,*APT] #e 
,PATT]NS ( ,CIVIC ,FRE$OM 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,MURRAY ,BOOK*9 

,TEXT 3 

,*APT] ,FIVE3 ,PATT]NS ( ,CIVIC ,FRE$OM 

  

,AL?\< ! CITY WAS ! CULTURAL C5T] ( ! ANCI5T WORLD1 ITS MAT]IAL BASE WAS EXTREMELY FRAGILE4 ,H5CE ! REM>KABLE RISE & FALL ( CITIES ?R\<\T ANTIQUITY4 ,CITY LIFE DEP5D$ TO A REM>KABLE DEGREE ON ! VIABILITY & ! ECONOMY ( AGR>IAN COMMUNITIES & LABOR SO ?AT CITIES APPE> MORE AS ISL&S 9 A VA/ RURAL OCEAN ?AN SELF-SU/A9+ ECONOMIC 5TITIES4 ,9DE$1 PRUD5T E/IMATES ( ! NUMB] ( RURAL WORK]S NE$$ TO SU/A9 A S+LE CITY DWELL] HAVE BE5 PLAC$ AT A RATIO ( T5 TO ONE4 ,H5CE ANY S]I\S AGRICULTURAL CATA/ROPHE LIKE A DR\<T1 FLOODS1 OR PE/ 9FE/ATION1 NOT TO SPEAK ( W>S ?AT DEVA/AT$ AGRICULTURE1 C\LD LEAD TO ! BREAKD[N1 9DE$ ! COMPLETE DISAPPE>ANCE1 ( A MAJOR CITY AS SO MANY CIVIC RU9S FROM ANTIQUITY ATTE/ TO ?IS V]Y DAY4 

,! FRAGILE DEP5D5CE ( ! CITY ON ! C\NTRYSIDE'S ECONOMY PLAC$ A HI<4PREMIUM ON ! /ABILITY ( URBAN 9/ITUTIONS4 ,! ,HELL5IC EMPHASIS ON ! POLIS AS A REALM ( REASON ?AT HAD TO VIGILANTLY GU>D ITSELF AGA9/ A SURR\ND+ WORLD ( *AOTIC UNC]TA9TY & M9DLESS B>B>ISM--A S5SIBILITY SO IMPORTANT TO UND]/&+ ITS ATTITUDE T[>D WOM51 SLAVES1 & ALI5S--IS NOT )\T ITS ROOTS 9 ! COMPELL+ REALITIES ( ANCI5T URBAN LIFE4 ,A NATURE TAM$ BY MAN1 SPECIFICALLY BY WELL-E/ABLI%$ & RELIABLE F>M]S1 =MS ! MATRIX ( ,HELL5IC PHILOSOPHY & ! GREAT CULTURAL MONUM5TS ( ! ,A!NIAN POLIS4 ,CIVIC DEMOCRACY WAS L>GELY AN AGR>IAN DEMOCRACY1 & ITS IDEAL ( ! F>M]-CITIZ51 H[EV] DUBI\S IT BECAME 9 ! LAT] HI/ORY ( ! POLIS1 WAS ! PRODUCT ( A V]Y VIABLE AGR>IAN H]ITAGE4 ,ROME1 TOO1 DEVELOP$ !SE IDEALS & DID NDT REQUIRE ,GREEK CULTURE TO PRODUCE !M4 

,CORRESPOND+LY1 ! ANCI5T CITY WAS NOT ONLY A C5T] = C\NTRY LIFE :OSE /&>DS W]E =M$ BY F>M]S1 LAT] BY NOBLES & 0C\NTRY G5TLEM510 BUT IT WAS 0SEAF>+0 9 A V]Y LOOSE S5SE ( ! T]M4 ,[+ TO ! 9SECURITY ?AT ! CITY FELT AS AN 0ATOLL444 ON AN OCEAN ( RURAL PRIMITIVISM10 IT DIRELY NE$$ ACCESS TO ! SEA TO COPE ) ANY DISLOCATIONS BETWE5 T[N & C\NTRY4 ,! ALL-IMPORTANT FACTOR ?AT C\LD CORRECT ANY IMBALANCES CAUS$ BY DR\<T1 FLOOD1 PLAGUE1 >ID O!R SU* DISA/]S WAS IMPORTS OR1 PUT MORE BLUNTLY1 ! TRIBUTE ?AT A CITY-/ATE C\LD EXACT FROM A LEAGUE ( CAPTIVE 0ALLIES0 OR ! VICTIMS ( \TRI<T CONQUE/4 ,! ,DELIAN ,LEAGUE1I :I* ,A!NS E/ABLI%$ TO ASS]T ITS SUPREMACY OV] ! EA/]N ,M$IT]RANEAN1 QUICKLY TURN$ 9TO A RELATIVELY MODE/ LOOT+ 5T]PRISE TO FE$ & PROVIDE ! 0GOOD FIFE0 = ITS CITIZ5S4 ,! ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE IS A LA/+ HI/ORICAL EXAMPLE ( P>ASITISM RUN RIOT TO ! PO9T ( MORAL1 CULTURAL1 & SOCIETAL SUICIDE4 

,H5CE1 ANCI5T CITIES W]E LOCAT$ )9 A HUNDR$ MILES OR SO ( ! ,M$IT]RANEAN ,SEA OR CLOSE TO NAVIGABLE RIV]S ?AT L$ TO MAJOR BODIES-( WAT]4 ,ANCI5T ,LUGDUNUM 7MOD]N ,LYONS7 PROVIDES US1 ) AN EXAMPLE ( A CITY ?AT ,ROME F\ND$ 9 #dc ,B4,C41 DEEPLY 9L& 9 ,GAUL1 ?AT WAS4 FELICIT\SLY LOCAT$ AT ! CONFLU5CE ( ! ,RHONE & ,SAONE RIV]S4 ,BEYOND ! COA/S & RIV]S1 CITIES DW9DL$ TO T[NS &1 NOT MU* F>!R1 TO VILLAGES & HAMLETS ?AT !N PHAS$ 9TO A LITTLE KN[N WILD]NESS :]E MILIT>Y =TS KEPT A GU>D$ EYE ON RE/LESS B>B>IAN TRIBES4 ,ANCI5T CITIES W]E NEV] AUTONOM\S URBAN C5T]S4 ,FRAGILE 9 ! EXTREME1 !Y DEP5D$ UPON LOCAL AGRICULTURAL COMMUNITIES = ! MO/ IMPORTANT ESS5TIALS ( FIFE1 A V]Y SIMPLE TE*NOLOGY1 & A CONSID]ABLE AM\NT ( HUMAN MUSCLE P[] TO WORK IT1 ,IF !Y EXP&$ BEYOND ! CAPACITY ( !IR AGRICULTURAL BASE1 !Y DIRELY NE$$ TRIBUTE FROM O!R CITY-/ATES TO SU/A9 !MSELVES UNLESS !Y 5JOY$ NATURAL BLESS+S SU* AS ! ,NILE1 :OSE ANNUAL OV]FL[ 9 ,SEPTEMB] PROVID$ ,EGYPT ) 5DLESS QUANTITIES ( F]TILE SOIL FROM ! HI<L&S ( ,E?IOPIA4 

,MOD]N URBAN DWELL]S T5D TO FEEL UNEASY AB\T SO T5TATIVE & QUALIFI$ AN IMAGE ( ! CITY41 ,WE LIKE TO ?9K ( CITIES AS 0ET]NAL0 & URBAN CULTURAL FIFE AS FREE ( RURAL SOCIAL 9FLU5CES4 ,WE >E WILL+ TO GRANT ?AT CITIES DO *ANGE ) >*ITECTURAL 9NOVATIONS1 TE*NOLOGY1 & SOCIETAL ADVANCES BUT ?AT BASICALLY !Y >E IMMUNE TO ! RAVAGES ( TIME & ! VICISSITUDES ( HI/ORY4 ,! TOMBS ( BURI$ CITIES 9 ,ANATOLIA1 ,MESOPOTAMIA1 ,NOR? ,AFRICA1 & ! RU9S ( ,C5TRAL ,AM]ICA & ,MEXICO >E GRIM REM9D]S ?AT CITIES CAN DIE =EV] )\T SUCCESSORS TO OV]LAY !M1 9DE$ ?AT HI/ORICALLY !Y HAVE BE5 T]RIBLY ,VULN]ABLE TO SOCIAL & ECOLOGICAL *ANGES4 ,NOR DO WE LIKE TO ?9K ?AT1 CITIES HAVE ANY SIGNIFICANT ROOTS 9 AGR>IAN SOCIETIES1 ,9DE$ ?AT !Y DID NOT ALWAYS 0DOM9ATE0 ! C\NTRYSIDE 9 ! 7ILL-5COMPASS+ S5SE ?AT !Y DO TODAY4 ,! 5ORM\S P[] MOD]N CITIES EX]CISE OV] RURAL FIFE--NOT ONLY ECONOMICALLY & TE*NOLOGICALLY BUT CULTURALLY--SEEMS TO BE A HI/ORIC DE/9Y 9 ,\R EYES ?AT IS /RUCTUR$ 9TO CITIFICATION OR 0CIVILIZATION0 FROM ITS V]Y ORIG9S1 A TELOS ?AT PR$E/9ES URBAN FIFE TO A*IEVE LA/+ SUPREMACY OV] ALL O!R FIFE WAYS4 ,! GREAT URBAN BELTS ?AT SPRAWL ACROSS ! L&1 UGLY AS !Y MAY BE1 APPE> TO US AS ! CULM9ATION1 P]HAPS ! FULFILLM5T1 ( A DRAMA 9 :I* E>LY TEMPLE CITIES OR ,GREEK POLEIS W]E M]ELY >*ETYPAL *>ACT]S ILL A L>G] & MORE SWEEP+ CIVIC /ORY ?AT REA*ES ITS CLIMAX ,9 :AT WE CALL 0MOD]NITY0 & ALL ITS CITIFI$ AM5ITIES4 ,?AT CONTEMPOR>Y URBANIZATION DOES NOT REPRES5T ! CULM9ATION OR FULFILLM5T ( CITIFICATION1 ?AT ! HI/ORY ( ! CITY CANNOT BE PROP]LY UND]/OOD ) ! H9DSI<T & ,EUROC5TRICITY ( A ,NEW ,YORK]1 ,P>ISIAN1 ,B]L9]1 OR ,LONDON] REVEALS A MOD]N CONCEIT ?AT UND] CRITICAL EXAM9ATION TELLS US H[ SKEW$ & MISLEAD+ >E POPUL> IDEAS ( H[ CITIES ACTUALLY DEVELOP$ & ! SPECIAL ID5TITIES !Y ACQUIR$4 

,?IS CONCEIT1 TO BE SURE1 IS NOT 5TIRELY MOD]N4 ,ANCI5T EMPIRES SU* AS ! ,BABYLONIAN & ,P]SIAN BUILT CITIES TO LA/ & E>NE/LY BELIEV$ 9 !IR IMMORTALITY4 ,! ,GREEK IMAGE ( !  
POLIS AS IMMORTAL WAS WOV5 9TO ! H]OIC IMAGE ( ! DEMOCRATIC CITIZ5 & ! IDEAL ?AT NOBLE ACTIONS W\LD YIELD A LA/+ FAME ?AT W\LD SURVIVE HIS [N MORTALITY4 ,! WORDS 0ET]NAL ,ROME0 >E PROV]BIAL4 ,EV5 BE=E ! RISE ( ,*RI/IANITY1 !Y 5T]$ DEEPLY 9TO ! CONSCI\SNESS ( ! CITY'S CITIZ5S4 ,AS IT TURN$ \T1 ! CLOS+ YE>S ( ! EMPIRE1 A SPAN ( TWO C5TURIES BE=E IT F9ALLY FELL AP>T1 W]E RIDDL$ BY DEEP CIVIC PESSIMISM4 ,! ,ROMANS ( ?AT TIME W]E FILL$ ) A FATALI/IC DESPAIR AB\T ! FUTURE ( !IR CITY & EV5TUALLY TRANSF]R$ !IR ALLEGIANCE FROM ! 0ET]NAL CITY0 TO ! 0,CITY ( ,GOD40 

,:AT DI/+UI%$ !IR CIVIC OPTIMISM FROM \R CIVIC >ROGANCE1 H[EV]1 IS \R PRE5+ BELIEF 9 ! AUTONOMY ( ! CITY1 \R CONVICTION ?AT CITY LIFE & ITS TRADITIONS HAVE ALWAYS 5JOY$ A SUPREMACY OV] RURAL LIFEWAYS & CULTURES1 9DE$ ?AT ! =M] /&S 9 9NOVATIVE & EXCIT+ CONTRA/ TO ! LATT]4 ,?IS CONCEIT IS V]Y DIFF]5T FROM ! ANCI5T COMMITM5T TO ! CITY & HAS ITS ORIG9S 9 ! HI<LY 9TROV]T$ CIVIC DEVELOPM5T ( ,EUROPE DUR+ ! LATE ,MIDDLE ,AGES4 ,JUDG+ FROM ! COM$IES ( ANTIQUITY1 ,GREEKS & ,ROMANS HAD !IR 0C\NTRY BUMPK9S0 :O W]E ! NAIVE FOILS = 0CITY SLICK]S4 ,BUT ! ANCI5TS NEV] D\BT$ ?AT !SE 0BUMPK9S0 W]E !IR 0C\NTRY C\S9S0 9 A V]Y REAL CULTURAL & MAT]IAL S5SE4 ,! ANCE/RAL F>M1 IF AN URBAN CITIZ5 [N$ ONE1 OR ! FAMILY VILLAGE :]E ! BONES ( HIS ANCE/ORS LAY1 WAS A PLACE TO :I* HE REPAIR$ FROM ! DEM&S & /RESSES ( CITY LIV+4 ,IT WAS !RE ?AT HE F\ND HIS 0ROOTS0 & FROM !RE ?AT HE C>RI$ HIS H\SEHOLD DEITIES 9TO ! V]Y CONF9ES ( ! CITY4 ,IT WAS FROM ! C\NTRY1 TOO1 ?AT HE ACQUIR$ HIS BREAD1 *EESE1 FIGS1 & PRECI\S OLIVES SO *>ACT]I/IC ( ,M$IT]RANEAN F>E1 = NO D\BT EXI/$ 9 HIS M9D ?AT1 ALL ITS CULTURAL AM5ITIES ASIDE1 ! CITY WAS MAT]IALLY DEP5D5T UPON ! IMM$IATE C\NTRYSIDE & ! F>M]S :O TRUNDL$ ITS PRODUCE 9TO HIS SQU>ES4 

