UNIFI$ C\NTRY1 ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION WAS CATEGORICALLY NOT A 0B\RGEOIS REVOLUTION40 ,NOR DID ! ,FR5* 0B\RGEOISIE0 WANT A 0DEMOCRACY0 OR EV51 NECESS>ILY1 A REPUBLIC4 ,9DE$1 IT TRI$ TO MODEL ,FRANCE ON ,5GL&'S CON/ITUTIONAL MON>*Y4 ,! SUPREME IRONY ( ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION IS ?AT A MOVEM5T DESIGN$ TO CURB PRIVILEGE1 HI]>*Y1 &1 ABOVE ALL1 C5TRALIZ$ P[] WAS TWI/$ BY LIB]AL 9TELLECTUALS1 0=W>D-LOOK+0 LAWY]S1 & M>G9AL /RATA 9TO ! MO/ C5TRALIZ$ /ATE 9 ,EUROPE 9 ORD] TO DEFEAT ITS C\NT]REVOLUTION>Y 5EMIES4 ,9 SOME RESPECTS1 ! ,JACOB9 ,REPUBLIC ?AT FOLL[$ ! COLLAPSE ( !SE HOPES = A CON/ITUTIONAL MON>*Y & A FAIRLY DEC5TRALIZ$ POLITICAL /RUCTURE WAS M>BL$ BY FEUDAL CONCEPTS ( GOV]NM5T1 NOTABLY1 ! FAM\S 0MAXIMUM0 ?AT LIMIT$ ! RISE ( PLAC$ PRICES & WAGES1 /ATE 9T]V5TION 9 MANY P>TS ( ! ECONOMY & SOCIETY1 & A MORAL PO/URE ?AT ESP\S$ 0REPUBLICAN VIRTUE0 AS A POLITICAL CALL+4 ,! ,JACOB9 ,REPUBLIC1 9 EFFECT1 WAS A W>TIME /ATE ?AT ,NAPOLEON WAS TO MAKE FAIRLY P]MAN5T4 ,?IS QUIXOTIC TURN ( EV5TS ET*$ ITSELF1 DEEPLY 9TO ,FR5* NATIONAL FIFE = NE>LY TWO C5TURIES1 & C5TRALISM BECAME A FOCAL ISSUE >\ND :I* POPUL> MOVEM5TS W]E TO REBEL ?R\<\T ! N9ETE5? C5TURY4 ,! CLIMAX ( ?IS POPUL> MOVEM5T WAS REA*$ 9 ,MAY #ahga :5 ! ,COMMUNE ( ,P>IS TRI$ TO E/ABLI% A CONF$]AL REPUBLIC BAS$ ON A COMMUNE ( COMMUNES1 A /RUGGLE ?AT 5D$ 9 A BLOODY MASSACRE & ! EBB+ ( DEC5TRALI/IC NOTIONS ( SOCIALISM 9 ,FRANCE ITSELF4 

,ROBESPI]RE & NAPOLEON1 MORE ?AN ,RI*ILIEU & ,MAZ>91 W]E ! TRUE =G]S ( ! NATION-/ATE 9 ,FRANCE1 & IT WAS !Y :O PROVID$ ! REAL 0CLASSICAL0 EXAMPLE ( C5TRALIZ$ NATIONAL AU?ORITY 9 ,EUROPE4 

,:AT ROLE DID ! T[NS & CITIES PLAY 9 ABETT+ ?IS DEVELOPM5T FROM ! SIXTE5? C5TURY ONW>D8 ,T[NS & CITIES RESPOND$1 AS WE HAVE SE51 9 V]Y MIX$ WAYS TO ! EM]G5CE ( A C5TRALIZ$ AU?ORITY ?AT TRI$ TO ABSORB !M4 ,SOME RESI/$ ?AT AU?ORITY ) V]Y LITTLE 9T]NAL DIVISION OR DIFF]5CE ( OP9ION4 ,O!RS1 P>TICUL>LY :]E ! 0B\RGEOISIE0 & ELITE ORD]S PREVAIL$1 FAVOR$ A WELL-COORD9AT$ SOCIETY 9 :I* TRADE C\LD PROSP]4 ,!Y !REBY ABETT$ ! WORK ( ,RI*ELIEU1 ,MAZ>91 & ,NAPOLEON1 BO? ! ORIG9AL >TICLE & HIS NEPHEW1 ,L\IS ,BONAP>TE1 9 ! #a#h#eS & #a#h#fS4 ,BUT !RE IS A S5SE 9 :I* ALL ! T[NS ( ,EUROPE UNWITT+LY ABETT$ ! =MATION ( NATION-/ATES1 EV5 AS !Y OPPOS$ IT = SOCIAL1 POLITICAL1 & CULTURAL REASONS4 ,!Y DID ?IS BY CREAT+ ! >T]IES & VE9S1 AS IT W]E1 = NATIONAL CONSOLIDATION3 ! ELABORATE1 9DE$ HI/ORICALLY UNPREC$5T$1 ROAD SY/EMS & NODAL M>KET T[NS ?AT FO/]$ ! MONETIZATION1 COMM]CIALIZATION1 & 9DU/RIALIZATION ( NATIONS--& ) !SE POSSIBILITIES1 ! EFFECTIVE C5TRALIZATION ( ! /ATE ALONG NATIONAL L9ES4 

,I WI% TO ADVANCE ! VIEW ?AT ?IS WAS ONE ( ! MO/ IMPORTANT A*IEVEM5TS ( ,EUROPE DUR+ ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES & WELL 9TO REC5T TIMES4 ,SO MU* EMPHASIS HAS BE5 PLAC$ BY HI/ORIANS ON ,EUROPE'S DEVELOPM5T ( A M>KET ECONOMY1 ITS RELATIVE FRE$OM ( TRADE1 & ITS OP5NESS TO 9DU/RIAL 9NOVATION--FEATURES ?AT >E C]TA9LY UNIQUELY ,EUROPEAN--?AT WE FAIL TO RECOGNIZE H[ LITTLE !Y W\LD HAVE BE5 ABLE TO AFFECT ! CONT95T'S DEVELOPM5T )\T A NETWORK ( ROADS1 CANALS1 & RIV]S TO MAKE SU* AN ECONOMY POSSIBLE4 ,AP>T FROM ! TRADE ?AT CREAT$ M>KET T[NS--T[NS :]E ALL GOODS W]E SY/EMATICALLY EX*ANG$--LONG-DI/ANCE COMM]CE WAS AN ELITI/ AFFAIR & S]V$ ! WELL-TO-DO1 NOT SOCIETY AT L>GE4 ,LOCAL TRADE WAS NECESS>ILY V]Y LOCAL BECAUSE ( ! 9SUL> NATURE ( MO/ ,EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES4 ,SO1 TOO1 WAS POLITICAL P[]4 ,RIV]S1 CANALS1 & M>ITIME TRANSPORTATION S]V$ TO L9K A FAIR P]C5TAGE ( ,EUROPE'S T[NS & VILLAGES TOGE!R1 BUT BY NO MEANS ! MAJORITY4 ,A ,EUROPEAN 0H9T]L&0 EXI/$ ALMO/ EV]Y:]E ON ! CONT95T1 SU* ?AT T[NS & VILLAGES W]E ALMO/ 5TIRELY SELF-SUFFICI5T 9 ! /APLES ( EV]YDAY LIFE & CULTURE REMA9$ HI<LY 9SUL>4 ,!SE 0H9T]L&S0 W]E L>GELY BEYOND ! REA* ( ! NATION-/ATE & SURPRIS+LY IMP5ETRABLE TO COMM]CE1 MONETIZATION1 & ! 0B\RGEOIS0 9CUBUS ?AT WAS TO CLAIM ,EUROPE = ITSELF DUR+ ! N9ETE5? C5TURY4 

,WE CAN BEG9 TO S5SE ! IMPORTANCE ( ROAD SY/EMS 9 ECONOMIC DEVELOPM5T & POLITICAL CONTROL TODAY 7P]HAPS EV5 MORE ?AN DUR+ ANY O!R P>T ( \R C5TURY7 BECAUSE ( ! EFFECTIV5ESS ( GU]RILLA W>F>E 9 ! ,?IRD ,WORLD4 ,! V]Y LACK ( 0DEVELOPM5T0 & ! POOR ROAD SY/EMS ?AT EXI/ 9 ,C5TRAL ,AM]ICA1 M\NTA9\S PORTIONS ( ,ASIA1 & ! RA9 =E/S 9 S\!A/ ,ASIA HAVE BR\<T EV5 NATION-/ATES AID$ BY 0SUP]P[]S0 TO !IR KNEES4 ,ALL ! 0COLONIZ]S0 ( ! PA/ RECOGNIZ$ ! NE$ = EFFECTIVE ROAD SY/EMS4 ,! ,ROMANS W]E ABLE TO HOLD !IR EMPIRE TOGE!R PRECISELY BECAUSE IT WAS NETWORK$ BY A HI<LY ELABORATE SY/EM ( ROADS ?AT P5ETRAT$ 9TO ! ,IB]IAN P59SULA1 ,GAUL1 & PORTIONS ( ,BRITA9 & ,G]MANY AS WELL AS ! H9T]L&S ( ! ,M$IT]RANEAN BAS94 ,EV5 QUASI-TRIBAL SOCIETIES SU* AS ! ,9CA ( ,P]U DEVELOP$ 0EMPIRES0 BECAUSE ROADS--ACTUALLY WELL-MA9TA9$ PA?WAYS & FOOTBRIDGES--MADE C5TRAL COORD9ATION POSSIBLE4 ,IT MATT]S LITTLE :E!R ELABORATE ROAD NETWORKS EM]G$ BECAUSE 0ECONOMIC =CES0 CREAT$ A NE$ = !M OR BECAUSE !Y MADE ! EM]G5CE ( SU* 0ECONOMIC =CES0 AS A M>KET ECONOMY POSSIBLE4 ,! TWO1 9 FACT1 MAY HAVE 9T]ACT$ RECIPROCALLY ) EA* O!R3 ROAD BUILD+ /IMULAT+ COMM]CE & COMM]CE /IMULAT+ ROAD BUILD+4 

,JUDG+ FROM ,ROME'S NETWORK1 H[EV]1 GOOD ROADS 9 !MSELVES DID NOT NECESS>ILY FO/] A HI< VOLUME ( COMM]CE1 AL?\< !Y W]E 9DISP5SABLE = COMM]CIAL ADVANCES4 ,?IS GREAT NETWORK ( ANTIQUITY WAS NOT CON/RUCT$ PRIM>ILY TO TRANSPORT M]*&ISE4 ,IT WAS CREAT$ MA9LY TO MOVE TROOPS & IMP]IAL ADM9I/RATORS TO V>I\S P>TS ( ! EMPIRE4 ,EV5 ! TRANSPORT ( GOODS TO SUPPLY ! LEGIONNAIRES WAS A SECOND>Y FACTOR 9 ROAD DESIGN & ITS R\TES4 ,AS ,R4 ,S4 ,LOPEZ TELLS US 9 HIS ABSORB+ DISCUSSION ( L& TRANSPORT1 ,ROMAN TROOPS W]E 5C\RAG$ TO LIVE 0AS F> AS POSSIBLE ON ! FOOD PRODUC$ 9 !IR IMM$IATE VIC9ITY & ! ADM9I/RATIVE C5T]S W]E ALMO/ ALL SITUAT$ EI!R ON ! SEA OR ON 9T]NAL NAVIGABLE WAT]WAYS40_<#g_> ,?IS ORI5TATION IS V]Y 0UN-,EUROPEAN03 IT REFLECTS ! A/ONI%+ EXT5T TO :I* A WORLD ORI5T$ T[>D AGR>IAN VALUES DOM9AT$ ITS M]*ANTS & MORALLY D5IGRAT$ !IR S\RCES ( 9COME4 ,ESS5TIALLY1 IT WAS ! 0M]*ANT1 GLUTT$1 OR RA!R CONT5T$ ) HIS PR(IT1 .<:O.> RETIRES FROM ! PORT TO BECOME A L&$ PROPRIETOR10 ,CIC]O TELLS US1 0444 .<:O.> SEEMS TO ME WOR?Y ( FULL PRAISE10 NOT ! 0SMALL-SCALE0 TRAD]1 MU* LESS1 >TISAN1 0:O %\LD BE ( LITTLE ACC\NT40_<#g#a_> 

,ACCORD+LY1 ,ROMAN ROADS WORE BUILT ALMO/ DEF5SIVELY ALONG M\NTA9 CRE/S1 V]Y MU* LIKE =TRESSES1 RA!R ?AN ?R\< POPUL\S VALLEYS4 ,!IR SEEM+LY 9DE/RUCTIBLE L>GE BLOCKS ( /ONE GAVE !M A RIGIDITY ?AT 9CREAS$ !IR VULN]ABILITY TO CLIMATIC *ANGES1 OP5+ L>GE SURFACE CRACKS ?AT1 AS ,LOPEZ TELLS US1 0NE$$ GANGS ( SLAVES1 OR CONT9U\S WORK BY ?OSE OBLIG$ TO FURNI% ROAD-S]VICES TO ! /ATE1 & EV5 SO !Y W]E UNSUITABLE = HEAVY OR BROAD VEHICLES40_<#g#b_> ,! ,ROMAN ROAD SY/EM1 9DE$ ANCI5T ROAD NETWORKS G5]ALLY1 W]E NOT DESIGN$ TO EXP& LOCAL COMM]CE BEYOND ITS REGIONAL CONF9ES OR OP5 TRADE R\TES TO A CONT95TAL EX*ANGE ( ORD9>Y /APLES4 ,LONG-DI/ANCE TRADE ( LUXURY GOODS & DELICACIES TRANSPORT$ BY SEA OR ALONG RIV]S WAS FAVOR$ OV] A MOSAIC ( LOCAL & REGIONAL COMM]CIAL TRANSACTIONS ?AT BR\<T ORD9>Y GOODS & MONEY 9TO REMOTE >EAS ( ! CONT95T4.<#a.> 

,BY CONTRA/1 ,EUROPE PLAC$ A HI< PREMIUM ON ! LOCAL >TISAN & M]*ANT4 ,AT A TIME :5 SO MU* EMPHASIS IS PLAC$ ON ! ROLE ( LONG-DI/ANCE COMM]CE 9 =M+ CAPITALISM & ! MOD]N AGE1 IT IS IMPORTANT TO RECOGNIZE H[ LOCAL PRODUC]S & LOCAL M>KETS SL[LY REWORK$ ! 9T]IOR ( ! ,EUROPEAN CONT95T1 PREP>+ IT = A MONETIZ$ ECONOMY & PROVID+ ! GOODS & M>KETS = CREAT+ A M>KET SOCIETY4 ,?IS SL[ BUT HI/ORIC *ANGE 9 ! ECONOMIC CULTURE ( ,EUROPE--A SL[ BUT DECISIVE *ANGE 9 ATTITUDES T[>D TRADE1 PRODUCTION = SALE1 & ! USE ( MONEY--WAS ! WORK 9 L>GE P>T ( SMALL T[NS1 NOT ONLY BUSY1 GLAM\R\S PORTS4  
  

,LITTLE BY LITTLE A NEW NETWORK ( ROADS WAS PUT 9TO EFFECTIVE OP]ATION1 DIFF]5T TOTALLY 9 /RUCTURE & ME?ODS FROM ! ANCI5T ONE & US$ BY QUITE DIFF]5T TYPES ( TRANSPORT & HAULAGE4 ,! *ANGES 9 TRANSPORT :I* ACCOMPANI$ ! COMM]CIAL REVOLUTION & ! \TBUR/ ( ECONOMIC ACTIVITY 9 ?IS P]IOD CAN !MSELVES BE DESCRIB$ AS A SL[ REVOLUTION1 ,IF WE CONSID] !M MORE CLOSELY1 WE F9D ?AT !Y REVEAL ! *ANG$ POLITICAL & SOCIAL FACE ( ,EUROPE4 ,= 9 M$IEVAL ,EUROPE !RE WAS NO L>GE & P[]FUL /ATE LIKE ! ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE4 ,SLAV]Y DISAPPE>$ & 9 MANY REGIONS1 ( :I* ,ITALY WAS ! FIR/1 S]FDOM WAS ABOLI%$4 ,F9ALLY1 ! DIGNITY ( !1 M]*ANT & ( TRADE WON RECOGNITION1 ?\< ) MANY RES]VATIONS4 ,H5CE PRIVATE 9ITIATIVE OR LOCAL ASSOCIATIONS L>GELY TOOK ! PLACE ( CO]CIVE GOV]NM5T ACTION4 ,! R\T+ ( ROADS REFLECT$ ! NE$S ( COMM]CE RA!R ?AN ! CONV5I5CE ( SOLDI]S & CIVIL S]VANTS4 ,MAXIMUM USE WAS MADE ( ANIMAL LABOR 9 TRANSPORT1 :ILE HUMAN LABOR WAS SAF] AS POSSIBLE1 ECONOMIZ$4  
  

