,*APT] #f 
,FROM ,POLITICS TO ,/ATECRAFT 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,MURRAY ,BOOK*9 

,TEXT 3 

,*APT] ,SIX3 ,FROM ,POLITICS TO ,/ATECRAFT 

  

,IT REMA9S ONE ( HI/ORY'S GREAT IRONIES ?AT ! CITY1 :I* REWORK$ /AGNANT >*AIC SY/EMS ( CORPORATE LIFE BAS$ ON /ATUS & K9%IP 9TO ! 9NOVATIVE1 FREE REALM ( POLITICS & CITIZ5%IP1 WAS TO PRODUCE ! V]Y FACTORS ?AT L$ TO ITS [N UNDO+4 ,EUROPEAN CITIES1 ,I HAVE PO9T$ \T1 W]E DIFF]5T FROM !IR ANCI5T C\NT]P>TS BECAUSE ( !IR 9H]5T AUTONOMY AS CIVIC 5TITIES4 ,! 9CREAS+ SEP>ATION ( ! M$IEVAL T[N FROM ! CITY'S TRADITIONAL AGR>IAN MATRIX PRODUC$ NOT ONLY A NEW K9D ( CITY ) AN ID5TITY ( ITS [N2 IT ALSO PRODUC$ A NEW TYPE ( ECONOMY1 CULTURE1 & POLITICAL /RUCTURE ?AT PR(\NDLY ALT]$ ! C\NTRYSIDE & SL[LY REMADE IT 9TO ! CITY'S IMAGE4 ,TODAY1 WE HAVE NO DIFFICULTY 9 RECOGNIZ+ ?IS PR(\ND *ANGE--! 0URBANIZATION0 ( ! L&--AS A LOGICAL /EP 9 A MY?IC ASC5T ( SOCIETAL LIFE FROM :AT ,M>X LAMELY CALL$ 0RURAL IDIOCY0 TO :AT WE LIKE TO CALL 0CIVILIZATION40 ,MOD]N AGRIBUS9ESS IS ! PAT5T 0CONQUE/0 ( AGRICULTURE BY 9DU/RY1 A CITY-BORN 5T]PRISE & TE*NICS2 SO1 TOO1 IS MASS CULTURE1 :I* HAS URBANIZ$ AS WELL AS HOMOG5IZ$ AGR>IAN LIFEWAYS4 ,:AT WE DO NOT FULLY S5SE IS ! EXT5T TO :I* E>LY CITY DWELL]S W\LD HAVE REG>D$ SU* A SWEEP+ URBANIZATION ( ! C\NTRYSIDE AS PECULI>1 NOR C\LD !Y HAVE ANTICIPAT$ ! EXT5T TO :I* IT W\LD HAVE UND]M9$ CIVIC LIFE & CITIZ5%IP4 ,WE HAVE SIMPLY LO/ CONTACT ) ! PROBLEM ( URBANIZATION AS ANTI!TICAL TO CITIFICATION--& TO ! EXT5T ?AT WE >E OBLIVI\S TO ! V]Y EXI/5CE ( ! ISSUE ITSELF1 WE HAVE BECOME ITS MUTE & UNKN[+ VICTIMS4 

,H[1 !N1 DID ?IS REM>KABLE *ANGE FROM CIVIC AUTONOMY TO CIVIC SUPREMACY COME AB\T8 ,& 9 :AT S5SE1 9/ITUTIONALLY & ECONOMICALLY1 DID IT BEG9 TO *ALL5GE ! CITY S 9TEGRITY1 ULTIMATELY TO RAISE ! V]Y REAL PROBLEM ( ITS SUBV]SION AS A REALM ( G5U9E POLITICS & MEAN+FUL CITIZ5%IP8 ,GUR ANSW]S TO !SE QUE/IONS1 SO CRUCIAL TO AN UND]/&+ ( MOD]N URBANIZATION >ID ! ?REAT IT POSES TO ! CITY1 OBLIGE US TO EXAM9E ! NEW K9D ( ECONOMY & VALUES ?AT BECAME PREPOND]ANT 9 ! COMMUNES ( ! LATE ,MIDDLE ,AGES & ! ROLE !Y PLAY$ 9 REPLAC+ CIVIC LIFE ) ! NATION-/ATE OR1 MORE PRECISELY1 POLITICS ) /ATECRAFT4 

,WE MU/ FIR/ LOOK AT ! NEW ECONOMIC RELATION%IPS ?AT BEGAN TO L9K ,EUROPEAN CITIES & REGIONS TOGE!R--& ,I SAY 0FIR/0 NOT BECAUSE !Y >E ! SOLE1 ! 0DEF9ITIVE10 CAUSE ?AT PRODUC$ ?IS NEW ECONOMIC & POLITICAL DISP5SATION4 ,:E!R ! ,EUROPEAN CONT95T 0NECESS>ILY0 W\LD HAVE BE5 *ANG$ FROM A LOOSE ASSOCIATION ( T[NS1 CITIES1 B>ONIES1 DU*IES1 & ! ALLPRESID+1 IF 9EFFECTUAL1 ,HOLY ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE 9TO A CLE>LY >TICULAT$ GR\P ( NATION-/ATES IS A PROBLEM 9 DIV9ATION1 NOT 9 SOCIAL ANALYSIS4 ,H[ ,EUROPE C\LD HAVE DEVELOP$--:E!R T[>D CONF$]AL COMMUNITIES OR T[>D HI<LY C5TRALIZ$ NATION-/ATES--IS AN OP5 QUE/ION4 ,ONE CAN S+LE \T MANY REASONABLE ALT]NATIVES ,EUROPEAN T[NS & CITIES MI<T HAVE FOLL[$ ?AT W]E1 NO LESS POSSIBLE ?AN ! ONE ?AT BECAME PREVAL5T 9 FAIRLY REC5T TIMES4 ,NO S+LE C\RSE ( DEVELOPM5T WAS 09EVITABLE0 OR 0PR$ET]M9$0 BY ! ECONOMIC1 SOCIAL1 & POLITICAL =CES AT WORK4 ,9DE$1 ?AT ,ITALY DID NOT BECOME A NATION-/ATE UNTIL ! N9ETE5? C5TURY MU/ REMA9 AN UTT] MY/]Y IF A CON/ELLATION ( CULTURAL1 SOCIAL1 & POLITICAL FACTORS1 P>TICUL>LY ! ROLE ( ITS CITIES1 IS NOT 9VOK$ AGA9/ /RICTLY ECONOMIC EXPLANATIONS4 ,SEEM+LY1 NO >EA ( ,EUROPE WAS MORE 0MOD]N10 0CAPITALI/IC10 OR 5TANGL$ 9 A M>KET ECONOMY SOME #e YE>S AGO ?AN ! ,ITALIAN P59SULA1 & YET ,ITALY WAS TO LAG BEH9D WE/]N ,EUROPE'S TR5D T[>D NATION-/ATE BUILD+ = C5TURIES4 ,NOR CAN WE UND]/& :Y IT WAS ONLY 9 ,5GL& ?AT A M>KET ECONOMY VIRTUALLY ABSORB$ ALL O!R ECONOMIC =MS ( LIFE SU* ?AT ! ,BRITI% ,ISLES BECAME ! 0MODEL0 = A CAPITALI/IC SOCIETY 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY :ILE ,SPA91 :I* 5T]$ SO E>LY ON 9 ! DEVELOPM5T ( NATION-/ATES1 LAGG$ BEH9D ,EUROPE AS A :OLE & REMA9$ A PR$OM9ANTLY AGR>IAN SOCIETY UNTIL WELL 9TO ! #a#i#cS4 

,?IS MU* IS CLE>3 FROM ! ?IRTE5? OR F\RTE5? C5TURIES ONW>D1 ,EUROPE--&1 MO/ NOTABLY1 ,ITALY--WAS ! SC5E = AN 5TIRELY NEW ECONOMIC & SOCIAL DISP5SATION4 ,! ,ITALIAN CITY-/ATES BEGAN TO BREAK )-TRADITIONAL ECONOMIC RELATION%IPS ?AT HAD BE5 +RA9$ 9 ANCI5T & E>LY M$IEVAL CIVIC LIFE WAYS4 ,FROM ,ITALIAN PORTS & 9L& COMM]CIAL CITIES--& 9 NOR!RN ,EUROPE FROM ,FLEMI% 9DU/RIAL C5T]S--=EIGN TRADE BEGAN TO BR+ A GR[+ NUMB] ( P>O*IAL COMMUNES 9TO A NEW K9D ( COMM]CIAL NETWORK1 ONE ?AT RESEMBL$ :AT WE W\LD N[ REG>D AS CAPITALI/IC4 ,TRADE1 ACCUMULATION1 & ! RE9VE/M5T ( PR(ITS 9TO EXP&+ & COMPETITIVE BUS9ESS 5T]PRISES N[ BECAME 5DS 9 !MSELVES1 NOT SIMPLY MEANS TO A*IEVE P]SONAL WEAL?1 L& HOLD+S1 & >I/OCRATIC /ATUS4 ,NOT ?AT ?IS DEVELOPM5T WAS TOTALLY UNIV]SAL1 AS WE %ALL SEE V]Y %ORTLY4 ,BUT IT OCCURR$ ON A SUFFICI5TLY WIDE SCALE TO MAKE IT UNIQUE & TO SUBV]T ! TRADITIONAL AGR>IAN LIFEWAYS ?AT M>K$ ,EUROPEAN SOCIETY1 M]*ANT AS WELL AS NOBLE1 9 PA/ HI/ORICAL ]AS4 

,YET NEW AS ?IS DEVELOPM5T WAS1 ,I DO NOT WI% TO OV]/ATE IT4 ,\R [N SOCIETY1 A SOCIETY ?AT CELEBRATES ! ASC5DANCY ( 0FREE TRADE0 & A COMPETITIVE CAPITALI/ ECONOMY1 IS IDEOLOGICALLY IMP]IALI/IC3 IT T5DS TO CA/ ! PA/ TOO MU* 9 ITS [N IMAGE4 ,ALL ! ROADS ( ,EUROPEAN HI/ORY DO NOT LEAD TO ! TRIUMPH ( ! TW5TIE?-C5TURY M>KET ECONOMY4 ,! FACT IS ?AT FEUDAL VALUES1 ROOT$ 9 AN ELABORATE SY/EM ( RANK & A /RONG ORI5TATION T[>D ! [N]%IP ( L&1 W]E NO LESS A P>T ( RECEIV$ WISDOM ( ! NEW1 RIS+ URBAN 0B\RGEOISIE0 ?AN ( ! OLD AGR>IAN NOBILITY4 ,TRADE DID NOT ALT] ?IS RECEIV$ WISDOM ( FEUDAL SOCIETY = C5TURIES TO COME4 ,9DE$1 LIKE ! M]*ANTS ( ANTIQUITY1 :OSE GOAL CONSI/$ ( AMASS+ 5\< WEAL? FROM ! 0SORDID0 OP]ATIONS ( COMM]CE 9 ORD] TO RETIRE TO A MANORIAL LIFE 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE1 MANY ,ITALIAN & ,FLEMI% M]*ANTS HAD V]Y SIMIL> AMBITIONS4 ,PRE/IGE GA9$ BY TITLES ?R\< 9T]M>RIAGE & BY ! [N]%IP ( L&$ PROP]TY WAS /ILL A DESID]ATUM AMONG !SE E>LY 0B\RGEOIS0--& SU* GOALS W]E TO REMA9 WIDESPREAD 9 ,EUROPE WELL 9TO ! EI<TE5? C5TURY4 ,ON ?IS SCORE1 ! M]*ANTS ( ANTIQUITY & !IR DESC5DANTS 9 ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES W]E V]Y MU* ALIKE 9 \TLOOK1 P>TICUL>LY ! MO/ WEAL?Y ONES4 ,9 !IR PSY*OLOGY & S5SE ( CULTURAL SELF-DEF9ITION1 ! CITY RI* W]E SIMIL> TO ALL ! UPP] RURAL /RATA ( ! TIME4 ,& WE %ALL ALSO SEE ?AT !SE AMBITIONS & ?IS M5TALITY EX]CIS$ LESS ( A HOLD AMONG ! MORE MIDDL+ SORT ( CITY DWELL]S1 SU* AS >TISANS1 ORD9>Y M]*ANTS1 & ASPIR+ MEMB]S ( ! PLEBEIAN ORD]S4 ,DIFF]5CES 9 ATTITUDES & WEAL? W]E TO PR(\NDLY DIVIDE ! M$IEVAL T[NS & CITIES 9T]NALLY1 GREATLY COMPLICAT+ !IR RELATION%IPS ) ! EM]G+ MON>*IES4 

,= ! PRES5T1 IT IS IMPORTANT TO EMPHASIZE ?AT ! WEAL?Y M]*ANTS ( ! LATE ,MIDDLE ,AGES DIFF]$ FROM !IR ANCI5T C\NT]P>TS 9 ! WAY 9 :I* !Y W]E COMMITT$ TO COMM]CIAL OP]ATIONS4 ,AL?\< !IR \TLOOK CLOSELY RESEMBL$ A FEUDAL ONE1 !IR PRACTICE WAS V]Y AK9 TO A MOD]N ONE4 ,! T5SION BETWE5 ! OLD & NEW1 BETWE5 PRECEPT & PRACTICE1 9TRODUC$ WAYS ( FUNCTION+ ?AT DEEPLY ALT]$ ,EUROPEAN LIFE4 ,ANCI5T TRADE1 G5]ALLY SPEAK+1 WAS SURPRIS+LY SIMPLE 9 COMP>ISON TO LAT] M$IEVAL BUS9ESS TRANSACTIONS DESPITE ITS ,M$IT]RANEAN-WIDE SCOPE4 ,ORD9>ILY IT WAS LOCAL & MORE LIKE B>T] ?AN MOD]N =MS ( EX*ANGE2 ! ANCI5T ECONOMY WAS NOT AS HI<LY MONETIZ$ AS IT IS TODAY4 ,MONEY WAS CONSPICU\S MORE BY ITS ABS5CE ?AN BY ITS PRES5CE1 & ! EXT5T TO :I* ANCI5T TRADE WAS A REGULAT$ AFFAIR W\LD HAVE *ILL$ MOD]N ACOLYTES ( LAISSEZ-FAIRE DOCTR9ES4 

,LIKE ! CITIES1 :I* W]E USUALLY RELIGI\S & ADM9I/RATIVE C5T]S1 (T5 AS P>ASITIC 9 !IR NE$ = TRIBUTE FROM ! SURR\ND+ C\NTRYSIDE AS 9 ! EXACTATIONS !Y PLAC$ ON DI/ANT SUBJECT PEOPLES1 ,M$IT]RANEAN COMM]CE F\ND ITSELF PHYSICALLY & CULTURALLY HEMM$ 9 BY A DI/9CTLY AGR>IAN WORLD & A L>GELY SUBSI/5CE ECONOMY4 ,BEYOND ! ANCI5T CITIES ?AT CLU/]$ ALONG ! %ORES ( ! ,M$IT]RANEAN OR W]E PLANT$ /RATEGICALLY AT 9T]SECTIONS ( 9L& WAT]WAYS1 ! E>LY TRAD] FAC$ A SEMIFEUDAL WORLD ( CRUDE MANORS & IMPOV]I%$ PEASANT VILLAGES1 A WORLD ?AT DISSOLV$ 9TO A =E/$1 SEMITRIBAL COMMUNAL WORLD4 ,BO? ( !SE WORLDS1 ! MANORIAL & ! TRIBAL1 9 ANTIQUITY CON/ITUT$ A V]Y PREC>I\S1 9DE$ HAZ>D\S1 T]RA9 = ! M]*ANT1 = HIS C>AVANS ON ! L& & HIS %IPS 9 REMOTE WAT]WAYS4 

,! ANCI5T M]*ANT RESPOND$ TO !SE B>RI]S ACCORD+LY4 ,TRADE WAS DI/+UI%$ BY ITS HI<LY P]SONALIZ$ & SOME:AT T5TATIVE *>ACT]4 ,! M]*ANT & HIS SEA CAPTA9 OR C>AVAN LEAD] W]E UNIT$ BY A SPECIFIC 5T]PRISE RA!R ?AN A HI<LY ORGANIZ$ BUS9ESS1 AL?\< !RE W]E ALWAYS MANY NOTABLE EXCEPTIONS TO ?IS RULE4 ,%IPS (T5 W5T TO SEA & C>AVANS ) PACK ANIMALS W5T 9L& TO MAKE A 0KILL+0 JU/ AS A WAYF>+ /OCK-M>KET SPECULATOR TODAY SEEKS HIS 0LUCKY BREAK40 ,9 ?IS S5SE1 M]*ANTS W]E LIT]ALLY 0M]*ANT-ADV5TUR]S10 & !IR 0COMPANIES0 HAD QUASIMILIT>Y *>ACT]I/ICS4 ,!Y COMMONLY W5T ABROAD AS >M$ EXP$ITIONS4 ,LOANS W]E (T5 NO LESS P]SONAL ?AN ! EXP$ITION>Y TE*NIQUES ?AT BR\<T A FLEET ( %IPS OR A C>AVAN ( PACK ANIMALS TOGE!R4 ,AL?\< CR$IT WAS FAIRLY WELL DEVELOP$ BY ,ROMAN TIMES :5 ! EMPIRE WAS ALREADY QUITE SECURE1 9 =EIGN TRADE TO FAIRLY REMOTE P>TS1 AT LEA/1 CR$IT WAS (T5 SE5 MORE AS A GAMBLE ?AN A SAFE 9VE/M5T4 ,SU* PR(ITS W]E HI<1 & W5T 9TO HO>DS OR W]E 9VE/$ 9 L& RA!R ?AN ! EXPANSION ( ON-GO+ BUS9ESSES4 ,I SPEAK H]E ( =EIGN TRADE1 NOT LOCAL TRADE2 ( ! ANCI5T WORLD'S 0M]*ANT-ADV5TUR]S10 NOT ITS HOME-BAS$ BUS9ESS 5T]PRISES1 >TISANS1 & COMM]CIAL F>M]S4 

,:AT ! ,ITALIAN M]*ANTS 9TRODUC$ 9 ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES WAS AS CLOSE TO A 0REVOLUTION0 AS ANY?+ ?AT GOES BY ?AT NAME4 ,A BROAD NETWORK ( BUS9ESS H\SES1 CR$IT 9/ITUTIONS1 TRAD+ DEPOTS1 W>EH\SES1 & AFFILIATES BEGAN TO 9T]L9K ,ITALIAN CITY-/ATES ) NUM]\S M$IEVAL ,EUROPEAN T[NS1 & ! MOVEM5T ( GOODS WAS GRADUALLY SECUR$ BY TREATIES1 TRIBUTE1 & HIR$ M]C5>IES FROM ! PR$ATIONS ( ROBB] B>ONS & B&ITS4 ,! ,V5ETIAN NAVY VIRTUALLY SWEPT ! CITY'S ,M$IT]RANEAN TRADE R\TES ( PIRATES1 ATTA9+ A SEA SUPREMACY ?AT RIVAL$ ! NAVAL P[] ( ! MORE =MIDABLE EMPIRES >\ND ! BAS94 ,BUS9ESS BECAME SY/EMATIC1 SAFE1 A PR$ICTABLE 5T]PRISE4 ,MONEY WAS 9VE/$ NOT ONLY 9 ! EXPANSION & ACQUISITION ( L&$ PROP]TY2 IT WAS ALSO 9VE/$ 9 L>G] COMM]CIAL OP]ATIONS :OSE PR(ITS NOT ONLY ATTRACT$ ORD9>Y PEOPLE BUT ALSO ! LOCAL1 NOBILITY4 ,! LURE ( ?IS FAIRLY SAFE S\RCE ( WEAL?1 /ILL DISDA9$ CULTURALLY BUT CRASSLY ATTRACTIVE TO AN 9CREAS+LY PRACTICAL & SECUL>IZ$ WORLD1 WAS 5ORM\S4 ,IT OP5$ NEW DOORS EV]Y:]E 9 LATE M$IEVAL SOCIETY4 ,9DE$1 ! SOCIAL MOBILITY ( ! F\RTE5? & FIFTE5? C5TURIES %>PLY CONTRA/S ) ! SOCIAL /AGNATION ( ! CLASSICAL WORLD4 ,WELL-TO-DO COMMON]S W]E CLOSELY 9T]L9K$ ) NOBLES BY M>RIAGE AS WELL AS BY TRADE4 ,>I/OCRATS (F]$ TITLES & P$IGREE 9 EX*ANGE = ! WEAL? & MAT]IAL SECURITY (F]$ BY M]*ANTS4 ,ALLIANCES W]E =G$ NOT ONLY ) FAMILIES ( ! SAME SOCIAL ORD] BUT BETWE5 FAMILIES ( DIFF]5T SOCIAL ORD]S4 ,?IS MELD+ ( 0CLASSES10 L>GELY FEUDAL & 0B\RGEOIS10 HAS ONLY REC5TLY RECEIV$ ! ATT5TION IT DES]VES & WAS TO HAVE A PR(\ND EFFECT ON ! SO-CALL$ 0B\RGEOIS REVOLUTIONS0 ?AT M>K$ ! EI<TE5? C5TURY4 

,F9ALLY1 :]E ELITE ORD]S W]E NOT 9T]L9K$ BY M>RIAGE1 M]*ANTS & EV5 PR(ESSIONALS ACQUIR$ >I/OCRATIC /ATUS BY BUY+ IT \TRI<T1 ESPECIALLY FROM ! FIFTE5? C5TURY ONW>D4 ,A CONSID]ABLE PORTION ( ! REV5UE ACQUIR$ BY ! ,FR5* ,B\RBON K+S1 = EXAMPLE1 CAME FROM ! SALE ( TITLES1 A SALE ?AT UNIT$ ! HI<] ORD]S ( SOCIETY BY A %>$ S5SE ( TITUL> NOBILITY--EV5 AS IT DIVID$ !M BY A S5SE ( %>$ DISDA9 BETWE5 ! PUR*AS$ 0NOBILITY ( ! ROBE0 & ! H]$IT>Y 0NOBILITY ( ! SWORD40 ,9 TIME1 ALLIANCES & DIFF]5CES W]E TO BECOME AS T5TATIVE & PREC>I\S AS DI/9CTIONS =M$ BY WEAL?1 :5 ! RI* ( ONE DAY C\LD EASILY SUFF] ! PANGS ( P5URY AFT] ! MIS=TUNES ( ANO!R DAY4 

,:AT DID LA/ & EXP&1 H[EV]1 W]E ! TRADE NETWORKS E/ABLI%$ BETWE5 COMMUNITIES1 P>TICUL>LY ! L>G] T[NS ( M$IEVAL ,EUROPE4 ,BUT ! 5ORM\S GR[?1 CONT9UITY1 & 9CREAS$ /ABILITY ( ?IS =EIGN TRADE--! NE>E/ ?+ TO A CAPITALI/IC 5T]PRISE ! CONT95T DEVELOP$--%\LD NOT CAUSE US TO OV]LOOK ! RI* ELABORATION ( ! LOCAL M>KET ?AT OCCURR$ )9 ! M$IEVAL COMMUNES & !IR IMM$IATE 5VIRONS4 ,! DECL9E ( ! ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE & ! ECLIPSE ( ! ADM9I/RATIVE CITIES ?AT HELD IT TOGE!R BR\<T ! ,EUROPEAN CONT95T FACE-TO-FACE ) ITSELF & ?REW IT BACK ON ITS [N MA9SPR+S4 

,NO LONG] C\LD ! CONT95T BE SU/A9$'& CIVILIZ$1 MU* LESS MANAG$ & EXPLOIT$1 BY ! ,M$IT]RANEAN BAS9 ) ITS RI* GRAN>IES & S\RCES ( TRIBBTE4 ,BEYOND ! HI<LY CULTIVAT$ ,ROMAN-CONTROLL$ T]RITORIES ( ,EUROPE LAY GREAT =E/S & BOGS1 A HUGE CONT95T )9 ! CONT95T ITSELF ?AT WAS FAIRLY PRI/9E & OP5 TO NEW =MS ( SOCIAL DEVELOPM5T4 ,COMMUNES BEGAN TO APPE> 9 ?IS VIRG9AL T]RA9 ?AT W]E N[ /RUCTUR$ NOT ONLY >\ND RELIGI\S & GOV]NM5TAL 9/ITUTIONS BUT1 SIGNIFICANTLY1 >\ND ! M>KETS QF CRAFTSM5 & >TISANS4 ,!SE >TISAN T[NS1 TO BE SURE1 W]E CRUDE & UNPOLI%$2 !Y W]E MORE VILLAGELIKE ?AN URBAN4 ,! WORK & ! M>KETS ?AT EM]G$ FROM ?IS HI<LY DEC5TRALIZ$1 LOCALI/IC SOCIETY W]E /ILL MA9LY ORGANIZ$ >\ND RELIGI\S & FEUDAL VALUES4 ,(T5 COLLECT+ >\ND *UR*ES & CA!DRALS--9DE$1 COMMONLY UND] ! SOV]EIGNTY ( A BI%OP--!Y NEV]!LESS BECAME PRODUCTIVE T[NS ) SMALL M>KETS >ID FAMILY-OP]AT$ WORK%OPS1 LIV+ (F ! AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE 9 !IR 5VIRONS & PROVID+ RURAL FOLK ) ! MORE SKILLFULLY CRAFT$ COMMODITIES !Y C\LD NOT MAKE 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE4 

,H]E WE 5C\NT] SOME?+ REM>KABLY NEW3 COMMUNES M>K$ BY A RI* SOCIAL FIFE1 & ) IT A POPUL> POLITICS ROOT$ 9 GILDS1 SY/EMS ( MUTUAL AID1 A CIVIC RIIILITIA1 & A /RONG S5SE ( COMMUNITY LOYALTY4 ,! GILD1 ! MO/ IMPORTANT 9/ITUTIONAL C5T] ( A NEW K9D ( >TISAN SOCIETY1 %\LD NOT BE CONFUS$ ) ! ANCI5T COLLEGIA ?AT IT RESEMBL$ /RUCTURALLY OR ) SU* /RICTLY ECONOMIC ASSOCIATIONS AS MOD]N TRADE UNIONS1 :I* IT SEEMS TO RESEMBLE FUNCTIONALLY4 ,! ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE EXHIBIT$ A V]Y L[ TOL]ANCE = NON/ATI/ BODIES ?AT C\LD *ALL5GE ! AU?ORITY ( ! MON>*Y & ITS BUREAUCRACY4 ,H5CE ANCI5T COLLEGIAL ASSOCIATIONS ( CRAFTSPEOPLE W]E R>ELY P]MITT$ TO EXT5D !IR ACTIVITIES BEYOND ?OSE ( BURIAL SOCIETIES & FE/IVE FRAT]NITIES4 ,!Y W]E ALL[$ TO HAVE NO ECONOMICALLY REGULATIVE OR PROTECTIVE FUNCTIONS4 ,ESS5TIALLY1 !Y W]E CULTURAL & QUASIRELIGI\S 9/ITUTIONS4 ,MOD]N LABOR UNIONS1 9 TURN1 >E PRIM>ILY ECONOMIC ORGANIZATIONS &' ASSUME FEW CULTURAL1 MU* LESS RELIGI\S2 UND]TAK+S4 