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c#a_> ,A BRISK WALK ( AN H\R OR SO C\LD BR+ A ,ROMAN )9 CLE> SI<T ( F>ML& & )9 TWO OR ?REE ADDITIONAL H\RS TO VILLAGES ?AT SEEM$ L>GELY UNT\*$ BY URBAN CULTURE4 

,?AT ! ANCI5T CITY ALSO C>RI$ 5ORM\S POLITICAL WEI<T 9 ,M$IT]RANEAN LIFE & WAS A S\RCE ( CONSID]ABLE F]M5T1 9DE$1 POT5TIALLY1 ( S]I\S REBELLIONS AGA9/ ITS IMP]IAL SOV]EIGNS1 IS A FACT ?AT NEV] LEFT ! M9DS ( ! ,ROMAN EMP]ORS4 ,NOT ?AT ! PEASANTRY WAS TOTALLY PASSIVE & FREE ( /RONG RES5TM5TS--NOT ONLY T[>D ! IMP]IAL CITY BUT ALSO ITS [N URBAN C5T]S4 ,ATTICA'S 0P>TY ( ! ,PLA910 AS HI/ORIANS CALL IT1 5VI\SLY REG>D$ ! ,A!NIAN T[N-DWELL] AS A P>ASITE & P]IODICALLY ALIGN$ ITSELF AGA9/ HIM1 H5CE ,KLEIS!NES' %REWD ADMIXTURE ( URBAN ) RURAL TRITTYES TO NEUTRALIZE !SE CONFLICTS4 ,9 ,ROMAN TIMES A RURAL POLICE WAS CREAT$ BY ! CITY1 P>TICUL>LY ,9 ! ,NE> ,EA/1 TO MA9TA9 0ORD]0 AMONG ! AGRICULTURAL POOR4 

,BUT ! EMP]ORS KEPT AN ESPECIALLY TI<T RE9 ON ! CITIES UND] !IR CONTROL1 = IT WAS H]E ?AT 9T]NEC9E CONFLICTS AGA9/ URBAN OLIG>*IES & CIVIC *AUV9ISM C\LD REA* ACUTE PROPORTIONS4 0,! ANCI5T CITY WAS AN 9/ITUTION :I* SWALL[$ UP MU* ( ITS CITIZ5S' HE>TS10 ,/>R TELLS US1 & ,ROMAN EMP]ORS 0W]E UND\BT$LY RI<T 9 FEEL+ ?AT ! ,ROMAN WORLD C\LD NOT 5DURE \TRI<T W> AMONG ITS CON/ITU5T UNITS BUT ! NECESS>Y ALT]NATIVE WAS DEPLORABLE3 ! RACE = TITLES WAS MIS]ABLE /UFF TO FIRE CIVIC LOYALTY & TO PROMOTE URBAN ?9K+40_<#c#b_> ,ULTIMATELY1 ?R\< IMP]IAL PAT]NALISM1 LEGAL CON/RA9TS1 & ! USE ( OLIG>*IES TO CONTROL OR DEFLECT ! ANG] ( L[] ORD]S 9 !IR [N CITIES1 0! VIGOR ( LOCAL POLITICS WAN$2 ! CITIES W]E NOT GRANT$1 AS A SUB/ITUTE1 A REALLY SIGNIFICANT1 9SPIRIT+ 9FLU5CE ON ! IMP]IAL GOV]NM5T4 ,9 ALL ?IS ! ,EMPIRE WAS WIP+ \T NOT M]ELY FRE$OM ( ?\<T 9 ! POLITICAL ,SPH]E BUT ! V]Y POSSIBILITY ( S]I\S POLITICAL ACTION = ! BULK ( ITS SUBJECTS4 ,SO IT WAS DE/ROY+ A V]Y IMPORTANT FOCUS = ! =CES :I* HAD L$ TO ! EXPANSION & REM>KABLE VITALITY ( ,M$IT]RANEAN CIVILIZATION UP TO ?IS PO9T4 ,! UPP] CLASSES & ! ,CAES>S BO? DELIV]$ DEVA/AT+ BL[S AT ! S5SE ( LOCAL ATTA*M5T1 ! SOLID>ITY ( ! CITY1 FROM :I* ! ?9K]S ( ! PA/ HAD DRAWN !IR /R5G?40 ,:ATEV] ,ROMAN CIVILIZATION SEEM$ TO PRODUCE 9 ! WAY ( ORD] & UNI=MITY ( LAWS1 IT MORE ?AN DE/ROY$ 9 ! WAY ( CREATIVITY & POLITICAL COMMITM5T4 ,BY ! LATT] P>T ( ! FIF? C5TURY ,A4,D41 ! ,M$IT]RANEAN BAS9 HAD CEAS$ TO BE EI!R ORD]LY OR 9NOVATIVE4 ,9 BALANCE1 ! CO/ ( IMP]IAL & BUREAUCRATIC CONTROL FROM ABOVE ) ITS LOSS ( LOCAL CONTROL & P>TICIPATION \TWEI<$1 BY F>1 ! DUBI\S B5EFITS IT PR(ESS$ TO CONF] & ! 5TIRE BAS9 SUFF]$ A COLLAPSE ?AT WAS TO HAUNT CIVILIZATION ?R\<\T FUTURE C5TURIES4.<#f.> 

,BY CONTRA/ TO ! ,M$IT]RANEAN BAS91 ,EUROPE ?R\< ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES & WELL 9TO MOD]N TIMES FOLL[$ A V]Y DIFF]5T DEVELOPM5T4 ,AL?\< ,EUROPEAN PATT]NS ( CIVIC FRE$OM NEV] EQUAL$ ! 9/ITUTIONAL & POLITICAL CREATIVITY ( !  
POLIS1 MANY M$IEVAL COMMUNES W]E AS VITAL & 5]GETIC AS ! ,GREEK CITIES1 & IT IS FROM ?IS WORLD ?AT MOD]N IMAGES ( URBAN SUPREMACY REALLY D]IVE4 ,FROM ! ?IRTE5? C5TURY ONW>D1 P>TICUL>LY 9 ,ITALY & ! L[L&S ( MOD]N ,BELGIUM & ,HOLL&1 CITY-/ATES BEGAN TO EM]GE ?AT W]E /RUCTUR$ >\ND UNIQUELY URBAN TASKS-->TISAN ORI5T$1 F9ANCIAL1 COMM]CIAL1 & 9DU/RIAL--?AT SL[LY LOOS5$ URBAN FIFE FROM ITS TRADITIONAL AGR>IAN MATRIX & PROVID$ ! T[N ) AN AU!NTIC CIVIC FIFE & MOM5TUM ( ITS [N4 

,:I* IS NOT TO SAY ?AT M$IEVAL T[NS & CITIES CEAS$ TO BE DEP5D5T UPON !IR RURAL 5VIRONS = FOOD & RAW MAT]IALS4 ,BUT AS TIME PASS$1 9 DIFF]5T P>TS ( WE/]N ,EUROPE1 IT WAS TO BE ! CITY ?AT GRADUALLY REMADE ! C\NTRYSIDE 9 ITS [N IMAGE & 5TANGL$ ! L&$ NOBILITY 9 ITS [N ECONOMIC & POLITICAL CONC]NS4 ,& ULTIMATELY IT WAS TO BE ! CITY ?AT IMPOS$ ITS TE*NICS1 ECONOMIC RELATION%IPS1 CULTURE1 & VALUES ON AGR>IAN COMMUNITIES4 

,TRADITIONAL AGR>IAN ATTITUDES DID NOT PLACE A HI< PREMIUM ON >TISANS1 M]*ANTS1 & F9ANCI]S2 !SE W]E NOT ORD]S ?AT W]E RESPECT$ 9 ANCI5T SOCIETY4 ,A ,GREEK OR ,ROMAN 0B\RGEOIS0 :O MADE A PR(ITABLE 9COME FROM TRADE & WORK%OPS TRI$ TO ACCUMULATE 5\< WEAL? 9 ORD] TO RETIRE ON L&$ PROP]TY ( HIS [N & FIVE 9 RURAL G5TILITY ) ! AIRS ( A NOBLE4 ,CAPITAL MIGRAT$ FROM T[N TO C\NTRY1 NOT ! REV]SE4 ,! M$IEVAL WORLD RADICALLY ALT]$ ?IS MOVEM5T4 ,= ! FIR/ TIME ON A L>GE SCALE1 URBAN 5TREPR5EURS BEGAN1 TO VIEW !IR VOCATIONS AS HONORABLE & 9VE/ !IR E>N+S FROM G5]ATION TO G5]ATION 9 !IR [N 5T]PRISES4 

,AS FAMILY =TUNES 9CREAS$1 !Y REMA9$ 9 ! CITY & W]E NOT 9VE/$ 9TO E/ATES4 ,QUITE TO ! CONTR>Y1 IT WAS ! ,ITALIAN & ,FLEMI% NOBLE :O (T5 MOV$ TO T[N & BEGAN TO 5*ANCE HIS [N =TUNES BY 9VOLV+ HIMSELF 9 9DU/RY1 TRADE1 & =EIGN PROMISE4 ,! 0M]*ANT PR9CE0 ( ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES WAS NOT SIMPLY A EUPHEMISM = M5 ( IGNOBLE L9EAGES :O MANAG$ TO1 ACQUIRE 0PR9CELY0 =TUNES FROM TRADE4 ,! WORDS (T5 9CLUD$ NOBLEM5 ( HI<LY PRE/IGI\S FAMILIES :O REG>D$ ! CITY AS A C5T] ( A V]Y LUCRATIVE COMM]CE & BEGAN TO P>TICIPATE 9 IT ) ! AVIDITY ( ! MO/ P$E/RIAN BUR<]4 

,H[ ?IS REV]SAL ( TRADITIONAL TR5DS OCCURR$ CAN ONLY BE NOT$ SUMM>ILY H]E1 ,! BREAKUP ( ! TOP-HEAVY1 HI<LY P>ASITIC1 & CO/LY ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE L$ TO A G5]AL RETREAT ( ! ,LAT9 CITIES & !IR ,EUROPEAN AFF9ES 9 ,IB]IA1 ,GAUL1 & ,BRITA9 TO !IR AU!NTIC ECOLOGICAL *ORA3 ! L& BASE ?AT C\LD PROP]LY SUPPORT A MODE/ URBAN POPULATION4 ,AS S\RCES ( TRIBUTE BEGAN TO BREAK AWAY FROM ! EMPIRE & ITS PROV9CES W]E ASSAIL$ BY REPEAT$ 9VASIONS ( SEMITRIBAL ,G]MAN1 ,SLAV1 & ,MAGY> PEOPLES1 ! FRAGILE ANCI5T CITY DW9DL$ TO LITTLE MORE ?AN A VILLAGE SCALE1 AT LEA/ 9 WE/]N ,EUROPE :]E URBAN FIFE HAD A1 V]Y LIMIT$ L& BASE & ABUTT$ ! VA/ =E/ ?AT /ILL COV]$ MO/ ( ! CONT95T4 ,ROME'S POPULATION ALONE DECL9$ FROM ITS HI<PO9T ( A MILLION TO LESS ?AN #e1 9 ! 0,D>K ,AGES0 ?AT FOLL[$ & NEV] FULLY RECOV]$ DEMOGRAPHICALLY ?R\< ! M$IEVAL P]IOD1 DESPITE ITS 5ORM\S IMPORTANCE AS ! C5T] ( WE/]N ,*RI/IANITY4 ,ALREADY1 AS E>LY AS ! ?IRD C5TURY1 ! ,EUROPEAN PROV9CES SU* AS ,IB]IA1 ,GAUL1 & ,BRITA9 BEGAN TO DETA* !MSELVES FROM ! EMPIRE 9 EV]Y?+ BUT NAME & MOVE T[>D A LOCALI/ ECONOMY ?AT PRODUC$ ONLY = !IR [N P>TICUL> NE$S4 ,AS ,JOHN ,MUNDY & ,PET] ,REIS5B]G PO9T \T1 ! F\NDATIONS = A DEC5TRALIZ$ M$IEVAL SOCIETY W]E NOT CREAT$ BY ,G]MAN 9VAD]S1 ! 0B>B>IANS AT ! GATES0 :O S\ND$ ! DEA? KNELL ( A T]M9ALLY ILL EMPIRE2 !Y W]E E/ABLI%$ BY ,ROME ITSELF :5 ! LATE ,CAES>S1 FAC$ ) A COMPLETELY UNWIELDLY IMP]IAL /RUCTURE1 SET EA* ORD] 9 ,ROMAN SOCIETY ADRIFT ) ! NECESS>Y 0DUTIES1 PRIVILEGES & SPECIAL JURISDICTIONS .<IT NE$$.> TO IMPLEM5T ITS WORK40 ,EA* GR\P1 9 EFFECT1 WAS OBLIG$ TO MAKE 0ITS [N LAW0 9 ORD] TO SURVIVE4 0,MOREOV]1 ! OLD CLASSICAL CONCEPTION ( LIB]TY WAS REPLAC$ BY SOME?+ LESS GR& BUT MORE SOCIALLY EXACT4 ,GILDSM51 OR COLLEGIATI1 W]E PRIVILEG$1 = EXAMPLE1 EV5 TO ! EQUE/RIAN GRADE4 ,BUT PRIVILEGE DEP5D$ UPON OBLIGATORY S]VICE4 ,?IS P]CEPTION ( AN 9MIXTURE ( LIB]TY & S]VITUDE P]VAD$ LATE ,ROMAN & MU* ( M$IEVAL SOCIAL ?\<T40_<#c#c_> 