,LOPEZ GOES ON TO SAY ?AT ROAD CON/RUCTION 09ITIATIVE CAME FROM AUTONOM\SLOCAL BODIES OR 9DEP5D5T PRIVATE COMPANIES4 ,PLURALITY ( ROADS1 :I* IS ALWAYS POSSIBLE :5 ! DOGMA ( ! /RAI<T L9E IS AB&ON$1 5ABL$ A GREAT NUMB] ( M9OR C5T]S TO BE 9CLUD$ 9 ! NETWORK40 

,TO SAY1 ,F]D9& ,BRAUDEL REM9DS US1 ?AT 0,NAPOLEON MOV$ NO FA/] ?AN ,JULIUS ,CES>0 MISSES A NUMB] ( V]Y IMPORTANT PO9TS4 ,EV5 IF ?IS /ATEM5T W]E TRUE1 ,NAPOLEON HAD A GREAT] V>IETY ( TRANSPORTATION *OICES ?AN ,CES> & CLIMATIC FACTORS LIMIT$ HIS /RATEGIC DECISIONS F> LESS ?AN ?OSE ( HIS ,ROMAN C\NT]P>T2 SO1 TOO1 = ! ,EUROPEAN TRADESMAN BY COMP>ISON ) ! ,ROMAN4 ,EV5 IF WE EXAM9E ! REGIONAL NETWORK ( ROADS CREAT$ BY ?IS GRADUAL TRANSPORTATION REVOLUTION1 NEW POSSIBILITIES & A %>P] DIVISION ( LABOR BETWE5 ! >TISAN & FOOD CULTIVATOR--) ITS CONCOMITANT ELABORATION ( SKILLS1 LOCAL 9T] ACTION1 USE ( MONEY1 & GR[+ WANTS--ALL CON/ITUT$ ! 9DISP5SABLE SPADEWORK = CREAT+ A SOPHI/ICAT$ M>KET ECONOMY4 

,:AT IS IMPORTANT IS ?AT IT WAS ! PROLIF]ATION ( CRAFTSPEOPLE1 ( NEW W>ES & TE*NICS1 ( MORE CRAFT ORGANIZATIONS OR GILDS1 & ! 9T5SIVE AS WELL AS EXT5SIVE DEVELOPM5T ( M>KET 9T]ACTIONS--G5]ALLY 9TIMATE1 HUMANLY SCAL$1 & E?ICAL--?AT IS MO/ *>ACT]I/IC ( ! M>KET ECONOMY ?AT EM]G$ 9 ,EUROPE4 ,LET ME EMPHASIZE ?AT ?IS RI* PAT*WORK ( COMM]CIAL RELATION%IPS 5HANC$ HUMAN 9T]ACTION1 UNLIKE ! CAPITALI/IC TYPE ( M>KET ECONOMY ?AT WAS TO REPLACE IT C5TURIES LAT]4 ,EV5 AS IT SL[LY ADVANC$ OV] ! ,EUROPEAN CONT95T1 TRADE ON A SMALL1 LOCAL SCALE BETWE5 CLOSELY ASSOCIAT$ COMMUNITIES & 9DIVIDUALS FO/]$ COOP]ATION RA!R ?AN COMPETITION4 ,IT T5D$ TO DEEP5 & EXT5D LOCAL TIES RA!R ?AN SEV] !M4 ,IT WAS MORE P>TICIPATORY ?AN ADV]S>IAL1 MORE MORAL ?AN PR$ATORY1 & POLITICALLY IT PROVID$ ! 9DIVIDUAL PRODUC] ) A /RONG] MAT]IAL BASE = ! EX]CISE ( CITIZ5%IP4.<#a#a.> ,F9ALLY1 IT T5D$ TO DISSOLVE B>RI]S BETWE5 LOCAL COMMUNITIES & ADJAC5T REGIONS1 OP5+ ! DOORS TO NEW IDEAS1 CULTURES1 VALUES1 & ! 9T]*ANGE ( SKILLS & TE*NICS4 ,9 TIME1 ! T[NS !MSELVES ACQUIR$ GREAT] POLITICAL & ECONOMIC WEI<T 9 ! /RUGGLE TO =M NATION-/ATES4 ,IT MAY HAVE 5TANGL$ !M 9 ! CRISES ( NATION BUILD+1 BUT IT ALSO TURN$ !M 9TO C5T]S ( REVOLUTION>Y SOCIAL TRANS=MATION1 AN ADVANCE SIGNAL$ BY ! ,COMUN]O MOVEM5T 9 ,SPA9 & ! SECTIONAL MOVEM5T 9 ,FRANCE4 

,!SE M>KETS & T[NS W]E NOT CAPITALI/IC4 ,M>X HAS APPROPRIATELY DESIGNAT$ !IR ECONOMY AS 0SIMPLE COMMODITY PRODUCTION0 9 :I* PR(IT MAK+ & ! PL[+ ( SURPLUS E>N+S BACK 9TO CAPITAL EXPANSION >E L>GELY NONEXI/5T4 ,TAK5 9 ?IS PURE =M1 HIS ACC\NT ( !IR 0MODE ( PRODUCTION0 IS MORE ( A ,WEB]IAN 0IDEAL TYPE0 ?AN AN ACTUAL REALITY4 ,CAPITALISM ALMO/ C]TA9LY DID EXI/ 9 ,EUROPEAN T[NS1 EV5 PR$OM9ANTLY 9 SOME >TISAN ONES1 & EV5 DOM9AT$ MANY ,EUROPEAN CITIES1 P>TICUL>LY PORT & RIV]9E CITIES4 ,BUT ,EUROPE ALSO DEVELOP$ = C5TURIES BY ELABORAT+ ITS >TISAN-ORI5T$ T[NS RA!R ?AN BY SIGNIFICANTLY TRANS=M+ !M4 ,VIEW$ AS A :OLE1 ! CONT95T FROM ! F\RTE5? C5TURY ONW>D UNTIL WELL 9TO ! EI<TE5? & E>LY N9ETE5? C5TURIES SEEM$ TO HAVE A MIX$ ECONOMY1 :I* WAS NEI!R PR$OM9ANTLY FEUDAL1 CAPITALI/1 NOR /RUCTUR$ 5TIRELY >\ND SIMPLE COMMODITY PRODUCTION4 ,RA!R1 IT CONTA9$ & COMB9$ ELEM5TS ( ALL ?REE =MS4 ,?AT ONE ( !SE ELEM5TS SEEM$ TO BE ( GREAT] SIGNIFICANCE ?AN ANO!R 9 SOME COMMUNITIES & >EAS DOES NOT ALT] ! MIX$ NATURE ( ECONOMIC LIFE AS A :OLE4 ,CONTR>Y TO ! WIDELY HELD BELIEF ?AT A CAPITALI/IC ECONOMY EM]G$ )9 ! 0WOMB0 ( FEUDALISM & ASS]T$ ITSELF AS A 0DOM9ANT0 =M ) ! ATTEMPT TO BUILD NATION-/ATES 9 ! SIXTE5? C5TURY1 IT SEEMS MORE ACCURATE 9 MY VIEW TO SAY ?AT CAPITALISM COEXI/$ ) FEUDAL & SIMPLE COMMODITY RELATION%IPS4 ,?IS LONG ]A1 P]HAPS SPANN+ MORE ?AN FIVE C5TURIES1 SIMPLY CANNOT BE TREAT$ AS 0TRANSITIONAL0 )\T READ+ BACK ! PRES5T 9TO ! PA/ & TELEOLOGICALLY /RUCTUR+ ,EUROPEAN HI/ORY >\ND AN ,>I/OTELIAN 0F9AL CAUSE0 CALL$ 0CAPITALISM40 

,AT V>I\S TIMES & 9 V>I\S PLACES1 ?IS MIX$ ECONOMY ASSUM$ A V]Y BALANC$ =M--9 SOME RESPECTS MORE /ABLE 9 T]MS ( EV]YDAY LIFE ?AN \R [N W>-RIDD5 C5TURY4 ,M>XI/ & LIB]AL HI/ORIANS HAVE BE5 VEX$ TO GIVE ?IS LONG ]A A NAME ?AT ACCORDS ) ! DOGMATIC 0/AGES0 !ORIES ( HI/ORY ?AT AB\ND 9 ,M>X & ,5GELS'S WRIT+S4 ,ITS EXI/5CE SEEMS TO BE AN AFFRONT TO ! NEAT CATEGORIES ?AT EV5 RADICAL HI/ORIANS IMPOSE ON ! RI* FLUX ( SOCIAL DEVELOPM5T4 ,CONCLUSIONS ?AT IT WAS EI!R 0FEUDAL0 OR 0CAPITALI/10 OR :AT ABLE WRIT]S LIKE ,PAUL ,SWEEZY DESIGNATE AS 0PRECAPITALI/ COMMODITY PRODUCTION0 7A DESIGNATION ?AT TELLS US WE KN[ MORE AB\T :AT IT WAS NOT ?AN :AT IT REALLY PROV$ TO BE71 (T5 /& 9 FLAT CONTRADICTION TO ! DATA AT \R DISPOSAL4_<#g#c_> 

,A MORE OP5-M9D$ READ+ ( ! DATA & ! EMPIRICAL EVID5CE AT \R DISPOSAL ON ! ]A--ONE ?AT EXT5D$ WELL BEYOND ! SIXTE5?-C5TURY P]IOD ( NATION BUILD+--WILL %[1 ,I SUBMIT1 ?AT WE/]N ,EUROPE EXI/$ )9 A =CE FIELD 9 :I* FEUDAL TRADITIONS 9T]ACT$ ) SIMPLE COMMODITY & CAPITALI/ =MS ( SOCIETAL ORGANIZATION4 ,NOR W]E FEUDALISM1 CAPITALISM1 & SIMPLE COMMODITY PRODUCTION SOCIALLY RIGID ECONOMIC SY/EMS4 ,!Y W]E EVOLV+ CULTURES1 DIFF]+ 9 VALUES1 S5SIBILITIES1 WAYS ( EXP]I5C+ ! WORLD & ORGANIZ+ IT >TI/ICALLY & 9TELLECTUALLY1 NOT SIMPLY 0MODES ( PRODUCTION10 TO USE ,M>X'S T]M9OLOGY AGA94 ,!Y CON/ITUT$ UNIQUE SOCIAL ECOLOGIES1 AS IT W]E1 ?AT W]E PATT]N$ 9 HI<LY DIV]SE WAYS ?R\<\T ! CONT95T4 ,!Y ALSO *ANG$ ) ! PASSAGE ( TIME 9 V>Y+ DEGREES & ) V>Y+ ACC5T OR EMPHASIS ON !IR COMPON5TS1 (T5 AS A RESULT ( !IR 9T]ACTION ) EA* O!R4 

,SPACE DOES NOT ALL[ ME TO MAKE A CLOS] EXAM9ATION ( ?IS' SEEM+LY 0TRANSITIONAL ]A10 :I* 9 ACTUALITY =MS A Y]Y DEF9ABLE & LONG ]A ( ,EUROPEAN HI/ORY4 ,?AT IT FITS NONE ( ! DOGMATIC 9T]PRETATIONS ADVANC$ BY MANY MOD]NI HI/ORIANS :O HAVE AN IDEOLOGICAL AX TO GR9D SAYS MORE AB\T ACADEMIC TR5DS 9 CONTEMPOR>Y HI/ORIOGRAPHY ?AN ! RI*LY V>I$ TEXTURE ( ,EUROPEAN LIFE OV] ! PA/ ?\S& YE>S3 ,! 0/ASIS0 TO :I* ,ZAGOR9 ALLUDES 9 HIS ACC\NT ( ! /ATE'S DEVELOPM5T SEEMS ALSO TO HAVE OCCURR$ 9 T[N DEVELOPM5T DUR+ ! F\RTE5? & FIFTE5? C5TURIES1 POSSIBLY EV5 LAT] 9 MANY P>TS ( ,EUROPE4 ,AL?\< GREATLY 9CREAS$ 9 NUMB]1 ,EUROPEAN T[NS SEEM TO HAVE 5T]$ 9TO A DEMOGRAPHIC SLACK P]IOD :]E URBAN POPULATIONS CEAS$ TO GR[ & 9 SOME CASES DIM9I%$4 ,TRADE1 TOO1 APPE>S TO HAVE DECL9$ & ! DEVELOPM5T ( NEW T[NS G5]ALLY CAME TO AN 5D4 

,A NUMB] ( HI/ORIANS HAVE CALL$ ?IS P]IOD ! 0CRISIS ( FEUDALISM10 A T]M9OLOGY ?AT MAY V]Y WELL EXPRESS A TYPICALLY MOD]N ID5TIFICATION ( 0PROGRESS0 ) EXPANSION4 ,?IS BIAS T5DS TO OV]LOOK QUALITATIVE GR[? & CULTURAL ELABORATION = QUANTITATIVE GR[? & CULTURAL *ANGE4 ,APP>5TLY1 0PROGRESS0 IS TO BE DEF9$ PRIM>ILY AS MAT]IAL GR[?1 ! 9CREAS+ 0DOM9ATION ( NATURE40 ,CULTURAL /ABILITY & ! ELABORATION ( CULTURAL TRAITS1 BY CONTRA/1 IS (T5 CONCEIV$ AS EVID5CE ( /AGNATION10 EV5 ( 0CRISIS0 & SOCIAL REGRESSION4 ,! RECEIV$ WISDOM ( HI/ORIANS TO ! CONTR>Y1 IS IT NOT POSSIBLE ?AT ,EUROPE HAD PAUS$ DUR+ !SE C5TURIES & BEGUN TO LIVE ) M9IMAL *ANGES 9 ! 0=CE FIELD0 ( ! ]A1 P]HAPS EV5 REA*+ A FAIRLY /ABLE BALANCE BETWE5 ! ?REE COMPON5TS ( ! MIX$ ECONOMY ?AT BEGAN TO DEVELOP C5TURIES E>LI]8 ,?AT VIOL5CE1 WAS 5DEMIC AT ?AT TIME1 AS IT G5]ALLY WAS BE=E & AFT]W>DS1 DOES NOT ALT] ! /ABILITY ( EV]YDAY LIFE1 ESPECIALLY 9 ! SMALL T[NS ?AT CONTA9$ ! MAJORITY ( ,EUROPE'S URBAN POPULATION4 ,?IS MU* IS REASONABLY CLE>3 BY ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY1 WE/]N ,EUROPE & ITS T[NS SEEM TO HAYE REA*$ A HI/ORIC CROSSROADS4 ,! CONT95T'S FUR!R 0DEVELOPM5T10 A T]M ?AT BY NO MEANS D5OTES 0PROGRESS0 9 ANY QUALITATIVE S5SE1 WAS TO DEP5D LESS ON ! GR[? ( A C5TRALIZ$ /ATE & ON ! EXPANSION ( COMM]CE ?AN ON TE*NOLOGY--ON ! DEVELOPM5T ( MA*9ES & TRANSPORTATION TE*NIQUES ?AT W]E TO REWORK ALL ! TRADITIONAL TIES ?AT HAD PRODUC$ SU* AN ECOLOGICALLY EXTRAORD9>Y CULTURAL1 POLITICAL1 CIVIC1 & ECONOMIC DIV]SITY ( SOCIAL & URBAN =MS4.<#a#b.> 