,! M$IEVAL GILD1 BY CONTRA/1 ASSUM$ ! RESPONSIBILITIES ( ! ANCI5T COLLEGIUM1 ! MOD]N LABOR UNION1 & A GREAT DEAL MORE4 ,POSSIBLY RELIGI\S 9 ORIG91 IT BECAME HI<LY SECUL> 9 MANY ( ITS ACTIVITIES1 FO/]+ MAT]IAL AS WELL AS MORAL COMMITM5TS4 ,IT WAS A SWORN1 COV5ANT$ BRO!RHOOD ?AT PUNI%$ ITS MEMB]S = L[]+ ! QUALITY ( GOODS OR SEEK+ HI<] ?AN PRESCRIB$ PRICES4 ,IT REGULAT$ P]SONAL1 MORAL1 & RELIGI\S BEHAVIOR AS WELL AS ! \TPUT ( GOODS4 ,NOT ONLY DID IT C>E = WID[S & ORPHANS1 ! ILL & 9FIRM ( ITS [N MEMB]S1 BUT IT GAVE ALMS TO ! POOR1 P]=M$ *>ITABLE WORKS ( ALL K9DS1 CELEBRAT$ FEA/ DAYS1 PUNI%$ ITS MEMB]S = USURY1 BLASPHEMY1 GAMBL+1 & O!R PRESUMABLY 0IMMORAL0 9FRACTIONS ( GOOD BEHAVIOR4 

,:AT MADE M$IEVAL GILDS P>TICUL>LY SIGNIFICANT 9 WAYS ?AT M>K A %>P DEP>TURE FROM T[NS ( ! PA/ IS ?AT !Y ATTA9$ A DEGREE ( LEGISLATIVE & GOV]N+ AU?ORITY ?AT MADE !M ! PR9CIPAL MUNICIPAL 9/ITUTION ( MANY COMMUNES4 ,H[EV] P>O*IAL !Y SEEM TO US TODAY1 ,EUROPEAN T[NS BY ! ?\S&S A*IEV$ A DEGREE ( AUTONOMY ?AT FEW MUNICIPAL 5TITIES HAD ACQUIR$ 9 TIMES PA/ OR W]E TO ACQUIRE LAT]4 ,?IS AUTONOMY WAS PIEC$ TOGE!R CORPORATELY FROM A LOCALIZ$ WORLD ( SMALL >TISANS1 CRAFTSM51 & M]*ANTS--A FEUDAL WORLD1 9 FACT1 NOT A CAPITALI/IC ONE1 H[EV] MU* IT WAS C5T]$ >\ND ! M>KETPLACE--BE=E ,EUROPEAN COMMUNES W]E TO BE NETWORK$ TOGE!R BY =EIGN TRADE4 ,! COMMUNE'S GR[? & ELABORATION TOOK PLACE ORGANICALLY1 NOT >TIFICIALLY1 )9 A HI<LY DEC5TRALIZ$ AGR>IAN SOCIETY4 ,9 CONTRA/ TO ! ,ROMAN-CONTROLL$ T[N1 ! ,EUROPEAN T[N WAS A UNIQUE PH5OM5ON 9S(> AS LOCAL AUTONOMY BECAME ! RULE RA!R ?AN ! EXCEPTION4 ,CONTROL FROM BEL[ ?RIV$ AT ! EXP5SE ( AN 9/ITUTIONALLY WEAK FEUDAL SOCIETY ?AT WAS BELEAGU]$ BY OV]LAPP+ & CONFLICT+ JURISDICTIONS BETWE5 L&$ NOBLES1 URBAN BI%OPRICS1 PAPAL LEGATES1 & 9SECURE MON>*S4 ,! UN5D+ S]IES ( CONFLICTS ?AT !SE JURISDICTIONS G5]AT$ WAS EXAC]BAT$ BY AN UNDEVELOP$ SY/EM ( COMMUNICATIONS & BY A CRUDE >MAM5TORIUM1 ONE ?AT MADE CIVIC MILITIAS A P[]FUL MILIT>Y =CE 9 SOCIAL LIFE4 

,=EIGN TRADE--MORE PRECISELY ! CAPITALI/IC C>RY+ TRADE ?AT EMANAT$ FROM ! ,ITALIAN CITY-/ATES & ! ,FLEMI% COMMUNES--DEF9ITELY WORK$ AGA9/ ?IS COMMUNAL AUTONOMY AS SURELY AS IT PLAY$ A ROLE 9 9T]LOCK+ ,EUROPE'S T[NS & CITIES4 ,& 9 SO DO+1 IT POS$ A HI/ORIC PROBLEM3 W\LD ! COMM]CIAL NETWORK CREAT$ BY 9T]CITY TRADE YIELD ! =MATION ( NATION-/ATES1 C5TRALIZ$ BY MON>*ICAL & LAT] REPUBLICAN SY/EMS ( P[]1 OR W\LD IT GIVE RISE TO CONF$]AL 9/ITUTIONS1 UNIT$ 9 A %>$ CONT95TAL SY/EM BAS$ ON LOCAL COMMUNITY CONTROL8 ,?AT ! NATION-/ATE WAS TO GA9 ASC5DANCY OV] CONF$]AL SY/EMS ( SELF-GOV]NANCE DOES NOT MEAN ?AT ITS VICTORY WAS PR$ET]M9$ BY ,EUROPE'S HI/ORY--NOR DOES IT MEAN ?AT ITS VICTORY CANNOT BE UNDONE4 ,H[ ?AT NATION-/ATE'S ASC5DANCY WAS A*IEV$ IS A /ORY WOR? TELL+ BECAUSE IT ALSO BR+S TO FI<T AN A*IEVEM5T ?AT WAS (T5 V]Y T5U\S1 [+ TO ! RESI/ANCE ( ! T[NS TO C5TRALISM1 A /RUGGLE ?AT HAS NOT BE5 DEF9ITIVELY =ECLOS$ BY URBAN ISSUES ?AT >E EM]G+ TODAY4 

,= ! PRES5T1 WE %ALL CONF9E \R ACC\NT ( ! NATION-/ATE TO ! WAY IT WAS A*IEV$1 ) ! CLE> RES]VATION ?AT O!R ALT]NATIVES CONT9UALLY EXI/$1 9DE$ DRAMATIC ALT]NATIVES ?AT WE WILL EXPLORE LAT]4 ,9ITIALLY1 ! 9T]CITY C>RY+ TRADE ?AT BEGAN TO UNITE ,EUROPE ECONOMICALLY FROM ! TWELF? C5TURY ONW>D NOT ONLY TORE 9TO A COMPLEX WEB ( MUTUAL P]SONAL & COMMUNAL DEP5D5CIES 9 :I* TRADE AS WELL AS BEHAVIOR WAS C>EFULLY REGULAT$2 IT ALSO BECAME ! 9FRA/RUCTURE = A NEW BODY ( SOCIETAL 9/ITUTIONS--9ITIALLY REGIONAL RA!R ?AN LOCAL1 LAT] OV]:ELM+LY NATIONAL--?AT CUT ACROSS ! GRA9 ( A TIME-HALL[$ & 9T5SELY COMMUNAL & DEC5TRALIZ$ MODE ( SOCIAL FIFE4 ,IT EV5TUALLY 9TRODUC$ NATIONALISM1 A DI/9CTLY ,EUROPEAN PH5OM5ON ?AT WAS TO SPREAD BEYOND ! CONT95T ITSELF & ACQUIRE GLOBAL DIM5SIONS4 

,! ANCI5TS1 LIKE ! E>LY ,EUROPEANS1 HAD V]Y LITTLE EXP]I5CE ) ! NOTION ( NATIONHOOD4 ,L>GELY TRIBALI/IC OR LOCAFI/IC 9 \TLOOK1 !Y T5D$ TO LOOK 9W>D T[>D !IR TRADITIONAL FIFEWAYS1 TO ELABORATE !M RA!R ?AN 9NOVATE NEW 9/ITUTIONS & VALUES4 ,EV5 ! ,GREEKS & ,ROMANS1 :O W]E COMP>ATIVELY 0=W>D LOOK+0 9 !IR ATTITUDES1 W]E HEAVILY GUID$ BY TRADITION4 ,CULTURAL AS WELL AS ECONOMIC 0LIMITS TO GR[?0 W]E DEEPLY MOLECUL>3 PEOPLE [$ !IR /RONGE/ ALLEGIANCES TO !IR K9 GR\P2 NEXT1 TO !IR COMMUNITY OR P]HAPS REGION2 R>ELY TO A 0NATION40 ,! IDEA ( A 0NATION0 WAS ALI5 TO ! ANCI5T M9D1 A TRIBALI/IC =M ( M9D ?AT OPPOS$ ! LOCALITY TO ! ECUM5E4 

,AL?\< PAN-,HELL5ISM WAS V]Y MU* 9 ! AIR AMONG ! ,GREEK POLEI %ORTLY BE=E ,ALEX&] BR\<T ! WE/]N WORLD & ! ,NE> ,EA/]N TOGE!R 9/ITUTIONALLY1 IT QUICKLY DRIFT$ 9TO A COSMOPOLITAN ,HELL5I/IC ECUM5E ?AT ADOPT$ ,GREEK = ITS L+UA FRANCA & ,GREEK CULTURE = ITS SPIRITUAL ADORNM5T4 ,H5CE A ,GREEK 0NATION0 NEV] DEVELOP$ AMONG ! ,GREEK POLEI4 

,ISRAEL SEEMS TO HAVE ACQUIR$ A /RONG S5SE ( NATIONHOOD AFT] ! ,MACCABEAN ,REVOLT1 BUT IT WAS SMO!R$ BY =EIGN 9VAD]S4 ,RELIGION ULTIMATELY PLAC$ A /RONG] CLAIM ON ! ,JEWS ?AN A S5SE ( T]RITORIAL NATIONHOOD1 H5CE A BUDD+ =M ( NATIONALISM WAS SOON SUPPLANT$ BY A P[]FUL BELIEF 9 A SPIRITUAL COMMUNITY :OSE /R5G? /ILL DEFIES ! ECONOMI/IC EXPLANATIONS ADVANC$ BY CRUDE V>IANTS ( ,M>X'S 0HI/ORICAL MAT]IALISM40 ,! GREAT EMPIRES ( ! ANCI5T WORLD W]E N,OT 0NATIONS0 9 ANY S5SE ( ! T]M4 ,9DE$1 IT IS DIFFICULT TO ASSOCIATE !M ) ! MOD]N1 CLASS-BAS$ NATION-/ATE4 ,9 ! ,NE> ,EA/1 !SE EMPIRES ASSUM$ A HI<LY PATRONYMIC =M3 A 0PROP]TY10 AS IT W]E1 ( A DEIFI$1 PATRI>*AL MON>* = :OM ! VA/ L&S UND] HIS CONTROL W]E REG>D$ AS P>T ( HIS OIKOS OR H\SEHOLD4 ,L&S ANNEX$ TO ! MON>*'S ORIG9AL 9H]ITANCE BECAME ! TRIBUT>IES ( A C5TRALIZ$ H\SEHOLD RA!R ?AN ! T]RITORY ( AN 9/ITUTIONALIZ$ BODY POLITIC4 ,! ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE1 P>TICUL>LY 9 ITS IMP]IAL RA!R ?AN REPUBLICAN =M1 9H]IT$ ?IS ,NE> ,EA/]N TRADITION-B\ND /ATE =M1 H[EV] MU* IT WAS SECUL>IZ$ & REGULAT$ BY LAWS4 ,9DE$ IT %\LD BE KEPT 9 M9D ALWAYS ?AT ! ,ROMAN /ATE WAS MANAG$ PRIM>ILY BY PATRICIANS1 A GR\P ( 0FA!RS10 BY DEF9ITION1 RA!R ?AN BY CITIZ5S4 ,! EMP]ORS1 9 TURN1 W]E ! 0FA!RS0 ( !IR PEOPLE1 NOT SIMPLY !IR SOV]EIGNS1 

,EUROPEAN NATIONS1 BY CONTRA/1 W]E PIEC$ TOGE!R BY /]N] /UFF4 ,H[EV] MUPH MON>*ICAL NATION BUILD+1 SO R$OL5T ( ANCI5T /ATECRAFT1 W5T H& 9 H& ) ! M>KET'S EXPANSION1 ! 9FRA/RUCTURE CREAT$ BY COMM]CE LAID A /RONG] F\NDATION = NATIONALISM ?AN ANY?+ WE 5C\NT] 9 ! ANCI5T I WORLD4 ,?IS NEW1 CONT95TWIDE COMM]CIAL NEXUS1 =M$ \T ( ! 9T]L9K+ ( T[NS1 PRODUC$ MAT]IAL DEP5D5CIES = GOODS ?AT CUT ACROSS ! MORAL RELATION%IPS FO/]$ BY TRADITIONAL SOCIETY4 ,EV5 BE=E ! MON>*S ( ,SPA91 ,FRANCE1 & ,5GL& ASS]T$ !IR AU?ORITY OV] !IR RESPECTIVE NATIONS1 !Y %REWDLY EXPLOIT$ ! DIVID$ LOYALTIES & VALUE SY/EMS CREAT$ BY A GR[+ COMM]CIAL DEP5D5CE ON F>-FLUNG M>KETS ON ! ONE H& & A P[]FUL PSY*OLOGICAL DEP5D5CE PRODUC$ BY A RI*LY ELABORAT$ LOCALI/ COMMUNITY ON ! O!R4 ,BETWE5 ! MAT]IAL WEAL? (F]$ BY ! =M] & ! SPIRITUAL SECURITY (F]$ BY ! LATT]1 MANY T[NS W]E TO DIVIDE 9T]NALLY AS %>PLY AS !Y DIVID$ AGA9/ ! C\NTRYSIDE4 ,H5CE ! ,EUROPEAN COMMUNE WAS PULL$ 9 TWO OPPOS+ DIRECTIONS3 BETWE5 ! DESIRABILITY ( ! NATION-/ATE & AN IDEAL ( COMMUNAL CONF$]ATION4 ,FRANCE 2WAS TO PROVIDE AN EXI/5TIAL EXAMPLE ( ! FIR/1 ! ,SWISS ,CONF$]ATION1 9 ITS E>LY DAYS1 ( ! SECOND4 

,SU* ALT]NATIVES DID NOT REALLY EXI/ 9 ! ANCI5T WORLD AP>T FROM ,GREECE4 ,! ADM9I/RATIVE CITIES ( ANTIQUITY EASILY DISSOLV$ 9 ! ,WE/ 9TO VIRTUAL VILLAGES ) ! DECL9E ( ! EMPIRE1 VILLAGES ?AT =M$ ! REAL COMMUNITY BASE ( ?AT SOCIETY4 ,9DE$1 ONCE S\RCES1 ( TRIBUTE DISAPPE>$1 ! RES\RCES = MA9TA9+ ! ,ROMAN IMP]IAL /ATE DISAPPE>$ AS WELL & ! ,WE/ DEVOLV$ 9TO DEC5TRALIZ$ FEUDAL SOCIETY4 ,EUROPE FELL BACK ON ITS [N RES\RCES & ITS [N AU!NTIC =MS ( SOCIAL & ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION4 

,! LONG HI/ORY ( ,EUROPE'S M$IEVAL DEVELOPM5T1 A DEVELOPM5T ?AT BR+S US TO ! OP5+ ( ! MOD]N ]A1 TOTALLY *ANG$ ! SETT+ = URBAN EVOLUTION4 ,EUROPEAN-WIDE TRADE1 C5T]$ 5TIRELY >\ND A NEW K9D ( SELF-SU/A9+ MUNICIPALITY1 OP5$ %>PLY CONTRA/+ OPPORTUNITIES = DEVELOPM5T4 ,! WEAL?Y ELITES ( ! T[NS W]E RIDDL$ BY ! DIVID$ LOYALTIES & 9T]E/S TO :I* ,I HAVE ALREADY ALLUD$4 ,AMONG ! RI* M]*ANTS & !IR NOBLE URBAN ALLIES1 A GR[+ TR5D SURFAC$ = UNFETT]$ TRADE1 FREE ( GILD1 RE/RICTIONS & TRADITIONAL MORAL CON/RA9TS4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 ! GREAT MAJORITY ( >TISANS1 J\RNEYM51 SMALL RETAIL]S1 & PR(ESSIONALS W]E TO DEM& ! P]PETUATION ( TRADITIONAL CONTROLS1 !IR TIME-HONOR$ S\RCE ( SECURITY & /ABILITY4 ,:AT COMPLICATES ?IS FAIRLY CONV5TIONAL ACC\NT ( ! 0CLASS /RUGGLE0 )9 ! M$IEVAL CITY IS ! V]Y DISCONC]T+ FACT ?AT ! M$IEVAL PATRICIANS & PLEBEIANS (T5 UNIT$ AS READILY AS !Y F\<T ) EA* O!R1 NOTABLY AGA9/ ASSAULTS FROM \TSIDE ! CITY ITSELF4 ,AL?\< BY NO MEANS CONSI/5TLY1 BO? 0CLASSES0 COMMONLY JO9$ TOGE!R TO SUPPORT !IR MUNICIPAL PRIVILEGES AGA9/ L&$ NOBLES &1 MORE /RIK+LY1 EV5 AGA9/ MON>*S :O W]E B5T ON A*IEV+ A HI<LY C5TRALIZ$ /ATE4 ,:ILE ! ORD9>Y PLEBEIAN /RATA T5D$ TO BE MORE CONSI/5T 9 !IR COMMITM5T TO !IR CIVIC RI<TS1 ! MORE CONFLICT$ PATRICIAN /RATUM--FEUDAL 9 \TLOOK BUT DECID$LY B\RGEOIS 9 ITS COMM]CIAL PRACTICES--OSCILLAT$ 9 ITS LOYALTIES BETWE5 ! MORE POPUL> ELEM5TS 9 ! CITY & ! ELITE ELEM5TS1 NOBLE & K+LY1 TO :I* IT FELT A GROVEL+ LOYALTY ?AT M>KS ALL P>V5U ELEM5TS 9 SOCIETY4 ,AS WE %ALL SEE1 SU* ALLIANCES )9 ! COMMUNE T5D$ TO BE T5TATIVE & 9CONCLUSIVE1 AT TIMES GIV+ RISE TO S]I\S URBAN REVOLTS AGA9/ ! NEWLY EM]G+ ABSOLUTE MON>*S1 AT O!R TIMES DIVID+ ! T[NS SO S]I\SLY ?AT !Y EASILY FELL PREY TO MON>*S :O W]E TO FA%ION ! MOD]N NATION-/ATE4 

,! READ] :O LOOKS = AN ELEGANT & COMPACT DEVELOPM5T T[>D A MOD]N URBAN SOCIETY WILL NOT F9D ONE H]E4 ,BETWE5 ! F\RTE5? & SIXTE5? C5TURIES1 :5 NATION-/ATES BEGAN TO =M1 ! CONT95T'S T[NS & CITIES F\ND !MSELVES DEEPLY 5TANGL$ 9 A SKE9 ( %IFT+ ALLIANCES & CONFLICTS4 ,MOD]N NOTIONS ( 0FREE TRADE10 L>GELY CONF9$ TO M]*ANTS 5GAG$ 9 ! C>RY+ TRADE ( ! ,M$IT]RANEAN BAS9 & ! CONT95T1 W]E NEV]!LESS P]MEAT$ BY FEUDAL VALUES ROOT$ 9 L& [N]%IP & /ATUS TO AN EXT5T ?AT W\LD HAVE SEEM$ CURI\S TO ! MOD]N M9D4 0,CAPITAL10 9 EFFECT1 WAS AT W> ) ITSELF & HAD V]Y LITTLE ID5TITY ( ITS [N4 ,NEWLY EM]G+ CAPITALI/S ( ! HI< & LATE ,MIDDLE ,AGES W]E (T5 PULL$ 9 SUBLIMELY CONTR>Y DIRECTIONS BY A FAD+ PA/ & A B>ELY EM]G+ FUTURE4 

,= !IR P>T1 ! PLEBEIAN ELEM5TS ( ! T[NS W]E DEEPLY COMMITT$ TO !IR ANCI5T TRADITIONS1 ?AT IS1 TO ! CORPORATIVE VALUES ( ! M$IEVAL WORLD4 ,NO AFF9ITY TO 0FREE TRADE0 OR NOTIONS ( UNREGULAT$ BUS9ESS PRACTICES W]E TO BE F\ND AMONG !SE LESS PRIVILEG$ GR\PS4 ,DESPITE !IR QUASIFEUDAL NOTIONS1 H[EV]1 !Y RESOLUTELY OPPOS$ T]RITORIAL LORDS :O S\<T TO *ALL5GE ! LIB]TIES ( !IR T[NS1 IRONICALLY 9 CONTRA/ TO ! WEAL?Y M]*ANT /RATA 9 !IR [N COMMUNITIES :O FE>$ BO? CAMPS 9 ?IS CONFLICT & V>I\SLY ALLI$ !MSELVES ) ONE AGA9/ ! O!R4 ,F9ALLY1 ! NEWLY EM]G+ PR9CES & MON>*S :O W]E TO EV5TUALLY PIECE TOGE!R ! NATIONS ( ,EUROPE W]E !MSELVES DEEPLY DIVID$ BY ?IS SKE9 ( T5TATIVE ALLIANCES & CONFLICTS4 ,!Y W]E MORE ?AN WILL+ TO USE ! ,EUROPEAN COMMUNES AGA9/ NOBLES :O *ALL5G$ MON>*ICAL AU?ORITY4 ,BUT !Y W]E EQUALLY WILL+ TO SUBDUE ! COMMUNES :5 !Y RAIS$ ! CRY = !IR ANCI5T MUNICIPAL LIB]TIES & AUTONOMY4 

,IT IS )9 ?IS HI<LY UN/ABLE YET V]Y TRADITIONAL WORLD--UNPREC$5T$ 9 ! ANCI5T ,M$IT]RANEAN--?AT A NEW =M ( SOCIETAL ORGANIZATION WAS TO P]MEATE V]Y OLD ONES3 A C5TRALIZ$ /ATE APP>ATUS /RUCTUR$ >\ND A DI/9CT NATIONAL 5TITY4 ,! ANCI5T WORLD HAD SE5 ! C5TRALIZ$ /ATE 9 ALL ITS GR&EUR & P[]4 ,& IT HAD EV5 SE5 9 A B>E1 RUDIM5T>Y =M ! \TL9ES ( ! NATION4 ,BUT NEV] BE=E HAD ! TWO--/ATE & NATION--BE5 COJO9$ TO PRODUCE A =M ( /ATISM BAS$ ON NATIONALISM ) ITS F>-REA*+ SEQUELAE = ! MOD]N WORLD & ! EM]G5CE ( A HI<LY CORROSIVE GLOBAL M>KET ECONOMY4 

,)9 ?IS RI*1 HI<LY V>IEGAT$1 & FLUID P]IOD ( HI/ORY1 :5 SOCIETAL DEVELOPM5T C\LD HAVE FOLL[$ V]Y DIFF]5T DIRECTIONS FROM ! ONE T[>D :I* IT MOV$1 WE MU/ REEXAM9E ! CONV5TIONAL WISDOM AB\T ! RISE ( ! MOD]N /ATE & ! =MATION ( ! NATION4 

,?AT ! /ATE PREC$$ ! NATION HI/ORICALLY H>DLY REQUIRES EMPHASIS H]E4 ,! PREVI\S PAGES ( ?IS WORK HAVE OP]AT$ ) ?IS FACT ?R\<\T4 ,! PR(ESSIONAL 9/ITUTIONALIZATION ( P[] & ! MONOPOLIZATION ( VIOL5CE BY DI/9CT ADM9I/RATIVE1 JUDICIAL1 MILIT>Y1 & POLICE AG5CIES OCCURR$ FAIRLY E>LY 9 HI/ORY4 ,! /ATE1 SO CONCEIV$1 EM]GES AS A HI<LY COMPACT 5TITY :OSE P]SI/5CE FROM ANCI5T TIMES TO ! PRES5T SEEMS ALMO/ UN*ANG$ FUNCTIONALLY1 H[EV] MU* IT HAS V>I$ 9 =M4 

,BUT SO FUNCTIONALLY SIMIL> AN 9/ITUTION1 SE5 ONLY 9 T]MS ( ITS 0CLASS *>ACT]0 & ITS CO]CIVE ROLE1 CAN BE V]Y TRICKY :5 IT IS TREAT$ )\T RESPECT = ! MANY NUANCES ( ITS DEVELOPM5T4 ,AMONG MANY SOCIAL !ORI/S1 ?IS SIMPLI/IC NOTION ( ! /ATE HAS GIV5 RISE TO IMAGES ( V>I\S /ATE =MS AS M]E EPIPH5OM5AL EXPRESSIONS ( A BASIC1 DECEPTIVELY UN*ANG$ /RUCTURE--9DE$1 TO USE ,M>XIAN LANGUAGE1 AS ! M]E 0SUP]/RUCTURE0 ( AN UNALT]$ 0BASE10 H5CE AN 9/ITUTION ?AT SC>CELY DES]VES SE>*+ ANALYSIS4 ,9 MOD]N POLITICS1 ?IS SIMPLI/IC APPROA* PRODUC$ CONSID]ABLE MIS*IEF4 ,! C>ELESS USE ( WORDS SIMIL> TO 0FASCI/10 APPLI$ TO E/ABLI%$ REPUBLICAN /ATES AS WELL AS TOTALIT>IAN ONES1 CAN G5]ATE V]Y SLOV5LY & CRUDE POLITICAL ATTITUDES4 ,/ATES HAVE BE5 CALL$ FASCI/ OR1 = ?AT MATT]1 DEMOCRATIC ?AT >E V]Y F> FROM BE+ EI!R ONE OR ! O!R2 & !IR OPPON5TS HAVE (T5 DISREG>D$ H>D-WON CIVIL LIB]TIES ?AT DES]VE ! MO/2 E>NE/ SUPPORT BY ANY IDEOLOGICAL /&>DS OR VALUES4 