,! VE]+ ( ! =M] ,ROMAN PROV9CES T[>D A HI<LY LOCALI/ SOCIETY1 ONE 9 :I* EA* COMPON5T WAS 9T]NALLY HELD TOGE!R BY AN ELABORATE HI]>*Y ( CLE>LY DEF9$ RI<TS & DUTIES1 LAID ! F\NDATIONS = ,EUROPEAN FEUDALISM4 ,AUT>*Y1 N[ BAS$ ON HI]>*Y1 SURFAC$ ) A V5GEANCE 9 ! =M ( M9UTELY SEGM5T$ & SELF-SUFFICI5T COMMUNITIES1 ALL SUPPORT$ BY AGRICULTURE & A RUDE =M ( MANORIAL >TISAN%IP4 ,CITIES ?AT W]E ONCE ! ISL&S 9 A RURAL WORLD L>GELY DISAPPE>$ :ILE ! RURAL SOCIETY SEEM$ TO SOLIDIFY 9TO M9UTE CONG]IES ( SIMPLE MANORS1 EA* SURR\ND$ BY SMALL DEP5D5T VILLAGES4 ,! S]FS :O PEOPL$ !SE VILLAGES W]E NOT ATTA*$ P]MAN5TLY TO ! L&4 ,BO? MANOR & VILLAGE1 9 TURN1 SEEM$ TO BE HAUNT$ BY ! NE>BY DEBRIS ( RU9$ CITIES1 SOME P>TLY OCCUPI$1 :I* W]E TE/IMONY TO AN EXOTIC WORLD CL\D$ BY LEG5DS ( PA/ GREATNESS & ! MI/Y TRADITIONS ( IMP]IAL P[]4 ,)9 ?IS SETT+1 WE DO NOT HAVE TO GO TOO F> TO UND]/& ! ORIG9S ( ! ,>?URIAN LEG5DS ( ,BRITA9 & ! DREAMS ( GR&EUR ?AT CLU/]$ >\ND ! NAME ( ,*>LEMAGNE4 

,!SE RU9S CAME TO FIFE V]Y SL[LY1 (T5 AS ! BUILD+ MAT]IALS ( *UR*ES1 MODE/ VILLAS1 & T[N HALLS4 ,! M$IEVAL T[NS & ! FEW CITIES ?AT WE F9D 9 ! ELEV5? C5TURY AFT] ! GREAT TIDES ( 0B>B>IAN0 9VAD]S & ! FRACTUR$ EMPIRES ( ,*>LEMAGNE REC$$ 9TO HI/ORY W]E V]Y UNUSUAL PH5OM5A4 ,AL?\< !Y W]E NEV] 9DEP5D5T MAT]IALLY1 !RE IS A V]Y REAL S5SE 9 :I* !Y W]E TO BECOME QUITE AUTONOM\S ECONOMICALLY1 TO AN EXT5T1 9 FACT1 ?AT WAS QUITE R>E 9 ! ANCI5T CITY4 ,TO BEG9 )1 !Y W]E NOT SIMPLY RELIGI\S OR ADM9I/RATIVE C5T]S AS W]E SO MANY ( !IR CLASSICAL PR$ECESSORS1 AL?\< SU* C5T]S W]E FAIRLY COMMON 9 M$IEVAL ,EUROPE4 ,:AT IS SIGNIFICANT AB\T !M IS ?AT !Y W]E L>GELY /RUCTUR$ >\ND ! TASKS ?AT MO/ M>K$LY DI/+UI% ! CITY FROM ! AGR>IAN VILLAGE3 CRAFTS1 TRADE1 A NASC5T =M ( ME*ANIZ$ 9DU/RY1 & A CULTURE--MORAL1 >TI/IC1 >*ITECTURAL1 & EV5 RELIGI\S--?AT IS PECULI> TO SU* A CITIFI$ CON/ELLATION ( ACTIVITIES4 ,NO LONG] WAS NONAGRICULTURAL WORK DEMEAN+1 NOR = ?AT MATT] WAS WORK G5]ALLY1 AS ULTIMATELY BECAME ! CASE DUR+ ! IMP]IAL P]IOD ( ,ROME & ! OLD ,M$IT]RANEAN SLAVOCRACY4 ,QUITE TO ! CONTR>Y1 NONAGRICULTURAL WORK WAS TO BE CELEBRAT$ OV] ALL O!R =MS AS AU!NTIC EVID5CE ( 0CIVILIZATION10 SO ?AT1 ETYMOLOGICALLY SPEAK+1 ! WORD N[ CAME 9TO ITS [N4 ,! >TISAN & TRADESMAN1 NORMALLY METICS :OM ! ANCI5T CITY DWELL] VIEW$ ) CONDESC5SION AS ! URBAN C\NT]P>TS ( ! RURAL 0PRIMITIVES0 7! VIEW ?AT ! IMP]IAL AGE CREAT$ T[>D ITS ONCE IDEALIZ$ YEOMANRY71 N[ F\ND !MSELVES ! C5T] ( A NEW CONCEPT ( URBANITY1 9DE$1 ! CITY'S MO/ PRIZ$ & PRODUCTIVE MEMB]4 ,TRADE ITSELF1 :I* >I/OCRATS AT ALL TIMES SLYLY EXPLOIT$ TO !IR [N ADVANTAGE1 WAS OP5LY ACKN[L$G$ AS AN HONORABLE 5T]PRISE1 & WEAL?Y M]*ANTS BEGAN TO GIVE LAVI%LY ( !IR =TUNES TO ADORN ?IS NEW CIVIC TEMPLE TO !IR 9T]E/S4 ,H[EV] MU* ! ,*UR* VIEW$ PR(IT MAK+ AS 9TR9SICALLY EVIL1 IT SOON LE>N$ TO ACCOMMODATE ITSELF TO ?IS NEW CIVIC REALITY DESPITE ITS PI\S D5UNCIATIONS ( GA9 FROM ! PULPIT4 

,?IS NEW K9D ( CITY APPE>$ NOT ONLY BECAUSE ( ! EXTRAORD9>Y 5]GY ,EUROPE BR\<T TO A WORLD DRA9$ BY IMP]IAL TRIBUTE2 IT ALSO EM]G$ BECAUSE ( ! 9H]5T WEAKNESS ?AT M>K$ A HI<LY DEC5TRALIZ$ & P>O*IAL SY/EM ( AGRICULTURE4 ,:ATEV] MAY BE ! IMAGE ,ROMAN NOBLES DEVELOP$ ( !IR S]VILE F>M+ ORD]S1 ! >I/OCRATS ( ! ANCI5T WORLD /ILL PRIZ$ !IR /ATUS & TRADITIONS AS L&$ G5TRY4 ,TO [N A L>GE E/ATE1 WORK$ BY GANGS ( SLAVES & T5ANTS1 WAS AS MU* A CALL+ AS IT WAS A LUCRATIVE 5T]PRISE4 ,! NOBLES1 MOREOV]1 HAD US$ ! ,EMPIRE TO WRE/ ALL POLITICAL P[] FROM ! >TISAN & M]*ANT ORD]S1 & ?US GAVE !IR IMPRIMATURE TO ! ANCI5T CITY3 ITS ODIUM ( P>ASITISM1 DISPLAY1 9DOL5CE1 LUXURY1 & CLASS >ROGANCE4 ,! CITIES !Y N[ CONTROLL$ BECAME MONUM5TS TO !IR P[] AS LORDS ( A BASICALLY AGR>IAN ECONOMY & CULTURE4 ,UND] ! ,CAES>S1 ?IS ECONOMY & CULTURE DID NOT DISAPPE>2 QUITE TO ! CONTR>Y1 IT WAS GREATLY /R5G!N$ BY A HUGE BUREAUCRACY & 5RI*$ BY AN IMM5SE FL[ ( TRIBUTE4 ,! ANCI5T CITY NEV] TRANSC5D$ !SE ECONOMIC & CULTURAL LIMITS4 ,! POLIS1 TO BE SURE1 GAVE IT A CREATIVITY ?AT MADE CIVIC LIFE SEEM LIKE A WORK ( >T4 ,ROME1 P>TICUL>LY UND] ! ,EMPIRE1 GAVE IT A HI<LY ELABORATE /ATE APP>ATUS ?AT MADE IT A SELF-DE/RUCTIVE 5G9E = EXPLOIT+ ,M$IT]RANEAN SOCIETY4 

,! M$IEVAL CITY WAS MORE =TUNATE & F\ND ITSELF SURPRIS+LY FREE ( !SE LIMITS4 ,AGR>IAN SOCIETY 9 ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES WAS MU* TOO FRAGM5T$ TO E/ABLI% LA/+ OB/ACLES TO URBAN DEVELOPM5T31 & ITS CULTURE WAS MU* TOO 9TROV]T$ TO *ALL5GE ! NEW 0CIVILIZATION0 NURTUR$ BY ! T[NS4 ,! FAM\S M$IEVAL MAXIM1 0,URBAN AIR MAKES = FRE$OM_/' C\LD BE1 SAID TO 9CLUDE FRE$OM ( ?\<T & AN OP5NESS TO 9NOVATION AS WELL AS P]SONAL & POLITICAL LIB]TY4 ,LIKE A CALCULAT+ OBS]V] :O CAN PATI5TLY /& BY :ILE HIS OPPON5TS EXHAU/ !MSELVES 9 MUTUAL COMBAT1 ! M$IEVAL T[NS PLAY$ = TIME & WAIT$ = ! TEMPORAL LORDS TO DRA9 !IR /R5G? 9 ! CEASELESS RIVALRIES ?AT M>K$ ! ]A4 ,:5 ! LOCAL NOBLES W]E WEAK 5\< OR DRA9$ ( !IR WEAL?1 ! CITIES /EPP$ 9 TO ASS]T !IR [N AUTONOMY1 EI!R BY BUY+ !IR FRE$OM OR BY =CE ( >MS1 & ULTIMATELY W]E TO ASS]T !IR SUPREMACY OV] ! C\NTRYSIDE4 

,?IS DRAMA1 TO BE SURE1 DID NOT UNFOLD ) ! ELEGANT CONSI/5CY WE (T5 EXPECT FROM A GOOD /ORY4 ,MANY CITIES & T[NS FAIL$ TO GA9 !IR FRE$OM = G5]ATIONS1 DESPITE BITT] /RUGGLES ) !IR T]RITORIAL LORDS4 ,& :5 !Y DID SO1 !IR LIB]TIES W]E (T5 FRAGILE & HI<LY VULN]ABLE TO 9T]NAL AS WELL AS EXT]NAL *ALL5GES4 ,9 RETROSPECT1 H[EV]1 WE CAN SEE A FAIRLY DI/9CT PATT]N ( CIVIC FRE$OM EM]GE1 NOT ONLY FROM T]RITORIAL LORDS BUT ALSO /RUCTURALLY1 )9 ! M$IEVAL CIVITAS ITSELF4 ,! ,ITALIAN CITY-/ATES1 9 P>TICUL>1 PROVIDE ! DRAMATIS P]SONAE & ALMO/ EXEMPL>Y 0PLOT L9ES0 = AN OV]ALL /ORY ( ,EUROPEAN CIVIC DEVELOPM5T4 ,NOT ?AT O!R CITIES--,FLEMI%1 ,G]MAN1 ,FR5*1 & ,SWISS-->E NOT GOOD EXAMPLES 9 !IR [N RI<T1 OR1 9 SOME CASES1 MORE LA/+ PATT]NS ( CIVIC FRE$OM4 ,BUT :AT ,LAURO ,M>T9ES CALLS ! 0P[] &1 IMAG9ATION0 ( ! ,ITALIAN CITY-/ATES IS SO VIBRANT1 SO >TI/ICALLY CREATIVE & 9/ITUTIONALLY /IMULAT+1 ?AT ONE S5SES A DEGREE ( ORGANICITY & R\ND$NESS R>ELY MAT*$ = ?AT P]IOD BY O!R ,EUROPEAN REGIONS4_<#c#d_> ,& IF WE RISE ABOVE ! NATIONAL *AUV9ISM ?AT AFFLICT$ M$IEVALI/S ( ! REC5T PA/1 IT W\LD BE H>D TO DISAGREE ) ,MUNDY ?AT ! 0DI/9CTION BETWE5 ! NOR!RN ,EUROPEAN & ,ITALIAN T[N0 DRAWN BY ,BELGIUM'S GREAT HI/ORIAN1 ,H5RI ,PIR5NE1 A DI/9CTION ?AT SO GREATLY BIAS$ A :OLE G5]ATION ( M$IEVAL S*OL>S T[>D ! NOR!RN CITY-/ATES1 0SEEMS TO HAVE NO BASIS 9 FACT1 AT LEA/ ?R\< ! AGES ( URBAN R5EWAL UP TO ! TWELF? C5TURY10 A TIME :5 URBAN FRE$OM REA*$ ITS PEAK 9T]NALLY4_<#c#e_> 