,! M>KET SOCIETY WE CALL 0CAPITALISM0--A SOCIETY ?AT T5DS TO R$UCE ALL1 CITIZ5S TO M]E BUY]S & SELL]S & DEBASES ALL ! ECOLOGICALLY V>I$ SOCIAL RELATION%IPS PRODUC$ BY HI/ORY TO ! EX*ANGE ( OBJECTS CALL$ 0COMMODITIES0--DID NOT 0EVOLVE0 \T ( A FEUDAL ]A4 ,IT LIT]ALLY EXPLOD$ 9TO BE+ 9 ,EUROPE1 P>TICUL>LY ,5GL&1 DUR+ ! EI<TE5? & ESPECIALLY N9ETE5? C5TURIES1 AL?\< IT EXI/$ 9 ! ANCI5T WORLD1 ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 & )1 GR[+ SIGNIFICANCE 9 ! MIX$ ECONOMY ( ! ,WE/ FROM ! F\RTE5? C5TURY UP TO ! SEV5TE5?4 ,IT IS /ILL SPREAD+ >\ND ! WORLD--9T5SIVELY 91 ITS TRADITIONAL ,EURO-,AM]ICAN C5T] & EXT5SIVELY 9 ! NON-,EUROPEAN WORLD2 ,ITS =MS HAVE V>I$ FROM ! L>GELY M]CANTILE 7ITS E>LIE/ K9D7 ?R\< ! 9DU/RIAL 7ITS MORE REC5T EI<TE5?- & N9ETE5?-C5TURY =MS7 TO ! /ATI/1 CORPORATE1 & MULT9ATIONAL =MS ( \R [N TIME4 ,IT HAS SL[LY P5ETRAT$ FROM ITS SPECIAL SPH]ES1 SU* AS M>KET >5AS ( EX*ANGE & ! PRODUCTION ( COMMODITIES 9 COTTAGES & LAT] 9 FACTORIES1 9TO DOME/IC LIFE ITSELF1 SU* AS ! FAMILY & NEI<BORHOOD4 ,?IS IS A FAIRLY REC5T 0ADVANCE0 ?AT CAN BE DAT$ MO/ /RIK+LY FROM ! MIDPO9T ( ! TW5TIE? C5TURY4 ,ITS 9VASION ( ! NEI<BORHOOD1 9DE$ ( VILLAGES & SMALL T[NS 9TO ! RECESSES ( ! DOME/IC OR FAMILIAL RELATION%IPS1 HAS SUBV]T$ ! SOCIAL BOND ITSELF & ?REAT5S TO TOTALLY UND]M9E ANY S5SE ( COMMUNITY & ECOLOGICAL BALANCE & DIV]SITY 9 SOCIAL LIFE4 

,MOREOV]1 ! NEWLY GA9$ DOM9ANCE ( ! CAPITALI/IC M>KET RELATION%IP OV] ALL O!R =MS ( PRODUCTION & CONSOCIATION IS A MAJOR S\RCE ( :AT ,I HAVE D5OT$ AS 0URBANIZATION0--! EXPLOSION ( ! CITY ITSELF 9TO VA/ URBAN AGGLOM]ATIONS ?AT ?REAT5 ! V]Y 9TEGRITY ( CITY LIFE & CITIZ5%IP4 ,:AT MAKES ! M>KET SOCIETY WE CALL 0CAPITALISM0 UNIQUE1 EV5 BY CONTRA/ TO ITS E>LY M]CANTILE =M1 IS ?AT IT IS AN EV]-EXPANSIVE1 ACCUMULATIVE1 &1 9 ?IS RESPECT1 A CANC]\S ECONOMIC SY/EM :OSE 0LAW ( LIFE0 IS TO 0GR[ OR DIE40 ,CAPITALISM 9 ITS *>ACT]I/ICALLY MOD]N & 0DOM9ANT0 =M ?REAT5S NOT ONLY TO UND]M9E EV]Y 0NATURAL ECONOMY0 7TO USE ,M>X'S [N T]MS71 BE IT SMALL-SCALE AGRICULTURE1 >TISAN%IP1 SIMPLE EX*ANGE RELATION%IPS1 & ! LIKE2 IT ?REAT5S TO UND]M9E EV]Y DIM5SION ( 0ORGANIC SOCIETY10 BE IT ! K9%IP TIE1 COMMUNIT>IAN =MS ( ASSOCIATION1 SY/EMS ( SELF-GOV]NANCE1 & LOCALI/ ALLEGIANCES--! S5SE ( HOME & PLACE4 ,[+ TO ITS META/ATIC 9VASION ( EV]Y ASPECT ( LIFE BY MEANS ( MONETIZATION & :AT ,IMMANUEL ,WALL]/E9 CALLS 0COMMODIFICATION10 IT ?REAT5S ! 9TEGRITY ( ! NATURAL WORLD--SOIL1 FLORA1 FAUNA1 & ! COMPLEX ECOCOMMUNITIES ?AT HAVE MADE PRES5T-DAY LIFE =MS & RELATION%IPS POSSIBLE BY TURN+ EV]Y?+ 0NATURAL0 9TO AN 9ORGANIC1 ESS5TIALLY SYN!TIC =M4_<#g#d_> ,SOIL IS BE+ TURN$ 9TO S&1 V>IEGAT$ L&SCAPES 9TO LEVEL & SIMPLIFI$ ONES1 COMPLEX RELATION%IPS 9TO MORE PRIMAL =MS SU* ?AT ! EVOLUTION>Y CLOCK IS BE+ TURN$ BACK TO A BIOTICALLY E>LI] TIME :5 LIFE WAS LESS V>I$ 9 =M & ITS RANGE MORE LIMIT$ 9 SCOPE4 

,! EFFECT ( CAPITALISM ON ! CITY HAS BE5 NO?+ LESS ?AN CATA/ROPHIC4 ,! COMMONLY US$ T]M 0URBAN CANC]0 CAN BE TAK5 LIT]ALLY TO DESIGNATE ! EXT5T TO :I* ! TRADITIONAL URBS ( ! ANCI5T WORLD HAVE BE5 DISSOLV$ 9TO A PRIMAL1 EV]-SPREAD+1 & DE/RUCTIVE =M ?AT ?REAT5S TO DEV\R CITY & C\NTRYSIDE ALIKE4 ,GR[? 9 ! SPECIAL =M ?AT S+LES \T MOD]N CAPITALISM FROM ALL E>LI] =MS ( ECONOMIC FIFE1 9CLUD+ E>LI] =MS ( CAPITALISM ITSELF1 HAS AFFECT$ :AT WE /ILL P]SI/ 9 CALL+ ! 0CITY0 BY LEAD+ TO ! EXPANSION ( PAVEM5TS1 /REETS1 H\SES1 & 9DU/RIAL1 COMM]CIAL1 & RETAIL /RUCTURES OV] ! 5TIRE L&SCAPE JU/ AS A CANC] SPREADS OV] ! BODY & 9VADES ITS DEEPE/ RECESSES4 

,CITIES1 9 TURN1 HAVE BEGUN TO LOSE !IR =M AS DI/9CTIVE CULTURAL & PHYSICAL 5TITIES1 AS HUMANLY SCAL$ & MANAGEABLE POLITICAL 5TITIES4 ,!IR FUNCTIONS HAVE *ANG$ FROM E?ICAL >5AS ) A UNIQUELY HUMANE1 CIVILIZ$ =M ( CONSOCIATION1 FREE ( ALL BLOOD TIES & FAMILY LOYALTIES1 9TO IMM5SE1 OV]BE>+1 & ANONYM\S M>KETPLACES4 ,!Y >E BECOM+ C5T]S PRIM>ILY ( MASS PRODUCTION & MASS CONSUMPTION1 9CLUD+ CULTURE AS WELL AS PHYSICALLY TANGIBLE OBJECTS4 ,9DE$1 CULTURE HAS BECOME OBJECTIFI$ 9TO COMMODITIES AS HAVE HUMAN RELATION%IPS1 :I* >E 9CREAS+LY BE+ SIMPLIFI$ & M$IAT$ BY OBJECTS4 ,! SIMPLIFICATION ( SOCIAL LIFE & ! BIOSPH]E BY A GR[?-ORI5T$ ECONOMY 9 :I* PRODUCTION & CONSUMPTION BECOME 5DS 9 !MSELVES IS YIELD+ ! SIMPLIFICATION ( ! HUMAN PSY*E ITSELF4 ,! /RONG S5SE ( 9DIVIDUATION ?AT M>K$ ! PEOPLE ( ! MIX$ SOCIETY PREC$+ CAPITALISM IS GIV+ WAY TO A RECEPTIVE CONSUM] & TAXPAY]1 A PASSIVE OBS]V] ( FIFE RA!R ?AN AN ACTIVE P>TICIPANT 9 IT1 LACK+ 9 ECONOMIC ROOTS ?AT SUPPORT SELF-ASS]TIV5ESS & COMMUNITY ROOTS ?AT FO/] P>TICIPATION 9 SOCIAL LIFE4 ,CITIZ5%IP ITSELF1 CONCEIV$ AS A FUNCTION ( *>ACT] =MATION1 & POLITICS1 AS P>T ( PAIDEIA OR ! $UCATION ( A SOCIAL BE+1 T5D TO WANE 9TO P]SONAL 9DIFF]5CE TO SOCIAL PROBLEMS4 ,! DECL9E ( ! CITIZ51 MORE PROP]LY HIS OR H] DISSOLUTION 9TO A BE+ LO/ 9 A MASS SOCIETY--! HUMAN C\NT]P>T ( ! MASS-PRODUC$ OBJECT--IS FUR!R$ BY A BURGEON+ ( /RUCTURAL GIGANTISM ?AT REPLACES HUMAN SCALE & BY A GR[+ BUREAUCRACY ?AT REPLACES ALL ! ORGANIC S9EWS ?AT HELD PRECAPITALI/ SOCIETY TOGE!R4 ,! C\NSELOR IS ! HUMANI/IC C\NT]P>T ( ! 9DIFF]5T BUREAUCRAT & ! C\NSEL+ *AMB] IS ! /RUCTURAL C\NT]P>T ( ! GOV]NM5TAL (FICE4 

,LET IT BE SAID ?AT ?IS DEBASEM5T ( ! ECOLOGICAL COMPLEXITY ( ! CITY1 ( ITS POLITICS1 CITIZ5S1 EV5 ( ! 9DIVIDUALS :O PEOPLE ITS /REETS & /RUCTURES1 IS ( V]Y REC5T ORIG94 ,IT DID NOT REALLY BEG9 9 A MANORIAL SOCIETY1 ) ITS B>ONS & S]FS1 FOOD CULTIVATORS & >TISANS1 & ALL ! 0ORD]S0 WE D5OTE AS FEUDAL4 ,NOR DID IT FOLL[ FROM ?OSE GROSSLY MISNAM$ REVOLUTIONS1 ! 0B\RGEOIS-DEMOCRATIC0 ONES ( ,5GL&1 ,AM]ICA1 & ,FRANCE1 ?AT O/5SIBLY CATAPULT$ CAPITAL 9TO POLITICAL CONTROL ( A SOCIETY IT PRESUMABLY 0CONTROLL$0 ECONOMICALLY DUR+ E>LI] G5]ATIONS4 ,RA!R1 ?IS DEVELOPM5T BEGAN TO APPE> ) TE*NICAL 9NOVATIONS ?AT MADE POSSIBLE BO? ! MASS MANUFACTURE ( *EAP COMMODITIES &1 ?AT IS CRUCIALLY IMPORTANT1 !IR 9CREAS+LY RAPID TRANSPORTATION 9TO !1 DEEPE/ RECESSES ( WE/]N ,EUROPE1 9EXP5SIVE & HI<LY COMPETITIVE ) ! PRODUCTS ( LOCAL >TISANS :O S]VIC$ !IR LOCALITIES = C5TURIES4 ,IT NE$ H>DLY BE EMPHASIZ$ ?AT ?IS DEVELOPM5T DEP5D$ 5ORM\SLY = ITS SUCCESS ON ! OP5+ ( COLONIAL M>KETS ABROAD3 ! ,AM]ICAS1 ,AFRICA1 & P>TICUL>LY ,ASIA1 ! >EA :]E ! ,5GLI% CR[N F\ND ITS RI*E/ JEWEL1 NOTABLY ,9DIA4 

,IT WAS ! EXTRAORD9>Y COMB9ATION ( TE*NICAL ADVANCES _*YI? ! EXI/5CE ( A HI<LY V>IEGAT$ SOCIETY1 RELATIVELY FREE ( ! CULTURAL CON/RA9TS TO TRADE ?AT PREVAIL$ 9 ANTIQUITY1 ?AT GAVE ECONOMIC ASC5DANCY TO ! CAPITALI/IC COMPON5T ( ! MIX$ ECONOMY OV] ALL ITS O!R COMPON5TS4 ,NEI!R WEAL? FROM ! ,AM]ICANS NOR ! L>GE MONET>Y RES\RCES ACCUMULAT$ BY PORT CITIES FROM LONG-DI/ANCE TRADE FULLY EXPLA9S ! RISE (19DU/RIAL CAPITALISM--A =M ( CAPITALISM ?AT MORE ?AN ANY O!R P5ETRAT$ 9TO ! V]Y 9N] LIFE ( ,EUROPE4.<#a#c.> ,HAD ! WEAL? ACQUIR$ FROM ! 0,NEW ,WORLD0 BE5 A DECISIVE FACTOR 9 CREAT+ 9DU/RIAL CAPITALISM1 ,SPA9 RA!R ?AN ,5GL& %\LD HAVE BECOME ITS C5T]1 = IT WAS ,SPANI% CQNQUI/ADORES :O 9ITIALLY PLUND]$ ! ,AZTEC & ,9CA EMPIRES & BR\<T !IR PRECI\S METALS TO ,EUROPE4 ,! V]Y WEAL? !SE 0EMPIRES0 PROVID$ = ! ASC5DANT NATION-/ATE 9 ,SPA9 S]V$ TO WEAK5 T[N LIFE 9 ! ,IB]IAN P59SULA & PROVIDE ! MEANS = ABSOLUTE MON>*S TO EMB>K ON AN >*AIC PROGRAM ( CONT95TAL EMPIRE BUILD+ ?AT EV5TUALLY RU9$ ,SPANI% CITIES & ! C\NTRYSIDE ALIKE4 