,:AT IS NO LESS DI/URB+1 !RE HAS BE5 A GROSS DISREG>D ( DEMOCRATIC RI<TS G5]ALLY AMONG SELF-/YL$ 0PROGRESSIVES0 :OSE CONC]NS = MAT]IAL JU/ICE HAVE SUPPLANT$ !IR CONC]NS = SOCIAL JU/ICE4 ,! PRIMACY GIV5 TO ECONOMICS1 AN EMPHASIS UNIQUELY *>ACT]I/IC ( A M>KET-ECONOMY M5TALITY--& MO/ EVID5T1 IRONICALLY1 9 SOCIALI/ & SYNDICALI/ IDEOLOGIES--HAS L$ TO A TR\BL+ DISREG>D = LIB]T>IAN POLITICAL 9/ITUTIONS :OSE PRES]VATION & EXPANSION IS ( IMMEASURABLE IMPORTANCE TO ! DEVELOPM5T ( A NEW1 MUNICIPALLY ORI5T$ POLITICS4 ,!SE 9/ITUTIONS HAVE (T5 BE5 CONTEMPTU\SLY DISMISS$ AS 0B\RGEOIS0 BY MANY SOCIALI/S & AN>*I/S ALIKE1 AL?\< WE %ALL HAVE OCCASION TO SEE ?AT ! 0B\RGEOISIE0 WAS NEV] LIB]T>IAN 9 \TLOOK & R>ELY REPUBLICAN 9 ITS COMMITM5T TO /ATE 9/ITUTIONS4 ,EV5 LIB]AL & CONS]VATIVE IDEOLOGIES HAVE US$ SU* WORDS AS 0FRE$OM0 SO ECUM5ICALLY ?AT BO? ! CONT5T & =M ( ! T]M HAVE BE5 ABSORB$ 9TO A MEAN+LESS 0BLACK HOLE0 ( SOCIOLOGICAL RHETORIC4 

,! 9T]*ANGEABLE USE ( ! WORDS 0/ATE0 & 0NATION10 9 TURN1 HAS BE5 EV5 MORE TR\BL+4 ,TRITE AV[ALS ( 0MY C\NTRY RI<T OR WRONG60 IMPLY NO COMMITM5T TO A REPUBLICAN /ATE1 EV5 :5 ! CRY IS JU/IFI$ BY A C\NTRY'S SEEM+LY DEMOCRATIC OR LIB]T>IAN 9/ITUTIONS4 ,PATRIOTISM TODAY IS NATIONALISM1 NOT DEMOCRATISM1 AL?\< DUR+ ! ,FR5* REVOLUTION ! TWO WORDS C\LD HAVE EASILY PASS$ AS SYNONYMS4 0,LOVE ( C\NTRY0 MAY *>ACT]IZE ! S5TIM5TS ( A FASCI/1 SOCIALI/1 LIB]AL1 OR CONS]VATIVE1 & ?IS LOVE DOES NOT 9 ITSELF COMMIT ANY ONE ( !M TO A P>TICUL> /ATE =M1 MU* LESS TO A FREE COMMUNITY4 ,H5CE ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! /ATE & ! EM]G5CE ( ! NATION >E NOT MATT]S ( ACADEMIC 9T]E/4 ,!IR HI/ORY IS DEEPLY 5TANGL$ ) ! PREVAL5T SOCIETAL VALUES ( \R TIME & PR(\NDLY AFFECTS \R VISIONS ( SOCIETY'S FUTURE1 ESPECIALLY 9 A DISCUSSION ( ! MUNICIPALITY4 

,A CLOSE /UDY ( ! /ATE %[S ?AT !RE >E & HAVE BE5 V>Y+ DEGREES ( /ATEHOOD1 NOT SIMPLY ! EM]G5CE ( A F9I%$ PH5OM5ON CALL$ 0! /ATE40 ,9DE$1 ! UNIV]SAL USE ( SU* WORDS AS 0/ATE0 CAN IMP$E A CLE> UND]/&+ ( ! 2 EXT5T TO :I* 0! /ATE0 EXI/S AT V>I\S LEVELS ( SOCIETAL DEVELOPM5T--NOT ONLY HI/ORICALLY1 BUT ALSO TODAY 9 MOD]N SOCIETY4 ,CONCEIV$ 9 A PROCESSUAL WAY ) DUE REG>D TO ! DEGREES ( /ATISM ?AT HAVE EXI/$ HI/ORICALLY & FUNCTIONALLY1 ,I %\LD EMPHASIZE V]Y DECID$LY ?AT 0! /ATE0 CAN BE LESS PRON\NC$ AS A CON/ELLATION ( 9/ITUTIONS AT ! MUNICIPAL LEVEL1 MORE PRON\NC$ AT ! PROV9CIAL OR REGIONAL LEYEL1 & MO/ PRON\NC$ AT ! NATIONAL LEVEL4 ,!SE >E NOT TRIFL+ DI/9CTIONS4 ,WE CANNOT IGNORE !M )\T GROSSLY SIMPLIFY+ POLITICS4 ,DIFF]5CES 9 DEGREES ( /ATIFICATION CAN HAVE MAJOR PRACTICAL CONSEQU5CES = POLITICALLY CONC]N$ 9DIVIDUALS & COMMUNITIES4 

,HI/ORY1 MOREOV]1 PROVIDES US ) COMPELL+ EVID5CE ( G]M9AL /ATES1 QUASI/ATES1 P>TIALLY =M$1 (T5 V]Y UN/ABLE /ATES1 & F9ALLY FULLY =M$ & ALL-EMBRAC+ /ATES4 ,! ,A!NIAN POLIS & EV5 ! ,ROMAN ,REPUBLIC W]E NOT FULLY =M$ /ATES--?IS 9 CONTRA/1 = EXAMPLE1 TO ! FAIRLY WELL-=M$ ,ROMAN IMP]IAL /ATE & EV5 MORE FULLY =M$ ,EGYPTIAN /ATE ( ,PTOLEMAIC TIMES4 ,:5 APPLI$ TO CLASSICAL ,A!NS1 ! USE ( ! WORD 0/ATE0 HAS A V]Y LIMIT$ MEAN+1 DESPITE ! PRES5CE ( SLAV]Y4 ,EV5 9 ! MOD]N NATION-/ATES WE KN[ BE/1 MUNICIPALITIES >E (T5 LESS 0/ATIFI$0 ?AN NATIONS1 ) ! EXCEPTION1 TO BE SURE1 ( ! PAT5TLY TOTALIT>IAN /ATES ?AT HAVE EM]G$ 9 \R [N TIME4 ,9 PRACTICAL T]MS1 A MOD]N MUNICIPAL POLITICS CAN BE V]Y DIFF]5T FROM A NATIONAL P>LIAM5T>Y 0POLITICS10 AS WE %ALL SEE 9 ! CLOS+ *APT] ( ?IS BOOK1 & LOCALI/ POLITICS CAN RE/ ON IDEOLOGICAL TRADITIONS & PREMISES V]Y DIFF]5T FROM ?OSE WE ASSOCIATE ) ! =MATION ( ! NATION-/ATE4 

,! FACT IS ?AT WE HAVE BE5 MU* TOO CONC]N$ ) ! ORIG9S ( ! /ATE1 CONCEIV$ PRIM>ILY AS AN 9/RUM5T ( CLASS DOM9ATION1 TO GIVE DUE RECOGNITION TO ! HI/ORY ( ! /ATE3 ITS EVOLUTION1 ITS V>I\S UNF9I%$ =MS1 ITS V>Y+ K9DS ( /RUCTURE1 & ITS CAPACITY TO P5ETRATE ! SOCIAL & POLITICAL LIFE ( ! COMMUNITY AS WELL AS ! NATION4 

,LIV+1 AS WE DO 9 0F\ND$0 REPUBLICAN /ATES ( ONE K9D OR ANO!R--/ATES ?AT >E CLO!D 9 A PANOPLY ( 0DECL>ATIONS10 0CON/ITUTIONS10 0*>T]S10 & EV5 HI<LY P]SONIFI$ 0FA!RS0 & 0F\ND]S0--\R IMAGES ( 0! /ATE0 T5D TO ACQUIRE A HI<LY CONTRACTUAL1 LEGALI/IC1 & CONTRIV$ =M4 0,! /ATE10 ) ITS CLE>LY DAT$ DOCUM5TS1 SEEMS MORE LIKE A SOCIAL CONTRACT ?AN A HI/ORICALLY CONDITION$ PH5OM5ON4 ,BEH9D ! 0CONTRACTUAL0 /ATE LIES AN AN?ROPOLOGY & HI/ORY ?AT1 C>EFULLY CONSID]$1 DESANCTIFIES ITS RATIONALI/IC CLAIMS TO AU?ORITY & ITS M&ATE AS ! S\RCE ( AN ORD]LY SOCIETY4 ,! /ATE1 9 FACT1 HAD TO FI<T ITS WAY 9TO EXI/5CE AGA9/ CLAIMS ?AT W]E NO LESS RATIONALI/IC & MORALLY VALID ?AN ?OSE ?AT IT ADVANC$ ON BEHALF ( ITS [N LEGITIMATION4 ,IT HAD TO EM]GE ORGANICALLY1 ?AT IS TO SAY1 )9 ! FRAMEWORK ( SOCIAL RELATION%IPS &1 LAT]1 POLITICAL NORMS ?AT W]E BY NO MEANS CONSI/5T ) & W]E1 AT TIMES1 HI<LY ANTI!TICAL TO ! =MATION ( A /ATE APP>ATUS4 ,H5CE1 IT IS FAIR TO SAY ?AT JU/ AS ! CON/ITUT$ OR CON/ITUTIONAL /ATE PREC$$ ! =MATION ( ! NATION1 SO AN ORGANIC /ATE1 UNC]TA9 ( ITS P$IGREE & ( DUBI\S LEGITIMACY1 PREC$$ ! E/ABLI%M5T ( A CON/ITUT$ OR 0CON/ITUTIONAL0 /ATE4 ,! ORGANIC ORIG9S ( ! /ATE1 9 TURN1 BR+ 9TO QUE/ION ! EXT5T TO :I* ! /ATE CAN BE VALIDAT$ :OLESALE ON /RICTLY RATIONALI/IC T]MS &1 ABOVE ALL1 ITS CAPACITY TO ABSORB ! V]Y ASPECTS ( SOCIAL & COMMUNITY LIFE 9 :I* IT WAS GE/AT$4 ,TO DEMY/IFY ! AU?ORITY ( ! /ATE AS A RATIONALI/IC CONTRIVANCE IS TO TAKE ! FIR/ /EP T[>D RECOV]+ ! ,HELL5IC NOTION ( POLITICS AS A PUBLIC ACTIVITY1 ! DOMA9 ( AU!NTIC CITIZ5%IP--NOT AS /ATECRAFT1 ! DOMA9 ( ! PR(ESSIONAL LEGISLATURES1 MILIT>Y1 & BUREAUCRATS4 

,CONTR>Y TO RATIONALI/IC & CONTRACTUAL IMAGES ( ! /ATE1 /ATE 9/ITUTIONS EM]G$ SL[LY1 UNC]TA9LY1 & PREC>I\SLY \T ( A SOCIAL MILIEU ?AT WAS DI/9CTLY NON/ATI/ 9 *>ACT]4 ,9 FACT1 ! SOCIAL & ORGANIC S\RCES ( ! /ATE HAD TO BE METICUL\SLY REWORK$ BE=E !Y C\LD GIVE RISE TO /ATE 9/ITUTIONS4 ,! ANCI5T TEMPLE CORPORATION1 ACTUALLY A RELIGI\S LEGITIMATION ( TRIBAL COLLECTIVITY & PUBLIC CONTROL ( L&1 SEEMS TO HAVE BE5 ! MO/ LIKELY S\RCE ( ! ,NE> ,EA/]N /ATE4 ,?IS WAS A TIME :5 PRIE/S COMMONLY BECAME K+S OR1 AT LEA/1 :5 ! K+%IP (T5 TOOK ON A PRIE/LY *>ACT]4 ,9 EI!R CASE1 ! TEMPLE & PALACE MONUM5TALIZ$ AS WELL AS DEIFI$ ! TRIBAL COMMUNITY4 

,DESPITE ! 9CREAS+ SECUL>IZATION ( ! /ATE1 NOTABLY M ,GREECE & ,BORNE1 ! /ATE NEV] COMPLETELY LO/ ITS RELIGI\S 

TRAPP+S & ITS FUNCTION AS ! CU/ODIAN ( ! COLLECTIVI/IC COMMUNITY4 ,?IS ATTRIBUTE1 :E!R AS AN 5SEMBLE ( FEUDAL NOBLES OR A MON>*Y & ULTIMATELY AS AN ABSOLUTI/ EMPIRE1 REMA9$ ) IT WELL 9TO REC5T TIMES4 ,! TRADITIONAL 0HEAD ( /ATE10 BE HE A LORD OR K+1 ALWAYS REMA9$ ! 0FA!R ( HIS PEOPLE10 :E!R BY DIV9E RI<T OR AS A DIV9ITY 9 HIS [N RI<T4 ,H5CE1 PRIOR TO ! RISE ( REPUBLICAN SY/EMS ( GOV]NANCE1 ! /ATE ALWAYS APPE>$ NOT AS A CON/ITUT$ PH5OM5ON BUT AS A REWORK+ ( A V]Y TRADITIONAL1 ORGANIC1 PATRI>*AL1 9DE$ TRIBALI/IC BODY ( RELATION%IPS 9 :I* P[] WAS NOT SIMPLY CONF]R$ BY ! COMMUNITY AS 9 ! CASE ( ELECT$ K+%IPS BUT 9H]IT$ ALONG L9EAGE & BLOOD L9ES 9 A MANN] R$OL5T ( ! ANCI5T TRIBALI/ BLOOD TIE4 ,! PRES5T ALWAYS 5TAIL$ A REWORK+ ( ! PA/1 A TRANSMUTATION RA!R ?AN A DISSOLUTION ( TRADITIONAL =MS TO MEET NEW NE$S & IMP]ATIVES4 

,IT IS NOTABLE ?AT ! RISE ( ! C5TRALIZ$ NATION-/ATE 9 ,EUROPE ALSO FOLL[$ ?IS >*AIC & HI<LY ORGANIC PROCESS ( TRANSMUTATION ( OLD 9TO NEW4 ,9DE$1 UNTIL 0,! ,AGE ( ! ,DEMOCRATIC ,REVOLUTIONS10 TO USE ! TITLE ( ,R4 ,R4 ,PALM]'S DI/+UI%$ BOOK1 IT WAS NOT ?R\< ! CON/ITUTION ( NEW /ATES BUT ! RECOV]Y ( ANCI5T RI<TS ?AT K+ & COMMUNITY W]E ?R[N 9TO CIVIL W> ) EA* O!R1 A CONFLICT ?AT (T5 TOOK ! %APE ( MON>*Y AGA9/ MUNICIPALITY4_<#e#b_> ,NEI!R ONE P>TY NOR ! O!R S\<T TO 9NOVATE NEW =MS ( GOV]NANCE BUT RA!R TO RE/ORE OLD ONES FROM ! PA/4 ,*>ACT]I/ICALLY1 ! E>LIE/ =M ( ! ,EUROPEAN NATION-/ATE APPE>S NOT AS ! EM]G5CE ( A NATIONAL ECONOMY1 SIGNIFICANT AS ?IS DEVELOPM5T PROV$ TO BE1 BUT AS ! 9CREAS+ SOV]EIGNTY ( ! K+LY H\SEHOLD ITSELF--! MON>*ICAL OIKOS--& ! IMAGE ( ! 0NATION0 AS A K+LY PATRIMONY4 

,! EVOLUTION ( ! K+LY H\SEHOLD 9TO AN AU!NTIC /ATE IS /RIK+LY REVEAL$ BY ! EVOLUTION ( ! ,5GLI% MON>*Y4 ,! REPUTATION ( ,5GL& AS A UNIQUELY C5TRALIZ$ /ATE FROM ! DAYS ( ! ,NORMAN ,CONQUE/ 9 #aff T5DS TO BE OV]/AT$4 ,ADMITT$LY1 ,WILLIAM ! ,CONQU]] TOOK FIRM POSSESSION ( ,ANGLO-,SAXON ,5GL& %ORTLY AFT] ! DEFEAT ( ,H>OLD 9 ! ,BATTLE ( ,HA/+S1 BUT ! >EA UND] ,NORMAN CONTROL WAS RELATIVELY SMALL1 ALMO/ PROV9CIAL 9 SIZE4 ,WALES & ,IREL& HAD YET TO BE CONQU]$ & ,SCOTL& TO BE ABSORB$4 ,WILLIAM'S ABSOLUTISM WAS NOT ONLY RE/RICT$ T]RITORIALLY2 IT WAS %ORT-LIV$ HI/ORICALLY4 ,! ,5GLI% /ATE--& C]TA9LY ITS HI<LY FRAGM5T$ S5SE ( NATIONHOOD--IS NOTABLE NOT = ITS CONT9UITY BUT ITS DISCONT9UITY4 ,GR[+ B>ONIAL /R5G? CLE>LY BEGAN TO ABRIDGE MON>*ICAL RULE 9 LITTLE MORE ?AN A C5TURY AFT] ! CONQUE/3 ! ,MAGNA ,C>TA1 TO :I* ,JOHN UNWILL+LY SET HIS SEAL AT ,RUNNYM$E 9 ,JUNE #abae IS TE/IMONY NOT TO ! RISE ( ,5GLI% DEMOCRACY1 ALL LEG5DS AB\T ! *>T]'S 9T5T ASIDE1 BUT TO ! P[] ?AT ! ,5GLI% B>ONS ACQUIR$ AT ! EXP5SE ( ! MON>*Y4 ,AL?\< ,JOHN'S FA!R1 ,H5RY ,I,I1 HAD LEFT HIS SONS A /ATE BUTTRESS$ BY A SY/EM ( ROYAL LAW REM>KABLE = ITS TIME--EXT5D+ ! 0,K+'S PEACE0 TO 9CLUDE CIVIL & CRIM9AL CASES1 A RATIONALIZ$ SY/EM ( TRIALS1 PUNI%M5TS1 & JURIES1 & A PR(ESSIONAL ROYAL JUDICI>Y TO TRANSLATE ?IS SY/EM 9TO PRACTICE--MANY ( !SE JURISDICTIONS W]E TO BE RECLAIM$ BY ! B>ONS4 ,NOM9ALLY C5TRALIZ$1 ,5GL& REMA9$ REM>KABLY DEC5TRALIZ$ UND] ! WEAK] MON>*S :O FILL$ ! LONG SPAN BETWE5 ,H5RY ,I,I & ,H5RY ,V,I,I1 A P]IOD ( SOME ?REE C5TURIES4 ,A C5TRALIZ$ 9FRA/RUCTURE HAD EM]G$ FROM ! CONQUE/1 BUT HI/ORY HAD YET TO FLE% IT \T ) EFFECTIVE ROYAL 9/ITUTIONS4 

,:AT MAKES ! ,5GLI% /ATE 9T]E/+ IS ! *ALL5GE IT RAISES TO SIMPLI/IC !ORIES ( /ATE =MATION & RULE4 ,I REF] TO ITS ORGANIC ROOTS & ITS EVOLUTION \T ( H\SEHOLD (FICES4 ,! ,5GLI% /ATE WAS BORN NOT \T ( AN ADM9I/RATIVE BODY ( AUTONOM\S DEP>TM5TS BUT RA!R IT WAS =M$ \T ( ! P]SONAL RESPONSIBILITIES ( ! K+'S S]VANTS--HIS IMM$IATE H\SEHOLD COT]IE--(T5 9 OPPOSITION TO ! D\BTFUL LOYALTIES ( ! K+'S [N FEUDAL B>ONS4 ,P]HAPS ! =EMO/ ( !SE ROYAL S]VANTS WAS ! K+'S P]SONAL SECRET>Y1 HIS *ANCELLOR1 :O C>RI$ ! ROYAL SEAL & COORD9AT$ ! EM]G+ DEP>TM5TS ?AT COMPRIS$ ! ADM9I/RATIVE PORTION ( ! ROYAL C\RT4 ,9 TIME1 ! *ANCELLOR BECAME ! POLE >\ND :I* AN 9CREAS+ NUMB] ( CL]KS1 EXP]TS1 & SPECIALI/S 9 V>I\S GOV]NM5TAL >EAS1 & OV]SE]S ( :AT WAS TO BECOME A FAIRLY COMPLEX EXECUTIVE AU?ORITY COLLECT$ TO =M ! ALL-IMPORTANT ,5GLI% *ANC]Y4 ,ALMO/ EV]Y ASPECT ( MON>*ICAL RULE FELL )9 ITS PURVIEW1 PR9CIPALLY ! K+'S EX*EQU] :O SAW TO ! COLLECTION ( TAXES & ,H5RY ,I,I'S PR(ESSIONAL JUDICI>Y4 

,9 FACT1 ! ,5GLI% /ATE WAS =M$ L>GELY FROM ! K+'S B$ROOM1 D9+ TABLE1 M5-9-WAIT+1 & H\SEHOLD CL]GY1 NOT FROM CON/ITUT$ PR9CIPLES ( GOV]NM5T ?AT SPOKE 9 ! 9T]E/S ( A SPECIFIC 0RUL+ CLASS40 ,CLASS !ORIES ( ! 0ORIG9S ( ! /ATE0 TO ! CONTR>Y NOT)/&+1 ! ,5GLI% /ATE ( ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES BEGAN AS ! ELABORATION ( A PATRIMONY RA!R ?AN ! 9/ITUTIONALIZATION ( ONE 0CLASS'S0 AU?ORITY OV] ?AT ( ANO!R4 ,! ,5GLI% B>ONS1 :O W]E TO VIEW ! =MATION ( ?IS /ATE ) SUSPICION & LAT] ) OV]T HO/ILITY1 F\ND IT DIFFICULT TO CLAIM IT AS !IR [N4 ,A CONT9UAL T5SION2 EXI/$--OCCASIONALLY EXPRESS+ ITSELF 9 A VIOL5T =M--BETWE5 ! B>ONIAL 9FRA/RUCTURE ( ,5GLI% M$IEVAL SOCIETY & ! MON>*Y1 :I* =M$ ! ORIG9AT+ IMPULSE ( AN AU!NTIC1 FAIRLY COMPLETE /ATE1 ,9 ITS PATRIMONIAL =M1 ! ,5GLI% /ATE IS NO EXCEPTION TO ! 0ORIG9S ( ! /ATE0 G5]ALLY2 ?IS MODE ( /ATE =MATION IS V]Y SIMIL> TO ! WAY 9 :I* ! 0B>B>IAN0 *IEFDOMS (1 AN E>LI] TRIBAL SOCIETY GRADUALLY EXT5D$ !IR P[] FROM NETWORKS FURNI%$ BY !IR P]SONAL RETA9]S & CLANS4 ,! J\RNEY FROM 0VALET0 TO 0PRIME M9I/]10 AMUS+ AS ! JUXTAPOSITION MAY SEEM1 IS CLOS] TO ! TRU? ( /ATE =MATION ?AN ! MORE 0SOCIOLOGICAL0 IDEA ?AT ! /ATE EM]G$ AS AN AG5CY ( CLASS 9T]E/--:ATEV] IT WAS TO BECOME LAT] 9 HI/ORY4 

,I HAVE DWELT 9 SOME DETAIL BN ! ORIG9S ( ! ,5GLI% /ATE--9 TIME TO BE REG>D$ AS ! PROTOTYPE ( ! NATION-/ATE P> 
EXCELL5CE--NOT BECAUSE ( ITS UNIQU5ESS BUT RA!R BECAUSE ( ITS CONT9UITY ) ! ANCI5T PA/4 ,! ORGANIC GR[? ( ! ,5GLI% MON>*Y P>ALLELS TO A REM>KABLE DEGREE ! RISE ( OIKOS =MS ( /ATEHOOD4 ,HI/ORICALLY1 !SE =MS GO BACK TO E>LY ,EGYPT1 ,P]SIA1 ,BABYLONIA1 & EV5 ,ROME BE=E ! EMPIRE BECAME HEAVILY BUREAUCRATIZ$4 

,:Y DID ! ,5GLI% /ATE BECOME SU* A USEFUL FRAMEWORK = ! MOD]N NATION & = MOD]N CAPITALISM8 ,AN ANSW] TO ?IS QUE/ION LIES PRECISELY 9 ! LIMITS AS WELL AS ! RATIONALI/IC & C5TRALI/IC =MS IT ASSUM$1 BO? T]RITORIALLY & 9/ITUTIONALLY4 ,DESPITE ITS EXHAU/+ ADV5TURES 9 ,FRANCE1 ! ,5GLI% /ATE BY ,TUDOR TIMES REMA9$ FOCUS$ MORE FIX$LY ON ITS [N ISL& T]RITORIES ?AN DID ITS >*AIC ANTEC$5TS4 ,& 9/ITUTIONALLY1 IT NEV] A*IEV$ A DEGREE ( ABSOLUT5ESS--OR AT LEA/ WAS NEV] P]MITT$ TO DO SO--SU* ?AT IT DEV\R$ ITS [N B\RGEOIS 0GOLD5 GOOSE40 ,IT P]MITT$ A FLEXIBILITY ( M>KET DEVELOPM5T ?AT WAS R>ELY TO BE SE5 9 ! PA/1 NOT ONLY 9 ! M$IEVAL WORLD4 ,?US1 :ILE ! ABSOLUTE MON>*S ( ,5GL& 7PR9CIPALLY ,H5RY ,I,I & ! ,TUDORS7 MANAG$ TO HOLD A NATION TOGE!R1 AT LEA/ 9 ! ,ANGLO-,SAXON CORE >EAS ( ! ISL&1 EV5TUALLY 9TEGRAT+ ! ,SCOTS AS WELL AS ! ,WEL% )9 A NATIONAL FRAMEWORK1 IT PROVID$ AMPLE SPACE = ITS MIDDLE-CLASS 0COMMONS0 TO FL\RI%1 PROSP]1 &1 9 TIME1 RESI/ ! EXACTATIONS & >BIT>Y DEM&S ,*>LES ,I IMPOS$ UPON !M4 ,?R\<\T MU* ( ITS HI/ORY1 ,5GL& WAS BURD5$ LESS BY A BUREAUCRACY ?AN H] RIVALS 9 WE/]N ,EUROPE4 ,:ILE ! MON>*Y RETA9$ A WELL-KNIT BUREAUCRATIC /RUCTURE1 P>TICUL>LY 9 ! ADM9I/RATION ( ROYAL LAW & ! COLLECTION ( TAXES1 ,5GL& WAS L>GELY MANAG$ BY ITS LOCAL SQUIRE>*Y1 A HI<LY P]SONALIZ$ SY/EM ( MANAGEM5T GUID$ BY ! RATIONALIZ$ /&>DS 9TRODUC$ BY ,H5RY ,I,I & ! ,TUDOR MON>*S4 ,! ,5GLI% ,REVOLUTION ( ,CROMWELL'S TIME F9ALIZ$ ?IS DELICATE BALANCE BETWE5 ! K+ & HIS 0COMMONS0 9 A WAY ?AT IMP>T$ A FICTIVE QUALITY TO ! ,5GLI% /ATE AS AN IDEAL 0B\RGEOIS0 POLITICAL SY/EM4 ,9DE$1 IT WAS ,5GL&'S 0CON/ITUTIONAL MON>*Y0 ?AT WAS TO HAVE AN ALMO/ HYPNOTIC ATTRACTION = ! PROGRESSIVE 9TELLIG5TSIA ( ! ,FR5* & ,G]MAN 5LI<T5M5TS4 