,WE ALSO KN[ ?AT ! MOVEM5T = CIVIC FRE$OM REALLY BEGAN 9 ,ITALY & ONLY LAT] DID IT MOVE UP TO ,FL&]S1 NOR!RN ,FRANCE1 & S\!RN1 ,G]MANY4 ,!REAFT] IT BECAME A CONTAGION 9 ! CITIES ( WE/]N & C5TRAL ,EUROPE4 ,TO DISCUSS SO MIX$ & UNEV5 A DEVELOPM5T 9 CIVIC FRE$OM' WE W\LD BE OBLIG$ TO LEAP ALMO/ D]VI%LY FROM ONE REGION TO ANO!R TO UNCOV] ! UND]LY+ SEQU5CE ( EV5TS ?AT MAKES M$IEVAL URBAN DEVELOPM5T REASONABLY 9TELLIGIBLE4 ,IF MO/ ( ?IS ACC\NT FOCUSES ON ! ,ITALIAN EXP]I5CE1 IT IS BECAUSE ! P59SULA'S CITY-/ATES 5CAPSULATE 9 A CLE>LY DEF9ABLE >EA ! BASIC CYCLE ?AT M>K$ ! RISE & DECL9E ( CIVIC DEMOCRACY 9 ,EUROPE AS A :OLE4 ,9DE$1 IT WAS 9 ,ITALY ?AT ! CITY-/ATE ( ! ,HI< ,MIDDLE ,AGES WAS TO COME 9TO ITS [N1 & IT IS FROM ! RI* ACC\NTS ( ?AT CIVIC WORLD--ITS EXTRAORD9>Y >T & >*ITECTURE1 ITS *ANG+ POLITICAL RELATION%IPS1 & ITS CYCLE ( BIR?1 MATURATION1 & DECAY--?AT ! ,EUROPEAN MUNICIPALITY WAS TO PLAY \T ITS MO/ AU!NTIC 9T]NAL DEVELOPM5T & LEAD1 ALMO/ UN]R+LY1 TO ! URBAN DRAMA ?AT IS UNFOLD+ BE=E \R EYES TODAY4 

,! ORIG9S ( !SE CITY-/ATES NE$ NOT CONC]N US4 ,AFT] AT LEA/ A MILL5NIUM ( URBAN DEVELOPM5T1 FROM ! LEG5D>Y F\ND+ ( ,ROME 9 #gec ,B4,C4 TO ! LA/ ( ! EMP]ORS 9 #dgf ,A4,D41 PROBABLY NO >EA 9 ANCI5T ,EUROPE WAS MORE CITIFI$ ?AN ,ITALY & FEW MUNICIPALITIES EXHIBIT$ MORE /AY+ P[] ?AN ?OSE ?AT ! ,G]MAN 9VAD]S 5GULF$ AS !Y ROLL$ OV] ! P59SULA4 ,?US1 ,ITALIAN CITIES NEV] REALLY DISAPPE>$4 ,H[EV] MU* !Y DECL9$ DEMOGRAPHICALLY1 !Y RECOV]$ FAIRLY E>LY & BY ! T5? C5TURY BEGAN TO GR[ ) EXCEPTIONAL V]VE & 5]GY4 

,NOR NE$ WE TR\BLE \RSELVES TOO MU* AB\T ! FACTORS ?AT L$ TO ?IS RECOV]Y4 ,SO F> AS ! NOR!RN ,M$IT]RANEAN WAS CONC]N$1 ! ,S>AC5 FLOODTIDE ?AT SWEPT OV] ! BAS9 BEGAN TO REC$E BY ! ELEV5? C5TURY3 EV5 ,SICILY WAS RECLAIM$ = ,*RI/IANITY BY #a#i#a1 AFT] TWO C5TURIES ( ,MUSLIM OCCUPATION4 ,BY ?IS TIME1 A LIVELY TRADE EXI/$ BETWE5 ,ITALIAN & ,>AB M]*ANTS UNTIL ! ,M$IT]RANEAN BETWE5 ! TWELF? & F\RTE5? C5TURIES WAS L>GELY CONTROLL$ BY ! ,ITALIAN CITY-/ATES LAKE FROM #aae TO #a#c#e4 ,!SE CITY-/ATES W]E SOON ! MAJOR 5TREPOT AG5TS ?AT BR\<T ,*RI/IAN & ,MUSLIM 9TO COMM]CIAL CONTACT ) EA* O!R1 & ! ECONOMIC F\NDATIONS = A FL\RI%+ MUNICIPAL FIFE W]E SECURELY E/ABLI%$4 

,! LOCALE ( ! ,ITALIAN CITY-/ATE1 OR COMMUNA TO USE ITS M$IEVAL ,LAT9 NAME1 COV]$ MO/ ( ! NOR!RN & C5TRAL >EAS ( ! P59SULA & EMBRAC$ ! GREAT ,R5AISSANCE CITIES ( ,FLOR5CE1 ,V5ICE1 ,V]ONA1 ,PISA1 ,SI5NA1 & ,CREMONA1 TO CITE ONLY A FEW1 & ?OSE GREAT POLITICAL NODAL PO9TS ( ,ITALY'S HI/ORY1 ,MILAN1 ,G5OA1 & ,BOLOGNA4 ,IT IS NOT ! ,R5AISSANCE ?AT WILL CONC]N US H]E1 EXCEPT 9S(> AS ! ,DOM9ICAN ,FRA ,SAVON>OLA REPRES5T$ A POPUL> REACTION TO ! >I/OCRATIC & SIMONIACAL WORLD ?AT FO/]$ IT1 & IT IS NOT ! COMMUNA AS A 0CITY REPUBLIC10 WORDS SO EASILY 9T]*ANGEABLE ) 0CITY-/ATE0 ?AT WILL BE \R MA9 FOCUS ( 9T]E/4 ,:AT IS 9SUFFICI5TLY KN[N AB\T ! ,ITALIAN COMMUNE IS ! EXT5T TO :I* IT BECAME A /AGE = A WORK+ DEMOCRACY & ITS ACTORS A NEW EXPRESSION = AN ACTIVE CITIZ5RY4 ,DAZZL+ AS ITS CULTURAL TREASURES & ADV5TUR\S AS ITS /ORIES MAY BE1 WE MU/ PUT ASIDE ! PURE GLAM\R ( ! COMMUNE & EXAM9E ?OSE BRIEF P]IODS :5 IT SEEM$ MORE LIKE A POLIS ?AN A REPUBLIC4 

,DEMOCRACY CLE>LY EM]G$ 9 ! E>LY ,ITALIAN CITIES1 NOT ONLY REPRES5TATIVE =MS ( GOV]NANCE & OLIG>*IES ( V>I\S K9DS1 ONLY TO SUBM]GE & !N REAPPE> AGA9 = A %ORT TIME 9 RI*LY >TICULAT$ =MS4 ,ITS PR9CIPAL 9/ITUTION TOOK !4=M ( A POPUL> ASSEMBLY & WE HE> ( IT ALMO/ FROM ! 9CEPTION ( ! COMMUNE ITSELF4 ,! ,ITALIAN COMMUNE1 IT %\LD BE CLE>1 WAS NOT SIMPLY A COMMUNITY OR EV5 A T[N 9 ! CU/OM>Y CIVIC S5SE ( ! T]M1 AL?\< IT WAS ?IS AS WELL4 ,IT WAS ABOVE ALL AN ASSOCIATION ( BUR<]S :O W]E SOLEMNLY UNIT$ BY AN OA? OR  
CONJURATIO1 ,! CONJURATIO1 9 CONTRA/ TO ! =MATION ( A COMMUNITY BY M]E =CE ( CIRCUM/ANCES & EV5TS1 TURN$ :AT WE MI<T SIMPLY DESIGNATE AS A T[N 9TO A VIBRANT FRAT]NITY4 ,AL?\< MOTIVAT$ BY %>$ PRACTICAL CONC]NS1 ! BUR<]S :O TOOK ?IS OA? W]E PRESUMABLY =SWE>+ !IR P]SONAL SELF-9T]E/ ON BEHALF ( A COMMON ONE1 A CONSCI\S ACT ( MUTUAL FEALTY NOT TO A LOCAL NOBLE1 CL]IC1 MILIT>Y *IEFTA91 OR DI/ANT MON>*4 ,DESPITE ITS /RONGLY RELIGI\S T]MS1 IT WAS AN ACT ( CITIZ5%IP1 UNIQUE 9 AN AGE ( RELIGI\S CONGREGATIONS1 ?AT PL$G$ MEMB]S ( ! COMMUNE TO RESPECT EA* O!RS' CIVIC RI<TS & EXT5D !M UNTAMP]$ TO NEWCOM]S & FUTURE G5]ATIONS4 

,! CONJURATIO1 9 FACT1 DID CONSID]ABLY MORE3 IT COMMITT$ ! CITIZ5S ( ! COMMUNE TO ORD]LY & BROADLY CONS5SUAL WAYS ( GOV]N+ !MSELVES ) A DEC5T RESPECT = 9DIVIDUAL LIB]TY & A PL$GE TO !IR MUTUAL DEF5SE4 ,! /ORMY CONFLICTS BETWE5 ! MON>*S ( ! ,HOLY ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE & !IR ,ITALIAN VASSALS1 & MORE DISRUPTIVELY BETWE5 LOCAL BI%OPS1 NOBLES1 & MILIT>Y CAPTA9S OV] L&$ DOMA9S & CONTROL OV] ! CITIES1 W]E RESOLV$ BY A DEL9EABLE &1 AT TIMES1 A LOGICAL C\RSE ( URBAN DEVELOPM5T TO :I* ! CONJURATIO =MS A PO9T ( E?ICAL 5TRY4 ,ONCE ! CITIES REPLAC$ >BITR>Y RULE ) SOME K9D ( ELECTIVE RULE1 COORD9ATES EM]G$ = GAUG+ ITS POLITICAL EVOLUTION4 ,M5 !N SWORE TO AID & DEF5D EA* O!R1 TO PL$GE !IR PRE/IGE & BR+ !IR P]SONAL JURISDICTIONS TO ! S]VICE ( A %>$ COMMUNITY1 & TO RESPECTFULLY 9VE/ ! *OS5 HEADS ( ?IS CIVIC ASSOCIATION ) EXECUTIVE & JUDICIAL P[]S4 ,A CONSULATE1 COMPOS$ ( ALL ! CONSULS 9 =MAL ASSEMBLY1 CON/ITUT$ ! HI<E/ EXECUTIVE & JUDICIAL MAGI/RACY ( ?IS REM>KABLE ASSOCIATION4 ,WE KN[ ?AT ITS MEMB]S W]E *OS5 AT A G5]AL ASSEMBLY ( ! COMMUNE ITSELF1 A POPUL> ASSEMBLY ?AT 0WAS QUITE LIKELY CONV5$ ) SOME REGUL>ITY1 & 9 TIMES ( TR\BLE EV5 MORE (T510 ,LAURO ,M>T9ES TELLS US4 0,H]E ! VIEWS ( LEAD+ M5 W]E HE>D & IMPORTANT DECISIONS TAK51 USUALLY BY ACCLAMATION40 ,WE KN[1 TOO1 ?AT ?IS G5]AL ASSEMBLY ( 0ALL ! MEMB]S ( ! COMMUNE0 WAS ! 0OLDE/ COMMUNAL 9/ITUTION0 ( !SE ,ITALIAN CITIES1 & FUR!R1 ?AT !1 CONSULS USUALLY 0S\ND$ \T ! G5]AL ASSEMBLY0 BE=E !Y MADE ANY MAJOR DECISIONS AB\T SU* ISSUES AS W> & PEACE1 TAXES1 & LAWS4_<#c#f_> ,:AT IS SO VEX+ IS ?AT WE KN[ SO LITTLE AB\T ?IS REVIVAL ( A HI<LY DEMOCRATIC1 FACE-TO-FACE =M ( POLITICAL CONTROL & ( ! CITIZ5S :O CREAT$ IT4 ,:E!R AGE 5D[$ IT ) ! LEGITIMACY ( AN UNBROK5 TRADITION BACK TO ANCI5T TIMES1 WE DO NOT KN[--ONLY ?AT IT WAS ! OLDE/ ( ! COMMUNE'S /RUCTURES4 ,?IS MU* IS CLE>3 :ATEV] AU?ORITY ! ASSEMBLY 5JOY$ PRIOR TO ! CONSULATE--?AT IS1 IF IT EXI/$ AT ALL BE=E ! CONJURATIO--IS CL\D$ BY ! FURI\S 9FI<T+ BETWE5 CL]ICS1 NOBLES1 OPPORTUNI/S ( ALL K9DS :O MANAG$ TO GRASP & LOSE CONTROL ( ! CITIES = NE>LY TWO C5TURIES BE=E !SE CIVIC 5TITIES FRE$ !MSELVES ( >BITR>Y RULE & DISRUPTIVE RIVALRIES4 