,NOR DID LONG-DI/ANCE TRADE PROVIDE ! MO/ IMPORTANT S\RCES = CAPITALIZ+ 9DU/RIAL DEVELOPM5T4 ,RA!R IT FO/]$ CONSUMPTION MORE ?AN PRODUCTION1 ! DISSOLUTE LIFEWAY ?AT MAKES = A DIET ( LUXURIES 9/EAD ( ! P>SIMONI\S HABITS ?AT /E] 9VE/M5T 9TO NEW MEANS ( PRODUCTION4 ,9DE$1 TOO MU* /ATE C5TRALIZATION & TOO MU* COMM]CE1 DESPITE ! WEAL? !Y 9ITIALLY G5]AT$1 ULTIMATELY L$ TO EXCESSIVE EXP5DITURES = T]RITORIAL EXPANSION & HI< LIV+ BY ELITE GR\PS 9 ALL ! ORD]S ( A C\RTLY SOCIETY4 ,?AT NATION-BUILD+1 9CREAS$ C]ITRALIZATION1 OR1 MORE PROP]LY1 NATIONAL CONSOLIDATION PREP>$ ! WAY = 9DU/RIAL CAPITALISM BY OP5+ MORE 0H9T]L&S0 TO TRADE IS PAT5TLY CLE>4 ,SO1 TOO1 DID 9CREASES 9 ! POPULATION ( DISPOSSESS$1 PROP]TYLESS H&S1 :E!R AS A RESULT ( L& 5CLOSURES OR NORMAL DEMOGRAPHIC GR[?1 H&S ?AT W]E AVAILABLE = A FACTORY SY/EM ?AT HAD YET TO APPE> ON ! ECONOMIC HORIZON4 ,EUROPE1 9 EFFECT1 WAS MORE OP5 ?AN ANY P>T ( ! WORLD TO ! EXPANSION ( ITS ,CAPITALI/'COMPON5T ALONG 9DU/RIAL L9ES4 ,?IS WAS ESPECIALLY TRUE ( ,5GL&1 A C\NTRY 9 :I* A REM>KABLE BALANCE HAD EM]G$ BETWE5 A P>TICUL>LY B\RGEOIS-M9D$ >I/OCRACY & MON>*Y ON ! ONE H& & A V]Y OP5 ECONOMY ON ! O!R1 PEOPL$ BY A TI<T-FI/$1 GOD-FE>+ ,PURITAN YEOMANRY & /RUCTUR$ >\ND T[NS ) DECAY+ GILD SY/EMS & COTTAG]S 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE :O W]E ALREADY 5GAG$ 9 A DOME/IC =M ( TEXTILE MASS PRODUCTION4 ,:E!R ! NEW 9DU/RIAL CAPITALI/S :O W]E DE/9$ TO TOTALLY RE%APE ! C\NTRY EM]G$ FROM ! M]*ANTS 9VOLV$ 9 ! SALE ( RAW WOOL TO COTTAGE WEAV]S & ITS SALE 9 ! T[NS1 OR :E!R IT CAME FROM WELL-TO-DO >TISANS1 YEOM51 >TI/OCRATS :O US$ %EEP TO CREATE A NEW =M ( PA/ORAL AGRIBUS9ESS1 OR M]*ANTS :O W]E 9CL9$ TO SIPHON !IR WEAL? 9TO PRODUCTION--POSSIBLY EV5 ALL ( !M COMB9$ AT ONE TIME OR ANO!R--NE$ NOT CONC]N US H]E4 ,:AT PU%$ ! CAPITALI/ COMPON5T ( ?IS MIX$ ECONOMY 9TO A NATION ?AT C\LD REG>D ITSELF AS ! 0WORK%OP ( ! WORLD0 9 !1 N9ETE5? C5TURY WAS A S]IES ( 9V5TIONS ?AT MADE ! FACTORY SY/EM & ! DI/RIBUTION ( ITS W>ES POSSIBLE4 

,NOR NE$ WE BE CONC]N$ ) :E!R ! NE$S ( A 0RIS+ B\RGEOISIE0 PRODUC$ ! ,9DU/RIAL ,REVOLUTION OR ! ,9DU/RIAL ,REVOLUTION GAVE RISE TO ! 0B\RGEOISIE10 :I* 9 ANY CASE WAS ALWAYS A PRES5CE 9 ALL ! MAJOR CITIES ( ,EUROPE4 ,FACTORIES1 9 FACT1 HAD BEGUN TO APPE> 9 EI<TE5?- & EV5 SEV5TE5?-C5TURY ,5GL& LONG BE=E AN 9DU/RIAL TE*NOLOGY HAD EM]G$4 ,:]EV] ! 0B\RGEOISIE0 5T]$ 9TO ! PRODUCTIVE SPH]E RA!R ?AN ! COMM]CIAL1 IT TRI$ TO BR+ LABOR TOGE!R & RATIONALIZE \TPUT EV5 ) TOOLS1 H5CE A /RICTLY TE*NOLOGICAL 9T]PRETATION ( ! RISE ( 9DU/RIAL CAPITALISM W\LD BE GREATLY MISLEAD+4 ,MY CONC]N H]E IS H[ 9DU/RIAL CAPITALISM MANAG$ TO GA9 ASC5DANCY OV] O!R =MS ( PRODUCTION1 9CLUD+ COMM]CIAL CAPITALISM1 & ALT] ALL SOCIAL RELATION%IPS ?AT 5C\NT]$ ITS P[]4 ,WAT]:EELS HAD PREC$$ ! /EAM 5G9E AS A PRIME MOV]1 & WORK%$S ORGANIZ$ >\ND SIMPLE TOOLS HAD PREC$$ ME*ANIZ$ FACTORIES4 ,BUT )\T ! 9V5TIONS ?AT 9TRODUC$ ! ,9DU/RIAL ,REVOLUTION 9 ! LATE EI<TE5? & E>LY N9ETE5? C5TURIES1 IT IS D\BTFUL ?AT 9DU/RIAL CAPITALISM C\LD HAVE IMPACT$ SO P[]FULLY ON ,EUROPE & ULTIMATELY ON ! 5TIRE WORLD4 

,5GL&1 P]HAPS MORE SO ?AN O!R C\NTRIES 9 ! WE/]N ,EUROPEAN ORBIT1 SEEMS TO HAVE BE5 AN IDEAL T]RA9 = TE*NOLOGICAL 9NOVATION4 ,ITS SOCIETY WAS HI<LY MOBILE SOCIALLY & EXTREMELY FLUID T]RITORIALLY4 ,! FEW REMA9+ FEUDAL 9HIBITIONS TO *ANGE ( ITS V>I\S ELITES1 >I/OCRATIC AS WELL AS COMM]CIAL1 HAD ALREADY BE5 %ATT]$ BY ! CIVIL W> ( ! ,CROMWELL P]IOD1 A CONFLICT ?AT BR\<T >M$ ,PURITANS TO P[] & ADD$ A /RONGLY PLEBEIAN *>ACT] TO ! C\NTRY'S SY/EM ( GOV]NM5T4 ,EV5 ! ,5GLI% >I/OCRACY HAD BE5 READI$ = A GA9FUL CAPITALI/IC ECONOMY BY ! WEAL? IT ACQUIR$ FROM ! SALE ( WOOL4 ,WE %ALL HAVE OCCASION TO NOTE ?AT L&$ SQUIRES & 9DU/RIAL CAPITALI/S W]E NOT )\T S]I\S DIFF]5CES OV] ! DI/RIBUTION ( MANP[] 9 ! C\NTRY'S ECONOMY1 NOR DID ! RURAL PATRONAL SY/EM DISAPPE> COMPLETELY4 ,BUT IT CAN BE SAID ?AT ,5GL&1 MORE ?AN ANY O!R ,EUROPEAN C\NTRY AT ! TIME1 HAD BEGUN TO ACCLIMATE ITSELF TO 9DU/RIALIZATION [+ TO ! RELATIVE WEAKNESS ( ABSOLUTISM1 :I* MI<T HAVE DRA9$ ! NATION'S WEAL? TO FULFILL IMP]IAL AMBITIONS & ! GR[? ( A MONEY-M9D$ YEOMANRY & A HI<LY AV>ICI\S M]*ANT CLASS4 

,ONE MU/ CONSULT ,MAX ,WEB]'S ,! ,PROTE/ANT ,E?IC & ! ,SPIRIT ( ,CAPITALISM TO UND]/& H[ MU* GA9 BECAME A QUASIRELIGI\S 0CALL+0 AMONG ,5GL&'S M]*ANTS & ITS WELL-TO-DO YEOMANRY & >TISANS2 H[ MU* !Y W]E READI$ PSY*OLOGICALLY = ! PLUND]+ ( !IR [N COMMUNITIES & C\NTRY4 ,! ,SPANI% CONQUI/ADORES HAD RU?LESSLY SACK$ ! 

,9DIAN 0EMPIRES0 ( ! ,AZTECS & ,9CA 9 ORD] TO 5RI* !MSELVES1 NOT TO 0SAVE0 !IR 0S\LS40 ,!Y W]E MANIACALLY 9VOLV$ 9 ACTS ( DE/RUCTION ?AT (T5 V]G$ ON SELF-DE/RUCTION ) ONLY 9DIRECT EFFECTS UPON ! TEXTURE ( ,SPANI% SOCIETY4 ,! ,5GLI% ,PURITANS1 BY CONTRA/1 D\RLY PLUND]$ !IR [N C\NTRY 9 A SY/EMATIC & LA/+ MANN] TO ACCUMULATE CAPITAL4 ,!IR BEHAVIOR SEEM$ TO BE GUID$ BY A MORAL IMP]ATIVE ?AT MADE GRE$ AN 5D 9 ITSELF1 AN IMP]ATIVE ?AT WAS TO TRANS=M ! LIFEWAYS ( ! PRECAPITALI/ SOCIETY FROM :I* !Y HAD D]IV$4 ,LONG AFT] ,PURITANISM HAD PASS$ AWAY AS A MOVEM5T1 ,5GLI% SOCIETY HAD BECOME SECUL>IZ$4 ,! JOYLESS SPIRIT ?AT ! ,PURITANS BR\<T TO ,5GL& !N LIV$ ON1 L>GELY B]EFT ( ! FEW MORAL CON/RA9TS ?AT RELIGION G5]ALLY IMPOS$ ON ! ACQUISITIVE SPIRIT 5G5D]$ BY ! ,RE=MATION4 

,)9 A SPAN ( SOME TWO G5]ATIONS1 ,5GL& WAS TRANS=M$ ON A SCALE UNPREC$5T$ 9 ! HI/ORY ( WE/]N ,EUROPE4 ,FR$]ICK ,5GELS'S ,! ,CONDITION ( ! ,WORK+-,CLASS 9 ,5GL&1 A P]IOD PIECE BAS$ ON P]SONAL OBS]VATIONS 9 #a#h#d#d1 C\LD JU/LY CALL ! *ANGES 9TRODUC$ BY ! NEW 9DU/RIAL 9V5TIONS--PR9CIPALLY 9 TEXTILES1 METALLURGY1 & TRANSPORTATION--A HI/ORIC *ANGE ( UNPR$5T$ PROPORTIONS4 ,! RAPIDITY ( ! TRANS=MATION IS :AT MAKES !SE *ANGES SO />TL+ 9 A DOMA9 ( HUMAN 5DEAVOR--TE*NOLOGY--:I* HAD DEVELOP$ OV] C5TURIES AT A SL[1 PIECEMEAL PACE4 ,! SOCIAL & CULTURAL RAMIFICATIONS ( ?IS TE*NOLOGICAL REVOLUTION W]E NO?+ LESS ?AN MONUM5TAL4 0,SIXTY1 EI<TY YE>S AGO1 ,5GL& WAS A C\NTRY LIKE EV]Y O!R10 ,5GELS TELLS US1 0) SMALL T[NS1 FEW & SIMPLE 9DU/RIES1 & A ?9 BUT PROPORTIONATELY L>GE AGRICULTURAL POPULATION4 ,TODAY _<#a#h#d#d_> IT IS A C\NTRY LIKE NO O!R1 ) A CAPITAL ( TWO & A HALF MILLION 9HABITANTS2 ) VA/ MANUFACTUR+ CITIES2 ) AN 9DU/RY ?AT SUPPLIES ! WORLD1 & PRODUCES ALMO/ EV]Y?+ BY MEANS ( ! MO/ COMPLEX MA*9]Y2 ) AN 9DU/RI\S1 9TELLIG5T1 D5SE POPULATION1 ( :I* TWO ?IRDS >E EMPLOY$ 9 TRADE & COMM]CE1 & COMPOS$ ( CLASSES :OLLY DIFF]5T1 =M+1 9 FACT1 ) O!R CU/OMS & O!R NE$S1 A DIFF]5T NATION FROM ! ,5GL& ( ?OSE DAYS40_<#g#e_> 

,5GELS'S WORDS >E MEANT AS MU* TO PRAISE ! 0REVOLUTION>Y0 WORK ( ! ,5GLI% 9DU/RIAL CAPITALI/ AS !Y >E 9T5D$ TO />TLE ! ,G]MAN READ]S1 :O FIR/ 5C\NT]$ HIS BOOK4 ,! ,5LI<T5M5T'S UNCRITICAL COMMITM5T TO TE*NICAL PROGRESS COMPLETELY 9FECTS ! AU?OR'S G5]ALIZATIONS1 H[EV] MU* HE IS BITT]LY CRITICAL (1 ! MIS]Y 9FLICT$ BY19DU/RIAL CAPITALISM ON ! NEW PROLET>IAT4 ,ACCORD+LY1 WE LE>N ?AT ! PREEXI/+ COTTAGE WEAV]S1 :O W]E TO BE DEVA/AT$ ECONOMICALLY & CULTURALLY BY ! NEW TEXTILE MA*9ES 9V5T$ >\ND ! MIDDLE ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY1 0VEGETAT$ ?R\<\T A PASSABLY COM=TABLE EXI/5CE1 LEAD+ A RI<TE\S >ID PEACEFUL LIFE 9 ALL PIETY & PROBITY2 & !IR MAT]IAL POSITION WAS F> BETT] ?AN ?AT ( !IR SUCCESSORS4 ,!Y DID NOT HAVE TO OV]WORK2 !Y DID NO MORE ?AN !Y *OSE TO DO1 & YET E>N$ :AT !Y NE$$3 ,!Y HAD LEIZURE = HEAL?FUL WORK 9 G>D5 OR FIELD1 WORK :I*1 9 ITSELF1 WAS RECREATION = !M1 & !Y C\LD TAKE P>T BESIDES 9 ! RECREATIONS & GAMES ( !IR NEI<BORS1 & ALL GAMES--B[L+1 CRICKET1 FOOTBALL1 ETC41 CONTRIBUT$ TO !IR PHYSICAL HEAL? & VIGOR4 ,!Y W]E1 = ! MO/ P>T1 /RONG1 WELL-BUILT PEOPLE1 9 :OSE PHYSIQUE LITTLE OR NO DIFF]5CE ?AN ?AT1( !IR PEASANT NEI<BORS WAS DISC]NIBLE4 ,!IR *ILDR5 GREW UP 9 ! FRE% C\NTRY AIR1 &1 IF !Y C\LD HELP !IR P>5TS AT WORK1 IT WAS ONLY OCCASIONALLY2 :ILE ( EI<T OR TWELVE H\RS WORK = !M .<9TRODUC$1 LAT]1 BY ! FACTORY SY/EM.> !RE WAS NO QUE/ION40_<#g#f_> 

,! MIX$ MESSAGES 9 ?IS PASSAGE REFLECT ! *>ACT]I/IC T5SION CREAT$ AMONG ! 0PROGRESSIVES0 ( ! ]A BETWE5 !1 CLAIMS ( AN AB/RACT S5SE ( 0HI/ORY0 & AN EXI/5TIAL S5SE ( HUMANITY ?AT WAS TO R5D AP>T MAJOR SOCIALI/S SU* AS ,5GELS & ULTIMATELY1 [+ TO HIS COMMITM5T TO 9DU/RIAL PROGRESS AS A 0PRECONDITION0 = A FREE SOCIETY1 JU/IFY ! MO/ HORRIBLE B>B>ITIES ( A ,/AL9 AS ! 0MOD]NIZ]' ( ,RUSSIA1 ,! UNQUE/ION+ HUMILITY0 ( ! ,5GLI% COTTAGE WEAV]S & YEOM51 0!IR SIL5T VEGETATION 444 :I*1 COZILY ROMANTIC AS IT WAS1 WAS NEV]!LESS NOT WOR?Y ( HUMAN BE+S10 TO USE ,5GELS' PEJORATIVE REM>KS1 IS D\BTFUL ON ITS [N T]MS1 P>TICUL>LY FROM ! /&PO9T ( \R [N TIME :5 ! EBULLI5T CONCEPT ( ' PROGRESS0 ?AT PREVAIL$ OV] ! PA/ TWO C5TURIES IS SO MU* 9 D\BT4.<#a#d.>_<#g#g_> ,BUT PLAC$ 9 A BROAD] HI/ORICAL CONTEXT1 IT IS H>D TO SQU>E ?IS D5IGRATION ( ! COTTAGE WEAV]S & LESS] YEOMANRY ) !IR VIGOR\S ROLE 9 ! ,5GLI% ,CIVIL ,W> ( ! #a#f#dS & !IR RESI/ANCE TO ! 9TRODUCTION ( MA*9]Y--9DE$1 ! ROLE !Y PLAY$ 9 !' ,*>TI/ MOVEM5T1 ! MO/ RADICAL CAUSE1 CULTURALLY AS WELL AS ECONOMICALLY1 ?AT ,5GL& HAS SE5 S9CE ! ,PURITAN REVOLUTION4 