,IRONICALLY1 IT WAS ,FRANCE RA!R ?AN ,5GL& ?AT WAS TO CREATE ! K9D ( ALL-P]VASIVE BUREAUCRATIC NATION-/ATE ?AT *>ACT]IZES PRES5T-DAY B\RGEOIS /ATE =MS4 ,GIV5 ! WAYW>DNESS ( HI/ORY ?AT DEFIES ATTEMPTS BY HI/ORIANS TO SY/EMIZE ! DEVELOPM5T ( EV5TS 9 ! NAME ( HI/ORICAL MAT]IALISM & O!R 0SCI5TIFIC0 EXPLANATIONS ( ! NATION-/ATE S EM]G5CE1 ,FRANCE'S PREEM95CE AS ! PROTOTYPIC NATION-/ATE IS EXPLA9$ NOT BY H] 0ADVANC$0 DEVELOPM5T AS A 0B\RGEOIS0 SOCIETY BUT RA!R BY ! LAT5ESS ( ?AT DEVELOPM5T1 9DE$ BY DELAYS ?AT W]E TO SIGNIFICANTLY 9ITIATE ?AT DEVELOPM5T 9 ! MIDN9ETE5? C5TURY1 WELL AFT] IT OCCURR$ 9 ,5GL&4 ,TO BE SURE1 ,FR5* ABSOLUTISM DID NOT EM]GE 9 A SUDD5 BUR/ ( C5TRALIZATION BUT QUITE TO ! CONTR>Y4 ,L\IS ,I,X 70,SA9T ,L\IS071 MORE ?AN A C5TURY AFT] ,H5RY ,I,I ( ,5GL&1 /ILL ISSU$ HIS DECREES ) A T]M9OLOGY ?AT IS R$OL5T ( ! E>LY ,FRANKI% SY/EM ( COLLECTIVE RULE 9 :I* ! ,G]MANIC K+S W]E CONSID]$ M]ELY FIR/ AMONG EQUALS4 ,! EXPRESSION 0,WE & \R B>ONS RECURS 9 ,L\IS'S PRON\NCEM5TS1 A PHRASE ?AT 9 NO WAY SUGGE/S A COMM&+ AU?ORITY OV] ! FEUDAL COMMUNITY4 ,BUT EV5 MORE SO ?AN ,5GL&1 ,FRANCE BEGAN TO 5T] 9TO A PHASE ( /ATE EVOLUTION ?AT WAS TO 9DUCE MANY HI/ORIANS TO REG>D ,FR5* ABSOLUTISM AS ! PR$ECESSOR ( ALL ,EUROPE--AN OV]/ATEM5T1 TO BE SURE1 BUT A SUFFICI5TLY SUGGE/IVE ONE TO IMP>T TO ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 :I* OV]?REW IT1 A P>TICUL>LY 9C5DI>Y *ALL5GE TO ABSOLUTISM AS SU*4 

,BY ! 5D ( ! TWELF? C5TURY1 ,FRANCE HAD ALREADY BEGUN TO CAT* UP ) ,5GL& BY CREAT+ LES (FICI]S DU ROI 7(FICIALS ( ! K+7 :O %>$ P[] ) ! ,FR5* B>ONS 9 ! TRADITIONAL ROYAL C\NCIL4 ,BY DEGREES1 ! ,FR5* BEGAN TO \TPACE !IR ,5GLI% RIVALS4 ,FUNCTION>IES1 EM]G+ FROM ! ROYAL H\SEHOLD1 ACQUIR$ EXP&+ ADM9I/RATIVE ROLES SO ?AT ! K+LY S]VANTS W]E SOON TO BE ROYAL BUREAUCRATS RA!R ?AN H\SEHOLD ADM9I/RATORS4 ,9 CONTRA/ TO ! ,5GLI% MON>*Y1 ! ,FR5* C>RI$ ?IS DEVELOPM5T MU* FUR!R3 IT 5COMPASS$ TIME-HONOR$  
LOCAL AS WELL AS ROYAL JURISDICTIONS4 ,ALREADY A HUGE HI]>*Y ( PETTY (FICIALS HAD >IS51 SU* ?AT BY ! 5D ( ! ?IRTE5? C5TURY1 ,PHILIPPE LE ,BEL WAS OBLIG$ TO PLACE ! HO/ ( LIEUT5ANTS1 S]G5TS1 & H$EAUX :O AF,HICT$ ! ,FR5* PEOPLE ON LOCAL & PROV9CIAL LEVELS UND] ! SCRUT9Y (  
CONTROLLEURS1 A ROYAL /RATEGY ?AT MAY HAVE 5HANC$ RA!R ?AN DIM9I%$ ! BUREAUCRATIZATION ( ! NATION4 ,ROYAL COMMIS4 
SAIRES W]E TO BECOME P]MAN5T REGIONAL (FICIALS BY ! MIDSIXTE5? C5TURY & A F>-REA*+ NETWORK ( 9T5DANTS1 SUP]VIS$ BY SUR9T5DANTS1 ACQUIR$ ! ODI\S /ATUS ( A F9ANCIAL BUREAUCRACY ?AT P>TICUL>LY >\S$ POPUL> HATR$4 

,9 TIME1 ! IMM5SE ,FR5* BUREAUCRACY ( ! SIXTE5? & SEV5TE5? C5TURIES1 9 !ORY ANSW]ABLE ONLY TO ! MON>*Y1 ACQUIR$ A LIFE--9DE$ AN \TLOOK--( ITS [N4 ,! EM]G5CE ( A BUREAUCRATIC S5SIBILITY1 P]MEAT+ ALL LEVELS ( ,FR5* SOCIETY1 CAN H>DLY BE EMPHASIZ$ TOO /RONGLY4 ,A NEW1 ALMO/ UBIQUIT\S 0NOBILITY ( ! ROBE10 5NOBL$ MORE AS FUNCTION>IES ( ! MON>*Y ?AN BY VIRTUE ( BIR?1 BEGAN TO OV]%AD[ ! H]$IT>Y 0NOBILITY ( ! SWORD40 ,9 CONTRA/ TO SO MU* ( FEUDAL ,EUROPE1 ! SONS ( ! ,FR5* MIDDLE CLASSES BEGAN TO REG>D ! ROYAL BUREAUCRACY RA!R ?AN ! CL]ICAL HI]>*Y AS ! AV5UE T[>D UPW>D MOBILITY & P[]1 A %IFT 9 P]SPECTIVE ?AT L9K$ ! ,FR5* 0B\RGEOISIE10 :ATEV] ?AT WORD MEANT SOME TWO C5TURIES AGO1 TO ! MON>*Y MORE TI<TLY ?AN HI/ORIANS ( 0CLASS CONFLICT W\LD HAVE US BELIEVE4 ,! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 CONCEIV$ AS ! 0CLASSIC B\RGEOIS REVOLUTION0 ( EM]G+ CAPITALISM1 WAS TO TE/ ?IS 0CLASS ANALYSIS0 9 ! FI]Y CRUCIBLE ( 9SURRECTION1 ) MORE DISMAL RESULTS ?AN LAT]1 N9ETE5?-C5TURY HI/ORIANS SUSPECT$4 

,H]D]'S CONCLUSION TO ! CONTR>Y NOT)/&+1 ,FRANCE WAS BY NO MEANS ! 0PRECURSOR ( ALL ,EUROPE40 ,IT IS BEGUIL+ TO ?9K ?AT AN EV5 MORE C5TRALIZ$ & BUREAUCRATIZ$ 0NATION-/ATE0 WAS E/ABLI%$ 9 ,SICILY 9 ! E>LY ?IRTE5? C5TURY1 :5 ,NORMAN CONQU]ORS DISPOSSESS$ ! ,>AB RUL]S ( !IR CONTROL OV] ! ISL& & E/ABLI%$ :AT MANY HI/ORIANS HAVE V>I\SLY CALL$ ! 0E>LIE/ MOD]N /ATE0 & 0ABSOLUTE MON>*Y0 9 ,EUROPE'S HI/ORY4 ,EMP]OR ,FR$]ICK ,I,I DID1 9 FACT1 CREATE AN 0OMNIPOT5T ROYAL P[]0 ?AT L$ TO !1 0COMPLETE DE/RUCTION ( ! FEUDAL /ATE0 TO USE ,JACOB ,BURCKH>DT'S WORDS1 A /ATE M>K$ BY A COMPLETELY C5TRALIZ$ LEGAL SY/EM1 A PR(ESSIONAL >MY 7:I* ! ,FR5* MON>*Y 9TRODUC$ V]Y E>LY 9 ITS EVOLUTION71 & AN ALL-5COMPASS+ BUREAUCRACY ( PR(ESSIONALLY TRA9$ (FICIALS1 ALL 9DUBITABLE TRAITS ( ,NORMAN ,SICILY4 

,BUT !SE >E TRAITS ( A K9D ?AT 9 NO WAY MADE ,SICILY A 0MOD]N /ATE10 MU* LESS A 0NATION-/ATE40_<#e#c_> ,SU* /ATE =MS1 9 FACT1 W]E TO APPE> V]Y E>LY 9 HUMAN HI/ORY4 ,! ,PTOLEMAIC /ATE ?AT FOLL[$ ,ALEX&]'S CONQUE/ ( ,EGYPT 9 ANCI5T TIMES DID NOT DIFF] 9 FUNDAM5TALS FROM ! /RUCTURE ?AT ,FR$]ICK IMPOS$'ON ,SICILY SOME FIFTE5 C5TURIES LAT]4 ,*>ACT]I/ICALLY1 BO? ,ALEX&]'S G5]AL1 ,PTOLEMY1 & ! ,NORMAN MON>*1 ,FR$]ICK1 W$D$ ! ECONOMY ( ! ,NILE & ( ! ISL& TO ! /ATE ITSELF4 ,9 BO? CASES1 KEY COMM]CIAL OP]ATIONS1 P>TICUL>LY ! GRA9 TRADE1 BECAME /ATE MONOPOLIES & ECONOMIC ACTIVITY WAS4 B\ND TO /ATECRAFT4 ,! ,NORMAN /ATE 9 ,SICILY WAS AN 0,ORI5TAL DESPOTISM10 TO USE ! LANGUAGE ( N9ETE5?- & E>LY TW5TIE?-C5TURY HI/ORIOGRAPHY1 NOT A 0MOD]N /ATE10 MU* LESS A 0NATION-/ATE40 ,ADM9I/]$ T@>Y CONQU]ORS & !IR BUREAUCRACIES ) HI<LY REGULAT$ ECONOMIES1 ! ,NORMAN /ATE WAS NO MORE 0MOD]N0 ?AN ! ,9CA /ATE 9 ,P]U OR ! ,EGYPTIAN /ATE 9 ,NOR? ,AFRICA4 

,WE >E FAC$ ) ! P>ADOX ?AT ONE ( ! E>LIE/ APPROXIMATIONS TO A C5TRALIZ$ 0NATION-/ATE0 EM]G$ 9 ,SPA91 EV5 BE=E ! ,TUDORS 9 ,5GL& & ! ,B\RBONS 9 ,FRANCE FULLY CONSOLIDAT$ !IR RULE4 ,YET ,SPANI% ABSOLUTISM & NATIONALISM DID NOT PROMOTE ! DEVELOPM5T ( A 0B\RGEOISIE0 OR A 0B\RGEOIS SOCIETY0--DEVELOPM5TS ?AT HAVE BE5 ASSOCIAT$ ) ! EM]G5CE ( ! NATION-/ATE4 ,9 FACT1 ,*>LES ,V & HIS SUCCESSORS W]E TO VIRTUALLY DEV\R A FL\RI%+ ,SPANI% BUR<] /RATUM1 MILK+ IT ( ITS WEAL?1 PREEMPT+ ITS P[]1 & ESS5TIALLY SUBV]T+ T[N LIFE 9 ! ,IB]IAN P59SULA4 ,AT ! BEG9N+ ( ! SIXTE5? C5TURY1 A SWA? ( ALMO/ MEAN+LESS ROYAL P>ASITISM & DOME/IC EXTORTION CUT ACROSS ,SPANI% HI/ORY1 EV5TUALLY UND]M9+ A FL\RI%+ CITY NETWORK ?AT 5JOY$ EXTRAORDFI N>Y WEAL? & AUTONOMY4 ,! EXTORTIONS 9ITIAT$ BY ! ,SPANI% /ATE L$1 AS WE %ALL SEE %ORTLY1 TO ONE ( ! GREATE/ URBAN UPRIS+S 9 WE/]N HI/ORY1 AN UPRIS+ ?AT DECID$ ! FUTURE ( ! NEW NATION ?AT HAD EM]G$ FROM ! ,*RI/IAN RECONQUE/ ( ! ,IB]IAN P59SULA AFT] C5TURIES ( ,MOORI% RULE4 ,CITY LIFE & COMM]CE W]E TO /AGNATE OR DECL9E = REASONS ?AT HAD MU* MORE TO DO ) ABSOLUTISM & ITS EF=TS TO =GE ,SPA9 9TO A NATION-/ATE ?AN DID ! DEC5TRALIZATION ?AT M>K$ ! 5SU+ HI/ORY ( ! C\NTRY4 

,:AT IS MO/ 9TRIGU+ IS ?AT NEI!R ABSOLUTISM NOR ! RISE ( A NATION-/ATE PROVIDES US ) AN ADEQUATE EXPLANATION = ! RISE ( A 0NATIONAL ECONOMY0 AS ,HANNAH ,>5DT SUGGE/S4 ,AL?\< ,SPA9 WAS TO REMA9 A L>GELY AGR>IAN SOCIETY UP TO ! #a#i#cS1 9DE$ A V]Y TRADITIONAL ONE1 ITS ,HAPSBURG K+S W]E NO LESS 05LI<T5$0 ?AN ! ,B\RBON K+S ( ,FRANCE &1 ) ! EXCEPTION ( ! TWO ,H5RYS & ,ELIZABE?1 ! ,TUDOR & ,/U>T K+S ( ,5GL&4 ,NEV]!LESS1 ,SPA9 MOV$ 9TO A P]IOD ( ECONOMIC DECL9E ?AT /ILL WEI<S ON H] %\LD]S TODAY :ILE ,5GL& BECAME ! 0FACTORY ( ! WORLD0 & ,FRANCE ITS CULTURAL 0P]FUM]Y40 ,AL?\< ,EUROPEAN NATION-/ATES FROM ! SIXTE5? C5TURY ONW>D CREAT$ ! >5A = A NATIONAL ECONOMY1 !Y DID NOT NECESS>ILY CREATE ! =CES ?AT %AP$ IT4 ,ABSOLUTISM1 :I*1 SCULPT$ A S5SE ( NATIONHOOD \T ( FEUDAL P>O*IALISM1 PLAY$ A V]Y CRUCIAL ROLE3 IT NOT ONLY SUPPLANT$ LOCALISM )1 NATIONALISM2 IT ALSO /IFL$ A HI<LY DEC5TRALI/IC1 LOCALI/IC1 & SPONTANE\S SOCIETY1 M>K$ BY A RI* DIV]SITY ( CULTURAL1 ECONOMIC1 & COMMUNAL ATTRIBUTES1 REPLAC+ IT ) 9CREAS+LY HOMOG5IZ$ LIFEWAYS1 BUREAUCRATIZ$ 9/ITUTIONS1 & C5TRALIZ$ /ATE =MS4 ,9 SOME CASES1 ?IS ABSOLUTI/ ALT]NATIVE FAVOR$ ! LAT] EXPANSION ( A M>KET ECONOMY2 9 O!RS1 IT L$ TO /ATE P>ASITISM & \TRI<T REGRESSION4 ,9 ALL CASES1 H[EV]1 IT TURN$ LOCALI/ POLITICS 9TO NATIONALI/ /ATECRAFT1 DIVE/+ CITIZ5%IP ( ITS CLASSICAL ATTRIBUTES & TURN+ VITAL1 EMP[]$1 & /RONGLY ET*$ M5 & WOM5 9TO PASSIVE1 DISEMP[]$1 & OB$I5T 0SUBJECTS40 

,?IS %IFT FROM A LIV+ PEOPLE TO DEAD5$ SUBJECTS DID NOT OCCUR )\T FURI\S RESI/ANCE4 ,A BELIEF 9 AUTONOMY1 REGIONAL & LOCAL ID5TITY1 & CITIZ5 EMP[]M5T RAN V]Y HI< BETWE5 ! LATE ,MIDDLE ,AGES & FAIRLY REC5T TIMES4 ,! BATTLE TO RETA9 !SE DI/9CTLY POLITICAL QUALITIES & RI<TS WAS TO BE F\<T NOT 9 NATIONAL POLITICAL P>TIES OR BY PR(ESSIONAL /ATESM52 RA!R1 IT WAS CONDUCT$ ON ! LEVEL ( VILLAGE1 T[N1 NEI<BORHOOD1 & CITY LIFE1 :]E ! IDEALS ( CONF$]ATION W]E TO BE OPPOS$ TO DEM&S = A NATION-/ATE & ! VALUES ( DEC5TRALIZATION W]E TO BE OPPOS$ TO ?OSE ( C5TRALIZATION4 ,:AT LAY 9 ! BALANCE WAS NOT ONLY ! FUTURE ( ! T[N & C\NTRYSIDE BUT ! DEVELOPM5T ( POLITICAL 9/ITUTIONS AS OPPOS$ TO /ATE 9/ITUTIONS--& AN ACTIVE CITIZ5RY AS OPPOS$ TO A PASSIVE 0CON/ITU5CY40 

,IT HAS BECOME SOME:AT CONV5TIONAL 9 URBAN HI/ORIOGRAPHY TO TREAT 0CITY-/ATES0 AS ?\< !IR RELATION%IPS ) EA* O!R W]E NORMALLY M>K$ BY 5DLESS PETTY SQUABBLES & !IR RELATION%IP TO ABSOLUTISM BY AN ALMO/ UNQUALIFI$ DEGREE ( SUPPORT4 0,CITY-/ATES10 WE >E COMMONLY TOLD1 W]E ALMO/ 9NATELY QU>RELSOME1 H5CE ! W>S ?AT W]E 5DEMIC ON ! MUNICIPAL LEVEL ( POLITICS4 ,ULTIMATELY1 SO ! >GUM5T GOES1 !Y W]E TO %[ A UNIQUE COMMONALITY ( 9T]E/S 9 ! SUPPORT !Y GAVE TO ! EM]G+ ABSOLUTE MON>*IES & NATION-/ATES ( ! LATE ,MIDDLE ,AGES4 ,LIKE ! MON>*Y1 !Y OPPOS$ FEUDAL LORDS :O PLAC$ IMPO/S ON !IR COMM]CIAL TRANSACTIONS & BLOCK$ ! DEVELOPM5T ( !IR M>KETS ) A SELF-5CLOS$ MANORIAL ECONOMY4 

,! P>TIAL TRU? ?IS CONV5TIONAL VIEW CONVEYS IS \TWEI<$ BY ! S]I\S ]ROR IT CONTA9S4 ,IT EXPRESSES A *>ACT]I/ICALLY LIB]AL & ,M>XI/ PREJUDICE ?AT PREVAIL$ A C5TURY AGO AGA9/ ALL DEC5TRALIZ$ SOCIETIES1 A PREJUDICE ?AT WAS TO BE PLAC$ 9 ?O 

IDEOLOGICAL S]VICE ( ,EUROPEAN NATIONALISM & ITS GOSPEL ( ! C5TRALIZ$ /ATE4 ,ONLY TODAY DO WE SEEM WILL+ TO RECOGNIZE H[ REACTION>Y & FALSE WAS ?IS IMAG]Y ( EV]-EMBATTL$1 QU>RELSOME1 & PROMON>*ICAL CITIES1 :OSE ECONOMIC P[] WAS PRESUMABLY PLAC$ ) FEW IF ANY QUALMS 9 ! S]VICE ( ABSOLUTISM4 

,!RE IS MORE ?AN 5\< HI/ORICAL EVID5CE TO %[ ?AT CITIES W]E AS DISPOS$ TO =M1LEAGUES & CONF$]ACIES ) EA* O!R AS !Y W]E TO FI<T ) EA* O!R4 ,MANY ( !SE LEAGUES & CONF$]ACIES1 9 FACT1 W]E NOT ONLY NETWORKS ( MUTUAL AID2 !Y W]E VIGOR\SLY DIRECT$ AGA9/ ABSOLUTISM & ITS ?REAT TO COMMUNAL LIB]TIES4 ,F9ALLY1 T]RITORIAL LORDS W]E (T5 QUICK TO AB&ON !IR TRADITIONAL FEUDAL OR MANORIAL =MS ( RI<TS & DUTIES1 TO P>TICIPATE AS VIGOR\SLY 9 COMM]CE AS ! MO/ AV>ICI\S M]*ANTS4 ,9DE$1 ,5GLI% CAPITALISM CUT ITS FIR/ TEE? 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE :]E MANY SQUIRES & NOBLES TURN$ AGRICULTURAL & COMMON L&S 9TO %EEP RUNS TO MEET ,FLEMI% DEM&S = WOOL--P]HAPS ! E>LIE/ EXAMPLE ( AGRIBUS9ESS 9 MOD]N TIMES4 

,CONF$]ACIES OR LEAGUES ( CITIES GO BACK AS F> AS ,GREEK TIMES :5 POLEIS 5T]$ 9TO V>I\S ASSOCIATIONS ) EA* O!R = MUTUAL PROTECTION1 %>$ RELIGI\S BELIEFS1 ECONOMIC 9T]E/S1 EV5 = QUASITRIBAL HONORIFIC REASONS4 ,AT LEA/ FIFTE5 ( !SE CONF$]ACIES ( ONE K9D OR ANO!R1 KN[N MORE G5]ALLY AS  
KO9OI1 CAN BE ID5TIFI$--MANY ( :I* >E V]Y OBSCURE BUT M>K$ BY FASC9AT+ EXAMPLES ( COOP]ATION4 ,!SE CONF$]ACIES CAN (T5 BE TRAC$ BACK TO TRIBAL GR\PS ?AT W]E E/ABLI%$ AS E>LY AS ! ,BRONZE ,AGE4 ,TRIBALISM NEV] COMPLETELY DISAPPE>$ AS A FRAMEWORK = ! LAT] CONF$]ATIONS1 ,?US ! FAM\S ,DELIAN ,LEAGUE ?AT ,A!NS DEVELOP$ WAS 9ITIALLY ,IONIAN1 COMPOS$ ( POLEIS ?AT G5]ALLY CLAIM$ A %>$ E?NIC ANCE/RY4 ,BY ! SAME TOK51 ! ,PELOPONNESIAN ,LEAGUE ?AT OPPOS$ IT WAS L>GELY ,DORIAN1 & ! ,A*AEAN ,LEAGUE CLAIM$ A %>$ ANCE/RY ) ! >*IPELAGO'S E>LY ,MYC5EAN SETTL]S AL?\< 0,A*AEA0 ITSELF WAS REALLY COMPOS$ ( A MIX$ POPULATION ( ,DORIANS & !IR PRECURSORS1 ! SIMPL] ,>CADIANS4 

,A TR\BL+ FEATURE ( MANY CONF$]ATIONS IS ?AT ONE POLIS T5D$ TO BECOME ! POLE >\ND :I* ITS CONF$]ATES CLU/]$1 :E!R BY 9CL9ATION1 NECESSITY1 OR CO]CION4 ,! ,DELIAN ,LEAGUE =M$ BY ,A!NS EV5TUALLY BECAME SO OV]>*+LY ,A!NIAN 9 *>ACT] ?AT HI/ORIANS W]E TO CALL ITS LAT] PHASE AN 0,A!NIAN EMPIRE10 ,?IS IS AN OV]/ATEM5T4 ,?AT ,A!NS BATT5$ ITSELF ON ! REV5UES IT EXTRACT$ AS 0PROTECTION MONEY0 FROM ! LEAGUE & US$ CO]CION :5 P]SUASION FAIL$ TO HOLD ITS CONF$]ATES 9 L9E IS D\BTLESS TRUE2 BUT !RE IS AN 9ESCAPABLE IRONY 9 ! FACT ?AT IT FOI/$ ITS [N DEMOCRATIC 9/ITUTIONS ON POLEIS ) LIMIT$ FRE$OMS ( !IR [N1 :E!R !Y WANT$ A DEMOCRACY OR NOT4 ,! 9T]NAL POLITICS ( ! LEAGUE'S MEMB]S /&S 9 V]Y %>P CONTRA/ TO ! DESPOTIC 9/ITUTIONS WE 5C\NT] 9 VIRTUALLY ALL ANCI5T EMPIRES4 ,9 FACT ! ORIG9AL CONF$]AL C\NCIL ( ! LEAGUE1 =M$ E>LY 9 ! FIF? C5TURY TO *ECK ,P]SIA'S ADVANCES 9TO ,GREECE1 WAS DI/+UI%$ BY ITS HI< S5SE ( FRAT]NITY4 ,ALL MEMB]S ( ! C\NCIL HAD AN EQUAL VOTE1 & ITS TREASURY WAS KEPT 9 ! ,TEMPLE ( ,APOLLO ON ! POLITICALLY NEUTRAL ISL& ( ,DELOS4 ,ONLY LAT]1 :5 ! ,P]SIAN ?REAT 5D$1 DID ,A!NS ASS]T COMPLETE SOV]EIGNTY OV] ! LEAGUE1 PREV5T+ ,NAXOS & ,?ASOS FROM SEC$+ & BR++ ! LEAGUE'S TREASURY TO ! ,A!NIAN ACROPOLIS4 