,CONSID]+ ! VOLATILITY ( ! ,ITALIAN CITY-/ATES1 ! ASSEMBLY SOON LO/ GR\ND TO ! CONSULATE & ! CONSULS1 :O BEGAN TO ELECT !IR [N SUCCESSORS4 ,! ,ITALIAN CITY WAS NEV] TO BE RE/RA9$ BY SU* ,HELL5IC MORES AS 0NO?+ 9 EXCESS0 OR ! ,PY?AGOREAN IDEAL ( H>MONIA4 ,ONE C\LD ALMO/ SAY ?AT SELDOM DID ANY?+ BUT EXCESS & EXPLOSIVE POLITICAL !ATRICS1 M>K !SE F]V5T & CREATIVE URBAN 5TITIES4 ,9 ANY CASE1 CIVIC LEAD]%IP FELL 9TO ! H&S ( L>GE1 WEAL?Y FAMILIES :O W]E TO E/ABLI% ! P>AMET]S ( CIVIC 'POLITICS = C5TURIES TO COME1 EV5 AFT] !Y W]E TEMPOR>ILY REMOV$ FROM P[] OR REPLAC$ BY NEWCOM]S FROM )9 OR \TSIDE ! CITY4 ,! ASSEMBLY1 9 TURN1 NEV] TOTALLY DISAPPE>$4 ,IT L+]$ ON 9 A HI<LY ATROPHI$ =M & HAUNT$ ! OLIG>*S & DESPOTS :O USURP$ ITS P[]S4 ,WE KN[ ?AT 9 ,B]GAMO1 = EXAMPLE1 AS ELSE:]E1 \TGO+ CONSULS W]E OBLIG$ TO HOLD ELECTIONS = NEW ONES 9 POPUL> ASSEMBLIES1 AL?\< ! NOM9ATION ( C&IDATES WAS ! PRIVILEGE ( ONLY A FEW4 ,SU* PRACTICES P]SI/$ WELL 9TO ! TWELF? C5TURY :5 CITIES SU* AS ,G5OA & ,PI/OIA TRI$ TO ELIM9ATE PRE>RANG$ NOM9ATIONS ( CONSULS BETWE5 ELECTORS ?AT FAVOR$ ONE ( ! P>TIES AT ! EXP5SE ( ANO!R4 

,9 TIME1 ?IS E>LY POPUL> DEMOCRACY GAVE WAY TO REPUBLICAN =MS ( GOV]NANCE1 & ! P[]S ( ! CITY W]E 9VE/$ 9 A L>GE LEGISLATURE DOM9AT$ BY 9FLU5TIAL URBAN FAMILIES4 ,9 SOME PLACES1 ! ASSEMBLY CONT9U$ ON AS A VE/IGE TO BE MANIPULAT$ BY OLIG>*S4 ,ELSE:]E1 IT WAS REPLAC$ BY 0ASSEMBLIES0 ?AT W]E SIMPLY REPUBLICAN LEGISLATURES4 0,EMULAT+ ALL PR9CELY C\RTS & ! G5]AL ASSEMBLIES 9 ,ITALIAN T[NS1 SOME ( !SE .<REPRES5TATIVE.> ASSEMBLIES HOP$ TO MEET F\R TIMES A YE>10 OBS]VES ,JOHN ,H4 ,MUNDY4 0,?IS WAS IMPRACTICABLE = G5]AL ASSEMBLIES1 BUT SMALL] SELECT C\NCILS (T5 DID MEET ?REE OR F\R TIMES YE>LY44440_<#c#g_> ,AL?\< ,MUNDY IS REF]R+ H]E SPECIFICALLY TO ,5GL&1 ! DRIFT FROM POPUL> ASSEMBLIES TO OLIG>*ICAL C\NCILS WAS AS TRUE ( ,ITALY AS IT WAS = ,EUROPE G5]ALLY4 ,! 0CONCILI>ISM10 AS ?IS P>LIAM5T>Y TR5D WAS CALL$1 ESS5TIALLY REPLAC$ CIVIC DEMOCRACIES1 SU* AS !Y W]E1 ) AU!NTIC CITY REPUBLICS1 & ! GREAT T[NS ( ,ITALY LOOK$ MORE1 9/ITUTIONALLY SPEAK+1 LIKE PREIMP]IAL ,ROME ?AN CLASSICAL ,A!NS4 

,WE MU/ NOT SUPPOSE1 H[EV]1 ?AT ,ITALY BECAME A C5TRALIZ$ ,/ATE AT ?IS TIME1 EV5 ON A MUNICIPAL BASE4 ,:E!R AS A DEMOCRACY OR A REPUBLIC1 ! ,ITALIAN CITY RE/$ TO AN A/ONI%+ EXT5T ON LITTLE NEI<BORHOOD 0COMMUNES0 ?AT EXI/$ )9 ! L>G] URBAN COMMUNE4 ,WE HAVE NO P>ALLEL = ?IS DEVELOPM5T 9 ANCI5T ,A!NS OR ,ROME4 ,IRRESPECTIVE ( ! K9D ( CONSULATE IT HAD1 ! CITY'S NEI<BORHOODS ACQUIR$ AN AUTONOMY ( !IR [N ?AT IS TRULY SPECTACUL> BY ANY /&>DS ( CIVIC GOV]NANCE4 ,=TIFI$ T[]S ROSE EV]Y:]E--9 ,MILAN1 ,FLOR5CE1 ,PISA1 ,V]ONA1 ,PAVIA1 ,P>MA1 & ! LIKE--HELD BY NOBLE FAMILIES 9  
CONSORTIA OR SWORN FAMILY GR\P+S ?AT W]E PL$G$ TO MA9TA9 !IR NEI<BORHOOD TURF AGA9/ O!R CORPORATE 9TRUD]S & ! COMMUNE AS A :OLE4 ,OA?S W]E SWORN EV]Y:]E 9 ! TRADITION ( ! CONJURATIO BUT SO LOCALI/ 9 !IR COMMITM5TS ?AT WE CAN ONLY DESCRIBE A COMMUNE AS A LOOSE CONF$]ATION ( NEI<BORHOOD COMMUNES1 9DE$1 A CONF$]ATION ( NEI<BORHOODS )9 ! COMMUNE4 0,:5 A UNION ( ?IS SORT BR\<T PEACE TO A NEI<BORHOOD10 OBS]VES ,M>T9ES1 0?AT P>T ( ! CITY BECAME NE>LY IMPREGNABLE1 BECAUSE ! L9K+ ( T[]S & ! EASY BLOCK+ ( ! N>R[ /REETS MADE = AN EFFECTIVE DOM9ATION ( ! ADJO9+ >EA40_<#c#h_> 

,LET !RE BE NO MI/AKE AB\T ! FACT ?AT !SE CONSORTIA W]E ANY?+ BUT NEI<BORHOOD DEMOCRACIES4 ,! T[]S W]E BUILT BY LEAD+ WEAL?Y FAMILIES :O W]E MU* TOO P[]FUL 9 ,HOME RESPECTS1 & MU* TOO WEAK 9 O!RS1 TO SEIZE COMPLETE CONTROL ( ! COMMUNE4 ,!Y W]E HI<LY LOCALI/ OLIG>*IES ?AT KEPT ,ITALIAN CITIES 9 CONT9UAL TURMOIL UNTIL !Y W]E SUPPLANT$ BY DESPOTIC SIGNORI1 FAMILY DYNA/IES RUL$ BY ONE MAN :O REPLAC$ A MULTITUDE ( OLIG>*IES1 (T5 TO BE UNSEAT$ AGA9 & HIS SONS RE/OR$ 9 RECKLESS %IFTS ( >I/OCRATIC & MILIT>Y P[]4 ,ITALIAN CIVIC HI/ORY IS NOT NOTABLE = ANY EV5 OR L9E> DEVELOPM5T FROM DEMOCRACY ?R\< REPUBLICAN SY/EMS TO OLIG>*Y1 MON>*Y1 & DESPOTISM4 ,ALL FIVE ( !SE 9/ITUTIONAL =MS BUBBL$ UP 9 AN UNPR$ICTABLE ASSORTM5T ( PATT]NS1 PR$OM9ANTLY AS ONE AT C]TA9 TIMES OR 9 COMB9ATION ) EA* O!R ON MANY O!R OCCASIONS4 ,ULTIMATELY1 ! ,R5AISSANCE CITIES SETTL$ D[N AS OLIG>*IES & PR9CELY C\RTS :]E AN ELECTRIFY+ BUT >I/OCRATIC HUMANISM GAVE US ! PRICELESS >TI/IC TREASURES ( ?AT ]A4 

,BUT ! CONSORTIA CREAT$ 0BAD0 & LA/+ HABITS ?AT FO/]$ A HI<LY DEMOCRATIC ATMOSPH]E AT ! BASE ( CITY FIFE4 ,IT PRODUC$ NEI<BORHOOD LOYALTY & CITIZ5 EMP[]M5T ) A V5GEANCE4 0,PROP]TI$ URBAN 9HABITANTS W]E ATTA*$ T5ACI\SLY NOT M]ELY TO A CITY BUT TO A /REET1 A P>I%1 AN AMBIANCE--TO A RADIUS ( P]HAPS #ae MET]S10 DECL>ES ,M>T9ES4 0,& ?\< A CITIZ5 MI<T FREQU5T AN E/ATE 9 ! C\NTRY1 HE LIV$ 9 ! CITY & !RE1 IF =TUNATE1 HE DI$4 ,MORE LIKELY ?AN NOT1 HE M>RI$ SOMEONE FROM ?AT VIC9AGE1 & ALL HIS MA9 BLOOD TIES1 AS WELL AS HIS CLOSE/ FRI5D%IPS1 W]E !RE4 ,! *>ACT] ( ! NEI<BORHOOD C\LD BE SO DI/9CTIVE1 C\LD' LEAVE SO DEEP AN IMPR9T ON ITS 9HABITANTS1 AS TO MAKE = DIFF]5T L+UI/IC EXPRESSIONS & EV5 = DIFF]5T 9TONATIONS OR ACC5TS4 ,DANTE DETECT$ NEI<BORHOOD DIFF]5CES 9 SPEE* AT ,BOLOGNA40.<#g.>_<#c#i_> 

,!SE LOYALTIES GAVE ! COMMUNE A POLITICAL VITALITY IT NEV] FULLY LO/ UNTIL REC5T TIMES4 ,CONCILI> GOV]NANCE DID NOT ABOLI% MAJOR DEMOCRATIC FEATURES ( ! CITY SU* AS ! SELECTION ( CONSULS BY SORTITION AT ,LUCCA1 = EXAMPLE1 :]E ! NEI<BORHOODS OR CONTRADA CONV5$ 9 !IR [N ASSEMBLIES & 0LOTS W]E DRAWN10 NOTES ,DANIEL ,WALEY1 :]EUPON 0EA* ( ! #ee M5 :O DREW SLIPS 9SCRIB$ ELECTOR CONSILI>I !N HAD ! DUTY ( NAM+ ONE MAN FROM HIS [N CONTRADA AS A C\NCILOR40_<#d_> ,:5 ! PODE/A SY/EM ( GOV]NM5T OR PODE/]IA WAS E/ABLI%$ 9 ,ITALIAN COMMUNES ?AT VE/$ ALL EXECUTIVE P[] 9 A S+LE MAN1 HE TOO WAS (T5 *OS5 ?IS WAY4 ,9 ,VIC5ZA DUR+ ! MID-?IRTE5? C5TURY1 TW5TY CITY ELECTORS 0W]E *OS5 BY LOT1 & ( !SE TWELVE W]E ELIM9AT$ BY VOT+2 ! EI<T REMA9+ ELECTORS !N PROPOS$ ?REE NAMES1 FROM :I* ! F9AL *OICE WAS MADE BY A FUR!R VOTE ( ! C\NCIL40_<#d#a_> ,! C\NCILS1 9 TURN1 (T5 REQUIR$ A QUORUM ( TWO-?IRDS TO >RIVE AT A DECISION1 & 9 SOME CITIES C\NCILORS W]E F9$ = FAIL+ TO ATT5D4 ,NOR IS IT UNUSUAL TO LE>N ?AT A MAJORITY ( TWO-?IRDS WAS NE$$ TO MAKE MAJOR DECISIONS1 AT :I* TIME EV5 L>G] QUORUMS & MAJORITIES AS HI< AS #a_/#a#a OR #a#f_/#a#g W]E REQUIR$--PROPORTIONS ?AT C\LD ALMO/ BE REG>D$ AS CONS5SUAL4 

,! PODE/]IA1 = ALL ITS MAJE/Y & SEEM+ ABSOLUTISM1 WAS BY NO MEANS ! AU?ORIT>IAN OGRE IT 9ITIALLY APPE>S TO BE4 ,A  
PODE/A WAS NOT SELECT$ FROM ANY MEMB]S ( ! COMMUNITY4 ,HE HAD TO BE AN \TSID] :O C\LD DI/ANCE HIMSELF FROM ! 9T]NEC9E FAMILIAL & FACTIONAL CONFLICTS ?AT (T5 BR\<T ! CITY TO ! BR9K ( *AOS1 H5CE TOO ! ELABORATE ELECTORAL SY/EM ?AT WAS MEANT TO BUFF] ! 9FLU5CE ( P>TICUL>LY P[]FUL GR\PS4 ,NOR C\LD HE COME FROM A NEI<BOR+ COMMUNE1 :I* OBVI\SLY WAS PRIVY TO ! CITY'S 9FI<T+4 ,HE WAS SELECT$ = HIS IMP>TIALITY1 = HIS LEGAL TRA9+1 & ORD9>ILY HELD HIS (FICE = NO MORE ?AN A YE>1 (T5 AS LITTLE AS SIX MON?S4 ,! CONSULATE1 LIKE ! ASSEMBLY1 DID NOT DISAPPE>2 9DE$1 9 ,TREVISO AS LATE AS #a#b#h#c1 G5]AL ASSEMBLIES ( VIRTUALLY ALL RESID5T CITIZ5S :O 5JOY$ RI<TS TO PUBLIC (FICE W]E CONV5$ TO DEAL ) EM]G5CIES1 EV5 IF ONLY TO BE/[ ALMO/ DESPOTIC P[]S ( CONTROL ON A MILIT>Y CAPTA94 