,! EXPLOSIVE NATURE ( ! ,9DU/RIAL ,REVOLUTION & ! EM]G5CE ( 9DU/RIAL CAPITALISM CAN BE/ BE UND]/OOD BY RIOT+ ! LIMIT$ TIME SPAN 9 :I* ! NEW TE*NOLOGY SURFAC$ & SWEPT OV] ,5GL&--A P]IOD SO BRIEF ?AT IT IS ALMO/ DIFFICULT TO CALL IT AN 0]A10 AS SO MANY HI/ORIANS DO4 ,JAMES ,WATT'S /EAM 5G9E1 :I* FRE$ ! FACTORY SY/EM FROM ITS RELIANCE ON WAT]P[]1 WAS 9V5T$ BY #a#g#f#i2 ,JAMES ,H>GREAVES' SP9N+ J5NY1 :I* 5ORM\SLY 9CREAS$ ! \TPUT ( Y>N1 BY #a#g#f#d2 ,RI*>D ,>KWRI<T'S ?RO/LE1 A SOPHI/ICATION ( ! SP9N+ MA*9E CALCULAT$ = ! USE ( A ME*ANICAL PRIME MOV]1 BY #a#g#f#g2 ,SAMUEL ,CROMPTON'S MULE1 BY #a#g#h#e1 FOLL[$ >\ND ! SAME TIME BY ,>KWRI<T'S C>D+ MA*9E & PREP>ATORY FRAMES2 F9ALLY1 ,$MUND ,C>TWRI<T'S WORKABLE P[] LOOM BY #a#g#h#e4 ,ALL ( !SE 9V5TIONS TOTALLY REVOLUTIONIZ$ ! PRODUCTION ( TEXTILES AS IT HAD BE5 PURSU$ = ?\S&S ( YE>S & CATAPULT$ ,5GLI% COTTONS1 WOOL5S1 L95S1 EV5 LACE & SILK5 GOODS 7AS A RESULT ( ANO!R GR\P ( MA*9ES 9V5T$ 9 ! FIR/ DECADE ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY7 9TO A L>GELY AGR>IAN DOME/IC & WORLD M>KET4 ,! OP5+ ( EXT5SIVE COALFIELDS & IRON M9ES1 [+ 9 L>GE P>T TO ! USE ( COKE1 & ! /AGG]+ 5L>GEM5T ( SMELT+ FURNACES ON A SCALE FIFTY TIMES BIGG] ?AN E>LI]1 MORE CU/OM>Y SIZES PAV$ ! WAY = TRANSPORTATION *ANGES ?AT W]E TO OP5 ! MO/ REMOTE >EAS ( ! C\NTRY TO 9DU/RIALIZATION & 0COMMODIFICATION40 

,! M5 :O 9V5T$ ! TEXTILE MA*9ES & PRIME MOV]S ?AT P[]$ !M W]E PLEBEIANS &1 BY NO MEANS ACCID5TALLY )9 ! CONTEXT ( MOD]N ,5GLI% HI/ORY1 9CLUD$ A SPR9KL+ ( V]Y PI\S 9DIVIDUALS1 EV5 CL]GYM54 ,WATT WAS AN 9/RUM5T MAK]2 ,H>GREAVES1 AN 5G9E]2 ,>KWRI<T1 A B>B]2 & RELEGATE ! PA/1 ) ALL ITS HUMANE AS WELL AS B>B>\S TRADITIONS1 TO A HI/ORICAL 0JUNK HEAP40 ,EV5TUALLY SOCIALISM1 LIKE ,PURITANISM1 WAS TO BE DEPRIV$ ( ALL ITS E?ICAL CONT5T & TURN$ 9TO A DOCTR9E V]Y MU* LIKE ! EGOI/IC POLITICAL ECONOMY ( ! 9DU/RIAL B\RGEOISIE ITSELF4 

,CROMPTON1 AN ORD9>Y TEXTILE WORK]2 & ,C>TWRI<T1 A M9I/]1 :O W5T ON TO WORK ) ,ROB]T ,FULTON 9 ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! /EAM%IP4 ,5GLI% SOCIETY HAD OP5$ ITSELF1 MORE ?AN MO/ ,EUROPEAN SOCIETIES1 TO ADVANCEM5T BY 9DIVIDUALS 9 ! 0L[] CLASSES_/' ,MOREOV]1 MANY ( ! 9V5TORS :OSE WORK 9TRODUC$ ! ,9DU/RIAL ,AGE W]E TO BECOME MAJOR CAPITALI/S 9 !IR RI<T4 ,ONLY A FEW EXHIBIT$ ! BREAD? ( SPIRIT ?AT *>ACT]IZ$ ,ROB]T ,[51 A TEXTILE MANUFACTUR] :O DEMON/RAT$ AT ,NEW ,LAN>K ?AT RELATIVELY HUMANE CONDITIONS = WORK]S DID NOT CONFLICT ) ! ACQUISITION ( HI< PR(ITS & LAT] PLAC$ HIS LIFE & HIS =TUNE 9 ! S]VICE ( ! RIS+ LABOR MOVEM5T4 

,! TRANSPORTATION REVOLUTION ?AT P>ALLEL$ ! ,9DU/RIAL ,REVOLUTION IS ( MONUM5TAL PROPORTIONS 9 ! DEVELOPM5T ( MOD]N CAPITALISM ITSELF1 A REVOLUTION ?AT A C5TURY & A HALF LAT] WAS TO TURN 9TO A 0COMMUNICATIONS REVOLUTION0 :OSE EFFECTS HAVE YET TO BE FULLY GRASP$4 ,DUR+ ! FIR/ =TY YE>S ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 ,SCOTL&1 MU* ( :I* HAD BE5 AN UNTAM$ 0H9T]L&0 ONLY TWO G5]ATIONS E>LI]1 WAS 9T]LAC$ BY NE>LY A ?\S& MILES ( GOOD ROADS & AN EV5 L>G] NUMB] ( BRIDGES4 ,?IS WAS L>GELY 0! WORK ( PRIVATE 5T]PRISE10 ,5GELS TELLS US1 0! ,/ATE HAV+ DONE V]Y LITTLE 9 ?IS DIRECTION40_<#g#h_> ,9DE$ BY #ahdd ,5GL&1 AP>T FROM ,SCOTL&1 HAD WELL OV] TWO ?\S& MILES ( CANALS1 SUB/ANTIALLY 9 EXCESS ( ITS NAVIGABLE RIV] MILEAGE4 ,F9ALLY1 ! E>LY RAILROAD F9ES ?AT F9K$ ,MAN*E/] TO ,LIV]POOL1 W]E RAPIDLY EXT5D$ ACROSS ! 5TIRE 9DU/RIAL MIDL&S1 SWEEP+ 9 ,LANCE/]1 ,%EFFIELD1 ,LE$S1 ,NEWCA/LE1 &1 ( C\RSE1 ,LONDON FUR!R TO ! S\?4 

,5GLI% 9DU/RIAL & COMM]CIAL T[NS1 TOO1 EXPLOD$ 9 SIFEE & POPULATION4 ,)9 ! FIR/ ?IRTY OR =TY YE>S ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 ,BIRM+HAM 9CREAS$ ITS 9HABITANTS FROM #g#c1 TO #b12 ,%EFFIELD FROM #d#f1 TO #a#a12 ,HALIFAX FROM #f#c1 TO #a#a12 ,LE$S FROM #e#c1 TO #a#b#c14 ,SU* A/ONI%+ RATES ( GR[? AMONG COMP>ATIVELY SMALL COMMUNITIES 9 SO %ORT A TIME HAD NEV] BE5 SE5 BE=E 9 ,EUROPEAN HI/ORY4 ,! CONGE/ION & DISEASES !Y PRODUC$ HAVE BE5 FULLY *RONICL$ 9 ! NOVELS AS WELL AS ! HI/ORIES ( ! P]IOD4 ,= ! FIR/ TIME1 AP>T FROM A FEW COSMOPOLITAN C5T]S 9 ANTIQUITY & P]HAPS SOME ,FLEMI% & ,ITALIAN T[NS 9 M$IEVAL TIMES1 WE BEG9 TO SEE ! AU!NTIC DEV\R+ ( CITIES1 NOT ONLY ! C\NTRYSIDE1 BY URBANIZATION4 ,BIRM+HAM1 ,%EFFIELD1 ,HALIFAX1 & ,LE$S1 AMONG MANY O!RS 9 ,5GL&1 W]E BEG9N+ TO LOSE !IR ID5TITY AS CITIES 9 ANY CLASSICAL MEAN+ ( ! T]M4 ,!IR FACTORIES1 SPRAWL+ \T 9TO ! C\NTRYSIDE1 W]E PHAS+ 9TO URBAN AGGLOM]ATIONS1 SWEEP+ 9 VILLAGES & SMALL T[NS ?AT HAD EXI/$ ) RELATIVELY LITTLE *ANGE = C5TURIES4 ,WILLIAM ,WYLDE'S PANORAMIC PA9T+ ( ,MAN*E/] 9 #ahea REVEALS A =E/ ( SMOKE/ACKS & A D5SE COLLECTION ( SQUALID DWELL+S1 A NEW1 =MLESS1 & REPELL5T URBAN WORLD ?AT 9DU/RIAL CAPITAL BEGAN TO 9TRODUCE 9TO ! WORLD--FIR/ 9 ,5GL&1 !N 9 ,FRANCE1 ,BELGIUM1 ,G]MANY1 &1 ( C\RSE1 ACROSS ! ,ATLANTIC :]E ! GRIMME/ IMAGES ( ,PITTSBUR< AS A /EEL-MAK+ C5T] SEEM 9T]*ANGEABLE ) ,WYLDE'S PICTURE ( ,MAN*E/] AS A TEXTILE C5T] G5]ATIONS E>LI]4 

,YET1 :AT IS V]Y IMPORTANT AB\T ?IS P]IOD ( RAMPANT 9DU/RIALIZATION IS ! FACT ?AT ! MORE COMM]CIAL & ADM9I/RATIVE CITIES ( ,5GL& & EV5 ! 9DU/RIAL T[NS ?AT BLI<T$ ! ISL&'S L&SCAPE W]E TO DEVELOP A COMMUNAL *>ACT] ( !IR [N4 ,GR[+ 9DU/RY1 COMM]CE1 & 0COMMODIFICATION0 DID NOT SEEP COMPLETELY 9TO ! NEI<BORHOOD FIFE ( ! NEW CITIES1 NOR DID IT TOTALLY DE/ROY ! CONDITIONS = ! REG5]ATION ( DOME/IC FIFE4 ,! BUFFET+ ?AT T[NS & CITIES ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY TOOK FROM 9DU/RIALIZATION1 H[EV] DISA/R\S ITS 9ITIAL EFFECTS ON TRADITIONAL FIFE WAYS1 DID NOT DE/ROY ! 9H]5TLY VILLAGELIKE SUBCULTURES ( WORK]S & MIDDLE-CLASS PEOPLE :O W]E ONLY A G5]ATION OR TWO REMOV$ FROM A MORE RURAL CULTURE4 ,LIKE ! E?NIC GR\PS ?AT 5T]$ ! ,NEW ,WORLD ?R\< ,NEW ,YORK ,CITY ?R\<\T MU* ( ! N9ETE5? & E>LY TW5TIE? C5TURIES1 DISPLACEM5T WAS FOLL[$ BY RESETTLEM5T & RECOMMUNAFIZATION1 EV5 9 ! MO/ DESP]ATELY POOR SLUMS ( ! OV]POPULAT$ CITIES ( ,EUROPE & ,AM]ICA4 ,! PUB 9 ! 9DU/RIAL CITIES ( ,5GL&1 ! CAFE 9 ,FRANCE1 & ! BE] HALL 9 ,G]MANY1 NO LESS ?AN ! V>I\S COMMUNITY C5T]S >\ND :I* ! E?NIC <ETTOS =M$ 9 ,NEW ,YORK & O!R ,AM]ICAN CITIES1 PROVID$ FOCI = A DI/9CTLY WORK+-CLASS CULTURE1 L>GELY >TISAN 9 ITS \TLOOK1 CLASS-ORI5T$ 9 ITS POLITICS1 & KNITT$ TOGE!R BY MUTUAL SELF-HELP GR\PS4 

,?IS RECOLONIZATION ( COMMUNITY LIFE WAS GREATLY ABETT$ BY ! ORGANIZ$ LABOR MOVEM5T 9 ALL ITS DIFF]5T =MS4 ,SOCIALI/ CLUBS1 TRADE-UNION C5T]S1 LOCAL COOP]ATIVES1 MUTUAL-AID SOCIETIES1 & $UCATIONAL GR\PS CREAT$ A PUBLIC SPACE ?AT 9CLUD$ CLASSES 9 READ+1 WRIT+1 LIT]ATURE1 & HI/ORY4 ,! SOCIALI/ CLUBS & UNION C5T]S PROVID$ LIBR>IES1 P]IODICALS1 LECTURES1 & DISCUSSION GR\PS TO 0ELEVATE0 WORK] CONSCI\SNESS AS WELL AS MOBILIZE !M = POLITICAL & ECONOMIC 5DS4 ,PICNICS1 A?LETIC ACTIVITIES1 \TDOOR =AYS 9TO ! C\NTRYSIDE S]V$ TO ADD A V]Y 9TIMATE DIM5SION TO PURELY $UCATIONAL PROJECTS4 ,! CASAS DEL PUEBLO E/ABLI%$ BY ,SPANI% SOCIALI/S & ! C5TROS OBR]OS E/ABLI%$ BY ! ,SPANI% AN>*I/S1 :I* EXI/$ UP TO ! LATE #a#i#cS1 >E REM9D]S ( ! VIGOR\S DEVELOPM5T ( COMMUNITY LIFE EV5 9 ! MO/ DEPRESS$ >EAS ( ,EUROPE--9DE$1 ( AN 0UND]GR\ND0 CULTURE ?AT ALWAYS P>ALLEL$ ! RECEIV$ CULTURE ( ! ELITE ORD]S & CLASSES4 

,!RE WAS ALWAYS A PLEBEIAN CULTURAL DOMA9 AT ! BASE ( SOCIETY1 EV5 9 ! MO/ DISMAL & SQUALID P>TS ( ANCI5T1 M$IEVAL1 OR MOD]N CITIES1 ?AT WAS BEYOND ! REA* ( ! CONV5TIONAL CULTURE & ! /ATE APP>ATUS4 ,NO ECONOMY OR /ATE HAD ! TE*NICAL MEANS1 UNTIL V]Y REC5TLY1 TO FREELY 9FILTRATE ?IS DOMA9 & DISSOLVE IT = A LA/+ P]IOD ( TIME4 ,LEFT TO ITSELF1 ! 0UND]GR\ND0 WORLD ( ! OPPRESS$ REMA9$ A BRE$+ GR\ND = REBELS & CONSPIRATORS AGA9/ ! PREVAIL+ AU?ORITY4 ,NO LESS URBAN 9 *>ACT] ?AN AGR>IAN1 IT ALSO REMA9$ A S*OOL = A GRASS-ROOTS POLITICS ?AT1 BY DEF9ITION1 9VOLV$ GR\PS ( ORD9>Y PEOPLE1 EV5 9 SIZABLE COMMUNITIES1 9 A PLEBEIAN POLITICAL SPH]E & (T5 BR\<T !M 9TO \TRI<T REBELLION4 ,?IS 0UND]GR\ND0 S*OOL CREAT$ NEW POLITICAL =MS & NEW CITIZ5S TO DEAL ) *ANG+ SOCIAL CONDITIONS4 ,EV5 AFT] ! GREAT B\LEV>DS ( ,B>ON ,HAUSSMANRI RIPP$ 9TO ! PLEBEIAN QU>TI]S ( ,P>IS1 OP5+ ! CITY TO >TILL]Y FIRE & CAVALRY *>GES AGA9/ B>RICADES1 ! SIZABLE NEI<BORHOOD POCKETS LEFT BEH9D RETA9$ AN IMP]TURBABLE REBELLI\S VITALITY ?AT F9ALLY CULM9AT$ 9 ! ,P>IS ,COMMUNE4 ,FEW ( ,EUROPE'S MAJOR CITIES W]E SP>$ CR[D ACTIONS & UPRIS+S 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 9DE$ WELL 9TO ! FIR/ HALF ( ! TW5TIE?4 ,AS 9DU/RIAL CAPITALISM SPREAD \T FROM ,5GL& 9TO WE/]N ,EUROPE & ,AM]ICA1 ! 9ITIAL DE/ABILIZATION IT PRODUC$ AS A RESULT ( URBANIZATION & ME*ANIZATION WAS FOLL[$ BY A REG5]ATION ( POPUL> CULTURE ALONG NEW PATT]NS ?AT ALSO 9CLUD$ ! 9TEGRATION ( OLD ONES4 ,JU/ AS ! ,FR5* VILLAGE WAS REPRODUC$ AS QU>TI]S 9 ,FR5* CITIES & ! ,SPANI% PUEBLO AS  
B>RIOS 9 ,SPANI% CITIES1 SO ! ,JEWI% %TETL1 ! 0,LITTLE ,ITALYS10 & 0,LITTLE ,IREL&S0 W]E REPRODUC$ 9 ALT]$ =M BUT ) MU* ,( !IR CULTURAL FLAVOR1 P]SONAL 9TIMACIES1 & TRADITIONAL VALUES 9 WORLD CITIES SU* AS ,NEW ,YORK4 ,EV5 ! 9DU/RIAL CITIES REPLICAT$ ON A LOCAL BASIS ! SPECIFIC CULTURAL ORIG9S ( !IR V>IEGAT$ POPULATIONS & REGIONS4 