,WE ALSO KN[ ( CONF$]ACIES1 H[EV]1 :]E POLEIS W]E P]MITT$ TO FUNCTION V]Y MU* ON !IR [N4 ,PELL5E1 = EXAMPLE1 %[$ CONSID]ABLE 9DEP5D5CE 9 ! ,A*AEAN ,CONF$]ACY2 CONV]SELY1 ,!BES WAS HELD 9 *ECK BY POLEIS ?AT MADE UP ! ,BOEOTIAN ,CONF$]ACY1 P>TICUL>LY AFT] IT WAS RE=M$ T[>D ! 5D ( ! F\R? C5TURY ,B4,C4 ,! USE ( ! WORD  
SYMPOLITEIA TO DESIGNATE MANY CONF$]ACIES1 P>TICUL>LY ?OSE ?AT EXT5D$ BYEOND TRADITIONAL TRIBAL >EAS1 IS SIGNIFICANT4 ,TAK5 LIT]ALLY1 ! WORD DESCRIBES A UNION ( POLEIS1 PRESUMABLY ( EQUAL /ATUS1 9 CONTRA/ TO A PATRIA OR 0FA!RL&0 ) ITS CONNOTATIONS ( A CAPITAL CITY1 OR AN E?NOS1 ) ITS REAL OR FICTIVE TRIBAL BONDS BAS$ ON BLOOD TIES4 ,AT ! MOLECUL> LEVEL ( ! SYMPOLITEIA'S LIFE1 ! HUMAN BOND IS BAS$ ON CITIZ5%IP1 ON ! POLITES1 NOT ON SOME =M ( JURIDICAL NATIONAL ID5TITY AT ONE EXTREME OR K9%IP TIES AT ! O!R4 ,CITIZ5%IP1 9 EFFECT1 IS NOT DISSOLV$ 9TO AN IMP]SONAL NATIONAL AFFILIATION OR A PRESUMABLY BIOLOGICAL OR TRIBAL ONE4 ,&1 9 FACT1 MANY POLITES OR CITIZ5S ( A CONF$]ACY 5JOY$ RI<TS 9 O!R CONF$]AL POLEIS ?AT !Y NORMALLY D5I$ TO RESID5T ALI5S4 ,!Y C\LD BUY L&1 5JOY ! FULL PROTECTION ( A CONF$]AT$ POLIS'S LAWS1 &1 9 SOME CASES P]HAPS1 P>TICIPATE 9 ITS EKKLESIA1 AL?\< NORMALLY !IR POLITICAL RI<TS W]E L9K$ TO ! 9/ITUTIONS ( !IR [N CITIES4 ,9 %ORT1 ! CONF$]ACIES ( ANCI5T ,GREECE W]E TO 5L>GE ! :OLE CONCEPT ( CITIZ5%IP1 WELL BEYOND ! P>O*IAL FRAMEWORK ( E>LY  
POLEIS1 :ILE /ILL MA9TA9+ !IR DEC5TRALIZ$ CIVIC LIFEWAYS4 

,H[ W]E ! CONF$]ACIES /RUCTUR$8 ,\R KN[L$GE ( !M IS V]Y LIMIT$ & ANY EXT5D$ DISCUSSION ( !IR KN[N 9/ITUTIONS IS PRECLUD$ BY LACK ( SPACE AS WELL AS FACTS4 ,BUT C]TA9 G5]AL \TL9ES CAN BE NOT$4 ,NORMALLY1 A ,GREEK POLIS CONSI/$ ( MAGI/RATES1 A BO>D ( G5]ALS1 A C\NCIL OR B\LE1 & A CITIZ5S' ASSEMBLY4 ,?IS =M ( 0GOV]NM5T0 EXI/$ 9 MANY ,GREEK POLEIS FROM ! FIF? TO ! ?IRD C5TURY1 :5 IT WAS F9ALLY SWEPT AWAY BY ! ,ROMANS4 

,?IS IS NOT AN OV]/ATEM5T4 ,! FACT IS ?AT ,GREEK POLEIS HAD V]Y LITTLE EXP]I5CE ) 0REPRES5TATIVE0 =MS ( GOV]NANCE2 9DE$ IT WAS V]Y H>D = ! ,GREEKS TO ?9K 9 T]MS ( 0REPRES5TATION0 G5]ALLY4 ,!Y C\LD UND]/& ! RISE ( AN OLIG>*Y1 :I* !Y (T5 ID5TIFI$ ) A TYRANNY OR REPRESSIVE CONTROL ( SOME K9D1 & A DEMOCRACY1 :I*1 9 ITS ,P]IKLEAII =M1 SEEM$ RADICAL OR 0EXCESSIVE0 TO ITS OPPON5TS4 ,& REPUBLICAN-TYPE /RUCTURES DID SURFACE AMONG !M FROM1 TIME TO TIME4 ,BUT !SE REPUBLICS R>ELY PRODUC$ /ABLE 9/ITUTIONAL =MS4 ,HUMAN SCALE--A DI/9CTLY MUNICIPAL SCALE--CONT9U$ TO BE ! ONLY CONG5IAL & COMPREH5SIBLE LEVEL ( 9/ITUTIONAL =M ?AT SEEM$ TO SATISFY ,HELL5IC LIFEWAYS & MODES ( ?9K+4 ,ANY =M L>G] ?AN ! POLIS OR CONF$]ACIES ( POLEIS CUT ACROSS ! GRA9 ( ! ,GFEEK M9D & ,GREEK SOCIAL !ORY4 ,! RISE ( ! ,MAC$ONIAN EMPIRE1 REGAL$ ) ALL ! TRAPP+S ( ROYALTY1 G5]ALLY HORRIFI$ ! ,GREEKS1 & ! ,ROMAN EMPIRE SEEMS MORE TO HAVE FASC9AT$ !M1 AS ,POLYBIUS'S WRIT+S 9DICATE1 ?AN ATTRACT$ !M UNTIL ! V]Y MEMORY ( POLITICAL DEMOCRACY HAD FAD$ AWAY1 ,9 ANY CASE1 EV5 :5 A REPUBLICAN REGIME DID EM]GE AMONG ! ,GREEKS1 NOTABLY ) ! ASC5DANCY ( ,ROME1 IT WAS (T5 CALL$ A DEMOKRATIA & !RE WAS A T5D5CY TO TRACE ITS P$IGREE BACK TO ! POLIS ( CLASSICAL TIMES4 ,! ,MAC$ONIAN & ,ROMAN EMPIRES1 9 EFFECT1 CON/ITUT$ AN ANNOY+ *ALL5GE TO ! ,GREEK IMAGE ( POLITICAL CONSOCIATION3 ITS E?ICAL AS DI/+UI%$ FROM ADM9I/RATIVE WAYS ( VISUALIZ+ OR DEF9+ POLITICS3 ITS HI< REG>D = SOME DEGREE ( CITIZ5 P>TICIPATION 9 =MULAT+ POLICY OR EXECUT+ IT4 ,JU/ AS A ,ROMAN 9 IMP]IAL TIMES MI<T LOOK BACK NO/ALGICALLY TO ! REPUBLICA1 SO ,GREEKS UND] =EIGN RULE LOOK$ BACK 5DE>+LY TO ! DEMOKRATIA & (T5 US$ ! WORD :5 IT NO LONG] APPLI$ TO !IR 9/ITUTIONS4 

,NOT SURPRIS+LY1 ! B\LE & EKKLESIA ! C\NCIL & ! CITIZ5S' ASSEMBLY--W]E TO APPE> 9 MANY ,GREEK CONF$]ATIONS1 NOT ONLY )9 ,GREEK POLEIS !MSELVES4 ,!RE IS EVID5CE ?AT AN EKKLESIA =MULAT$ POLICIES = ! ,!SSALIAN ,CONF$]ACY 9 ! CLOS+ DECADES ( ! FIF? C5TURY ,B4,C41 POSSIBLY AS AN >I/OCRATIC BODY4 ,BUT 9 TIME CITIES BEGAN TO 5CROA* UPON ! P[] ( ! T]RITORIAL NOBLES4 ,APP>5TLY1 A DEMOCRATIC FACTION1 /RONGLY 9FLU5C$ BY ! ,A!NIANS1 SUCCESSFULLY EXT5D$ POPUL> RULE )9 ! ,!SSALIAN CITIES & ! CONF$]ACY ITSELF1 AFT] :I* ! CONF$]ACY EV5TUALLY BECAME MORE C5TRALIZ$ & EXCLUSIVE4 ,! ,BOEOTIAN ,CONF$]ACY WAS1 AS ,J4 ,A4 ,O4 ,L>S5 PUTS IT1 0A L& ( HOPLITES0 BECAUSE ! >EA ITSELF FAVOR$ SMALL-SCALE F>M+4_<#e#d_> ,BUT IT IS SURPRIS+ TO F9D ?AT ! ,CONF$]ACY MORE CLOSELY APPROXIMATES A REPUBLICAN /ATE ?AN ANY WE 5C\NT] SO E>LY 9 ,GREEK HI/ORY4 ,?IS MAY HAVE BE5 ! RESULT MORE ( ,SP>TAN 9FLU5CE ?AN ! 9T]NAL DEVELOPM5T ( ! ,!SSALIAN POLEIS1 AN 9FLU5CE ?AT DID NOT GO UN*ALL5G$ BY A PRO-,A!NIAN FACTION 9 ! CITIES ?AT MADE UP ! CONF$]ACY4 ,UN=TUNATELY1 ! DETAILS ( ITS DEVELOPM5T >E CLOS$ TO US BY ! LACK ( ADEQUATE HI/ORICAL DATA4 

,! ,PHOCIAN ,CONF$]ACY ALT]NAT$ BETWE5 AN OLIG>*Y & A DEMOCRACY3 A /RONG EXECUTIVE MADE UP ( G5]ALS HAD TO ANSW] TO A POPUL> ASSEMBLY ?AT 5JOY$ ! P[] TO DEPOSE ITS MILIT>Y LEAD]S4 ,! ,LOCRIAN ,CONF$]ACY SEEMS TO HAVE HAD A CITIZ5S' ASSEMBLY2 9DE$1 FROM ! SCANT EVID5CE WE HAVE1 DEMOCRACY F\ND A COM=TABLE HOME H]E1 (T5 TOGE!R ) %>$ CITIZ5%IP ?AT MADE IT POSSIBLE = CITIZ5S ( ONE POLIS TO ACQUIRE PROP]TY & TO 9T]M>RY ) CITIZ5S ( ANO!R  
POLIS4 ,9 ,WE/ ,LOCRIS1 ! POLEIS W]E SO 9DULG5T ?AT ! ,GREEKS G5]ALLY S+L$ !M >E \T = !IR FAIRLY HUMANE & DEC5T TREATM5T ( =EIGN]S4 ,! ,AETOLIAN ,CONF$]ACY APPE>S TO HAVE HAD AN EKKLESIA 9 :I* ALL CITIZ5S NOT ONLY HAD ! RI<T TO VOTE BUT FOLL[$ ! ,A!NIAN FA%ION ( VOT+ AS 9DIVIDUALS1 NOT AS CITIZ5S ( !IR [N POLEIS4 ,?IS EXTRAORD9>Y DEGREE ( POLITICAL 9DIVIDUATION )9 A CONF$]ACY--A R>ITY EV5 9 DEC5TRALI/IC & CONF$]AL SOCIAL !ORIES--%\LD NOT GO UNNOTIC$4 ,:AT ! ,A!NIANS DID )9 ,A!NS & ITS 5VIRONS1 ! ,LOCRIANS DID )9 A CONF$]ATION ( SEP>ATE CITIES4 ,MEET+S ( !IR CONF$]AL ASSEMBLY W]E HELD TWICE A YE>--ONCE 9 ! SPR+ :5 ! MILIT>Y CAMPAIGN+ SEASON BEGAN & AGA9 9 AUTUMN :5 IT CAME TO AN 5D4 ,WE %ALL HAVE OCCASION TO EMPHASIZE ?AT DEMOCRACY CANNOT BE DISASSOCIAT$ HI/ORICALLY FROM MILIT>Y ASSOCIATIONS :5 !Y 9VOLVE ! MOBILIZATION ( CITIZ5S = W>F>E1 *ANGES 9 >MS & MILIT>Y TE*NIQUE1 OR SIMPLY A HI< VALUATION ?AT IS PLAC$ ON ! IMAGE ( ! >M$ CITIZ54 

,! ,A*AEAN ,CONF$]ACY1 P]HAPS ! BE/ KN[N ( ALL ,GREEK CONF$]ACIES1 BECAME SO DEMOCRATIC ?AT IT WAS 9 ADVANCE ( ,A!NS 9 SOME RESPECTS4 ,F9ALLY1 9 #dag ,B4,C41 ,SP>TA WAS OBLIG$ TO /EP 9 TO IMPOSE OLIG>*IC RULE4 ,?IS 9T]V5TION /IRR$ UP A M$LEY ( REACTIONS 9 :I* A PRO-,A!NIAN FACTION RE/OR$ DEMOCRACY ?AT L$ TO FUR!R ,SP>TAN 9T]V5TION4 ,NEV]!LESS1 !RE SEEMS TO HAVE BE5 A P]SI/5T EKKLESIA ON A LOCAL LEVEL ?AT C]TA9LY WAS 9 EXI/5CE 9 ,HELL5I/IC TIMES1 ! ]A FOLL[+ ,ALEX&]'S CONQUE/S 9 ! ,NE> ,EA/ & ,NOR? ,AFRICA4 ,UN=TUNATELY1 WE KN[ F> TOO LITTLE AB\T O!R ,GREEK CONF$]ACIES TO PROVIDE EV5 CAPSULE DESCRIPTIONS AB\T !IR /RUCTURE & DEVELOPM5T4 

,:AT DOES IT MEAN 9 V]Y CONCRETE T]MS TO SAY ?AT A ,GREEK CONF$]ACY HAD A CITIZ5S' ASSEMBLY8 ,IT IS TEMPT+ TO ?9K ?AT 9 COMP>ATIVELY L>GE CONF$]AL >EAS1 SU* AN ASSEMBLY IS SIMPLY A EUPHEMISM = A REPRES5TATIVE SY/EM ( GOV]NM5T1 NOT A DIRECT1 FACE-TO-FACE BODY ( CITIZ5S4 ,ACTUALLY1 ?IS IS F> FROM TRUE4 ,JUDG+ FROM ! ,A*AEAN ,CONF$]ACY1 CITIZ5S FROM V>I\S  
POLEIS W]E EXPECT$ TO ATT5D IT 5 MASSE4 ,= ?OSE DAYS1 ?IS W\LD MEAN A J\RNEY OV] WIDE DI/ANCES1 H5CE ASSEMBLY MEET+S W\LD T5D TO ATTRACT ONLY ! WELL-TO-DO :O HAD ! MEANS & LEISURE TO ATT5D !M4 ,BUT MU* ! SAME C\LD BE SAID ( ! ,A!NIAN EKKLESIA4 ,ATTIKA WAS MORE ?AN ! 5VIRONS ( ,A!NS1 & = COMMUNITIES 9 ! MORE DI/ANT P>TS ( ,A!NIAN T]RITORY A J\RNEY TO ! CITY W\LD HAVE BE5 A FAIRLY DIFFICULT ONE4 ,LIKE ,A!NS1 H[EV]1 ! POOR] ELEM5TS 9 ! HO/ CITY OR ''CAPITAL0 ( A ,GREEK CONF$]ACY (T5 \TNUMB]$ ! WELL-TO-DO :O C\LD AF=D TO MAKE ! J\RNEY & MAY HAVE1 PROVID$ IT ) A POPUL>1 9DE$ RADICAL1 AMBIANCE4 

,:ATEV] MAY HAVE BE5 ! POSSIBILITIES & LIMITS ( ANCI5T CITIES1 MUNICIPAL DEMOCRACY WI!R$ & F9ALLY DI$ UND] ,ROMAN RULE4 ,! ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE1 A PURELY P>ASITIC PH5OM5ON1 WAS EXTREMELY W>Y ( MUNICIPAL AUTONOMY4 ,IT PROVID$ CITIES ) ONLY 5\< FRE$OM TO POLICE !MSELVES & EXTRACT TRIBUTE FROM SUBJECT POPULATIONS4 ,9 ! C5TURIES FOLL[+ ,P]IKLEAN DEMOCRACY1 CITY LIFE AS A POLITICAL REALITY BEGAN TO DECL9E &1 AFT] ! SECOND C5TURY ( ! CONTEMPOR>Y ]A1 %RIVEL$ DISA/R\SLY1 AT LEA/ 9 ,EUROPE & ! NOR!RN RIM ( ! ,M$IT]RANEAN BAS94 ,NOR WAS URBAN LIFE TO REVIVE 9 ?IS >EA UNTIL ! ELEV5? C5TURY4 ,BUT ) ?IS REVIVAL CAME ! EM]G5CE ( NEW CONF$]ACIES1 AN EXTREMELY IMPORTANT ASPECT ( ,EUROPEAN HI/ORY :OSE /ORY HAS BE5 BADLY NEGLECT$4 ,PET] ,KROPOTK9'S WORK ON ! CITY CONF$]ACIES & LEAGUES ( ,EUROPE1 LIMIT$ AS IT MAY BE1 MAY BE CIT$ AS A TRULY PIONE]+ EF=T4_<#e#e_> ,! P]IOD ( ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION & ! N9ETE5? C5TURY W]E TO 4WITNESS A DEPRESS+ %IFT 9 P]SPECTIVE FROM HI/ORICAL /UDIES ( LOCALISM & URBAN CONF$]ALISM TO ! NATION-/ATE1 A %IFT ?AT REFLECTS A DI/9CTLY C5TRALI/IC BIAS 9 RADICAL AS ,WELL AS LIB]AL HI/ORIOGRAPHY4 ,! LACUNA ?AT EXI/S 9 ?IS FIELD IS BY NO MEANS ! RESULT ( OV]SI<T3 IT ORIG9ATES FROM A DI/9CT POLITICAL PROCLIVITY 9 ,M>XIAN HI/ORIOGRAPHY & LIB]AL SOCIAL !ORY TO EMPHASIZE ! ROLE ( ! NATION-/ATE 9 FA%ION+ ! MOD]N ]A1 AN EMPHASIS = :I* WE HAVE PAID DE>LY 9 EVALUAT+ ! ALT]NATIVES ?AT FACE ?IS ]A TODAY ) ITS 9CREAS+ BUREAUCRATIZATION & C5TRALIZATION ( SOCIAL LIFE4 

,DESPITE ITS BREVITY & 9COMPLET5ESS1 ,KROPOTK9'S WORK /ILL PROVIDES US ) A ROBU/ FRAMEWORK = RECOV]+ SOME S5SE ( ! VITALITY ?IS MUNICIPAL WORLD (F]$ AS AN ALT]NATIVE TO ! NATION-/ATE4 0,ALREADY 9 ! YE>S #a#a#c-#a#a#e P[]FUL LEAGUES CAME 9TO EXI/5CE10 ,KROPOTK9 TELLS US1 0& A FEW YE>S LAT]1 :5 .<,EMP]OR.> ,FR$]ICK ,B>B>OSSA .<( ! ,HOLY ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE.> 9VAD$ ,ITALY &1 SUPPORT$ BY ! NOBLES & SOME RET>DORY CITIES1 M>*$ AGA9/ ,MILAN1 POPUL> 5?USIASM WAS R\S$ 9 MANY T[NS BY POPUL> PREA*]S4 ,CREMA1 ,PIAC5ZA1 ,BRESCIA1 ,TORTONA1 ETC41 W5T TO ! RESCUE2 ! BANN]S ( ! GUILDS ( ,V]ONA1 ,PADUA1 ,VIC5ZA1 & ,TREVISA FLOAT$ SIDE BY SIDE 9 ! CITIES' CAMP AGA9/ ! BANN]S ( ! ,EMP]OR & ! NOBLES40_<#e#f_> 

,! FOLL[+ YE> SAW ! EM]G5CE ( ! FIR/ ( ! ,LOMB>D ,LEAGUES 7#a#a#f#g71 :I* NUMB]$1 SIXTE5 CITIES AT ITS HEI<T1 FOLL[$ BY A SECOND 9 #aaih & F9ALLY A ?IRD 7#a#b#b#f7 ?AT COLLECTIVELY 9CLUD$ NE>LY ALL ! MAJOR CITIES ( NOR!RN ,ITALY4 ,NOT ONLY WAS ,MILAN A MEMB] ( ALL ?REE LEAGUES BUT ALSO ,BOLOGNA1 ,V]ONA1 ,BRESCIA1 ,F]R>A1 ,FA5ZA1 ,V]CELLI1 & ,ALESS&RIA4 ,EV5 ,V5ICE1 PR\D & 9DEP5D5T1 JO9$ ! FIR/ ( ! LEAGUES4 ,A LEAGUE ( ,TUSCAN CITIES WAS =M$ %ORTLY AFT] ,H5RY ,VI'S DEA? 9 #a#a#i#e1 & /ILL ANO!R TWO C5TURIES LAT]1 GUID$ L>GELY BY ,ROME DUR+ ! PAPACY'S QU>RELS ) ! EMPIRE4 ,! NUMB] ( LEAGUES ?AT =M$ 9 ,ITALY DUR+ ?IS TIME >E TOO NUM]\S TO EXAM9E H]E4 ,SOME CLU/]$ >\ND P[]FUL CITIES SU* AS ,FLOR5CE1 ,V5ICE1 ,MILAN1 & ! PAPAL SEAT 9 ,ROME1 SURFAC+ 9 ! ,ROMAGNA & 9 ,UMBRIA AS WELL AS 9 NOR!RN ,ITALY4 ,) ! PASS+ ( TIME1 !SE LEAGUES EI!R FELL AP>T 9TO RIVAL CITIES OR =M$ G5U9E CITY-/ATES--9 FACT1 SMALL REPUBLICS OR DU*IES1 DEP5D+ UPON ! 9T]NAL POLITICAL /RUCTURE ( CITIES ?AT L$ !M4 ,BY ! ?IRTE5? C5TURY1 ?IS /RUCTURE WAS USUALLY OLIG>*ICAL3 ! POPOLO1 HAD GIV5 WAY TO SIGNORI1 & ,ITALY WAS TO BECOME A BATTLEGR\ND = MAJOR' ,EUROPEAN P[]S ?AT TRI$ TO DIP 9TO ! /ILL V]Y CONSID]ABLE WEAL? ( ! P59SULA4 ,AL?\< EM95T URBAN HI/ORIANS SU* AS ,LEWIS ,MUM=D >E HI<LY DISDA9FUL ( ?IS DEVELOPM5T1 P>TICUL>LY ! CONT9UAL DISCORD BETWE5 ! CITIES ?AT >E BELIEV$ ULTIMATELY TO HAVE F$ ! P>CELIZATION ( ! >EA1 ,KROPOTK9 IS C>EFUL TO NOTE ?AT IT WAS PRECISELY 0:5 SEP>ATE CITIES BECAME LITTLE ,/ATES .<?AT.> W>S BROKE \T BETWE5 !M10 G5]ALLY AS1 A 0/RUGGLE = SUPREMACY OR COLONIES40_<#e#g_> ,:E!R ,ITALY'S P>CELIZATION IS QUITE ! OV]ALL 0EVIL0 ?AT *>ACT]IZES MO/ HI/ORICAL ACC\NTS ( ! ,ITALIAN CITY-/ATES OR A DESID]ATUM ?AT DELAY$ ! EM]G5CE ( AN OV]LY C5TRALIZ$ NATION-/ATE HAS YET TO BE ASSESS$4 

,! CREATION ( CITY CONF$]ACIES 9 C5TRAL ,EUROPE FOLL[$ A DEVELOPM5T ?AT IS V]Y SIMIL> TO :AT WE 5C\NT] 9 ,ITALY1 BUT !Y W]E-ALSO M>K$ BY *>ACT]I/ICS ?AT MAKE !M HI<LY DI/9CTIVE4 ,?AT ,ITALY L$ ,EUROPE 9 URBAN DEVELOPM5T IS NOT SURPRIS+3 ! P59SULA HAD BE5 DOTT$ BY CITIES = C5TURIES :5 MU* ( ! CONT95T NOR? ( ! ,ALPS WAS /ILL COV]$ BY =E/4 ,! ,G]MAN-SPEAK+ CITIES1 H[EV]1 W]E UNIQUE4 ,AL?\< !Y W]E TO FOLL[ !IR ,ITALIAN C\NT]P>TS 9 TIME1 !Y DIFF]$ FROM !M 9 SOCIAL TEXTURE4 ,!Y W]E BUR<] CITIES ) /URDY DOME/IC M>KETS BAS$ ON ! ORD9>Y /APLES ( LIFE TO AN EXT5T WE DO NOT QUITE F9D 9 ,ITALY 7AP>T FROM ,FLOR5CE7 OR 5C\NT] 9 ,FRANCE4 ,CITIES 9VOLV$ 9 ! ,M$IT]RANEAN TRADE MADE !IR =TUNES L>GELY FROM LUXURY GOODS SU* AS SILK1 SPICES1 GEMS1 WELL-WR\<T >MOR1 GOLD & SILV] ORNAM5TS1 & ! LIKE1 MA9LY TRANSPORT$ FROM ! ,NE> ,EA/1 ,NOR? ,AFRICA1 & ,ASIA4 ,BY CONTRA/1 ,G]MAN'CITIES T5D$ TO DEAL 9 ! MAK+ & SALE ( CO>S] CLO?S1 TOOLS1 SIMPLE >MOR1 FOOD /APLES1 & RAW MAT]IALS4 ,!SE COMMODITIES GAVE RISE TO A /AY-AT-HOME >TISAN & M]*ANT ORD] ?AT UND]P9N$ V]Y /OLID COMMUNITIES ) A DEEP S5SE ( ROOT$NESS & A /RONG APPETITE = SECURITY4 ,ACCORD+LY1 A LOCALI/ CIVICISM & PROCLIVITY = AUTONOMY P]SI/$ AFT] ! ,ITALIANS HAD BECOME RELATIVELY JAD$ 9 !IR MUNICIPAL LOYALTIES & YIELD$ TO DESPOTIC REGIMES4 ,! ,G]MAN WORD ,GEME9DE HAS A SPECIAL MEAN+ 9 CIVIC HI/ORY = :I* O!R LANGUAGES HAVE POOR EQUIVAL5TS4 ,IT D5OTES AN ORGANIC COMMUNITY1 A COMMUNITY ?AT HAS A S5SE ( ID5TITY & P]SONALITY1 9DE$ ONE 9 :I* CITY HI]>*IES >E NOTABLE = ! CONTRIBUTION !Y MAKE TO ! COLLECTIVE GOOD AT EA* LEVEL RA!R ?AN ! OPPRESSION !Y 9FLICT ON SUBORD9ATES4 