,A DETAIL$ ACC\NT ( ! PODE/]IA1 SIGNORI1 ! LAT] C\RTS ( ! ,S=ZA & ,M$ICI1 & ! REPUBLICAN OLIG>*IES ?AT OV]TURN$ !SE V>I\S =MS ( ONE-MAN CONTROL1 W\LD REQUIRE A VOLUME 9 ITSELF4 ,H]E WE MU/ FOCUS ON ! CONFLICT BETWE5 ! 0,PEOPLE0 & ! 0NOBILITY10 ! POPOLO & NOBILTA AS !Y W]E CALL$ RESPECTIVELY4 ,EQUIVAL5TLY1 WE C\LD HAVE CALL$ ! 0PEOPLE0 ! 0FOOT SOLDI]S0 OR P$ITES & ! 0NOBILITY0 ! 0KNI<TS0 OR MILITES1 ! MILIT>Y *>ACT]IZATIONS SO R$OL5T ( ! RISE ( ,GREECE'S HOPLITES & ! SUPREMACY !Y A*IEV$ OV] ! >I/OCRATIC CAVALRY4 ,! P>ALLEL1 LIMIT$ AS IT MAY BE1 IS QUITE 9/RUCTIVE4 ,:AT ! ,ITALIAN CITIZ5S ( ! TWELF? & E>LY ?IRTE5? C5TURIES CALL$ ! POPOLO WAS 9 NO S5SE ! URBAN POOR1 !  
,!TES ( ANCI5T ,A!NS4 ,! POOR 9 ! COMMUNE W]E A SOCIALLY 9*OATE /RATUM ( J\RNEYM51 RELATIVELY UNSKILL$ CRAFTSM5 :O V]G$ ON BE+ PROLET>IANS1 LABOR]S1 S]VANTS1 IT9]ANT TRADESM51 RUNAWAY S]FS1 & ?AT VA/ DECLASSE ( BEGG>S & ?IEVES :O PLAGU$ ! M$IEVAL CITIES ALMO/ FROM !IR 9CEPTION4 ,MANY ( !SE ELEM5TS C\LD BE EXPECT$ TO FOLL[ ANY /&>D ?AT FILL$ !IR EMPTY POCKETS4 ,9 A FEUDAL WORLD :]E A FEEL+ ( SOCIAL PLACE WAS CRUCIAL TO ONE'S S5SE ( SELF-REG>D1 !Y W]E \TSIDE ! PALE ( ! COMMUNE'S LIFE & ITS BROAD] POLITICAL CONC]NS4 

@5YHAT ! COMMUNE MEANT BY ! POPOLO W]E M5 ) A C]TA9 AM\NT ( MAT]IAL SUB/ANCE1 SU* AS MA/] CRAFTSM51 PR(ESSIONALS1 NOT>IES1 WELL-(F TRADESM51 EV5 F9ANCI]S & AN EM]G+ COMM]CIAL B\RGEOISIE ?AT [N$ SIZABLE =TUNES FROM =EIGN TRADE4 ,AL?\< !RE WAS A CLOSE 9T]L9K+ ( !  
NOBILTA & ! V]Y WELL-TO-DO POPOLO ?AT MAKES IT DIFFICULT TO DRAW PRECISE CLASS L9ES 9 ! CONFLICTS ?AT BR\<T ! TWO 9TO OPPOSITION ) EA* O!R1 MANY ( ! POPOLO W]E' VIRTUALLY EXCLUD$ FROM ! CITY'S POLITICAL LIFE & W]E TREAT$ LIKE RESID5T ALI5S1 ! METICS ( ANCI5T ,A!NS4 ,!Y PAID ITS TAXES1 S]V$ 9 ITS MILITIA1 & W]E SUBJECT TO ALL ITS LAWS )\T ANY RI<T TO HOLD PUBLIC (FICE OR 5T] 9TO ITS CIVIC C\NCILS4 ,9 CITIES ( #d1 OR MORE1 ACTIVE CITIZ5%IP WAS RE/RICT$ BY PROP]TY QUALIFICATIONS1 SOCIAL /ATUS1 & L5G? ( RESID5CE TO A ?\S& OR LESS4 ,AL?\< ! ,MILANESE POPOLO PROVID$ ! CITY ) ! GREATE/ P>T ( ITS REV5UES1 = EXAMPLE1 !Y HELD ONLY ONE-FIF? ( ! CONSULATE'S (FICES4 ,LAT]1 ON ! 9T]V5TION ( ! ,HOLY ,ROMAN ,EMP]OR1 ,OTTO ,I,V1 !Y W]E GIV5 HALF ( ! CONCILI> SEATS4 ,?IS RE=M & O!RS LIKE IT W]E 5\< TO :ET APPETITES )\T PROVID+ 5\< SU/5ANCE TO KEEP !M SATISFI$4 ,9 ! FIR/ HALF ( ! ?IRTE5? C5TURY1 ! POPOLO BEGAN TO TAKE OV] ! RE9S ( P[] 9 ONE COMMUNE AFT] ANO!R--,BOLOGNA BY #a#b#c#a1 ,PI/OIA9 #a#b#c#g1 ,FLOR5CE 9 #a#b#e--& TO ACQUIRE A GR[+ VOICE 9 ! GOV]NANCE ( ,PIAC5ZA1 ,LODI1 ,B]GAMO1 ,SI5A1 ,P>MA1 & ,Q5OA4 0,! POPOLO'S BREAK?R\< 9TO POLITICS WAS ! RESULT ( REVOLUTION>Y ORGANIZATION10 DECL>ES ,M>T9ES ) A DECISIV5ESS ?AT IS NOT EASY TO 5C\NT] AMONG MANY HI/ORIANS ( ! ]A4_<#d#b_> ,9 A V]Y REAL S5SE1 P]HAPS MORE SWEEP+ ?AN WE REALIZE1 HE IS CORRECT4 

,9 RETROSPECT1 :AT MAKES ! POPOLO'S WAYS ( ORGANIZ+ SO REVOLUTION>Y WAS ITS HI<LY LOCALI/ & ORGANIC FA%ION ( ACT+ POLITICALLY1 A =M ( ORGANIZ+ ?AT IS UTT]LY ANTI!TICAL TO MOD]N CONCEPTS ( P>TY POLITICS4 ,! POPOLO HAD TURN$ !MSELVES 9TO A NEI<BORHOOD MOVEM5T1 NOT UNLIKE ! CONTRADA 9 /RUCTURE & ! CONSORT]IE 9 !IR 'CONF$]AL WAY ( 9T]L9K+ ) EA* O!R4 ,! NOBLE FAMILIES ( TWO C5TURIES E>LI] HAD TAU<T ITS MORE S]VILE ORD]S WELL 9 ! >TS ( POLITICAL ORGANIZATION & P[]1 ,! TRADITION ( ORGANIZ+ A MOVEM5T ON A BLOCK-TO-BLOCK1 SQU>E-TO-SQU>E BASIS HAD NOT DI$ \T 9 ,ITALIAN CITIES AFT] ! PODE/>IE SUBDU$ ! 9T]FAMILIAL SQUABBLES )9 ! NOBILITY4 ,IT WAS /ILL V]Y MU* ALIVE1 & ! POPOLO US$ IT WELL4 ,H[EV] V>I$ ! SPECIFIC /RUCTURES ?IS ORGANIZATION PRODUC$1 C]TA9 =MS CLE>LY EM]G$ FROM ?IS NEI<BORHOOD BASE4 

,! RISE ( VOCATIONAL GILDS PROVID$ ONE V]Y IMPORTANT PATT]N = L9K+ M5 ( ! SAME OCCUPATION FROM DIFF]5T NEI<BORHOODS 9TO A COMMON ORGANIZATION4 ,GILDS W]E E/ABLI%$ NOT ONLY = M]*ANTS1 PHYSICIANS1 APO!C>IES1 JURI/S1 & NOT>IES1 BUT ALSO = SMI?S1 CLO? F9I%]S1 BUT*]S1 BAK]S1 FURRI]S1 TANN]S1 LEA!R MAK]S & ! LIKE1 G5]ALLY REFLECT+ ! POPOLO'S SOCIAL COMPOSITION AS A :OLE4 ,!SE VOCATIONAL GR\PS1 COMPOS$ ALMO/ EXCLUSIVELY ( WELL-TO-DO TRADESM5 & MA/] CRAFTSM5 9 !IR FIELDS1 W]E ! E>LIE/ POPUL> ORGANIZATIONS ( :I* WE HAVE ANY RECORD1 & !Y TRI$ NOT ONLY TO CONTROL ! OP]ATIONS ( !IR CRAFTS & ITS PRODUCE BUT ALSO CON/ITUT$ !MSELVES 9TO >M$ SOCIETIES ) ! V]Y DI/9CT GOAL ( CONTROLL+ ! COMMUNE4 ,BE=E LONG1 OP5 CLA%ES EXPLOD$ BETWE5 ! POPOLO & ! NOBILTA AT ,BRESCIA 9 #a#a#i#b1 ,PIAC5ZA 9 #a#a#i#h1 ,MILAN 9 #a#b#a1 & 9 YE>-BY-YE> SEQU5CE1 ,CREMONA1 ,ASSISI1 ,LUCCA1 & ONW>D TO ,PI/OIA 9 #a#b#c#d4 

,NEI<BORHOODS W]E N[ CONVULS$ BY /RIFE BETWE5 POORLY TRA9$ & ! MORE HI<LY SKILL$ FI<T]S ( ! NOBLE CONSORT]IE1 ,R>ELY HAD ! >M$ CITIZ5 MOV$ SO MU* TO ! =EFRONT ( CIVIC POLITICAL LIFE4 ,BY N[1 >M$ POPUL> SOCIETIES BAS$ ON NEI<BORHOOD TIES BEGAN TO SUPPLANT ! GILDS 9 ORD] TO DEAL ) ! 5DEMIC W>F>E ?AT ]UPT$ 9 ! CITY'S /REETS4 ,!SE SOCIETIES W]E BETT] TRA9$ ?AN ! VOCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS4 ,MORE CLOSELY CEM5T$ BY !IR TIES AS NEI<BORS1 !Y HAD A BETT] KN[L$GE ( ! QU>T]S 9 :I* !Y FUNCTION$ & !Y C\LD MU/] !IR =CES MORE RAPIDLY & ON %ORT] NOTICE AS EM]G5CIES >OSE4 ,IF ,BOLOGNA CAN BE TAK5 AS AN EXAMPLE ( ! 5HANC$ WAYS ( DEAL+ ) ! NOBILTA1 IT DEMON/RAT$ ! NE$ = ! >M$ NEI<BORHOOD SOCIETIES TO EXT5D BEYOND ! GILD FRAMEWORK 9TO A MORE COHESIVE1 >EA-ORI5T$1 WELL-SYN*RONIZ$1 & HI<LY COOP]ATIVE =M ( MILIT>Y ORGANIZATION4 ,BY ! MIDDLE ( ! TWELF? C5TURY1 ! CITY C\LD BOA/ ( TW5TYF\R >M$ NEI<BORHOOD COMPANIES 9 COMP>ISON TO ,FLOR5CE'S TW5TY & /ILL SMALL] NUMB]S ELSE:]E4 ,MOREOV]1 ! ,BOLOGNESE SOCIETIES W]E CONSOLIDAT$ ACROSS ADJAC5T URBAN P>I%ES 9TO :AT LOOK$ V]Y MU* LIKE A CITYWIDE MILITIA4 ,! POPOLO1 TO BE SURE1 HAD NOT CREAT$ ! IDEA ( A NEI<BORHOOD MILITIA \T ( ?9 AIR2 SU* COMPANIES ( M5 LIV+ 9 ! SAME P>TS ( ! CITY HAD BE5 ! BACKBONE ( ! COMMUNAL MILIT>Y SY/EM = YE>S4 ,:AT ! POPOLO DID1 H[EV]1 WAS TO *ANGE ! MILITIA'S FUNCTION FROM A M]E CIVIC GU>D1 DESIGN$ EXCLUSIVELY TO DEF5D ! COMMUNE FROM EXT]NAL 5EMIES1 9TO A POLITICALLY 9SURRECTION>Y =CE DESIGN$ TO *ANGE ! COMMUNE'S 9T]NAL /RUCTURE & P[] RELATION%IPS4 