,! ELABORATION ( ! ,9DU/RIAL ,REVOLUTION 9TO A TEXTILE ECONOMY 9 ,5GL&1 A LUXURY GOODS ECONOMY 9 ,FRANCE1 AN ELECTRO*EMICAL ECONOMY 9 ,G]MANY 7ITSELF A SECOND 9DU/RIAL REVOLUTION 9 ! LA/ HALF ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY71 & AN AUTOMOTIVE ECONOMY 9 ,AM]ICA DID NOT ELIM9ATE ?IS 0UND]GR\ND0 COMMUNAL WORLD4 ,:I* IS NOT TO SAY ?AT ANY ( ! C\NTRIES CIT$ ABOVE DID NOT ALSO1 EXP& ECONOMICALLY & TE*NOLOGICALLY 9TO ! KEY 9DU/RIES ?AT DI/+UI%$ EA* FROM ! O!R4 ,BUT ! TEXTILE MANUFACTUR+ ?AT CATAPULT$ ,5GL& 9TO ! WORLD M>KET & EV5 HELP$ TO MAKE IT2 ! FA%ION+ ( LUXURY GOODS ?AT GAYE ,FRANCE1 ESPECIALLY ,P>IS1 ITS DI/9CTION AS ! >TI/IC C5T] ( ! WORLD2 & ! MASS PRODUCTION ( ELECTRO*EMICAL COMMODITIES & AUTOMOBILES BY ,G]MANY & ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES1 RESPECTIVELY1 :I* F9ALLY BEGAN TO TRANS=M ! WORLD 9TO ITS PRES5T =M--ALL SEEM$ TO C>RY OV] 9TO ! POPUL> CULTURE & GIVE IT SPECIFIC NATIONAL FEATURES4 ,WE F9D A FIXIDITY 9 ,5GL& ALONG 9DU/RIAL L9ES ?AT APPE>S 9 ITS CONV5TIONAL & UND]GR\ND CULTURES AS WELL3 A /RONG SY/EM'( ORD]S1 OP5 5\< TO ADD TITLES TO ! NAMES ( ITS GIFT$ PLEBEIANS BUT CONSCI\SLY HI]>*ICAL 9 ITS CULTURAL & SOCIAL /RUCTURE ) A T5D5CY TO4 RETA9 SOCIAL /ATUS & ELABORATE IT ALONG /ABLE L9ES4 ,! 9TELLECTUALITY ( ,FRANCE1 EXPRESS$ BY ITS ES!TIC EMPHASIS 9 9DU/RIAL PRODUCTION1 C>RI$ OV] 9TO ! POPUL> CULTURE AS A DISCURSIVE POLITICS ?AT N\RI%$ AN IDEOLOGICALLY 9NOVATIVE WORK+ CLASS1 L>GELY > TISANAL 9 ITS \TLOOK BUT ) ALL ! 9TELLECTUALITY ( ?AT /RATUM4 ,G]MANY1 :I* SEEMS TO HAVE /RADDL$ ! HI]>*ICAL CULTURE ( ,5GL& & ! 9TELLECTUAL CULTURE ( ,FRANCE1 GAVE RISE TO A PHILOSOPHICALLY 9CL9$ POPUL> ,CULTURE ?AT TOOK PRIDE 9 ITS ACADEMIC SPOKESM5 AS SURELY AS ,5GLI% WORK]S W]E 5DE>$ TO NOBLEM5 :O (T5 SPOKE ON !IR BEHALF4 ,! PRAGMATISM & DYNAMISM ( ,AM]ICAN CULTURE1 ) ITS /RONG REPUBLICAN VALUES1 C>RI$ 9TO ! POPUL> CULTURE AS V>I\S IMAGES ( ! 0,AM]ICAN ,DREAM10 P>TLY UTOPIAN1 P>TLY MAT]IALI/IC1 9 :I* ! AUTOMOBILE SYMBOLIZ$ 5HANC$ SEXUALITY TOGE!R ) FRE$OM ( MOVEM5T1 BO? SOCIALLY UPW>D & T]RITORIALLY \TW>D4 ,?IS SYMBOLISM WAS TO %APE ,AM]ICAN >*ITECTURE & CITY PLANN+ BY PRODUC+ ! FIR/ SKYSCRAP]S & ! MO/ SPRAWL+1 HOMOG5E\S 0CITIES0 ( ! TW5TIE? C5TURY1 EV5 IF ONE 9CLUDES ,LONDON4 

,YET EV]Y CLASS CULTURE WAS ALWAYS A COMMUNITY CULTURE1 9DE$ A CIVIC CULTURE--A FACT ?AT F9KS ! P]IOD ( ! ,9DU/RIAL ,REVOLUTION & ITS URBAN =MS ) PRECAPITALI/ CULTURES ( ! PA/4 ,?IS CONT9UITY HAS BE5 L>GELY OV]LOOK$ BY CONTEMPOR>Y SOCIALI/S & SOCIOLOGI/S4 ,:ILE ! FACTORY & MILL =M$ ! FIR/ F9E ( ! CLASS /RUGGLE 9 ! LA/ C5TURY1 A /RUGGLE ?AT 9 NO WAY %\LD BE CONFUS$ ) ! CLASS W> ?AT IS SUPPOS$ TO YIELD WORK+-CLASS 9SURRECTIONS1 ITS F9ES ( SUPPLY REA*$ BACK 9TO ! NEI<BORHOOD & T[NS :]E WORK]S LIV$ & (T5 M+L$ ) MIDDLE-CLASS PEOPLE1 F>M]S1 & 9TELLECTUALS4 ,WAGE E>N]S HAD HUMAN FACES1 NOT M]ELY MY/IFI$ PROLET>IAN FACES1 & FUNCTION$ NO LESS AS HUMAN BE+S ?AN CLASS BE+S4 ,ACCORD+LY1 !Y W]E FA!RS & MO!RS1 BRO!RS & SI/]S1 SONS & DAU<T]S1 CITIZ5S & NEI<BORS1 NOT ONLY 0FACTORY H&S40 ,!IR CONC]NS 9CLUD$ ISSUES SU* AS W> & PEACE1 5VIRONM5TAL DISLOCATION1 $UCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES1 ! BEAUTY ( !IR SURR\ND+S AS WELL AS ITS UGL9ESS1 & 9 TIMES ( 9T]NATIONAL CONFLICT1 A HEAVY DOSE ( J+OISM & NATIONALISM--9DE$ A VA/ HO/ ( PROBLEMS & CONC]NS ?AT W]E BROADLY HUMAN1 NOT ONLY CLASS-ORI5T$ & ROOT$ 9 WAGES & WORK+ CONDITIONS4 

,?IS COMMUNAL DIM5SION ( ! 9DU/RIAL ]A IS ( TREM5D\S IMPORTANCE 9 UND]/&+ H[ CLASS CONFLICTS (T5 SPILL$ OV] BEYOND ECONOMIC ISSUES 9TO BROADLY SOCIAL1 EV5 UTOPIAN1 CONC]NS4 ,9DE$ AS LONG AS ! M>KET DID NOT DISSOLVE ! COMMUNAL DIM5SION ( 9DU/RIALISM1 !RE WAS A RI*LY FECUND1 HI<LY DIV]SIFI$1 COOP]ATIVE1 & 9NOVATIVE DOMA9 ( SOCIAL & POLITICAL FIFE TO :I* ! PROLET>IAT C\LD RETREAT AFT] WORK+ H\RS1 A DOMA9 ?AT RETA9$ A VITAL CONT9UITY ) PRECAPITALI/ FIFE-WAYS & VALUES4 ,?IS P>TLY MUNICIPAL1 P>TLY DOME/IC DOMA9 =M$ A /RONG C\NT]VAIL+ =CE TO ! IMPACT ( AN 9DU/RIAL 

ECONOMY & ! NATION-/ATE4 ,H]E1 WORK]S M+L$ ) A GREAT V>IETY ( 9DIVIDUALS1 P>TICUL>LY >TISANS1 9TELLECTUALS1 & F>M]S :O BR\<T !IR PRODUCE 9TO ! T[NS4 ,9 A PURELY HUMAN FA%ION ?AT REVEAL$ ALL ! FACETS ( !IR P]SONALITIES1 !Y DEVELOP$ A S5SE ( %>$1 ACTIVE CITIZ5%IP4 ,?IS COMMUNAL OR MUNICIPAL CITIZ5%IP KEPT POLITICAL FIFE ALIVE EV5 9 HI<LY C5TRALIZ$ & BUREAUCRATIZ$ NATION-/ATES4 ,IT W\LD BE DIFFICULT TO UND]/& NOT ONLY ! RADICAL UPRIS+S ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY BUT ALSO ! TW5TIE?--P>TICUL>LY ! S]IES ( URBAN & AGR>IAN UPRIS+S ?AT CULM9AT$ 9 ! ,SPANI% ,CIVIL ,W>--)\T KEEP+ ?IS COMMUNAL DIM5SION ( ! 0CLASS /RUGGLE0 CLE>LY 9 M9D4 ,EV]Y CLASS MOVEM5T FROM ! LATE EI<TE5? TO ! E>LY TW5TIE? C5TURIES WAS ALSO A CIVIC MOVEM5T1 A PRODUCT ( NEI<BORHOOD1 T[N1 & VILLAGE CONSOCIATION1 NOT ONLY ! FACTORY1 F>M1 & (FICE4 ,IT WAS NOT UNTIL A TE*NOLOGY DEVELOP$ ?AT C\LD MAKE DEEP1 P]HAPS DECISIVE1 9ROADS 9TO ?IS 0UND]GR\ND0 MUNICIPAL DOMA9 ?AT POLITICS & CITIZ5%IP W]E FAC$ ) ! TOTAL 0COMMODIFICATION0 ( SOCIETY1 ! SUPREMACY ( /ATECRAFT1 & ! SUBV]SION ( ! CITY'S ECOLOGICAL DIV]SITY & CREATIVITY4 

,! OLD] G5]ATION ( \R TIME IS /ILL TOO CLOSE TO ! PRES5T & ! Y\NG] TOO F> FROM ! PA/ TO REALIZE ! EXT5T TO :I* COMMUNAL1 PRECAPITALI/ CULTURAL TRADITIONS P]MEAT$ ! FIR/ HALF ( ! TW5TIE? C5TURY4 ,NOR DO WE FULLY REALIZE H[ RAPIDLY !SE TRADITIONS >E BE+ SIMPLIFI$ & ! EXT5T TO :I* !Y >E DISAPPE>+ 9 ! SECOND HALF ( ! C5TURY1 L>GELY AS A RESULT ( SWEEP+ TE*NOLOGICAL & CULTURAL DEVELOPM5TS ?AT OCCURR$ DUR+ ! ,SECOND ,WORLD ,W> & ITS AFT]MA?4 ,SCI5CE SY/EMATICALLY APPLI$ TO TE*NICS HAS ONLY REC5TLY REVEAL$ ! DEEPE/ SECRETS ( MATT] & FIFE ) NUCLEONICS & BIO5G9E]+4 ,WE >E JU/ MAK+ CONTACT ) ! POSSIBILITIES OP5$ BY CYB]NETICS1 SPACE TRAVEL1 & COMMUNICATIONS SY/EMS = PUBLIC SURVEILLANCE1 NOT TO SPEAK ( MASS 0M9D B5D+0 ) TE*NIQUES ?AT WILL MAKE CONV5TIONAL ADV]TIS+ ME?ODS SEEM *ILDI% & MEANS ( DETECTION ?AT WILL MAKE F+]PR9TS SEEM PRIMITIVE4 

,! PSY*OLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS ( !SE *ILL+ ADVANCES >E AS SIGNIFICANT AS !IR CULTURAL & 9/ITUTIONAL ONES4 ,! MILIT>Y >MAM5TORIUM !Y HAVE PRODUC$ IS AS DISEMP[]+ TO ! 9DIVIDUAL AS IT IS FRI<T5+ TO ! PUBLIC4 ,! RESULT IS ?AT ! EGO ITSELF T5DS TO BECOME PASSIVE1 DISEMBODI$1 & 9TROV]T$ 9 ! FACE ( A TE*NOLOGICAL & BUREAUCRATIC GIGANTISM UNPREC$5T$1 9DE$ UNIMAG9ABLE1 9 E>LI] HUMAN HI/ORY4 ,PUBLIC LIFE1 ALREADY BUFFET$ BY TE*NIQUES = 5G9E]+ PUBLIC CONS5T1 T5DS TO DISSOLVE 9TO PRIVATE LIFE1 A =M ( M]E SURVIVALISM ?AT CAN EASILY TAKE HI<LY S9I/] =MS4 ,CITIZ5%IP1 9 TURN1 T5DS TO RETREAT 9TO AN 9CREAS+LY TRIVIALIZ$ EGOISM 9 :I* BANAL CONV]SATION & V5AL PURSUITS REPLACE SE>*+ DISC\RSE & REBELLI\S DEM&S4 ,EV5 MORE ?AN ORD9>Y 9DIVIDUALS1 ! PEOPLE ( M9D & >T :O =M$ = AGES ! TR\BL$ CONSCI5CE ( PA/ SOCIETIES & W]E DEEPLY 5GAG$ 9 PUBLIC LIFE AS ! PR9CIPAL CATALY/S = A*IEV+ ! GOOD SOCIETY--9 %ORT1 ?OSE SOCIALLY 9VOLV$ ?9K]S :OM ! ,RUSSIANS ( ! LA/ C5TURY CALL$ ! 9TELLIG5TSIA--RETREAT 9TO ! CONF9ES ( ! ACADEMY & >E TRANS=M$ 9TO M]E 9TELLECTUALS4 ,RESE>* T5DS TO REPLACE CREATIVE SPECULATION2 LIBR>IES T5D TO REPLACE ! CAFES ?AT N\RI%$ A ,DID]OT2 CLASSROOMS REPLACE ! SQU>ES ?AT BR\<T A ,DESM\L9S TO ! SURFACE ( PUBLIC LIFE2 ! ACADEMIC CONF]5CE & ITS J\RNALS REPLACE ! CLUBS & PRESSES ?AT PROVID$ ! PUBLIC =UM = A ,?OMAS ,PA9E4 