,G5OA & ,V5ICE ACQUIR$ !IR WEAL? MA9LY FROM EXOTIC GOODS & A ,M$IT]RANEAN-WIDE TRADE4 ,HAMBURG ACQUIR$ ITS WEAL? FROM BREW+ & ,LIIBECK FROM H]R+ & ! FURS ( EA/ ,EUROPEAN =E/S4 ,M]*ANT & >TISAN1 TRAD] & PRIM>Y PRODUC] DEVELOP$ A SYMBIOTIC RELATION%IP ?AT WAS RELATIVELY R>E 9 ! ,LAT9 CITIES ( ! S\?4 ,! CITY CONF$]ACIES PROJECT$ !IR BUR<] TRAITS ONTO !IR CONF$]ACIES3 CITIES & T[NS CAME TOGE!R NOT ONLY TO PROTECT !IR AUTONOMY & LIB]TIES2 !Y ALSO JO9$ TO PROMOTE TRADE & %>E 9 A COMMON PROSP]ITY1 NOT SIMPLY AS RIVALS :OM CIRCUM/ANCES =C$ 9TO COLLUSION ) EA* O!R4 ,! P]SI/5T CONFLICT ?AT M>K$ SO MANY ,ITALIAN CITIES1 ESPECIALLY :5 !Y DEVELOP$ 9TO CITY-/ATES ?AT PLAC$ LESS] COMMUNITIES UND] !IR CONTROL1 WAS MORE SUBDU$ NOR? ( ! ,ALPS4 ,AL?\< BITT] 9T]NAL W>S UNRAVEL ?IS PICTURE 9 ! ,FLEMI% CITIES1 :]E A NASC5T 0PROLET>IAT0 /OOD AT LOGG]HEADS ) A NASC5T 0CAPITALI/ CLASS0 9 ! WOOL-PROCESS+ 9DU/RY ( ! TIME 7A PROBLEM1 ,I MAY ADD1 ?AT AFFLICT$ ,FLOR5CE NO LESS ?AN ,BRUGES71 ! GILD /RUCTURES ( C5TRAL & NOR!RN ,EUROPE W]E MORE 5TR5*$ ?AN ELSE:]E4 ,!Y HELP$ TO CREATE & EMP[] A /RATUM ( MIDDL+ PEOPLE1 MA9LY >TISANS & SMALL M]*ANTS1 :O 5JOY$ RELATIVELY COM=TABLE LIVES & HAD A /ABILIZ+ EFFECT ON ! COMMUNITY1 CU%ION+ ! CONFLICTS ?AT W]E SPAWN$ BY GREAT DISP>ITIES ( WEAL?4 

,?US1 ONE HAS ! S5SE ?AT ,G]MAN CITIES =M$ MORE /ABLE CONF$]ACIES ?AN DID O!R URBAN 5TITIES 9 ,EUROPE4 ,9DE$ ! ,SWISS ,CONF$]ATION1 P]HAPS ! MO/ 5DUR+ & LIB]T>IAN TO EM]GE 9 ,EUROPE1 RE/$ HEAVILY ON ! =MATION ( ! ,GRAUBUND5 OR 0,GRAY ,LEAGUE10 ! CANTON ?AT WAS TO BE DUBB$ DIE KLE9E ,S*WEIZ OR 0LITTLE ,SWITZ]L&10 P>TLY BECAUSE ( ITS PROTOTYPIC *>ACT] AS ! HOME ( ,SWISS DEMOCRACY1 P>TLY TOO BECAUSE ( ITS E?NIC DIV]SITY AL?\< ITS POPULATION IS MA9LY ,G]MAN-SPEAK+4 ,H]E1 ! ,SWISS REC\RSE TO REF]5DA IS REPUT$ TO HAVE BE5 BORN & 0,NO:]E ?R\< ! :OLE RANGE ( HI/ORY10 DECL>$ ,F4 ,B4 ,BAK] EXULTANTLY1 NE>LY A C5TURY AGO1 0IS IT POSSIBLE TO F9D A C\NTRY :]E ! DEMOCRATIC PR9CIPLE WAS MORE ?OR\<LY APPLI$ 444 OR :]E ! GOOD & BAD RESULTS ( ?AT PR9CIPLE HAVE BE5 MORE ?OR\<LY DEMON/RAT$40_<#e#h_> 

,MUM=D'S *URLI% /ATEM5TS AB\T ! MUNICIPAL CONF$]ACIES ( C5TRAL ,EUROPE TO ! CONTR>Y NOT)/&+1 :AT ! CITIES ( ,G]MANIC ,EUROPE LACK$ 9 DURABILITY1 !Y T5D$ TO MAKE UP 9 RECUP]ABILITY4_<#e#i_> ,SOME F\R C5TURIES ( ,G]MAN HI/ORY >E M>K$ BY A L>GE NUMB] ( MUNICIPAL CONF$]ATIONS ?AT CONT9UALLY BUBBL$ UP TO ! SURFACE ( POLITICAL LIFE4 ,! ,HANSEATIC ,LEAGUE1 P]HAPS ! MO/ DURABLE ( ! LOT1 EXI/$ FROM #a#b#d#a1 :5 ,LIIBECK & ,HAMBURG SIGN$ A TREATY ( MUTUAL PROTECTION1 TO #a#f#f#i1 :5 ITS LA/ DIET WAS CONV5$4 ,(FICIALLY1 ! LEAGUE WAS NEV] T]M9AT$ & CITIES SU* AS ,HAMBURG & ,BREM5 >E /ILL DESIGNAT$ AS 0,HANSEATIC CITIES40 ,L>GELY BAS$ ON ! ,BALTIC TRADE1 ! LEAGUE AT ITS HEI<T EMBRAC$ BETWE5 #f & #h CITIES 7,I HAVE TAK5 ! MO/ CONS]VATIVE FIGURES AT MY DISPOSAL71 9CLUD+ ! WOOL-PROCESS+ C5T] ( ,BRUGES 9 ,FL&]S4 ,NE>LY ALL ! MAJOR ,BALTIC PORTS BELONG$ TO ?IS CONF$]ACY AT ONE TIME OR ANO!R1 & ITS %IPS RANG$ WIDELY FROM ,NOVOGOROD 9 ! EA/ TO ,LONDON 9 ! WE/ & ALONG ! ,ATLANTIC COA/L9E4 

,/ILL E>LI]1 MAJOR CONF$]ACIES APPE>$ 9 P>TS ( C5TRAL ,G]MANY12 PR9CIPALLY ! %ORT-LIV$ ,FIR/ ,RH5I% ,LEAGUE 9 #a#b#b#f1 FOLL[$ BY ! ,SECOND 9 #a#b#e#d1 :I* LA/$ UNTIL #a#b#e#h4 ,SOME EI<TY CITIES1 VIRTUALLY ALL ! LEAD+ ,RH9EL& COMMUNITIES1 BELONG$ TO ! LEAGUE UNTIL ITS MEMB]S DRIFT$ AWAY AFT] SUPPORT+ CONT5D+ CLAIMANTS TO ! ?RONE ( ! ,HOLY ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE4 ,9T]MIX$ ) ! POLITICS ( ! EMPIRE & 5DEMICALLY AT W> ) NOBLES :O PREY$ ON !IR TRADE1 !IR HI/ORY WEAVES A /ORY ( 5ORM\S COMPLEXITY & *ALL5GES4 ,BY #a#c#h#d1 A ,SWABIAN ,LEAGUE HAD BE5 =M$ ?AT BR\<T ,G]MAN CITIES TO UNPREC$5T$ 9FLU5CE4 ,LEAGUE MEMB]S EV5 ADVANC$ PROPOSALS TO JO9 ! ,SWISS ,CONF$]ATION4 ,HAD ! ,SWISS BE5 RESPONSIVE TO !SE OV]TURES1 ,EUROPEAN HI/ORY MI<T HAVE TAK5 A V]Y DIFF]5T TURN ?AN IT DID1 POSSIBLY REPLAC+ NATIONALISM ) CONF$]ALISM4 ,BUT ! UNION WAS NOT TO BE1 & ! CITIES1 EV] M9DFUL ( !IR AUTONOMY & LIB]TIES1 FAIL$ TO PREVAIL OV] ! EMPIRE & ! PR9CES4 ,LAT] LEAGUES W]E TO APPE> ?R\<\T ,EUROPE1 EV5 9 ,5GL& &1 V]Y SIGNIFICANTLY1 9 ,SPA94 ,IF WE BE> 9 M9D ! L>GE NUMB] ( MUNICIPAL CONF$]ACIES6 ?AT EXI/$ 9 ,EUROPE DUR+ ! ELEV5? C5TURY & 9 ! C5TURIES ?AT FOLL[$ IT1 ! C]TA9TY SO PREVAL5T 9 PRES5T-DAY HI/ORIOGRAPHY TLIAT ! NATION-/ATE CON/ITUTES A 0LOGICAL0 DEVELOPM5T ( ,EUROPE \T ( FEUDALISM CAN ONLY BE REG>D$ AS A BIAS1 9DE$ A MISUSE ( H9DSI<T ?AT V]GES ON A MY/ICAL =M ( HI/ORICAL PR$ET]M9ATION4 

,AGA91 H[1 MAY WE ASK1 W]E ! ,ITALIAN & NOR!RN ,EUROPEAN MUNICIPAL CONF$]ACIES /RUCTUR$8 ,NONE ( !M CREAT$ ! POPUL> 9T]CITY ASSEMBLIES WE 5C\NT] AMONG ! ,GREEKS1 ,AL?\< CITIZ5 ASSEMBLIES EM]G$ )9 ! CITIES1 !Y DID NOT APPE> BETWE5 ! CITIES4 ,9 ,ITALY1 ! AD HOC NATURE ( ! CONF$]ACIES DID NOT CREATE ANY S]I\S PROBLEM ( 5TR5*$ REPRES5TATIVES :O C\LD DEFY ! WILL ( !IR CON/ITU5CIES3 ! CONF$]ACIES W]E NOTABLE = !IR IMP]MAN5CE4 ,!Y W]E LITTLE MORE ?AN DEF5SIVE ALLIANCES & DISAPPE>$ AS SOON AS !Y W]E NOT NE$$4 ,! ,FIR/ ,LOMB>D ,LEAGUE CREAT$ A P>LIAM5T ( ITS [N1 BUT AS ,DANIEL ,WALEY TELLS US1 IT SIMPLY ASSIGN$ TO ITS MEMB]S >EAS ( MILIT>Y RESPONSIBILITY & SETTL$ ! PRICE CONTRIBUTIONS ( EA* TO FIELD >MIES 7TALLIA MILIUM7 & G>RISONS40 ,?IS 0P>LIAM5T0 NEV] BECAME A SUPRACOMMUNAL AU?ORITY40 ,RA!R IT FUNCTION$ MORE LIKE A TEMPOR>Y G5]AL /AFF4 0,TO ! COMMUNES10 ,WALEY ADDS1 0?IS SOCIETAS OR ,LEAGUE WAS1 LIKE ! ,EMPIRE1 AN 9/ITUTION TO BE JUDG$ BY ITS UTILITY RA!R ?AN BY ANY !ORETICAL IMPLICATIONS3 ONLY AN IMM$IATE IMP]IALI/ ?REAT C\LD KEEP IT 9 BE+40_<#f_> ,TO ! EXT5T ?AT WE CAN SPEAK ( 0CAPITALISM0 AT ?IS TIME1 ! HI<LY AGGRESSIVE 5TREPR5EURIAL SPIRIT ( ! ,ITALIAN MUNICIPALITIES1 F$ BY ! 5ORM\S WEAL? ( ! ,M$IT]RANEAN-WIDE TRADE1 FO/]$ A DEGREE ( RIVALRY ?AT 9HIBIT$ COOP]ATION BETWE5 ! CITIES & IMP>T$ A HI<LY IMP]IALI/IC SPIRIT TO ! L>GE/ AMONG !M4 

,?IS WAS NOT 5TIRELY ! CASE NOR? ( ! ,ALPS4 ,G]MAN CITY CONF$]ATIONS1 = EXAMPLE1 PROVIDE US ) MORE 5DUR+ EF=TS TO 9/ITUTIONALIZE 9T]COMMUNAL COOP]ATION1 EF=TS ?AT REFLECT ! PRUD5T & DEEPLY ROOT$ BUR<] SPIRIT ( ! COMMUNITIES ?AT COMPOS$ !M AS DI/+UI%$ FROM ! MORE RECKLESS & V5TURESOME FEATURES ( ! ,ITALIAN M]*ANTS4 ,! ,SECOND ,RH5I% ,LEAGUE1 %REWDLY PLAY+ (F ! DIFF]5T C&IDATES = ! IMP]IAL ?RONE1 DEM&$ & RECEIV$ =MAL RECOGNITION FROM ,WILLIAM ( ,ORANGE AS A CONF$]ATION--A CIVITATES CONJURATAE--& AV[$ 9 ITS DECL>ATION ?AT ITS CITIZ5S 0HAVE MUTUALLY B\ND .<!MSELVES.> BY OA? TO OBS]VE A G5]AL PEACE FROM ,/4 ,M>G>ET'S ,DAY 7,JULY #a#b1 #a#b#e#d740 ,?IS DECL>ATION WAS TO GO WELL BEYOND PEACEKEEP+4 ,EA* MEMB] ( ! 3 LEAGUE AGRE$ TO S5D F\R REPRES5TATIVES TO A CITY ASSEMBLY OR ,/ADTETAG--ONE AT ,WORMS = ! UPP] ,RH9E1 ! O!R AT ,MA9Z = ! L[]--TO REMOVE EXCESSIVE RIV] TOLLS1 PROVIDE = ! COMMON DEF5SE1 ADD OR EXPEL NEW MEMB]S1 & FO/] ! COMM]CE & WELF>E ( EA* ( ! LEAGUE'S MEMB]S TO ! B5EFIT ( ALL CIVIC ORD]S1 9CLUD+ ,JEWS & CL]GY1 NOT ONLY ORD9>Y CITIZ5S4 ,A BO>D ( >BITRATION WAS E/ABLI%$ TO SETTLE QU>RELS BETWE5 CONF$]ATE CITIES4 ,F9ALLY1 AN ASSEMBLY MEET+ ( ! MUNICIPALITIES' REPRES5TATIVES WAS HELD ON A QU>T]LY BASIS1 NOT ON ! USUAL ANNUAL ONE WE 5C\NT] ELSE:]E4 

,! ,SWABIAN ,LEAGUE FOLL[$ ALMO/ NATURALLY \T ( ITS ,RH5I% PR$ECESSOR & FUNCTION$ AS A C\NT]VAIL+ =CE TO ! EMPIRE & ! T]RITORIAL LORDS4 ,ITS V]Y =MATION )\T IMP]IAL SANCTION WAS AN ACT ( DEFIANCE AGA9/ ! EF=TS ( ,EMP]OR ,*>LES ,I,V TO ASS]T C5TRALIZ$ CONTROL OV] ! ,G]MAN CITIES1 H5CE ITS >TICLES ( AGREEM5T HAVE A M>K$LY DEF5SIVE TONE4 ,BUT IT FUNCTION$ V]Y MU* LIKE ! ,RH5I% ,LEAGUE4 ,BY ! #a#c#hS1 ! CONF$]ACY =C$ ! PR9CES 9TO TEMPOR>Y SUBMISSION &1 9 COMB9ATION ) ! ,LEAGUE ( ! ,RH9E1 :I* IT /RUCTURALLY RESEMBL$1 =M$ ONE ( ,EUROPE'S GREATE/ URBAN CONF$]ACIES4 

,! EM]G5CE ( ! CELEBRAT$ ,SWISS ,CONF$]ATION OR 0,SWITZ]+ AN>*I/S0 AS ,CROMWELL'S SUPPORT]S W]E TO CALL IT C5TURIES LAT]1 MU/ BE SE5 AS AN EXT5SION ( ! ,RH5I% & ,SWABIAN LEAGUES1 NOT AN ANOMALY ?AT /&S AT ODDS ) ! SUPPOS$LY P>O*IAL TRAITS IMPUT$ TO ,EUROPEAN CITIES & !IR LEAGUES4 ,SWITZ]L& WAS =M$ \T ( A MILIEU & MODEL$ AFT] EXAMPLES ?AT EXI/$ 9 C5TRAL ,EUROPE AS A :OLE4.<#i.> ,! ,SWISS CONF$]ATION1 F> FROM BE+ AN ALMO/ LONELY 0EXCEPTION0 TO ! CONF$]AL TR5DS ?AT EXI/$ 9 ! ?IRTE5? & F\RTE5? C5TURIES1 WAS ACTUALLY A PRODUCT ( !M4 ,?AT ! CREATION ( NATION-/ATES WAS TO BE SO GREATLY DELAY$ 9 ,G]MANY & ,ITALY IS DUE 9 GREAT MEASURE TO ! OB/ACLES ?AT ! CITIES1 !IR CONF$]ACIES1 & LAT] ! P[]FUL IMPACT ( !IR TRADITIONS ( AUTONOMY & FRE$OM EX]CIS$ ON POLITICAL LIFE AS A :OLE4 ,IT WAS NOT LOCALI/ 0PETT9ESS0 & 0P>O*IALISM0 ?AT KEPT C5TRAL & S\!RN ,EUROPE FROM A*IEV+ NATIONHOOD UNTIL WELL 9TO ! N9ETE5? C5TURY4 ,RA!R1 ! 0DELAY0 WAS 9 GREAT MEASURE ! PRODUCT ( A /RONG TRADITION ( MUNICIPAL AUTONOMY & A DRAMATIC HI/ORY ( RESI/ANCE TO C5TRALIZATION1 H[EV] P]V]T$ ?IS HI/ORY BECAME 9 LAT] TIMES4 ,! ,HANSEATIC ,LEAGUE'S ,DIET1 ! ,/ADTETAG ( ! ,RH5I% ,LEAGUE1 & AUTONOM\S CONF$]AL' BODIES ELSE:]E 9 ,EUROPE HAUNT ! HI/ORY ( ! CONT95T LIKE ! UNEXORCIS$ SPIRIT ( A MORE ACTIVE PUBLIC LIFE & A VITAL CIVIC POLITICS4 ,?AT ! NATION-/ATE EV5TUALLY DID UNITE ! LAGG>D PR9CIPALITIES ( ,G]MANY1 ,ITALY1 &1 AS WE %ALL SEE1 ,SPA9 9TO C5TRALIZ$ /ATES WAS NOT QUITE ! HAPPY DISP5SATION IT SEEM$ TO BE AT ! TURN ( ! PRES5T C5TURY1 :5 NATIONHOOD WAS REG>D$ AS EVID5CE ( 0MOD]NITY0 & 0PROGRESS40 ,VIEW$ ) H9DSI<T1 ! IMAGES ( ,MUSSOL9I1 ,HITL]1 & ,FRANCO RISE UP TO REM9D US ?AT ! IDEOLOGICAL CELEBRATION ( ! NATION-/ATE1 :I* M>K$ SOCIAL !ORY DUR+ ! ,VICTORIAN ]A1 WAS GROSSLY MISPLAC$4 ,WE ( A LAT] G5]ATION HAVE GOOD REASON TO LAM5T ! LOSS ( ! CONF$]AL ALT]NATIVE ?AT APPE>$ AT AN E>LI] EPO* 9 ,EUROPE1 ONE ?AT MI<T HAVE AV]T$ ! T]RIFY+ TURN 0NATIONAL UNITY0 TOOK BETWE5 #aiad & #a#i#d#e4 

,CONF$]ALISM WAS NOT M]ELY AN 9TUITIVE CIVIC REACTION TO ! FEUDAL P>O*IALISM ?AT M>K$ SO MU* ( ! M$IEVAL WORLD AT ! TIME4 ,!RE W]E !ORETICAL NOT ONLY PRACTICAL CONSID]ATIONS ?AT W]E TO SURFACE ALMO/ SIMULTANE\SLY 9 TWO *>ISMATIC FIGURES ( WE/]N ,EUROPE4 ,H]ALDIC REBELS SU* AS ,COLA DI ,RI5ZI 9 ,ROME & ,ETI5NE ,M>CEL 9 ,P>IS1 CONTEMPOR>IES DUR+ ! MID-F\RTE5? C5TURY1 W]E TO =MULATE ! NUM]\S MOVES T[>D CONF$]AL UNITY 9 V]Y DRAMATIC =M4 ,RI5ZI'S EF=TS TO RE/ORE A NEW ,ROMAN REPUBLIC EVOKE IMAGES ( ! ,GRAC*I & !IR EF=TS TO RE/ORE ,ROME'S TRADITIONAL REPUBLICAN VIRTUES4 ,HIS ATTACKS ON ! V5AL NOBILITY ( PAPAL ,ROME & HIS EF=TS TO CREATE A CITIZ5S' MILITIA W]E APP>5TLY P>T ( A L>G] EF=T TO UNITE ,ITALY 9TO CIVIC LEAGUES UND] ,ROME'S SUZ]E9TY4 ,PRES5T-DAY HI/ORIANS T5D TO DEPICT ,RI5ZI AS A =]UNN] ( ,ITALIAN NATIONALISM :5 !Y >E NOT OCCUPI$ ) DEFAM+ HIM AS A 0DEMAGOGUE0 ) /RICTLY SELF-S]V+ 9T5TIONS4 ,! GREAT] LIKELIHOOD IS ?AT HE WAS A /RID5T LEAD] ( ,ITALIAN CONF$]ALISM4 ,AS A SELF-/YL$ 0,TRIBUNE ( ! ,PEOPLE10 A TITLE R$OL5T ( ! ,GRAC*I RA!R ?AN A ,C9C9NATUS1 ,RI5ZI'S 0P>LIAM5T0 WAS TO BE MADE UP ( DELEGATES FROM ,ITALIAN CITIES1 NOT P59SUL> 0PROV9CES0 ?AT HAD YET TO COME 9TO BE+4 ,?IS EF=T WAS TO BE ABORT$ :5 ! PAPACY & NOBILITY ALLI$ ) EA* O!R1 ULTIMATELY LEAD+ TO HIS MURD] 9 #a#c#e#d4 

,ETI5NE ,M>CEL EM]GES FROM ?IS /ORMY ]A 9 A F> MORE FAVORABLE LI<T4 ,A 0PROVO/ ( ! M]*ANTS0 & ECONOMICALLY WELL-TO-DO 9 HIS [N RI<T1 ,M>CEL WAS CLE>LY A POPUL> LEAD] ( ! 0,?IRD ,E/ATE0 9 ,P>IS :OSE EF=TS TO 5L>GE ! P[]S ( ! ,E/ATES ,G5]ALE AT ! EXP5SE ( ! MON>*Y & NOBILITY & MAKE ROYAL TAXES MORE EQUITABLE DEVELOP$ 9TO A WID] *ALL5GE TO ABSOLUTISM & >I/OCRATIC P[]4 ,M>CEL'S [N GOALS1 9 FACT1 W]E PROBABLY MORE 0B\RGEOIS10 POSSIBLY EV5 MORE 0REPUBLICAN10 ?AN HIS [N ORD] W\LD HAVE BE5 PREP>$ TO ACCEPT4 ,LIKE ,RI5ZI1 HE WAS TO 5JOY IMM5SE SUPPORT UNTIL A ROYALI/ FACTION )9 ! MIDDLE CLASS ITSELF ASSASS9AT$ HIM 9 #a#c#e#h4 ,! T5D5CY ( N9ETE5?- & TW5TIE?-C5TURY HI/ORIANS TO READ A 0NATION-/ATE0 M5TALITY 9TO M5 :O LIV$ 9 AN ]A GUID$ L>GELY BY FEUDAL OR CONF$]AL VISIONS ( POLITICAL LIFE IS MISLEAD+4 ,UND]LY+ ?IS BIAS IS !3 MY? ?AT ,EUROPE'S 0B\RGEOISIE0 WAS 9ITIALLY REPUBLICAN & BASICALLY NATIONALI/ 9 ITS CONVICTIONS4 ,RI]IZI & ,M>CEL ROSE TO PROM95CE BECAUSE !Y SPOKE = >TISANS & ! URBAN POOR AS WELL AS M]*ANT & PR(ESSIONAL /RATA1 MANY ( :OM SID$ ) ! NOBILITY AGA9/ ! ORD9>Y PEOPLE ( ,EUROPE'S CITIES4 ,P]EZ ,ZAGOR9 SEEMS TO BE MU* CLOS] TO ! TRU? :5 BE OBS]VES1 0,GRIEVANCES BORN ( UNFAVORABLE  
CONJONCTURE & WRET*$ CONDITIONS UND]LAY ! POPUL> UPSURGE1 :]EAS ,M>CEL HIMSELF WAS A REVOLUTION>Y RE=M] :O WANT$ TO BUILD AN ALLIANCE ( T[NS1 /R5G!N ! ,E/ATES ,G5]AL1 & FA/5 POLITICAL LIMITATIONS ON ! MON>*Y4 ,HIS MOVEM5T ALSO E/ABLI%$ SOME SLI<T TIES ) ! ,JACQU]IE1 ! BIG PEASANT REVOLT ?AT HAD BROK5 \T AT ! SAME TIME 9 ! ,ILE-DE-,FRANCE & SURR\ND+ REGION40_<#f#a_> ,?IS JUDGM5T SPEAKS TO A CONF$]AL \TLOOK1 ONE ?AT WAS MORE 9 TUNE ) ! P]IOD ?AN A 0NATIONALI/0 VISION ( A C5TRALIZ$ ,FRANCE4 

,ZAGOR9'S REF]5CE TO ! ,JACQU]IE REM9DS US ?AT ! P]IOD FAC$ A S]IES ( MAJOR PEASANT TUMULTS--NOT ONLY 9 ,FRANCE BUT ?R\<\T WE/]N ,EUROPE4 ,! ,5GLI% ,PEASANT ,REBELLION ( #a#c#h#a1 :I* FOLL[$ ! ,FR5* ,JACQU]IE BY LESS ?AN ?REE DECADES1 =M$ A HI< PO9T 9 ! RE/IVE VILLAGE UPSURGES ?AT F9ALLY L$ TO ! BRIEF SEIZURE ( ,LONDON BY A PEASANT >MY4 ,JOHN ,BALL1 AN IT9]ANT PRIE/ :O' WAS TO COLOR ! REBELLION ) P[]FUL DECLAMATIONS AGA9/ SOCIAL & ECONOMIC 9EQUALITY1 GAVE ! RIS+ A L>G]-?AN-LIFE IMAGE4 ,ACTUALLY1 ! PEASANTRY T5D$ TO RISE 9 ! AFT]MA? ( W>TIME RAVAGES ( ! C\NTRYSIDE OR UNPR$ICTABLY 9 ISOLAT$ POCKETS AGA9/ FEUDAL EXACTATIONS1 ROYAL TAXES1 EXCESSIVE 0TI!S10 UPP]-CLASS HI<H&$NESS4 ,TO DETAIL !SE UPRIS+S W\LD BE IMPOSSIBLE4 ,OCCASIONALLY1 !Y MANAG$ TO COJO9 ) URBAN UNRE/ 9TO FULL-SCALE REBELLIONS & TO POSE S]I\S *ALL5GES TO PROV9CIAL & C5TRAL AU?ORITIES4 ,:E!R ?IS CONNECTION WAS WELL-E/ABLI%$--AS WAS ! CASE 9 ! ,HUSSITE ,W>S ( ,BOHEMIA DUR+ ! FIFTE5? C5TURY--OR ASSUM$ AN EMPHEM]AL *>ACT]1 AGR>IAN UNRE/ BECAME 5DEMIC ?R\<\T ! C5TURIES ?AT FOLL[$ & P]SI/S TO ?IS DAY 9 ! ,?IRD ,WORLD4 