,FLOR5CE'S >M$ SOCIETIES CAN BE TAK5 AS A G5]AL EXAMPLE ( ! /RUCTURE ?AT ! POPOLO E/ABLI%$ 9 ! POPUL> COMMUNES ( ,ITALY AFT] !IR VICTORY OV] ! NOBILTA1 ,! TW5TY NEI<BORHOOD COMPANIES IT HAD CREAT$ E>LI] N[ BECAME ! COMMUNE'S EXCLUSIVE FI<T+ =CE1 ABSORB+ ! REMA9S ( ! OLD ONE :]E IT C\LD4 ,9 DI/RICTS :]E ! POPOLO WAS WEAK1 A L>G] NUMB] ( MILITIA UNITS W]E ASSIGN$ TO GU>D ITS 9T]E/S4 ,! RE/ W]E EQUALLY DI/RIBUT$ ?R\<\T ! CITY4 ,EA* COMPANY ADOPT$ ITS [N BANN] & 9SIGNIA--A 0DRAGON1 A :IP1 A S]P5T1 A BULL1 A B\ND+ HORSE1 A ,HON10 EV5 A LADD]1 0W]E EMBLAZON$ ON 9DIVIDUAL %IELDS & HELMETS10 ,M>T9ES NOTES4 0,RIGOR\S REQUIREM5TS REQUIR$ GUILDSM5 TO KEEP !IR >MS NE> AT H&1 ABOVE ALL 9 TR\BL$ TIMES4 ,! CALL TO >MS = ! TW5TY COMPANIES WAS ! R++ ( A SPECIAL BELL1 PO/$ NE> ! MA9 PUBLIC SQU>E4 ,A /&>D-BE>]1 FLANK$ BY F\R LIEUT5ANTS1 WAS 9 COMM& ( EA* COMPANY4 ,!SE M5 W]E ELECT$ BY A C\NCIL ( TW5TY-F\R MEMB]S ( ! COMPANY & S]V$ ONE YE>4 ,! ,CAPTA9 ( ! ,PEOPLE WAS ! COMM&] ( ! TW5TY COMPANIES4 ,BE+ AN \TSID]1 HE WAS EXPECT$ TO /& ABOVE ! TEMPTATIONS ( LOCAL P>TIZAN%IP4 ,HIS OA? ( (FICE OBLIG$ HIM TO CALL ! COMPANIES TO ACTION :5EV] !RE WAS A ?REAT TO ! POPOLO4444 ,! POPOLO HAD NO TR\BLE F9D+ ONLY ! MO/ COMMITT$ & RELIABLE M5 = ITS >M$ COMPANIES4 ,! SUCCESS ( ?IS WAS SE5 9 MOM5TS ( CRISIS1 :5 ! >DOR ( ! COMPANIES WON MANY VICTORIES = ! POPOLO10 A FACT ?AT WAS NOT LO/ ON ,MA*IAVELLI SOME TWO C5TURIES LAT] :5 HE VOIC$ HIS COMPELL+ >GUM5T = A CITIZ5-MILITIA AS OPPOS$ TO ! USE ( M]C5>IES 9 ,! ,PR9CE4_<#d#c_> 

,ONCE IT CAME TO P[]1 ! POPOLO DID NOT COMPLETELY ELIM9ATE ! PODE/AL CON/ITUTION4 ,A L>GE ,C\NCIL ( ! ,PEOPLE WAS =M$ TO C\NT]BALANCE ! P[] ( ! OLD COMMUNAL LEGISLATURE & A P[]FUL C\NCIL ( 0ELD]S0 FUNCTION$ AS ! COMMUNE'S EXECUTIVE4 ,! ,CAPTA9 ( ! ,PEOPLE WAS ELEVAT$ TO A /ATUS ?AT1 = ALL PRACTICAL PURPOSES1 MAT*$ ?AT ( ! PODE/A1 & HE WAS FULLY REGAL$ ) A C\RT SY/EM ?AT P>ALLEL$ ?AT ( ! PODE/AL ONE4 ,! POPOLO1 9 EFFECT1 HAD /RUCTUR$ A DUAL P[] 9TO ! OLD] CON/ITUTION1 MAT*+ ! COMMUNAL C\NCIL ) A POPUL> ONE1 ! PODE/A ) ! MILITIA *IEFTA91 & C\RTS ( BO? M5 AS C\NT]WEI<TS TO EA* O!R4 ,OV]>*+ ?IS 5TIRE /RUCTURE WAS ! POPUL> MILITIA ITSELF1 :I* C\LD EASILY 9T]V5E 9 !  
POPOLO'S 9T]E/S IF ITS 9T]E/S W]E 9 ANYWAY ?REAT5$4 

,IF ?IS WAS A DEMOCRACY1 IT WAS ONE ( M]*ANTS1 NOT>IES1 PR(ESSIONALS1 & MA/] CRAFTSM51 NOT ( J\RNEYM51 WEAV]S1 DY]S1 & LABOR]S :O =M$ ! ONLY 0PROLET>IAT0 ! ?IRTE5?-C5TURY WORLD KNEW4 ,BY ! SAME TOK51 H[EV]1 IT WAS NOT A DEMOCRACY ( BLOOD$ IDL]S & >I/OCRATIC BULLIES4 ,! POPUL> DEMOCRACY WAS COMPOS$ ( M5 :O WORK$ ) !IR H&S AT CRAFTS OR DEVOT$ LONG H\RS ( ! DAY TO ! *ORES ( ADM9I/RATION1 BUS9ESS1 & LEGAL AFFAIRS4 ,:E!R !Y W]E WEAL?Y 5TREPR5EURS OR M5 ( MODE/ MEANS1 !Y SAW !MSELVES AS SELF-MADE 9DIVIDUALS1 NOT ! HEIRS ( FAMILY WEAL? & UNE>N$ /ATUS2 !Y BELIEV$2 ) GOOD REASON1 ?AT1 !Y LIV$ HI<LY PRODUCTIVE1 SOB]1'& SOCIALLY USEFUL LIVES & W]E F> MORE CAPABLE ?AN ! NOBLES ( BE>+ S]I\S RESPONSIBILITIES ON1 !IR %\LD]S4 ,!Y W]E NO ONE'S CLI5TS & NO ONE'S MA/]S1 EXCEPT :]E !Y TRA9$ !IR [N SUCCESSORS 9 ! SKILLS ( !IR CRAFTS4 ,AL?\< ! NEW MANUFACTUR]S :O OP]AT$ ) HIR$ LABOR C\LD H>DLY MAKE ?IS LA/ CLAIM = !MSELVES1 !Y W]E F> FROM CON/ITUT+ A MAJORITY ( ! TYPICAL LTALIAN POPOLO4 ,ITALY 9 ! ?IRTE5? C5TURY WAS NOT AN 9DU/RIAL SOCIETY ) MOD]N CAPITALI/S & WORK]S4 ,IT WAS A L>GELY >TISAN & HI<LY PAT]NALI/IC WORLD1 & ! M5 :O FA!R$ ITS WORK%OPS AS WELL AS ITS FAMILIES W]E NOT1 DISPOS$ TO GRANT ! LEA/ MODICUM (3 P[] TO ANYONE :O WAS A SUBORD9ATE4 ,!SE M5 KNEW ONLY TOO WELL ?AT1 )\T !M1 ! COMMUNE W\LD QUICKLY ATROPHY & DISAPPE>1 BUT )\T ! NOBLES &1 TO A CONSID]ABLE EXT5T1 !IR [N SUBORD9ATES1 IT C\LD SURVIVE & ULTIMATELY FL\RI%4 

,= LIMITS ( SPACE1 IT IS IMPOSSIBLE TO EXPLORE ! VA/ CULTURAL IMPACT ! POPUL> COMMUNE HAD ON ITS AGE1 BE IT ! PA9T+ ( ,GIOTTO1 ! S5SUAL REALISM ( ,BOCCACCIO1 ! %IFT ( LIT]ATURE FROM ,LAT9 TO ! V]NACUL>1 ! LAICIZATION4 ( $UCATION1 ! HUGE 9CREASE 9 POPUL> LIT]ACY1 OR A POLITICAL TRADITION ?AT TR\NC$ ANY ATTEMPT AT 9/ITUTIONALIZ$ DESPOTISM4 ,= ALL HIS >I/OCRATIC 9CL9ATIONS1 ,DANTE WAS A POPOLANI1 NO LESS ?AN ! *RONICL] ,GIOVANNI ,VILLANI :OSE HI/ORY ( ,FLOR5CE IS ONE ( ! BE/ TO BE WRITT5 ( HIS ]A4 ,! POPUL> COMMUNE CREAT$ NEW M5 :O BREA!D A FRE%] URBAN AIR ?AN ANY ( !IR M$IEVAL CONTEMPOR>IES3 ONE RELATIVELY FREE ( SUP]/ITION1 TURGID S*OLA/ICISM1 & SOCIAL /ATUS2 ,ABOVE ALL1 IT PRODUC$ A NEW K9D ( CITIZ5 :O1 ) HIS ,WEAPONS BY HIS SIDE & CRAFT TOOLS 9 HIS H&S1 FELT BOLDLY EMP[]$ >ID POLITICALLY CONFID5T4 ,AL]T TO ANY ?REAT TO HIS LIB]TIES2 HE WAS PREP>$ TO FI<T = HIS RI<TS ) ! SAME 5]GY ) :I* HE FA%ION$ HIS PRODUCE4 ,?IS AL]TNESS EXT5D$ BEYOND A DEF5SIVE /ANCE AGA9/ AN AGGRESSIVE NOBILITY 9TO A MILI TANT 9T]E/ 9 PUBLIC AFFAIRS & A READ9ESS TO OCCUPY PUBLIC RESPONSIBILITY4 ,NOT S9CE ,HELL5IC TIMES DID M5 ( RELATIVELY MODE/ MEANS FEEL SO CLOSE AN ID5TIFICATION BETWE5 !IR [N 9T]E/S & ?OSE ( ! CITY 9 :I* !Y LIV$4 ,DEEPLY 9DIVIDUAT$1 9DE$ ANIMAT$ BY A VIVACI\S LOVE ( PUBLIC DEBATE & POLITICAL DISCUSSION1 SU* AS ,ITALIANS >E TO ?IS V]Y DAY1 ?IS NEW CITIZ5 SEEM$ ALL ! MORE MOTIVAT$ TO %APE HIS CITY'S DE/9Y AS WELL AS HIS [N4 ,! ANCI5T CIVITAS AS AN ASSOCIATION ( ACTIVE CITIZ5S HAD BE5 REBORN1 & ITS SPIRIT WAS TO LIVE 9 ITS CITIZ5 BODY LONG AFT] ITS 9/ITUTIONS W]E TO ATROPHY & PASS 9TO HI/ORY4 

,?AT ! POPUL> COMMUNE DID NOT LA/ AS LONG AS ! ,A!NIAN  
POLIS IS NO M]E QUIRK ( ILL =TUNE4 ,LIKE ! ,ROMAN ,REPUBLIC1 ITS PROBLEMS C\LD NOT BE RESOLV$ BY REPLAC+ A SMALL OLIG>*Y ) A BIGG] ONE4 ,! POPUL> COMMUNE1 WAS NOT A 0LEVEL]0 ( SOCIAL ORD]S & ECONOMIC CLASSES4 ,QUITE TO ! CONTR>Y1 IT GAVE A NEW IMPETUS TO TRADE1 ! ACCUMULATION ( WEAL?1 & 9CREAS+ ECONOMIC & POLITICAL DIFF]5TIATION1 SETT+ ! POPOLO GROSSO OR 0FAT PEOPLE0 AGA9/ ! POPOLO MAGRO OR 0?9 PEOPLE40 ,9 TIME1 ! COMMUNE DEVELOP$ A SIEGE M5TALITY1 FE>FUL ( !  
POPOLO MAGRO )9 ITS WALLS & ! NOBILTAS :O W]E SL[LY GA!R+ !IR =CES \TSIDE !M4 ,TO LIVE ) ONE'S WEAPONS BY ONE'S SIDE ) AN E> OP5 TO ! REQUE/S ( A BUY] & ANO!R TO ! PEALS ( AN AL>M BELL IS NOT CONDUCIVE TO TRADE & IS EXHAU/+ TO ! SPIRIT ( A NASC5T B\RGEOIS4 ,AFT] A FEW G5]ATIONS--& ! TIME SPAN V>I$ FROM CITY TO CITY--SIGNORIAL RULE BEGAN TO OV]TAKE REPUBLICAN VIRTUE4 ,! PROCESS WAS AS 9SIDI\S !N AS IT IS TODAY3 POPUL> ASSEMBLIES BEGAN TO VOTE 9CREAS$ EM]G5CY P[]S TO !IR PODE/A & CAPTA92 ! SAME M5 W]E REPEAT$LY CONFIRM$ 9 EXECUTIVE (FICE1 & !IR T5URE WAS EXT5D$ FROM ONE YE> TO FIVE1 FROM FIVE TO T51 & ULTIMATELY TO LIFETIME (FICE4 ,SOON ! LEAD]'S SON SUPPLANT$ HIS FA!R AFT] DEA? & DYNA/IES BEGAN TO TURN ELECTIVE (FICES 9TO M]E *>ADES4 ,H[EV] MU* !Y L+]$ ON C]EMONI\SLY 9 =M1 ! REPUBLICS BEGAN TO DIE 9 FACT1 & ! ,ITALIAN CITIES1 UNEV5LY & ) TREPIDATION1 5T]$ ! AGE ( ! SIGNORI4 ,?AT ! REPUBLICAN ]A NEV] CEAS$ TO HAUNT ! ,ITALIAN M9D IS ATTE/$ TO BY SPORADIC ATTEMPTS TO REVIVE IT4 ,! MO/ NOTABLE1 TO BE SURE1 W]E ,COLA DI ,RI5ZI'S ASSUMPTION ( P[] AS ! TRIBUNE ( A NEW ,ROMAN REPUBLIC 9 ! MID-F\RTE5? C5TURY & ,FRA ,SAVON>OLA'S !OCRATIC REPUBLIC 9 ,FLOR5CE T[>D ! 5D ( ! FIFTE5?4 ,RI5ZI1 H[EV]1 HAD HIS EYES FOCUS$ MORE ON A UNIFI$ ,ITALY ?AN AN EMANCIPAT$ ,ROME1 A PROJECT ?AT WAS WOEFULLY ADVANC$ = ITS TIME1 & ,SAVON>OLA TURN$ ,FLOR5CE 9TO A HY/]ICAL BATTLEGR\ND = AN APOCALYPTIC BATTLE BETWE5 ,*RI/ & ,SATAN4 ,IF ,RI5ZI WAS TOO E>LY = ! F\RTE5? C5TURY1 ,SAVON>OLA WAS TOO LATE = ! FIFTE5?4 ,BO? M5 *ALL5G$ 5TR5*$ ATTITUDES ?AT /OOD AS 9SUP]ABLE OB/ACLES TO !IR PROJECTS3 ,RI5ZI1 A PR$OM9ANTLY FEUDAL S5SIBILITY2 ,SAVON>OLA1 A VIVACI\S ,R5AISSANCE S5SIBILITY ?AT 9CREAS+LY MADE HIS MONKI% M5TALITY AN ANA*RONISM4 ,& BO? M5 W5T D[N 9 TRAGIC DEFEAT3 ,RI5ZI AS A H]O ( ,ITALIAN NATIONALISM1 ,SAVON>OLA AS A FANATIC ( ,ITALIAN M$IEVALISM4 