,9DU/RIAL CAPITALISM 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY TREAT$ A M>KET ECONOMY 9 :I* PRODUCTION & EX*ANGE /ILL =M$ A LAY]2( SOCIAL LIFE1 NOT A SUB/ITUTE = SOCIETY4 ,! 0CA% NEXUS0 ?AT ,M>X & ,5GELS REG>D$ AS ! CORE ( ! NEW ECONOMY 9 ,! ,COMMUNI/ ,MANIFE/O--CULTURALLY AS WELL AS COMM]CIALLY--WAS EVID5CE MORE ( !IR =ESI<T ?AN A DESCRIPTION ( ! F ACTUAL CONDITIONS ( !IR TIMES4 ,IMPORTANT B>RI]S /OOD BETWE5 ! P5ETRATION ( ! 0CA% NEXUS0 CREAT$ BY ! FACTORY & BY COMM]CE 9TO ! COMMUNITY & DOME/IC LIFE1 :]E ! OPPRESS$ 9 ALL !IR DIFF]5T =MS & EV5 ! AGR>IAN SQUIRE>*Y SEE!D ) HATR$ ( ! NEW ECONOMY4 ,! ,SPE5HAML& ,LAW1 :I* ,5GLI% C\NTRY SQUIRES PASS$ 9 ! #a#g#iS TO PROVIDE ! MAT]IAL MEANS = KEEP+ ! RURAL POPULATION \T ( ! EM]G+ FACTORY SY/EM1 REVEALS ! /RON<OLD PRECAPITALI/ PATRONAL TRADITIONS HAD ON A SOCIETY 9 ! V]Y MID/ ( ! ,9DU/RIAL ,REVOLUTION4 

,:AT IS ,UNIQUE AB\T ! PO/-,WORLD ,W> ,I,I ]A1 N[ UNFOLD+ F\R DECADES AFT] TBE W>'S 5D1 IS ?AT ! M>KET ECONOMY TO :I* 9DU/RIAL CAPITALISM GAVE A FIRM & DOM9ANT PRODUCTIVE BASE IS TURN+ 9TO A M>KET SOCIETY4 ,! 0CA% NEXUS0 HAS BECOME AN ALL-EMBRAC+ COMMODITY NEXUS 9 :I* CONSUMPTION1 NOT ONLY PRODUCTION1 HAS BECOME AN 5D 9 ITSELF4 ,OBJECTS N[ M$IATE NE>LY ALL ! SOCIAL RELATION%IPS ?AT ONCE HAD A LIV+ & CREATIVE FLE%-&-BLOOD *>ACT]4 ,POPUL> CULTURE1 :I* MEANT ! DISDA9$ CULTURE PRODUC$ FROM BEL[ BY ! PEOPLE1 HAS N[ BECOME 0POP CULTURE10 ! SYN!TIC 0CULTURE0 G5]AT$ FROM ABOVE BY ! MASS MANUFACTURE ( BOOKS1 S\NDS1 PICTURES1 MOVIES1 RADIO %[S1 &1 ABOVE ALL1 TELEVISION 0GOODIES0--FROM NEWS TO SITUATION COM$IES1 SOAP OP]AS1 & EV5 S]IALIZ$ NOVELS ?AT TRANSFIX MILLIONS ( VIEW]S TO !IR 0TUBES40 ,HUMAN RELATION%IPS >E 9CREAS+LY DEF9$ 9 T]MS ( MAT]IAL ?+S & EXPRESS$ 9 A COMM]CIAL V]NACUL>--BE IT M>RIAGE AS AN 09VE/M5T10 *ILD RE>+ AS A 0JOB10 LIFE AS A 0BALANCE %EET10 IDEALS AS ?+S ONE 0BUYS10 & COMMUNITY AS A 0BUS9ESS40 ,! NOTION ?AT T[NS & CITIES %\LD BE 0MANAG$0 BY 05TREPR5EURS0 AS ?\< ! CIVIC BOND HAS NO DIM5SIONS TO IT O!R ?AN ITS 0EFFICI5CY0 9 COORD9AT+ 0S]VICES0 & ITS CAPACITY = G5]AT+ 0REV5UES0 P]MEATES ! LANGUAGE NOT ONLY ( BANK]S1 M]*ANTS1 POLITICIANS1 & RETAIL]S BUT EV5 LIB]AL &--MO/ TELL+LY--SOCIALI/ PUBLIC (FICIALS4 ,SOCIAL LIFE1 SO CONCEIV$ & LIV$ 9 ! =M ( M>RIAGE1 *ILD RE>+1 $UCATION1 FRI5D%IP1 CONVIVIALITY1 5T]TA9M5T1 CULTURE1 & VALUES1 REVEALS A DEGREE ( COMMODITY P5ETRATION & COMM]CIALISM UNPREC$5T$ EV5 9 ! HALCYON DAYS ( 0FREE TRADE0 & CAPITALI/ PRODUCTION4 

,:I* IS NOT TO SAY ?AT ! P]IOD FOLL[+ ! ,SECOND ,WORLD ,W> DID NOT HAVE ITS PRELUDES 9 ! PRE-W> ]A4 ,TE*NOLOGICALLY1 ! RADIO & P>TICUL>LY ! C9EMA HAD A /RONG GRIP ON POPUL> CULTURE ?R\<\T ! TW5TIES & ?IRTIES4 ,! AUTOMOBILE & ! VA/ ECONOMY CREAT$ W]E ALREADY P>T ( ,AM]ICAN LIFE WELL BE=E ! \TBREAK ( ! W>4 ,M]CIFULLY1 ! ,GREAT ,DEPRESSION ( ! #a#i#cS FROZE ?IS DEVELOPM5T = A DECADE1 & ! W> ABORT$ IT = AN ADD$ FIVE YE>S :ILE ! WORLD REV]T$ TO ! B>B>ISM ( ORGANIZ$ SLAU<T] & URBAN DEMOLITION4 ,! ASSEMBLY L9E WAS A PORT5T ( :AT WAS SOON TO COME AS WAS ! 9CREAS+ W$D+ ( SCI5CE TO TE*NOLOGY1 :I* ! W> PUT ON A ?OR\<LY SY/EMATIC BASIS4 

,BUT !RE WAS MU* ?AT !SE PRE-W> PRELUDES TO ! PO/W> ]A LEFT UNT\*$4 ,! ,DEPRESSION HAD GIV5 A BAD NAME TO CAPITALISM & PLAC$ ITS LEGITIMACY 9 GRAVE D\BT4 ,?IS LOSS ( FAI? /IMULAT$ A SWEEP+ DRIFT T[>D CULTURAL & SOCIAL MOVEM5TS ?AT *ALL5G$ ! SY/EM'S 9TEGRITY & CLAIMS TO MEET HUMAN NE$S4 ,AGR>IAN LIFE /ILL HAD A /RONG BASE 9 ,AM]ICAN & ,FR5* SOCIETY1 EV5 AS DEPRESSION =ECLOSURES R$UC$ ITS ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE4 ,AS LATE AS #a#i#b#i1 TW5TY-FIVE P]C5T ( ! EMPLOY$ LABOR =CE 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES [N$ OR WORK$ LABOR-9T5SIVE F>MS ?AT HAD *ANG$ V]Y LITTLE FROM ! LA/ C5TURY4 ,APPROXIMATELY ?REE-F\R?S ( ,AM]ICAN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE WAS SOLD AT HOME4 ,AL?\< TRACTORS W]E BEG9N+ TO APPE> 9 GR[+ NUMB]S1 HORSES W]E /ILL 9 WIDE USE & K]OS5E WAS /ILL A MAJOR FUEL = ILLUM9AT+ F>M HOMES4 ,CULTURALLY1 AGR>IAN VALUES W]E V]Y MU* ALIVE 9 ,AM]ICA4 ,!Y W]E EMBODI$ 9 ! HI< PROPORTION ( IMMIGRANTS FROM ! VILLAGES ( EA/]N ,EUROPE1 ,ITALY1 & ,IREL&1 & 9 ! YEOMAN F>M]S :O W]E BE+ SCATT]$ ?R\<\T ! CONT95T BY ! DU/ /ORMS ?AT SWEPT OV] MIDDLE ,AM]ICA4 

,! ,DEPRESSION1 9 FACT1 WITNESS$ A REM>KABLE REG5]ATION ( PRECAPITALI/ AGR>IAN VALUES4 ,! 5D ( ! ,FIR/ ,WORLD ,W> HAD SE5 A CULTURAL MY/IFICATION ( URBANISM & SUB/ANTIAL MIGRATIONS ( Y\NG PEOPLE FROM RURAL >EAS TO CITIES4 ,SONGS SU* AS 0,H[ ,CAN ,Y\ ,KEEP ,!M ,D[N ON ! ,F>M ,AFT] ,!Y'VE ,SE5 ',P>-EE6' 0 TYPIFI$ A GLORIFICATION ( URBAN LIFE/YLES 9 ! #a#i#bS4 ,! RURAL 0HICK10 ONCE CONCEIV$ AS ! S\RCE ( ,AM]ICA'S /URDY REPUBLICAN VALUES & ! 0PIONE]0 ( CONT95TAL SETTLEM5T1 HAD BECOME A C>ICATURE 9 ! C>TOONS1 LIT]ATURE1 & C9EMA ( ! TW5TIES1 A 0C\NTRY-C\S90 BUMPK9 :O W\LD DO WELL TO CONCEAL HIS ID5TITY 9 ! 0BIG CITY40 ,?IS REM>KABLE *ANGE 9 ! HI/ORICAL IMAG]Y ( ,AM]ICANS REFLECT$ ! ASC5DANCY ( ! 9DU/RIAL CITY & ! MOD]N AGE OV] ! SMALL T[N & ! ,JEFF]SONIAN AGE--9 %ORT1 ! COSMOPOLITAN CAPITALI/IC ]A OV] ! P>O*IAL PRECAPITALI/ ]A4 

,! ,DEPRESSION DECADE REV]S$ ?IS IMAG]Y DRAMATICALLY4 ,= MILLIONS ( UNEMPLOY$ OR ECONOMICALLY UNC]TA9 ,AM]ICANS1 CAPITALISM WAS PAT5TLY NOT A WORK+ SY/EM4 ,= ALL ! HOOPLA AB\T ! DECL9E ( SOCIALISM AS A MOVEM5T FROM ITS HI< PO9T 9 ! P]IOD IMM$IATELY PREC$+ ! ,FIR/ ,WORLD ,W>1 IT IS WOR? RECALL+ ?AT ,NORMAN ,?OMAS1 ! PRESUM$ HEIR ( ,EUG5E ,V4 ,DEBS1 RECEIV$ #i1 VOTES 9 #aicb AS ! ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY'S PRESID5TIAL C&IDATE1 A FIGURE ?AT COMES V]Y CLOSE TO ,DEBS'S HI<E/ VOTE SOME FIFTE5 YE>S E>LI]4 ,! ,DEPRESSION REV]S$ ! MIGRATION FROM F>M TO CITY1 AT LEA/ UNTIL ! DU/ /ORMS ( LAT] YE>S DROVE MANY F>M]S TO O!R P>TS ( ! C\NTRY4 ,RURAL CULTURE ALSO BEGAN TO ?RIVE 9 ! MASS M$IA ( ! DECADE1 P>TICUL>LY AS AN EVOCATION ( COMMUNITY VALUES1 MUTUAL AID1 & COMPASSION = LESS =TUNATE PEOPLE4 ,! EXTRAORD9>Y DEGREE ( SOCIAL VITALITY ?AT M>K$ ! #a#i#cS /&S 9 M>K$ CONTRA/ TO ! SOCIALLY DEVITALIZ+ SELFI%NESS ( ! #a#i#bS1 :I* CELEBRAT$ ,CALV9 ,COOLIDGE'S MAXIM3 0,AM]ICA'S BUS9ESS IS BUS9ESS0--&1 ONE MI<T REASONABLY ADD1 LET MORALITY GO TO ! DEVIL4 ,SOCIAL JU/ICE1 NOT P]SONAL V5ALITY1 R+S ?R\< ! ?IRTIES AS ! MOTIF ( ! RADICAL LEFT & RADICAL RI<T4 ,9DE$1 = MU* ( ! POLITICAL SPECTRUM1 ! BUS9ESS E?IC WAS RELEGAT$ TO DAMNATION TOGE!R ) ! VALUES ( ! TW5TIES1 :I* TO MANY ,AM]ICANS HAD BR\<T ON ! CRISES ( ! ?IRTIES4 

,*>ACT]I/ICALLY1 ! C9EMATIC FOPP]Y ( ! TW5TIES & E>LY ?IRTIES BEGAN TO GIVE WAY TO MOVIES ?AT FOCUS$ ON SU* !MES AS POV]TY1 UNIONISM1 JU/ICE1 & ! PRI/9E VALUES ( AGR>IAN LIFEWAYS4 ,EV5 :]E CAPITALI/S >E %[N 9 A B5IGN LI<T1 SU* AS 9 ,! ,DEVIL & ,MISS ,JONES1 BUS9ESSM5 W]E SE5 AS CONV]TS TO ! NEW HUMANIT>IANISM & ! HI< S5SE ( PUBLIC RESPONSIBILITY ?AT M>K$ ! DECADE4 ,O!RS1 LIKE  
,MR4 ,DE$S ,GES TO ,T[N & ,GRAPES ( ,WRA?1 UNABA%$LY LAUD$ PRECAPITALI/ RURAL VALUES & VILIFI$ ! RI*1 HYPO/ASIZ+ ! FACE-TO-FACE SIMPLICITY & HI< MORAL S5SE ( ! SMALL T[N4 ,! RURAL COMMUNITY WAS SET E?ICALLY AGA9/ ! SPIRITUAL POV]TY & CYNICISM ( ! CITY4 ,A CULTURAL POPULISM SWEPT OV] ,AM]ICA AFT] #aice ?AT HAS NO P>ALLEL ) ANY TIME BE=E ! #a#h#iS1 ONE ?AT GAVE TO COMMUNITY1 PUBLIC S]VICE1 POLITICAL IDEALISM1 & SOCIAL JU/ICE A PREMIUM ?AT MAKES ! DECADE UNIQUE 9 TW5TIE?-C5TURY ,AM]ICAN HI/ORY4 

,TO A LEFTI/ ( ! #a#i#cS1 IT SEEM$ ?AT 9DU/RIAL CAPITALISM HAD REA*$ ITS ECONOMIC1 SOCIAL1 & CULTURAL LIMITS2 ?AT FROM AN ASC5D+ SOCIETY1 IT HAD BEGUN TO DESC5D HI/ORICALLY1 JU/ AS FEUDALISM DID C5TURIES E>LI]4 ,! ,DEPRESSION HELD ON DOGG$LY UP TO ! ,SECOND ,WORLD ,W>2 9DE$1 9 ! JUDGM5T ( SOME ECONOMI/S1 ! CLOS+ YE>S ( ! ?IRTIES APPE>$ TO BE DRIFT+ 9TO A NEW ECONOMIC CRISIS COMP>ABLE TO OR WORSE ?AN ! ONE ?AT HAD D>K5$ ! DECADE'S OP5+ YE>S4 ,TE*NOLOGICAL ADVANCE1 SADDL$ BY ! 9]TIAL WEI<T ( AN 9CREAS+LY MONOPOLI/IC ECONOMY1 SEEM$ TO HAVE COME TO A VIRTUAL 5D4 ,! MONOGRAPHS ( ! ,TEMPOR>Y ,NATIONAL ,ECONOMIC ,COMMITTEE ( ! LATE ?IRTIES1 E/ABLI%$ TO ASSESS ! GR[? & EFFECTS ( BUS9ESS CONC5TRATION 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES1 W]E FILL$ ) CITATIONS ( TE*NOLOGICAL /AGNATION1 9DE$ ! SUPPRESSION ( TE*NICAL 9NOVATIONS ?AT MADE = HI<] PRODUCTIVITY & L[] PRICES4 ,?AT !SE 9NOVATIONS1 SE5 AS A S\RCE ( ECONOMIC 9/ABILITY & OLIG>*IC CONTROL1 HAD BE5 G5]ALLY >RE/$ WAS' CIT$ BY ! LIT]ATURE ( ! TIME AS EVID5CE ( A 0DECL9E0 ( CAPITALISM ITSELF & AS PRO( ( ! ,M>XIAN !SIS ?AT 0B\RGEOIS SOCIAL RELATIONS0 /OOD 9 A 0HI/ORICAL CONTRADICTION0 TO ! 0MODE ( PRODUCTION40 ,CAPITALISM1 IT WAS >GU$ BY LIB]ALS & LEFTI/S ALIKE1 WAS 9CAPABLE ( FUR!R+ ! 0PRODUCTIVE =CES0 ( SOCIETY & C\LD NO LONG] PLAY A 0HI/ORICALLY PROGRESSIVE0 ROLE4 