,ORD9>ILY1 PEASANT REVOLTS W]E %ORT-LIV$ & FRAGM5T$4 ,! CLIMAX ( !SE UPRIS+S 9 WE/]N ,EUROPE WAS TO EM]GE FROM ! ,LU!RAN ,RE=MATION ( ! #a#e#bS1 :5 ! CITIES & C\NTRYSIDE ( ,G]MANY W]E ?R[N 9TO YE>S ( P]SI/5T UNRE/4 ,BETWE5 #aebd & #a#e#b#f1 ,G]MAN PEASANTS ROSE ON A MASS SCALE2 SWEEP+ OV] L>GE >EAS ( ! WE/]N & S\!RN P>TS ( ! C\NTRY & 5T]+ 9TO HI/ORICAL ANNALS AS ! FAM\S 0,PEASANTS' ,W>40 ,PRESUMABLY1 ?IS WAS REG>D$ AS A 0REVOLUTION0 BY *RONICL]S1 :O W]E EAG] TO DI/+UI% IT FROM ! MANY 0REBELLIONS0 ?AT EXPLOD$ SPORADICALLY 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE FROM M$IEVAL TIMES TO ! ,5LI<T5M5T4 ,! M$LEY ( IDEOLOGIES1 S5TIM5TS1 & 9T]E/S ?AT >E IMPUT$ TO ! ,G]MAN PEASANT UPRIS+ HAS 5DE>$ IT TO ,M>XI/S1 LIB]ALS1 ROMANTICS1 !OLOGIANS1 & NATIONALI/S ALIKE4 ,IT HAS BE5 V>I\SLY' SE5 AS A PRECURSOR ( MOD]N COMMUNI/IC MOVEM5TS1 A /RIK+ EXAMPLE BF CLASS W>1 AN EF=T AT MORAL REG5]ATION1 EV5 AS A =]UNN] ( ! ,G]MAN NATION-/ATE OR A =CE ?AT %AP$' ITS DEVELOPM5T4 ,MO/ ( !SE APPRAISALS DO NOT GIVE SUFFICI5T EMPHASIS TO ! DEEP-SEAT$ COMMUNIT>IAN IMPULSES ?AT MOV$ ! PEASANTS TO ACTION3 !IR ATTEMPTS TO PRES]VE ! RURAL ,GEME9DE FROM F]N DAL1 COMM]CIAL1 & CL]ICAL 5CROA*M5T4 ,IF !RE IS ANY UNIFY+ DRAMA TO ! UPHEAVAL1 IT IS ! PEASANTRY'S EF=T TO PRES]VE ITS ORGANIC COMMUNAL TIES1 ITS TRADITIONAL VILLAGE UNIV]SE ?AT 5COMPASS$ TIME-HONOR$ VALUES1 9/ITUTIONS1 & LIFEWAYS AS WELL AS L&HOLD+S ?AT W]E *ALL5G$ BY PR9CELY & B>ONIAL 5CROA*M5TS4 ,IT IS ?IS UNIV]SE1 SO MU* ( A PIECE ) ! CIVIC VALUES ( TRADITIONAL SOCIETY AS SU*1 ?AT MAKES ! ,PEASANTS' ,W> ( #a#e#b#d-#b#f SO FASC9AT+ TO !ORI/S & HI/ORIANS ( MUNICIPAL DEVELOPM5T4 

,! =TUNES ( ?IS CONFLICT1 ) ALL !IR V>I$ 9T]PRETATIONS1 HAVE BE5 EXPLOR$ EXT5SIVELY 5\< TO REQUIRE NO DETAIL$ TREATM5T H]E4 ,?OMAS ,MUNZ]'S LEG5D>Y 0COMMUNI/0 T5ETS ( ! TIME PROBABLY >TICULAT$ ! PEASANTRY'S COMMITM5T TO ITS TRADITIONAL NETWORKS ( MUTUAL AID1 ITS TIMELESS VISIONS ( A 0GOLD5 AGE0 BAS$ ON EQUALITY1 ITS PREC>I\S REALITY ( COLLECTIVE MANAGEM5T ( L& & GOODS ?AT M>K$ ! ,GEME9DE--ALL VILLAGE-BAS$ TRADITIONS RA!R ?AN 0ANTICIPATIONS0 ( SOCIALI/ & COMMUNI/ !ORIES ?AT APPROPRIATELY /EM FROM A SOPHI/ICAT$ 9DU/RIAL SOCIETY RA!R ?AN AN OLD AGR>IAN ONE4 ,TO ! ROMANTICS :O F\ND 9 ! PEASANTRY ! EMBODIM5T ( A ,G]MAN E?NOS1 ! CONFLICT (F]S NO 9SPIR+ MY?S ( A UNIT$ PEOPLE MOTIVAT$ BY A S5SE ( BLOOD & SOIL4 ,! ,PEASANTS' ,W> WAS AS FRAGM5T$ AS ! SOCIETY FROM :I* IT /EMM$4 ,ONLY ONCE DO WE HE> ( A REALLY E>NE/ EF=T TO BR+ :AT W]E SEP>ATE UPRIS+S 9TO A UNIFI$ /RUGGLE4 ,A 0PEASANT P>LIAM5T0 WAS CONV5$ AT ,MEMM+5 TO =M A 0,*RI/IAN ,UNION ( ! ,PEASANTS0 & COORD9ATE ! PEASANT >MIES ( ,UPP] ,SWABIA4 ,! UNION BR\<T TOGE!R ! ?REE  
,HAUF5 OR CORPS ?AT W]E 9 REVOLT 9TO COMMON MILIT>Y OP]ATIONS1 EA* L$ BY A *IEF & F\R C\NCILORS1 A /RUCTURE ?AT COMPLETELY REPLICAT$ ! ADM9I/RATION ( ! PEASANT VILLAGE4 ,! VILLAGE =M1 9 EFFECT1 WAS PROJECT$ ONTO ! %>$ COMM& /RUCTURE ( ! MILI T>Y =CES1 MIRROR+ ! TRADITIONAL SOCIETY ?AT IT WAS MEANT TO PRES]VE4 

,! ,MEMM+5 0P>LIAM5T0 ALSO =MULAT$ & ADOPT$ ! FAM\S 0,TWELVE ,>TICLES0 ( ! PEASANT REVOLT1 A PROGRAM WORD$ 9 T]MS ( SCRIPTURAL AU?ORITY4 ,! >TICLES 0HUMBLY0 PETITION ! SECUL> AU?ORITIES = ! RI<T ( ! VILLAGES TO *OOSE & DEPOSE !IR [N PA/ORS1 TO FIX !IR [N 0TI!S0 ACCORD+ TO ! NE$S ( ! PA/OR & ! POOR ( ! COMMUNITY1 TO ABOLI% S]FDOM1 DIM9I% CORVEE LABOR1 R$UCE FEUDAL DUES & R5TS1 &1 F9ALLY1 TO RE/ORE ALL 5CLOS$ COMMON L& TO ! VILLAGE & 5D FUR!R 5CLOSURES DEF9ITIVELY4 ,ALL[+ = MANY LOCAL V>IATIONS1 ! ,MEMM+5 ,>TICLES BECAME ! BASIC PROGRAM ( ! REBELLI\S ,G]MAN PEASANTRY & WAS SOON ! MO/ WIDELY CIRCULAT$ DOCUM5T ( ! W>4 ,GIV5 ITS TONE ( HUMILITY1 REC\RSE TO SCRIPTURAL LEGITIMACY1 & HUMANE DEM&S1 IT COMPLETELY EXPRESS$ ! SPIRIT & VALUES ( ! ,GEME9DE1 ,IT WAS ! VOICE ( A TRADITIONAL VILLAGE WORLD BY :I* ! MUNICIPAL LIFE ( ! ]A WAS N\RI%$ & FROM :I* IT DREW ITS VITALITY4 ,H]E9 LIES ! REAL CONT9UITY ( ! >TICLES ) ,G]MAN CIVIC LIFE3 ITS /RONG SOLID>ITY AS AN E?ICAL COV5ANT4 

,! ,G]MAN PR9CES W]E TO UNITE & CRU% ! ,PEASANTS' ,W> 9 A T]RIBLE BLOODBA?4 ,AL?\< CITY SUPPORT ( ! PEASANTS WAS V]Y WIDESPREAD1 IT WAS (T5 QUALIFI$ & PRONE T[>D COMPROMISE4 ,! ,TWELVE ,>TICLES RESONAT$ ) ! URBAN POOR & L[] CLASSES1 & ITS MORAL TONE & APPEALS TO SCRIPTURE WON IT CONSID]ABLE CL]ICAL SUPPORT4 ,! ALMO/ EVANGELICAL NATURE ( ! UPRIS+ GAVE IT ! QUALITIES ( A CRUSADE = HUMAN RI<TS & DEC5CY1 TRAITS ?AT W]E NOT LO/ ON MANY ( ! $UCAT$ /RATA ( ! CITIES4 ,DESPITE ITS RADICAL RHETORIC1 ,FR$]ICK ,5GELS'S APPRAISAL ( ! ,PEASANTS' ,W> IS P]VAD$ BY ALL ! PREJUDICES ( ! LA/ C5TURY4 ,! W>'S 0*IEF RESULT10 WE >E TOLD1 WAS ! 0/R5G!N+ ( ,G]MAN DEC5TRALIZATION :I*1 9 TURN1 WAS ! 0CAUSE ( .<! W>'S.> FAILURE40_<#f#b_> ,ONE IS DISPOS$ TO ASK IF VICTORY BY ! PEASANTS W\LD HAVE YIELD$ A 0C5TRALIZATION0 ( ,G]MANY ?AT W\LD HAVE OV]COME ! FRAGM5TATION CREAT$ BY ! ,G]MAN PR9CES4 ,ACCORD+LY1 ! ,PEASANTS' ,W> WAS EI!R A 0REVOLUTION10 AS ,5GELS CLAIM$1 OR A CRUDE ANA*RONISM AS HE %\LD HAVE CLAIM$ BY HIS [N /&>DS ( 0HI/ORICAL MAT]IALISM10 9 :I* CASE IT BELONG$ NOT TO ! TRULY 0REVOLUTION>Y TRADITION0 ( ,G]MANY BUT TO A 0REACTION>Y0 ONE4 ,HIS APPRAISAL BECOMES ALL ! MORE 5TANGL$ :5 HE REJECTS CONF$]ACY AS A VALID SOLUTION TO ,G]MANY'S PROBLEMS1 A SOLUTION ?AT ! PEASANTS 9TUITIVELY SEEM TO HAVE DESIR$4 ,?IS PROBLEM IS NOT AN ACADEMIC ONE4 ,IT RAISES ! CRUCIAL QUE/ION ( :E!R OR NOT SEEM+LY 0UNDEVELOP$0 PEOPLES TODAY >E TO A*IEVE :AT WE SO FLIPPANTLY CALL 0MOD]NIZATION0--BY CONF$]ALISM OR NATIONALISM1 DEC5TRALISM OR C5TRALISM1 LIB]T>IAN 9/ITUTIONS OR AU?ORIT>IAN ONES4 ,WE HAVE NOT REMOV$ !SE QUE/IONS FROM ! FUTURE ( \R CIVILIZATION NOR CAN !Y BE CONCEAL$ FROM PURVIEW BY ! VEIL ( HI/ORY4 ,IF ANY?+1 H9DSI<T HAS MADE !M AS SE>+ TODAY AS !Y W]E 9 E>LI] TIMES1 :5 ! T]RIFY+ FUTURE ?AT N[ LOOMS BE=E US WAS V]Y F> REMOV$ FROM ! EYES ( M5 & WOM5 9 ! SIXTE5? C5TURY4 

,?IS MU* MU/ BE EMPHASIZ$3 ! ATTEMPTS TO CREATE A NATION-/ATE 9 WE/]N ,EUROPE F\R C5TURIES AGO DID NOT OCCUR )\T CONSID]ABLE RESI/ANCE FROM ! FREE CITIES ( ! ]A1 REBELLI\S VILLAGES1 & >\S$ >TISANS1 NOT ONLY RECALCITRANT NOBLES4 ,! SIXTE5? C5TURY1 :I* WAS DECISIVE 9 ! RISE ( ,EUROPEAN ABSOLUTISM & ULTIMATELY NATIONALISM1 BE>S WITNESS TO A V]ITABLE DELUGE ( VILLAGE1 PROV9CIAL1 & URBAN UPRIS+S4 ,EV5 ,5GL& WAS NOT SP>$ FROM DRAMATIC AGR>IAN UNRE/3 ,KETT'S ,REBELLION ( #a#e#d#i1 :ILE MORE ( A MASS PROTE/ AGA9/ L& 5CLOSURES ?AN A REVOLUTION>Y *ALL5GE TO ROYAL AU?ORITY1 REQUIR$ ! USE ( ?\S&S ( TROOPS BE=E IT C\LD BE SUBDU$4 ,9 ,FRANCE1 ! REBELLION WAS FOLL[$ BY ! RIS+ ( ! ,CROQUANTS BETWE5 #aeib & #a#e#i#e1 A /RUGGLE MORE R$OL5T ( ,G]MAN DEM&S = VILLAGE AUTONOMY ?AN ! ,5GLI% ONE4 ,SU* REVOLTS1 G5]ALLY LOCALIZ$ & EASILY SUBDU$1 W]E TO BECOME 5DEMIC AS ,FRANCE PASS$ DEEP] 9TO ABSOLUTISM & ULTIMATELY REVOLUTION4 ,9DE$1 IT WAS NOT UNTIL ! ,NAPOLEONIC ,]A ?AT !Y CAME TO A DEF9ITIVE 5D1 & A ONCE REBELLI\S PEASANTRY WAS TURN$ 9TO A CONS]VATIVE PILL> ( ! ,BONAP>TI/ MON>*Y4 

,NONE ( !SE REBELLIONS PRODUC$ CONF$]ATIONS OR DEVELOP$ 9TO S]I\S *ALL5GES TO ! EM]G+ NATION-/ATES ( ! ,WE/4 ,! CIVIC ROOTS ( ! ,5GLI% ,REVOLUTION HAVE R>ELY BE5 APPRAIS$ FROM A MUNICIPAL VIEWPO9T1 AL?\< ! REVOLUTION ?AT BEGAN 9 ,5GL& 9 ! #a#f#dS WAS TO F9D A REM>KABLY DEMOCRATIC FULFILLM5T 9 ! T[N%IPS ( ,NEW ,5GL&4 7,?IS IS A DEVELOPM5T WE MU/ RES]VE = A LAT] & FULL] DISCUSSION47 ,! ,GREAT ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 9 TURN1 WAS TO EVOKE ! IDEAL ( COMMUNAL CONF$]ATION )\T GIV+ IT P]MAN5T REALITY4 ,9DE$1 ! ,JACOB9 0DICTATOR%IP10 IF SU* IT CAN BE CALL$1 WAS TO TURN ,FRANCE 9TO ONE ( ! MO/ C5TRALIZ$ NATION-/ATES 9 ,EUROPE4 ,BUT ! IDEAL DID NOT DIE4 ,LAT]1 IT ACQUIR$ A BRIEF & GL[+ MOM5T ( REALITY 9 ! SUBSEQU5T ,P>IS ,COMMUNE ( #a#h#g#a1 A COMMUNE OR 0CITY C\NCIL0 ?AT CALL$ UPON ALL ! CITIES ( ,FRANCE TO JO9'IT 9 A HUGE CIVIC CONF$]ATION--ONLY TO BE CRU%$ 9 BLOODY FI<T+ ) TROOPS ( ! ,?IRD ,REPUBLIC AFT] SOME TWO MON?S ( EXI/5CE4 ,) MAGNIFICANT /UBBORNNESS1 ! ,P>IS ,COMMUNE ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY HAD TRI$ TO BR+ TO LIFE :AT ITS PR$ECESSOR ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY HAD 5T]TA9$ 9 ITS CONFLICT ) ! ,JACOB9-CONTROLL$ ,CONV5TION DUR+ ! LA/ YE>S ( ! ,GREAT ,REVOLUTION4 

,IRONICALLY1 ! MO/ S]I\S ?REAT TO ABSOLUTISM & ! NATION/ATE BY A CONF$]ATION ( MUNICIPALITIES WAS TO EM]GE DUR+ ! SIXTE5? C5TURY 9 A C\NTRY :]E ABSOLUTISM SEEM$ VIRTUALLY TRIUMPHANT3 ,SPA9 UND] ! RULE ( ,EUROPE'S /]NE/ & POLITICALLY LEA/ YIELD+ MON>*1 ,*>LES ,V4 ,! P]IOD DIRECTLY PREC$+ ! F9AL SUBJUGATION ( ! ,MOORS 9 #adib WAS M>K$ BY A REM>KABLE BURGEON+ ( CITY LIFE & ! CONSOLIDATION ( ,SPANI% ABSOLUTISM UND] ! ,CA?OLIC MON>*S1 ,F]D9& & ,ISABELLA4 ,SPA9'S PROSP]ITY & ITS MOVEM5T T[>D A NATION-/ATE SEEM LIKE AN ALMO/ TEXTBOOK EXAMPLE ( COLLABORATION BETWE5 A MON>*Y & AN URBAN 0B\RGEOISIE40 ,?AT MON>*Y & CITY C\LD HAVE EV5TUALLY 5T]$ 9TO CONFLICT ) EA* O!R W\LD HAVE SEEM$ 9CONCEIVABLE AT ! TIME IF IT DID NOT ACTUALLY HAPP54 ,ISABELLA1 FOLL[+ AN ACTIVE POLICY ( FO/]+ CITY LIFE & PLAY+ URBAN /RATA AGA9/ L&$ MAGNATES1 PROMOT$ 9T]NAL COMM]CE1 SCRUPUL\SLY RESPECT$ MUNICIPAL RI<TS1 & WORK$ CLOSELY ) ! ,SPANI% ,CORTES1 ! C\NTRY'S 0P>LIAM5T40 ,?IS POLICY WAS 9T5D$ TO DEVELOP 9/ITUTIONS & =CES C\NT]VAIL+ ! RAPACI\S ,SPANI% T]RITORIAL LORDS4 ,! GILDS1 LONG ! OBJECTS ( ROYAL HO/ILITY1 W]E P]MITT$ TO EXT5D !IR ORD9ANCES & CONFIRM$ 9 !IR ,TI<TS TO CONTROL PRODUCTION OP]ATIONS4 ,! ''CRUSADE0 AGA9/ ! ,MOORS WAS %REWDLY US$ TO 9CREASE POPUL> 5?USIASM = ! MON>*Y1 9DE$ TO GIVE IT A C5TRALITY 9 ,SPANI% LIFE & RELIGION ?AT1 IT HAD NEV] 5JOY$4 ,! IMAGE ( A MORALLY REG5]AT$ ,*RI/IAN ,SPA9 EVOK$ HOPES ( A /ABLE1 UNIFI$1 & P[]FUL NATION :OSE RE/IVE NOBILITY & C5TRIFUGAL REGIONALISM HAD TO BE BR\<T UND] RIGOR\S CONTROL4 

,?IS IMAGE WAS TRANSLAT$ 9TO A C]TA9 MEASURE ( FACT1 ESPECIALLY 9 ,CA/ILE1 ! ,SPANI% HE>TL&4 ,CA/ILE =M$ ! BULW>K ( ! NEWLY EM]G+ NATION1 ! S\RCE ( ITS PREVAIL+ DIALECT1 ITS MANN]S1 & ! 0PROTOTYPIC0 ,SPANI% *>ACT]1 :I* HELD SU* L+UI/ICALLY1 E?NICALLY1 & CULTURALLY DISP>ATE 0,SPA9S0 AS ! ,BASQUES1 ,CATALANS1 & L>GELY ,MOORI% ,&ALUSIANS TOGE!R4 ,H]E1 TOD1 ! MON>*Y 9 LAT] YE>S WAS TO *OOSE ITS FUTURE CAPITAL1 ,MADRID1 & TURN ! CITY 9TO ! ADM9I/RATIVE C5T] ( ! C\NTRY AS A :OLE4 ,?IS /ATE MA*9]Y WAS ONE ( ! MO/ SOPHI/ICAT$ 9 ,EUROPE4 ,AT ! SAME TIME1 ! ,CA?OLIC K+S BEGAN TO %ORE UP !IR RELATION%IP ) ! CITIES1 DEFLECT+ URBAN HO/ILITY FROM ! MON>*Y TO ! NOBILITY & DRAW+ UPON URBAN WEAL? TO CONSOLIDATE ROYAL RULE1 ,F]D9& & ,ISABELLA 5L>G$ !IR BUREAUCRATIC CONTROL OV] ! 9DEP5D5T CITIES ( ! PROV9CE4 ,! CORREGIDORES OR T[N (FICIALS ( ! CR[N W]E GIV5 EXT5D$ P[]S TO BR+ ! URBAN NOBLE CLANS UND] CONTROL & PROTECT ! CITIES FROM L&$ MAGNATES :O EXPLOIT$ !M44 ,MUNICIPAL L& ?AT ! MAGNATES HAD ILLEGALLY SEIZ$ W]E RE/OR$ 9 SOME MEASURE2 TAX F>M]S1 :OSE ACTIONS V]G$ ON \TRI<T PLUND]1 W]E REPLAC$ BY ! 5CABEZAMI5TO SY/EM 9 :I* ! MA9 TAX1 ! ALCABALA1 WAS COLLECT$ BY LOCAL (FICIALS2 ! ,ROYAL ,C\NCIL WAS /AFF$ BY UNIV]SITY TRA9$ LAWY]S1 ! LETRADOS1 & A SUP]VISORY HI]>*Y ( (FICIALS TO OV]SEE ! BURGEON+ BUREAUCRACY FROM SECRET>IES TO  
VISITADORES :O PROVID$ = R$RESS FROM ABUSES & GRIEVANCES4 ,A C5TRALIZ$ & PR(ESSIONAL JUDICI>Y1 TOGE!R ) V>I\S C\NCILS ( BRO!RHOODS1 ! ,9QUISITION1 & ! ,CORTES ITSELF BALANC$ \T A BUREAUCRACY & PROVID$ = CLOSE ROYAL SUP]VISION ( NE>LY ALL ASPECTS ( ,SPANI% LIFE4 

,?IS MA*9]Y1 P>TLY TRADITIONAL & P>TLY NEW1 WAS DE/9$ TO HAVE A V]Y LIMIT$ LIFE SPAN4 ,AL?\< ! ,FR5* MON>*Y WAS TO 9/ALL A SIMIL> ONE ?AT LA/$ = SOME TWO C5TURIES1 ! ,SPANI% /ATE MA*9]Y BEGAN TO WEAK5 APPRECIABLY EV5 DUR+ ! REIGN ( ! ,CA?OLIC MON>*S4 ,! F9AL /RUGGLE AGA9/ ! ,MOORS ESS5TIALLY BR\<T ! CONFLICT BETWE5 ! MON>*Y & NOBILITY TO AN 5D4 ,DESPITE H] FE>S ( ! L&$ MAGNATES1 ,ISABELLA WAS OBLIG$ TO USE !M MILIT>ILY TO COMPLETE ! RECONQUE/1 & ! MAGNATES CLAIM$ !IR FULL REW>DS = SUPPORT+ ! /ATE4 ,9CREAS+LY1 ! LO/ MUNICIPAL L&S W]E RECOV]$ BY ! >I/OCRACY1 !IR TAX+ P[]S W]E 9CREAS$1 !IR ABILITIES TO SIDE/EP DISAGREEABLE C\RT DECISIONS W]E 5HANC$1 & !IR F9ANCIAL CONTROL ( ! MON>*Y 9CREAS$ IMM5SELY4 ,:5 9 #aeai ,*>LES ,V BECAME K+ ( ,SPA9 AS ,C>LOS ,I & 5T]$ HIS CLAIM TO ! ?RONE ( ! ,HOLY ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE1 ! MON>*Y WAS L>GELY UND] >I/OCRATIC CONTROL4 ,BORN & RAIS$ 9 ,FL&]S1 ,*>LES QUICKLY E>N$ ! MI/RU/ ( HIS ,SPANI% SUBJECTS AS A =EIGN] :OSE PR9CIPAL CONC]NS W]E HIS [N IMP]IAL AMBITIONS & :O LIV$ MA9LY ABROAD TO ADVANCE !M4 ,VIRTUALLY ALL /RATA ( ,CA/ILIAN SOCIETY VIEW$ ! NEWLY 9/ALL$ K+ AS A MAN :O REG>D$ ,SPA9 AS A RES\RCE = HIS SQUABBLES ABROAD1 FREELY BILK+ ! C\NTRY ( ITS WEAL?4 

,TO EXAC]BATE MATT]S /ILL FUR!R1 ! C5TRAL ADM9I/RATIVE APP>ATUS WAS ALL BUT TAK5 OV] BY A COT]IE ( ,FLEMI% ADVIS]S ?AT WAS NOTABLE = ITS 9S5SITIVITY TO ,SPANI% TRADITIONS & 9T]E/S4 ,9EPT & CLUMSY1 ,*>LES'S ,FLEMI% SURROGATES TURN$ ! MON>*Y 9TO A P>ASITIC 5TITY 9 :I* ! >I/OCRACY WAS ! MA9 B5EFICI>Y ( ! NEW DISP5SATION4 ,9CREAS+ TAXES1 A GRAVE DECL9E 9 ! HONE/Y & EFFECTIV5ESS ( ! CORREGIDORES1 A BREAKD[N 9 ! ROAD SY/EM ?AT L$ TO HI<]1 (T5 UNBE>ABLE F9ANCIAL LEVIES ON IMPOV]I%$ VILLAGE & T[N POPULATIONS1 A FAILURE BY 9EPT OR CORRUPT SUP]VISORY (FICIALS TO DIS*>GE !IR RESPONSIBILITIES 9 CONTROLL+ ! BUREAUCRACY & >I/OCRACY1 A DECL9E 9 ! 9TEGRITY ( ! C\RT SY/EM1 A MILIT>Y SY/EM ?AT QU>T]$ ILL-PAID & UNRULY TROOPS ) AN 9CREAS+LY IMPOV]I%$ POPULATION--ALL1 WELL UND]WAY BE=E ,*>LES BECAME K+1 W]E EXAC]BAT$ BY ALI5 RUL]S1 A SUSPECT MON>*1 ! DECL9+ PRE/IGE ( ! ROYAL P[]1 & ! GR[+ 5CROA*M5TS ( A SELF-S]V+ >I/OCRACY4 

,ON ,MAY #c1#a#e#b1 A CR[D ( WOOLWORK]S SEIZ$ A HAT$ MEMB] ( ,SEGOVIA'S ,CORTES DELEGATION & HANG$ HIM1 LEAD+ TO A REVOLT 9 ! CITY ?AT =C$ ALL ITS ROYAL (FICIALS TO TAKE TO !IR HEELS4 ,?IS SEEM+LY LOCAL ACT ( CR[D VIOL5CE WAS TO UNLEA% ONE ( HI/ORY'S MO/ EXTRAORD9>Y MUNICIPAL 0REVOLUTIONS10 AS MANY HI/ORIANS CALL IT1 ! RIS+ ( ! ,COMUN]OS 7LIT]ALLY TRANSLAT$ AS ,COMMUN>DS74 ,AL?\< ?IS COMUNIDAD OR COMMUNITY REVOLT WAS FAIRLY %ORT-LIV$1 IT IS \T/&+ = ITS 9/ITUTIONAL CREATIVITY4 ,! ACTION ( ! WOOLWORK]S 9 ,SEGOVIA PALES BE=E ! MORE S]I\S REBELLION ?AT DEVELOP$ :5 ,TOL$O'S CITY C\NCIL1 *ALL5G+ AN UNFAVORABLE *ANGE 9 ROYAL TAX POLICY1 WROTE TO ALL ! CITIES REPRES5T$ 9 ! ,CORTES & DEFIANTLY CALL$ UPON !M TO E/ABLI% A COMMON FRONT AGA9/ ! ROYAL GOV]NM5T4 ,:AT MAY HAVE APPE>$ LIKE ONE ( MANY URBAN TAX REVOLTS ?AT M>K$ ! :OLE P]IOD SOON TURN$ 9TO A FULL-SCALE REVOLUTION4 ,)9 MON?S1 CITY AFT] CITY 9 ,CA/ILE BEGAN TO COLLECT & IMP\ND ALL TAXES COLLECT$ = ! MON>*Y4 ,CIVIC MILITIAS W]E ORGANIZ$1 & F>-REA*+ *ANGES W]E 9TRODUC$ TO DEMOCRATIZE & 5HANCE ! AUTONOMY ( MUNICIPAL GOV]NM5TS4 ,ON ,TOL$O'S SUGGE/ION1 A NATIONAL JUNTA WAS E/ABLI%$ ) DELEGATES FROM ALL ! ,CORTES CITIES4 ,! ,COMUN]OS1 9 EFFECT1 HAD E/ABLI%$ A P>ALLEL OR 0DUAL0 P[] 9 OPPOSITION TO ! PREVAIL+ ROYAL ADM9I/RATION4 

,E>LY REACTIONS TO ?IS DEVELOPM5T RANG$ FROM ! 5?USIA/IC TO ! TOL]ANT4 ,EV5 ! L&$ MAGNATES1 EV] M9DFUL ( AN OPPORTUNITY TO GA9 FROM ANY DIM9UTION ( ! C5TRAL GOV]NM5T1 PLAC$ A TACTFUL DI/ANCE BETWE5 !MSELVES & ! MON>*Y4 ,BY MU/]+ AN IMPRESSIVE >MY ( CITIZ5S ) AN 9FRA/RUCTURE & ADD$ DETA*M5TS ( PR(ESSIONAL SOLDI]S1 !  
,COMUN]O ,JUNTA MOV$ SPE$ILY T[>D A S]IES ( VICTORIES ?AT ?REAT5$ TO REPLACE ! 5TIRE ROYAL /ATE ) A MUNICIPAL CONF$]ATION4 ,! ,COMUN]OS HAD CREAT$ !IR [N MILIT>Y SY/EM1 AN ADM9I/RATIVE APP>ATUS ?AT REA*$ DEEPLY 9TO MO/ ( ,CA/ILE'S SOCIAL ORD]1 TAX RES\RCES1 & A TREM5D\S RES]VOIR ( POPUL> GOODWILL1 CUTT+ ACROSS SEEM+LY 9SURM\NTABLE 0CLASS0 B>RI]S 79CLUD+ CL]ICAL ONES7 ?AT SEEM$ IRRESI/IBLE 9 ! E>LY MON?S ( ! JUNTA'S EXI/5CE4 

,:AT BR\<T ?IS MOVEM5T TO AN 5D 9 ,APRIL #aeba :5 ITS LA/ MAJOR FIELD DETA*M5TS W]E DEFEAT$1 NE> ! VILLAGE ( ,VILLAL>8 ,TOL$O1 IT %\LD NOT$1 HELD \T AGA9/ ROYALI/ =CES UNTIL ,FEBRU>Y #a#e#b#b1 & O!R CITIES TRI$ TO RESI/ AFT] ! BATTLE ( ,VILLAL>4 ,P]HAPS ! MO/ /RATEGIC MILIT>Y FACT WAS ! SW+ ( ! NOBILITY FROM A G5]ALLY NEUTRAL POSITION OV] TO ! MON>*Y4 ,NO LESS IMPORTANT WAS ! SUPPORT ?AT ! ROYALI/S SL[LY ACQUIR$ FROM ! CITY ELITES--! KNI<TS OR ,CABALL]OS :O LIV$ 9 URBAN >EAS1 WELL-TO-DO M]*ANTS1 ! HI<] CL]GY1 & G5]ALLY MORE PROSP]\S /RATA1 :O W]E ALI5AT$ BY ! RADICALIZATION & DEMOCRATIZATION ( CIVIC LIFE4 ,! ,COMUN]OS1 LIKE !IR HEIRS C5TURIES LAT] 9 ,P>IS1 W]E /RID5TLY URBAN 9 \TLOOK & RETA9$ A BASIC HO/ILITY TO ! PEASANTRY 7:O ACTUALLY W]E !IR NATURAL ALLIES7 AS A CLASS CONTROLL$ BY ! NOBLES4 ,F9ALLY1 !  
,COMUN]OS C\LD NOT EXT5D !IR MOVEM5T BEYOND ! C5T] ( ,SPA94 ,VIEW$ AS ,CA/ILIANS BY ! O!R 0,SPA9S0 ?AT SURR\ND$ !M1 ! MOVEM5T WAS SE5 AS ! WORK ( A PRIVILEG$ POPULATION ?AT HAD REVOLT$ AGA9/ ITS EV5 MORE PRIVILEG$ OV]LORDS4 ,! ,CATALANS1 ,BASQUES1 & ,&ALUSIANS1 TO CITE ! MO/ WELL-KN[N REGIONS HO/ILE TO ,CA/ILIAN HEGEMONY1 C\LD NOT BE BR\<T TO ID5TIFY ) A ,CA/ILIAN CAUSE1 H[EV] MU* !  
,COMUN]OS SOLICIT$ !IR SUPPORT 

,IT IS EASY 9 VIEW ( !SE REASONS TO SEE ! REVOLT ( !  
,COMUNIDADES AS A /RICTLY 0CLASS0 MOVEM5T1 TO SPEAK ( IT V>I\SLY AS 0ATAVI/IC0 BECAUSE IT POS$ A M]E MUNICIPAL *ALL5GE TO A SEEM+LY 0PROGRESSIVE0 NATION-/ATE OR TO REG>D IT AS A CONFLICT ( 9T]E/S BETWE5 VAGUE1 9DEF9ABLE CLASS /RATA3 NOBLES1 A 0B\RGEOISIE10 A 0NASC5T PROLET>IAT10 & ! LIKE4 ,! T]M 0NASC5T0 IS :AT MAKES SU* A 0CLASS ANALYSIS0 QUE/IONABLE4 ,( ALL ! CLE>LY DEF9ABLE 0CLASSES0 ?AT W]E TO PLAY A MAJOR ROLE 9 LAT] ,SPANI% HI/ORY--AP>T FROM ,SPA9'S 5DUR+ PEASANTRY-ONLY ! L&$ MAGNATES SURVIV$ ! ]A AS A COHESIYE /RATUM & W]E TO C>RY ON 9TACT UNTIL REC5T TIMES4 ,! O!RS >E MORE PROP]LY 0ORD]S0 9 !IR 9DEF9ABILITY1 ?AT IS1 9 !IR PAUCITY ( ECONOMIC ROOTS1 !IR WAV]+ /ABILITY AS SOCIAL GR\PS1 & ! MURK9ESS ( !IR CONC]NS4 ,:AT WE HAVE H]E IS A TYPICAL1 QUASIFEUDAL 0,?IRD ,E/ATE10 RANG+ FROM WELL-TO-DO1 EV5 WEAL?Y1 /RATA TO AN AMORPH\S MASS ( >TISANS1 M]*ANTS1 09TELLECTUALS0 ( V>I\S SORTS1 CL]KS1 & CL]ICS1 TO :I* WE MAY ADD A CONSID]ABLE NUMB] ( S]VANTS1 LABOR]S1 & BEGG>S4 ,?IS 0,?IRD ,E/ATE0 WAS UNIT$ BY ITS URBANITY1 LIT]ALLY BY A %>$ CULTURE AS T[N DWELL]S4 ,DESPITE ! MANY MAT]IAL DIFF]5CES ?AT W]E TO SEP>ATE !M1 EI!R !Y W]E CITIZ5S ,( A P>TICUL> CITY OR !Y ASPIR$ TO BE4 ,!IR IDEOLOGICAL UNITY CAME FROM ! PRIM>Y LOYALTY ?AT ! CITY CLAIM$ & FROM ! POLITICAL >5A IT CREAT$4 ,IT WAS ! CITY1 NOT !IR 0CLASS10 ?AT EVOK$ 9 !M A REAL FEEL+ ( PLACE1 A MEAN+FUL COMMITM5T ( S]VICE1 & A CLE> S5SE ( SELF-DEF9ITION4 ,?IS COLLECTIVE LOYALTY TO A  
PATRIA *ICA1 TO A 0SMALL FA!RL&10 SO 9T5SE AMONG URBAN DWELL]S DUR+ ?AT ]A1 IS DIFFICULT TO CONVEY TODAY :5 NATIONALISM HAS 9VAD$ ALL PUBLIC S5TIM5TS ( LOCAL LOYALTY4 ,9 ! SIXTE5? C5TURY IT WAS 9T5SE 5\< TO IMP>T AN ALI51 ALMO/ EXOG5\S1 QUALITY TO ! C5TRAL P[] & TO FOCUS ONE'S DEVOTION ON ! VILLAGE1 T[N1 OR CITY 9 :I* ONE LIV$ RA!R ?AN ! /ILL-EM]G+ NATION-/ATE4 

,N[ADAYS1 WE W\LD BE 9CL9$ TO BELIEVE ?AT SU* V>I$ ECONOMIC GR\PS W\LD BE 9 *RONIC CONFLICT ) EA* O!R1 A CONCLUSION ?AT SEEMS TO BE SUPPORT$ BY ! 9T]NAL CONFLICTS ?AT 5GULF$ MANY CITIES ( ,EUROPE1 P>TICUL>LY ! ,FLEMI% & ,ITALIAN ONES4 ,ACTUALLY1 ?IS IS A V]Y ONE-SID$ PICTURE ( URBAN FIFE 9 ! PA/4 ,IT IS EASY = HI/ORIANS TO =GET H[ READILY DISP>ATE /RATA 9 A CITY UNIT$ AGA9/ 9VAD]S OR O!R CITY RIVALS1 DESPITE !IR DIV]G5T ECONOMIC 9T]E/S4 ,9 FACT1 IT W\LD BE H>D TO UND]/& :Y ! ,COMUN]OS C\LD UNITE 9 ! FIR/ PLACE1 GIV5 ! DISP>ITIES 9 WEAL? & SOCIAL POSITION ?AT EXI/$ 9 !IR CITIES1 & :Y A /RONG S5SE ( UNITY EXI/$ TO ! V]Y LA/1 EV5 AFT] URBAN ELITES BEGAN TO FALL AWAY FROM !IR MOVEM5T4 ,!IR ROYALI/ OPPON5TS DID NOT W9 ALL ! WELL-TO-DO /RATA ( ! ,CA/ILIAN CITIES2 9 FACT1 !RE WAS RESI/ANCE TO ! V]Y 5D1 ESPECIALLY 9 ,TOL$O1 :I* HELD \T AGA9/ ROYALI/ OPPON5TS = NE>LY A YE> AFT] ! BATTLE ( ,VILLAL>4 ,:AT ! ROYALI/S SUCCE$$ 9 A*IEV+ WAS 5\< ( A DIVISION BETWE5 !SE /RATA TO TIP ! BALANCE 9 !IR FAVOR & BR+ ! GREAT] MILIT>Y PR[ESS ( ! >I/OCRACY 9TO AN ADVANTAGE\S POSITION OV] RELATIVELY 9EXP]I5C$ CIVIC MILITIAS4 

,:AT ! ,COMUN]OS REALLY A*IEV$ HAS YET TO BE FULLY GRASP$ BY SOME ( ITS HI/ORIANS4 ,! MOVEM5T OP5$ CIVIC LIFE ON A SCALE ?AT HAD R>ELY BE5 SE5 9 ,EUROPE S9CE ,HELL5IC TIMES4 ,IT EXP&$ ! V]Y MEAN+ ( ! WORD 0POLITICS10 NOT ONLY AT A CONF$]AL1 CITY1 OR T[N LEVEL BUT AT A NEI<BORHOOD OR P>I% LEVEL4 ,COMUN]O DEM&S W]E /RIK+LY RADICAL EV5 = \R DAY3 A ,CORTES1 COMPOS$ ( CITY DELEGATIONS1 :I* W\LD GREATLY LIMIT ROYAL AU?ORITY1 & A MUNICIPAL DEMOCRACY :OSE EXT5T V>I$ FROM ONE CITY TO ANO!R4 ,9 A GR\P ( >TICLES =MULAT$ 9 ,VALLADOLID1 ! ,COMUN]OS DEM&$ ?AT DELEGATES = ! ,CORTES BE *OS5 ) ! CONS5T ( P>I% ASSEMBLIES 9/EAD ( CITY C\NCILS1 ! PRACTICE FOLL[$ BY ! MON>*Y4 ,!SE DELEGATES 9 TURN W]E TO BE GUID$ BY ! M&ATE ( !IR ELECTORS & W]E TO ACQUIRE ! RI<T TO CONSULT ) !IR CITIES IF !IR 9/RUCTIONS DID NOT ADEQUATELY COV] ! PROBLEMS ?AT SURFAC$ AT ! ,CORTES1 A RI<T ?AT ! MON>*Y HAD CONSI/5TLY D5I$ CITY DELEGATES TO ! P>LIAM5T>Y BODY4 ,HAD !SE DEM&S BE5 REALIZ$1 ,SPA9 W\LD HAVE SE5 ! EM]G5CE ( A BROADLY BAS$ LOCAL DEMOCRACY1 ONE DEEPLY ROOT$ 9 CITY NEI<BORHOODS AS WELL AS MUNICIPALITIES4 ,SU* A DEMOCRACY1 9 FACT1 W5T F> BEYOND RADICAL CONCEPTIONS ( POLITICAL REPRES5TATION4 ,!Y W]E AN OP5 9VITATION TO REVITALIZE ! 5TIRE PUBLIC SPH]E1 OP5+ IT TO ALL /RATA ( ! POPULATION & ADVANC$ URBAN CONCEPTS ( CITIZ5%IP ?AT W]E ALL-9CLUSIVE & COMPLETELY GRASS-ROOTS 9 *>ACT]4 ,9 CITIES SU* AS ,TOL$O & ,VALLADOLID1 ?IS NEI<BORHOOD DEMOCRACY WAS NOT M]ELY A DEM&2 IT BECAME A WORK+ REALITY1 ONE ?AT WAS R>ELY TO BE A*IEV$ AGA9 UNTIL ! RISE ( ! ,P>ISIAN SECTIONAL MOVEM5T 9 ! ,GREAT ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION4 

,MANY ,COMUN]O DEM&S CON/ITUT$ A SIXTE5?-C5TURY 0,BILL ( ,RI<TS40 ,! ,CORTES WAS TO MEET REGUL>LY & ALL ! GRIEVANCES ( ! ,COMUNIDADES W]E TO BE ADDRESS$ BE=E IT C\LD T]M9ATE ITS PROCE$+S4 ,! ,COMUN]OS1 ( C\RSE1 CALL$ = ! PROTECTION ( PROP]TY FROM LEGAL CONFISCATION EXCEPT 9 CASES ( TREASON2 FRE$OM FROM H>% PUNI%M5T 9 CRIM9AL CASES2 LIMITS ON ! QU>T]+ ( VISIT+ ROYALTY2 PROHIBITION ( ! SALE ( PUBLIC (FICES2 RE=MS ( JUDICIAL & APPEALS PROC$URES2 & ! COMPLETE 0,CA/ILIANIZATION0 ( ! C\RT1 :I* ,*>LES HAD FILL$ ) ALI5S :O KNEW V]Y LITTLE AB\T ,SPANI% PROBLEMS4 ,! DEM&S CONTA9$ A /RONG1 BASICALLY EGALIT>IAN APPEAL = *OOS+ (FICIALS ACCORD+ TO !IR P]SONAL M]IT1 PR(ESSIONAL QUALIFICATIONS1 & MORAL PROBITY RA!R ?AN = !IR /ATUS & SOCIAL BACKGR\ND4 

,*>LES'S VICTORY OV] ! ,COMUN]OS SIGNAL$ ! TRIUMPH 9 ,SPA9 ( /ATECRAFT OV] POLITICS1 ( ! NATION-/ATE OV] CONF$]ALISM4 ,IT WAS A VICTORY ?AT WAS ATTA9$ PRIM>ILY BY ! =CE ( >MS1 NOT BY A HIDD5 LOGIC ( HI/ORY4 ,! /RUGGLE ( ! ,COMUNIDADES ) ! MON>*Y--IT WAS NEV] A /RUGGLE AGA9/ MON>*ISM AS SU* AL?\< IT CAME V]Y CLOSE AT TIMES TO A *ALL5GE ( MON>*ICAL RULE 9 ITS SIXTE5?-C5TURY =M--HAD BE5 PREC$$ BY SIMIL> CONFLICTS BETWE5 CITY LEAGUES OR CONF$]ACIES ALMO/ EV]Y:]E ON ! ,EUROPEAN CONT95T4 ,IT WAS TO BE FOLL[$ BY GREAT] OR LESS] /RUGGLES ( A SIMIL> NATURE AFT] NATION-/ATES HAD BE5 WELL-E/ABLI%$4 ,IF ,SPA91 ONE ( ,EUROPE'S /RONGE/ ABSOLUTE MON>*IES 9 ! SIXTE5? C5TURY1 IS S+L$ \T = /UDY1 ! ,COMUN]O MOVEM5T DID NOT E/ABLI% A TRADITION ?AT AN 0ASC5D+0 B\RGEOISIE C\LD CLAIM = ITSELF4 ,QUITE TO ! CONTR>Y3 ! ,COMUN]OS F\ND A LAT]1 ALBEIT HI<LY MODIFI$1 EXPRESSION 9 ,PI Y ,M>GALL'S ,F$]ALI/ MOVEM5T ( ! LATE N9ETE5? C5TURY1 :I* DI/9CTLY RESI/$ /ATE C5TRALIZATION1 & F9ALLY 9 ! L>GE/ AN>*I/ MOVEM5T 9 ,EUROPE4 

,*>LES ,V DID NO?+ TO FO/] A CAPITALI/ SOCIETY4 ,9DE$1 ABSOLUTISM BECAME A LE?AL CANC] 9 A ONCE PROSP]\S C\NTRY ?AT WAS DEVITALIZ$ BY MASSIVE /ATE EXP5DITURES = IMP]IAL ADV5TURES ABROAD4 ,! ,COMUN]O MOVEM5T1 BY CONTRA/1 TRI$ TO RE9 ?IS MON>*Y & ULTIMATELY DRA/ICALLY DIM9I% ITS P[]4 ,ITS FAILURE WAS FOLL[$ OV] A P]IOD ( TIME BY AN 9CR$IBLE DECL9E ( ,SPANI% ECONOMIC & URBAN LIFE4 ,CITIES SANK 9TO LE?>GY1 AGRICULTURE /AGNAT$ UND] ! RULE & MISMANAGEM5T ( ! MAGNATES1 ROADS W]E P]MITT$ TO DECAY1 & ! WEAL? ( ! C\NTRY WAS VA/LY DIM9I%$4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 ! ,9DU/RIAL ,REVOLUTION 9 ,EUROPE1 :I* PRESUMABLY DATES ! ASC5DANCY ( URBAN CAPITALISM OV] TRADITIONAL SOCIETY1 DID NOT FO/] A CITY DEVELOPM5T 9 ,SPA9 ?AT WAS :OLESOME OR VITAL4 ,IT DID NOT REVIVE COMMUNITY LIFE2 RA!R1 IT REPLAC$ :AT REMA9$ ( COMMUNITY ) URBANIZATION1 ANOMIE1 &1 UND] ,FRANCISCO ,FRANCO1 ) A F]OCI\SLY T]RORI/ REGIME ?AT HAS V>I\SLY BE5 CALL$ 0NATIONALI/0 BY ITS ADMIR]S & 0FASCI/0 BY ITS OPPON5TS4 ,:E!R OR NOT ! TWO T]MS ACTUALLY REVEAL ! CONV]G5CE ( A DEVELOPM5T ?AT WAS TO YIELD C5TRALIZ$ AU?ORITY 9 ITS MO/ BRUTAL =MS IS A PROBLEM ?AT WE HAVE YET TO RESOLVE 9 \R [N TIME4 

,?AT !RE IS A LOGIC 9 C]TA9 HI/ORICAL PREMISES1 ONE ?AT UNF OLDS MORE AS A T5D5CY ?AN A NECESSITY1 IS C]TA9LY NOT >GUABLE3 NATIONALISM DOES FO/] TOTALIT>IANISM1 & ! C5TRALIZ$ /ATE T5DS TO DEVELOP 9TO AN ALL-EMBRAC+ /ATE4 ,BUT IT IS C]TA9LY DIFFICULT TO >GUE1 ?AT A SUPRAHUMAN PH5OM5ON CALL$ 0HI/ORY0 EXI/S & PR$ET]M9ES A SOCIETY'S DEVELOPM5T4 ,!  
,COMUN]OS HAD OP5$ A PA?WAY TO A COOP]ATIVE1 UNIFI$ ,SPA9 ?AT C\LD HAVE YIELD$ A V]Y DIFF]5T DISP5SATION FROM ?AT :I* CAME ) A C5TRALIZ$ NATION-/ATE4 ,SO1 TOO1 HAD E>LI] CITY CONF$]ACIES1 :OSE A*IEVEM5TS MEET ) SO MU* DISDA94 ,POLITICS HAD TO BE /RUCTUR$ >\ND A COMMUNITY ( ONE K9D OR ANO!R1 :E!R AS A POLIS1 ,GEME9DE1 BURG1 COMMUNE1 OR CITY4 ,LACK+ ! FLE% & BLOOD ( POLITICALLY 9VOLV$ PEOPLE & COMPREH5SIBLE SELF-GOV]N+ 9/ITUTIONS1 ! HUMAN PH5OM5ON WE CALL 0SOCIETY0 T5DS TO DIS9TEGRATE AT ITS BASE1 EV5 AS IT SEEMS TO CONSOLIDATE AT ITS APEX4 

,C5TRALIZATION BECOMES MO/ ACUTE :5 DET]IORATION OCCURS AT ! BASE ( SOCIETY4 ,DIVE/$ ( ITS CULTURE AS A POLITICAL REALM1 SOCIETY BECOMES AN 5SEMBLE ( BUREAUCRATIC AG5CIES ?AT B9D MONADIC 9DIVIDUALS & FAMILY UNITS 9TO A /RICTLY ADM9I/RATIVE /RUCTURE OR A =M ( 0POSSESSIVE10 MORE PROP]LY ACQUISITIVE1 9DIVIDUALISM ?AT LEADS TO PRIVITIZATION ( ! SELF & ITS DIS9TIGRATION 9TO M]E EGOISM4 ,! CITY1 9 TURN1 IS NO LONG] UNIT$ BY ANY SORT ( E?ICAL BOND4 ,IT BECOMES A M>KETPLACE1 A DE/RUCTUR$ & =MLESS ECONOMIC UNIT1 A REALM 9 :I* ! ,HOBBESIAN W> ( 0ALL AGA9/ ALL0 BECOMES A VIRTUAL REALITY1 IRONICALLY DESIGNAT$ AS A 0RETURN TO NATURE40 

,SU* A CONDITION & ! M5TALITY IT PRODUCES CON/ITUTE A DISSOLUTION ( NATURE & SOCIETY'S EVOLUTION>Y ?RU/ T[>D DIV]SITY1 COMPLEXITY1 & COMMUNITY1 A PROBLEM ?AT APPROPRIATELY BELONGS TO ! NEWLY DEVELOP+ FIELD & PHILOSOPHY ( SOCIAL ECOLOGY RA!R ?AN URBAN SOCIOLOGY4 ,IT IS A SOCIAL PROBLEM BECAUSE WE >E TALK+ AB\T ONE ( ! MO/ ELEM5TAL =MS ( HUMAN CONSOCIATION--! CITY--:]E PEOPLE ADVANCE BEYOND ! K9%IP BOND TO %>E1 CREATE1 & DEVELOP ! MEANS ( LIFE1 CULTURALLY AS WELL AS ECONOMICALLY1 AS HUMAN BE+S4 ,H]E1 HUMANITAS AS DI/+UI%$ FROM ! 0FOLK0 COMES 9TO ITS [N4 ,& IT IS AN ECOLOGICAL PROBLEM 9 ! S5SE ?AT DIV]SITY1 V>IETY1 & P>TICIPATION CON/ITUTE NOT ONLY ! BASIS = ! /ABILITY ( HUMAN CONSOCIATION BUT ALSO = ! CREATIVITY ?AT IS IMP>T$ TO US BY DIV]SITY1 9DE$1 ULTIMATELY1 ! FRE$OM ?AT ALT]NATIVE =MS ( DEVELOPM5T ALL[ = ! EVOLUTION ( NEW1 RI*]1 & WELL-R\ND$ SOCIAL =MS4 

,URBANIZATION1 :I* ,I SEE AS ! DISSOLUTION ( ! CITY'S WEAL? ( V>IETY & AS A =CE ?AT MAKES = MUNICIPAL HOMOG5EITY & =MLESSNESS1 IS A ?REAT TO ! /ABILITY1 FECUNDITY1 & FRE$OM ?AT ! CITY ADD$ TO ! SOCIAL L&SCAPE4 ,A CRITICAL ANALYSIS ( H[ URBANIZATION EM]G$1 ITS G5ESIS P>TLY 9 ! NATION-/ATE1 P>TLY 9 9DU/RIALISM1 & G5]ALLY ) ! ONSET ( CAPITALI/IC =MS ( PRODUCTION & DI/RIBUTION--ALL EXAM9$ FROM ! VIEWPO9T ( SOCIAL ECOLOGY--IS A PROBLEM ( CRUCIAL IMPORTANCE = \R TIME1 9DE$ ONE ?AT WILL HELP US DEF9E ! FUTURE ( ! CITY1 POLITICS1 &1 ABOVE ALL1 CITIZ5%IP4 

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