,YET !RE W]E ALSO H>B+]S ( SIGNIFICANT T5D5CIES C\NT]ACTIVE TO ! RADICAL ANALYZES ?AT M>K$ ! DECADE4 ,RURAL ELECTRIFICATION WAS TO BASICALLY ALT] ! TRADITIONAL AGR>IAN LIFE-WAYS ?AT ! ,DEPRESSION DECADE CELEBRAT$4 ,IT BR\<T ! RADIO 9TO ! HOME & EXPOS$ A SOCIALLY PRI/9E POPULATION TO ! MASS M$IA4 ,! SPATE ( PUBLIC WORKS ?AT M>K$ ! ,ROOSEVELT ]A OP5$ ROADS 9TO ! REMA9+ H9T]L&S ( ! CONT95T & ! AUTOMOBILE CULTURE IMPROV$ EXI/+ ROADS = 5G9E-P[]$ VEHICLES4 ,! GREAT F$]AL HI<WAY SY/EM ( A LAT] G5]ATION WAS TO GIVE1 ! C\P DE GRACE TO REGIONAL ISOLATION & NETWORK ! 5TIRE C\NTRY ) A REM>KABLE ROAD SY/EM ?AT ALL BUT OBLIT]AT$ C5TURIES-OLD CULTURAL V>IATIONS & CU/OMS4 ,DI/ANCE & TIME W]E BE+ OV]COME BY ! 9T]NAL COMBU/ION 5G9E1 :E!R BY RAIL1 ROAD1 OR AIR4 

,F9ALLY1 ! NE$ = /ATE 9T]V5TION 9TO A FAIL+ 0FREE 5T]PRISE0 ECONOMY VA/LY /R5G!N$ ! NATION-/ATE & 5L>G$ ITS BUREAUCRATIC APP>ATUS4 ,RURAL LIFE1 H[EV] MU* IT WAS CELEBRAT$ CULTURALLY1 WAS BE+ LOCK$ 9TO URBAN LIFE & ! CITY 9CREAS+LY PLAC$ 9 A POSITION SUBORD9ATE TO ! NATION-/ATE4 ,BUS9ESS1 TOO1 WAS BECOM+ CONC5TRAT$ & C5TRALIZ$4 ,BY #a#i#b#i1 NE>LY HALF ( ,AM]ICAN 9DU/RIAL WEAL? WAS CONTROLL$ BY #b L>GE CORPORATIONS & BY #a#i#c#b1 DESPITE ! RAVAGES ( ! ,DEPRESSION--OR P]HAPS BECAUSE ( !M--#f CORPORATIONS CONTROLL$ NE>LY TWO-?IRDS ( ! C\NTRY'S 9DU/RIAL ECONOMY4 ,POLITICALLY & ECONOMICALLY1 P[] WAS TO CONC5TRATE & C5TRALIZE 9TO FEW] H&S1 L9K$ TOGE!R BY AN 5DLESS NUMB] ( BUREAUS1 BUREAUCRATS1 & %>$ 9T]E/S ?AT W]E TO PREP>E ! WAY = ! 0TE*NOBUREAUCRATIC0 NATION-/ATE SO *>ACT]I/IC ( \R [N TIME4 

,! ,SECOND ,WORLD ,W>1 :ILE HOLD+ ! VALUES ( DIE ?IRTIES SOME:AT 9 PLACE DUR+ ! FIR/ HALF ( ! =TIES1 FOI/$ ANO!R ,9DU/RIAL ,REVOLUTION ON WE/]N SOCIETY :OSE SCOPE1 AS WE >E N[ BEG9N+ TO SEE1 RIVALS ! %IFT ( HUMANITY FROM A HUNT+-GA!R+ SOCIETY TO AN AGRICULTURAL ONE4 ,BY #a#i#d#f1 ! TE*NICAL BASIS HAD BE5 CREAT$ = A WORLD ?AT M5 & WOM5 ( ! ?IRTIES C\LD NEV] HAVE ANTICIPAT$4 ,ELECTRONICS1 NUCLE> P[]1 GIANT /RIDES 9 BIO*EMICAL RESE>*1 & ! SOPHI/ICATION ( ROCKET PROPULSION1 NOT TO SPEAK ( LESS VISIBLE BUT MONUM5TAL ADVANCES 9 PHYSICS1 *EMI/RY1 & BIOLOGY ?AT W]E TB YIELD REVOLUTION>Y APPLICATIONS ( SCI5TIFIC KN[L$GE TO 9DU/RY1 W]E TO TOTALLY *ANGE ! ECONOMIC L&SCAPE4 ,POLITICAL *ANGE = 0TOTAL W>0 HAD ALREADY GIV5 RISE 9 ,EUROPE TO A NEW PH5OM5ON 9 ! WE/--! TOTALIT>IAN /ATE--BESIDE :I* ROYAL ABSOLUTISM SEEMS 9 RETROSPECT LIKE A FEEBLE ?+4 ,! POPULATION DISLOCATIONS CREAT$ BY MILIT>Y MOBILIZATION AS WELL AS W> REFUGEES1 FOLL[$ BY ! EXPANSION ( MIGRATION ( 9DU/RY TO ! WE/]N ,UNIT$ ,/ATES1 & ! P\R+ ( BILLIONS 9TO ,EUROPEAN RECON/RUCTION1 VA/LY TRANS=M$ ! URBAN L&SCAPE4 ,LOS ,ANGELES1 A 0SMALL0 CITY 9 ! ?IRTIES BY PRES5T-DAY /&>DS1 BECAME ! 0P>ADIGM0 = UNLIMIT$1 UNPLANN$1 & SPRAWL+ URBANIZATION ) ITS 9DIVIDUAL ANOMIE1 & A PR$ATORY =M ( CAPITALI/IC 5T]PRISE ?AT OV]%AD[$ ! 0,RO>+ ,TW5TIES10 ) ITS NAIVE IMAG]Y ( P]SONAL GRE$ & VICE4 ,! FIFTIES 9TRODUC$ A MORE ANONYM\S & FACELESS PH5OM5ON3 CORPORATE GRE$ & COMM]CIALIZ$ VICE1 ! M>KET+ ( MANAG]IALISM & SUBURBAN SELF-9DULG5CE 7MAT]IAL AS WELL AS SEXUAL7 AS A NEW WAY ( LIFE & A NEW SET ( VALUES4 

,CITIES W]E TO LOSE NOT ONLY !IR T]RITORIAL =M2 !Y W]E TO TO LOSE !IR CULTURAL 9TEGRITY & UNIQU5ESS4  
,! ,MAN 9 ! ,GRAY ,FLANNEL ,SUIT1 P>TICUL>LY AS EMBODI$ 9 ! S>TORIAL CONV5TIONS ( ,GREGORY ,PECK1 BECAME ! AVAT> = ! NEW MANAG]IAL BUREAUCRATISM1 DESPITE ! MOVIE'S TRIBUTE TO SUBURBAN FAMILY FIFE4 ,SOCIAL JU/ICE1 IDEALISM1 & AGR>IAN VALUES ( COMMUNITY GAVE WAY TO PRIVATIZATION1 SELF-9DULG5CE1 & SUBURBAN COOK\TS4 ,! DESID]ATA ( A CORPORATE AGE1 ITS SYN!TIC & HI<LY P]SONALIZ$ CULTURE1 WAS A SANITIZ$ & SOCIALLY VACU\S WORLD1 HELD TOGE!R NOT BY ! 0UND]GR\ND0 CULTURE ( PA/ C5TURIES BUT BY AN 0ABOVE-GR\ND0 CULTURE 5G9E]$ BY GOV]NM5T & CORPORATIONS4 ,A MASS SOCIETY1 NOTABLE = ITS DE-SPIRITUALIZ$ & AMORAL V]SION ( 0POSSESSIVE 9DIVIDUALISM0 HAD EM]G$ FROM ! DEBRIS ( ! ?IRTIES1 A MASS SOCIETY /RUCTUR$ >\ND TELEVISION NETWORKS1 C\NSEL+ (FICES1 BUREAUCRATIC AG5CIES1 &1 ABOVE ALL1 COMMODITIES4 ,! M>KET SOCIETY HAD BEGUN TO COME 9TO ITS [N1 DE/RUCTUR+ ! CITY1 ! DOME/IC WORLD1 ! PSY*E1 & ULTIMATELY ! NATURAL WORLD4 0,MAN10 BR\<T 9TO COLLISION ) 0MAN0 9 A HI<LY COMPETITIVE WORLD M$IAT$ BY COMMODITIES1 WAS F9ALLY BR\<T 9TO COLLISION ) NATURE ON A SCALE UNPREC$5T$ 9 HI/ORY4 

,URBANIZATION MAY BE TAK5 AS ! SYMBOL & ! REALITY ( ?IS HI/ORIC ECOLOGICAL DIS>RAY ( ! MOD]N L&SCAPE--9DE$ ?IS REV]SAL ( ! EVOLUTION>Y CLOCK--FROM ORGANIC TO SYN!TIC HUMAN & BIOTIC RELATION%IPS4 ,NOR CAN ?IS DIS>RAY BE SORT$ \T & PIEC$ TOGE!R ON ! SUMMITS ( SOCIAL FIFE4 ,HI/ORICALLY1 ! P[] ( PRE9DU/RIAL FIFEWAYS TO SURVIVE & PRES]VE A MORAL S5SE ( SOCIAL FIFE DEP5D$ ON ! EXI/5CE ( AN 0UND]GR\ND0 CULTURE 9 T[NS1 NEI<BORHOODS1 & CITIES--EV5 DUR+ ! /ORMIE/ P]IODS ( NATION-BUILD+1 9DU/RIALIZATION1 & 0COMMODIFICATION0--TO C\NT]VAIL ! P[] ( ! M>KET & ! (FICIAL CULTURE4 ,!Y DEP5D$1 9 EFFECT1 UPON ! P[] ( A POPUL> CULTURE TO RESI/ ! ELITE CULTURE &1 9 NO SMALL P>T1 ON ! 9ABILITY ( ! ELITE CULTURE TO SUCCESSFULLY P5ETRATE ! POPUL> ONE4 ,! CRISIS ( \R TIME AS EXPRESS$ 9 ! DECL9E ( POLITICAL FIFE & CITIZ5%IP1 ( COMMUNITY & 9DIVIDUALITY 9 ! CLASSICAL S5SE ( !SE CONCEPTS1 /EMS FROM ! 9VASION & COLONIZATION ( CULTURE'S SUBT]RANEAN DOMA9 BY A HI<LY META/ATIC CAPITALI/IC TE*NICS & ITS COMMODITIES4 ,OBJECTIFI$ & FRAGM5T$1 ! SOCIAL BOND ITSELF FACES DISSOLUTION4 ,:AT WE CALL ! 0GRASSROOTS0 ( SOCIETY IS TURN+ 9TO /RAW1 & ITS SOIL--! LOCALITY OR MUNICIPALITY--IS TURN+ 9TO S&4 ,:ATEV] EVID5CE ( 0F]TILITY0 & 0FIFE0 !SE ROOTS EXHIBIT SEEMS TO BE ! RESULT ( TOXIC *EMICALS--MASS M$IA1 BUREAUCRATIC S9EWS1 & MANAG]IAL CONTROLS--! NATION-/ATE & CORPORATIONS SEEM TO BE P\R+ 9TO ITS B$ROCK1 JU/ AS AGRIBUS9ESS G5]ATES 0FOOD0 \T ( ! *EMICALLY SATURAT$ SPONGE WE CALL 0SOIL0 TODAY4 

,R$EMPTION MU/ COME FROM BEL[1 FROM ! MUNICIPAL LEVEL :]E ! 0UND]GR\ND0 CULTURE ( PA/ TIMES FL\RI%$1 NOT FROM AN 0ABOVE0 ?AT CON/ITUTES ! V]Y S\RCE ( ! PROBLEMS WE FACE4 ,! 0LONG M>* ?R\< ! 9/ITUTIONS10 :I* SIXTIES RADICALS SU* AS ,RUDI ,DUTS*KE ADVOCAT$ 9 ,G]MANY & ,H]B]T ,M>CUSE EVOK$ 9 ,AM]ICA MORE ?AN A DECADE AGO1 HAS DEMON/RAT$ ?AT IT IS ! 9/ITUTIONS ?AT ULTIMATELY ABSORB MOD]N REBELS1 NOT ! REBELS :O CAPTURE ! 9/ITUTIONS4 

,URBANIZATION1 9S(> AS IT /ILL P]MITS ! CITY TO RETA9 ANY ID5TITY1 ALT]S NOT ONLY ITS =M BUT ITS FUNCTION AS A CIVILIZ+ >5A = HUMANITY4 ,! 0/RANG]0 :O C\LD ONCE F9D A HOME 9 ! CITY & A ROLE 9 ITS POLITICAL FIFE AS A CITIZ5 ATAVI/ICALLY REV]TS TO HIS OR H] /ATUS AS AN ALI54 ,<ETTOIZATION MOVES H& 9 H& ) URBAN SPRAWL1 ! DISSOLUTION ( ! SELF H& 9 H& ) ! CITY'S DISSOLUTION4 ,BUREAUCRACY FILLS ! VACUUM CREAT$ BY ! ABS5CE ( AN ACTIVE COMMUNITY FIFE1 NOTABLY ! POLICE (FIC] :O IS ! LA/ CU/ODIAN ( ORD] 9 DIS9TEGRAT+ NEI<BORHOODS & ! SOCIAL WORK] :O IS ! LA/ CU/ODIAN ( ORD] 9 DOME/IC LIFE4 ,CRITICALLY VIEW$1 ! SOCIAL ECOLOGY ( URBANIZATION IS !' COMPELL+ /ORY ( ! DE/RUCTUR+ ( ALL SOCIAL LIFE FROM HOME TO COMMUNITY1 ! ]OSION ( HET]OG5EITY1 9T]ACTION1 & CIVIC CREATIVITY4 ,! RETURN ( ! /RANG] EXPRESSES ! *ANGE FROM ! 0LONELY CR[D10 EXPLOR$ BY ,DAVID ,REISMAN ?REE DECADES AGO 9 HIS BOOK ( SAME NAME--9DE$1 TO1 ! FE>FUL CR[D ( TODAY1 A CR[D 9 :I* EV]YONE MOVES GU>D$LY ?R\< ! MOD]N CITY ) A S5SE ( SUBDU$ DREAD T[>D SURR\ND+ PEOPLE & UNFAMILI> NEI<BORHOODS4 ,AS URBANIZATION SPREADS1 SO TOO DOES ! /ATE MA*9]Y NE$$ TO ADM9I/] IT4 ,:ATEV] ITS =M1 ! NATION 3 /ATE 9CREAS+LY APPROXIMATES A TOTALIT>IAN /ATE & ! PRIVATIZ$ 9DIVIDUAL1 RIDDL$ BY EGOISM & FE>1 9CREAS+LY BECOMES MORE LIKE ONE COMMODITY AMONG MANY RA!R ?AN A CONSUM]4 ,ULTIMATELY1 SOCIETY ?REAT5S TO BECOME AS 9ORGANIC AS AN ECOSY/EM ?AT HAS BE5 DIVE/$ ( ITS FLORA & FAUNA4 ,:5 TOTALIT>IANISM EV5TUALLY DOES EM]GE1 IT IS LIKELY ?AT ! COH]5T SELF1 SO DIRELY NE$$ TO RESI/ IT1 WILL HAVE UND]GONE SU* ]OSION ?AT IT MAY WELL LACK ! PSY*OLOGICAL RES\RCES TO RECOGNIZE ! DANG]1 MU* LESS OPPOSE IT4 

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