,!RE CAN BE NO D\BT ?AT ALL ( ,EUROPE WAT*$ ! C>E] ( ! ,ITALIAN CITY-/ATE ) KE5 9T]E/ & BORR[$ HEAVILY FROM ITS PIONE]+ CIVICISM4 ,IF ,EUROPE HAD ANY CAPITAL DUR+ ! ,HI< ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 IT WAS PAPAL ,ROME1 ALSO AN ,ITALIAN CITY-/ATE4 ,PILGRIMS & 9VAD]S1 K+S & BEGG>S1 KNI<TS & M]*ANT-ADV5TUR]S1 ALL CRISSCROSS$ ! P59SULA = REASONS ( !IR [N1 & ,ITALIAN M]*ANTS W]E TO BE SE5 EV]Y:]E3 AT FAIRS 9 ,FRANCE1 CITY GATES 9 ,G]MANY1 ON ,LONDON'S DOCKS1 & 9 ,FLEMI% CITY SQU>ES4 ,H5CE1 IF CIVIC FRE$OM NE$$ A /IMULUS IT C\LD NOT G5]ATE ON ITS [N1 ! ,ITALIAN CITY-/ATE WAS A UBIQUIT\S PRES5CE ?AT C\LD PROVIDE ONE4 ,9 ANY CASE1 & 9 ALMO/ EV]Y WAY1 ! CITIES ( WE/]N ,EUROPE W5T ?R\< ALL ! PHASES ?AT ! ,ITALIAN CITIES HAD PIONE]$ & ADD$ C]TA9 ADORNM5TS ( !IR [N4 

,G5]ALLY1 ,EUROPEAN T[NS NOR? ( ! ,ALPS LAGG$ BEH9D ! ,ITALIANS BY A HALF-C5TURY OR SO1 & AT SOME PO9T 9 TIME !Y BRAN*$ (F FROM ?IS %>$ DEVELOPM5T 9TO 9/ITUTIONAL /AGNATION4 ,V>I\S K9DS ( REPUBLICAN /RUCTURES CAN BE F\ND AT ONE TIME OR ANO!R 9 ALMO/ EV]Y T[N ( ,EUROPE1 (T5 PREC$$ BY CONSULATES & FOLL[$ BY OLIG>*IES ) A WIDE V>IETY ( NAMES4 ,ELECTIVE SY/EMS ( GOV]NANCE1 :I* ,ROMAN TRADITIONS 9SPIR$ 9 ,ITALY1 W]E RE9=C$ NOR? ( ! ,ALPS BY ,G]MAN TRIBAL TRADITIONS4 ,NOT UNTIL WELL 9TO ! ,HI< ,MIDDLE ,AGES DID H]$IT>Y K+%IPS COME 9TO FA%ION2 UNTIL !N1 MON>*S W]E ELECT$ TO ! ?RONE & BY NO MEANS DID !Y OCCUPY IT ) COMPLETE REGAL CONFID5CE4 ,MOREOV]1 !Y W]E SURR\ND$ BY C\NCILS ?AT SPAWN$ ! P>LIAM5T>Y /RUCTURES ( LAT] TIMES1 ESS5TIALLY OLIG>*IC 9 *>ACT] BUT 9 SOME MEASURE REFLECTIVE ( ! >I/OCRATIC1 CL]ICAL1 & COMMON] E/ATES ?AT MADE UP ! SOV]EIGN'S REALM4 ,AS 9 ,ITALY1 ! WORD 0PEOPLE0 WAS DEF9$ 9 A HI<LY RE/RICT$ MANN]4 0,NOTE ?AT !RE IS A DIFF]5CE BETWE5 ! PEOPLE 7POPULUS7 & PLEBS :I* IS ! SAME AS ?AT BETWE5 AN ANIMAL & A MAN OR BETWE5 A G5US & A SPECIES10 DECL>$ A ?IRTE5?-C5TURY CANONI/ 9 ! ,>I/OTELIAN LANGUAGE ( ! DAY4 0,= NOBLES & NON-NOBLES COLLECT$ TOGE!R CON/ITUTE ! POPULUS1 ,! PLEBS IS :]E !RE >E NO S5ATORS OR M5 ( CONSUL> DIGNITY40_<#d#d_> ,! 9F]5CES WE CAN DRAW FROM !SE REM>KS >E ?AT ! 0PEOPLE0 9CLUDE EV]YONE ( ALL ORD]S & DEGREE2 ! PLEBS CONSI/ ( ?AT SEGM5T ( ! 0PEOPLE0 :O >E NOT EQUIPP$ TO GOV]N4 ,! GOV]N+ C\NCILS ( ,EUROPEAN T[NS G5]ALLY REFLECT$ ?IS DI/9CTION3 AN URBAN PATRICIATE MONOPOLIZ$ MO/ ( ! CIVIC (FICES4 ,RI* M]*ANTS TOOK OV] ,BRUGES 9 ! MID-?IRTE5? C5TURY2 ,R\5 9 ! LATE TWELF?2 ,FREIBURG1 :I* E/ABLI%$ A LIFETIME CONSULATE1 9 #a#b#a#h2 & MANY L>GE CITIES ( ,G]MANY SU* AS ,COLOGNE4 ,! CONCILI> SY/EM & ! E>LY ASSEMBLIES W]E REWORK$ 9TO OLIG>*IES4 ,NE$LESS TO SAY1 !RE W]E ALSO EXCEPTIONS4 ,AT ,NIMES1 ! CON/ITUTION PROVID$ = ! ELECTION ( FIVE CONSULS FROM ! 0:OLE PEOPLE ( ! CITY OR ITS L>G] P>T10 TYPICALLY 9DIRECTLY1 SU* AS EXI/$ 9 ! ,ITALIAN CITY-/ATES4 ,>LES LOCK$ ITS C>EFULLY CONTROLL$ G5]AL ASSEMBLIES 9TO AN OLIG>*Y BY PLAC+ VIRTUALLY ALL *ANGES ( LAW & IMPOSITION ( TAXES 9 ! H&S ( ITS CONSULS & !IR C\NCIL4 

0,DEMOCRATIZATION0 ( ! ,EUROPEAN CITIES OCCURR$ SL[LY & G5]ALLY FOLL[$ ON ! HEELS ( ! POPUL> COMMUNES 9 ,ITALY1 (T5 9 EXACT+ DETAIL4 ,BASEL E/ABLI%$ A CAPTA9 ( ! PEOPLE 9 #a#b#h2 ,FREIBURG TURN$ ITS OLIG>*Y 9TO AN ANNUALLY ELECT$ BO>D ( TW5TY-F\R CONSULS FOLL[+ A 0POPUL>0 REVOLT V]Y SIMIL> TO ,BOLOGNA'S2 ,LIEGE CREAT$ :AT CAN BE/ BE CALL$ A GILD-TYPE CITY REPUBLIC1 HEAD$ BY SIXTY GOV]NORS ( ITS CRAFT GILDS & TWO BURGOMA/]S4 ,! CITY W5T EV5 FUR!R ?AN MO/ :51 FROM #acac ONW>D1 IT MADE ! ISSUANCE ( NEW LAWS CONT+5T UPON ! APPROVAL ( A POPUL> ASSEMBLY COMPOS$ ( ALL ! CITY'S CITIZ5S1 IRRESPECTIVE ( !IR /ATUS4 ,EV5 BROAD] EXT5SIONS ( CIVIC LIB]TIES W]E TO M>K ! /ORMY POPUL> MOVEM5T ( ,FL&]S :5 CIVIC GOV]NM5T WAS %AP$ BY ! DESPIS$ WEAV]S & FULL]S ( CLO?-MANUFACTUR+ T[NS SU* AS ,<5T & ,YPRES :]E ! 0FAT0 & 0?90 PEOPLE W]E TO CLA% 9 BRUTAL CONFLICTS4 ,?IS *RONIC /RUGGLE IS TOO COMPLEX TO N>RATE H]E2 IT 9VOLV$ NOT ONLY BATTLES BETWE5 WELL-TO-DO OLIG>*IES & VIRTUAL PROLET>IANS :O MANUFACTUR$ WOOL PRODUCTS AS M]E HIR$ HELP BUT ALSO ! 9T]V5TION ( ! ,C\NT ( ,FL&]S1 ,GUY DE ,DAMPI]RE1 & ! ,FR5* MON>*1 ,PHILIP ! ,FAIR4 ,PATRIOTISM 9T]M+L$ ) CLASS CONFLICTS TO A PO9T :]E DEMOCRATIC DEM&S W]E REPEAT$LY DILUT$ BY ! HATR$ ( ! ,FLEMI% PEOPLE T[>D ,FRANCE4 ,AS A RESULT1 L[LY >TISANS & !IR LORDLY MA/]S F\<T SIDE-BY-SIDE :5 !Y W]E NOT FI<T+ FACE-TO-FACE4 ,ULTIMATELY1 ! 0?90 PEOPLE1 ORGANIZ$ 9TO 0LESS] GILDS0 TRIUMPH$ OV] !IR PATRICIATES1 & E/ABLI%$ A CIVIC /RUCTURE ?AT GAVE ADEQUATE REPRES5TATION TO ! WEAV]S1 FULL]S1 & GILDSM5 ( 0L[ DEGREE0 9 A TRIP>TATE MAGI/RACY ?AT EXCLUD$ ALL OR MO/ ( ! PATRICIANS4 

,:AT ! ,EUROPEAN COMMUNES C\LD NOT RESI/ WAS ! /EADY RISE ( ! NATION-/ATE1 9DE$ ONE ?AT ! RI* M]*ANTS FAVOR$ TO RE/RA9 !IR UNRULY LOCAL B>ONS :O 9T]F]$ ) ! FREE MOVEM5T ( TRADE & !IR UNRULY LABOR+ CLASSES :O POS$ A CONT9UAL ?REAT TO CIVIC OLIG>*IES4 ,P]HAPS ! E>LIE/ H>B+] ( ?IS NEW DRIFT T[>D T]RITORIAL C5TRALISM OCCURR$ :5 ! ,FLEMI% COMMUNES1 L$ BY ,PHILIP VAN ,>TAVELDE1 ! SON ( ! GREAT *AMPION ( ,FLEMI% LIB]TY1 ,JACQUES VAN ,>TAVELDE1 W]E ?OR\<LY R\T$ BY ,C\NT ,L\IS 9 ! ,BATTLE ( ,ROOSEBEEKE 9 #a#c#h#b4 0,H5CE=?1 ,FL&]S WAS TO GIVE UP ! DREAM ( GOV]NM5T BY A LEAGUE ( 9DEP5D5T T[NS & SUBMIT TO ! EV] MORE & MORE C5TRALIZ$ RULE ( P[]FUL T]RITORIAL LORDS1 :OSE MODEL WAS NATURALLY ! AGGRESSIVE MON>*Y ( ,FRANCE10 CONCLUDES ,EPHRAIM ,EM]TON 9 HIS WI/FUL ACC\NT ( ?IS TRAGIC HI/ORY4 0,AT ! DEA? ( ,C\NT ,L\IS 9 #a*c ! C\NTY PASS$ BY 9H]ITANCE TO HIS SON-9-LAW1 ,PHILIP ! ,BOLD ( ,BURGUNDY1 ! FIR/ 9 ! F9E ( PR9CES ?R\< :OM ! ,L[ ,C\NTRIES W]E DRAWN 9TO ! POLITICS ( ,FRANCE1 ! ,EMPIRE1 & ,SPA94 ,! CITIES1 /ILL GREAT & P[]FUL1 5JOY+ V]Y WIDE PRIVILEGES1 W]E TO BE ONLY 9CID5TS 9 ! L>G] RELATIONS ( ! C\NTRY40_<#d#e_> 

,EM]TON'S CLOS+ REM>KS ON ! /RUGGLE ( ,FLEMI% T[NS = CIVIC FRE$OM & AUTONOMY MI<T WELL SEEM LIKE A T\*+ EPITAPH = ! COMMUNE AS ! NATION-/ATE BEGAN TO EM]GE4 ,NOT ONLY DID IT SURVIVE AS LITTLE MORE ?AN A HAUNT+ DREAM 9 ,FL&]S1 BUT ALSO 9 ,ITALY1 :]E ! TRIUMPH ( ! SIGNORI BY ! FIFTE5? C5TURY WAS VIRTUALLY COMPLET$4 ,SAVON>OLA'S BRIEF RE/ORATION ( A ,FLOR5T9E REPUBLIC 9 ! CLOS+ YE>S ( ?AT C5TURY READS MORE LIKE A P>ODY ( ! CITY'S GLORI\S REPUBLICAN3 PA/ ?AN AN AU!NTIC REVIVAL4 ,IT W\LD SEEM ?AT ,DANIEL ,WALEY'S V]DICT ON ! NATURE ( ,ITALIAN CIVIC REPUBLICANISM C\LD BE APPLI$ TO ,EUROPEAN COMMUNES AS A :OLE4 0,! EXI/5CE ( REPUBLICAN =MS ( GOV]NM5T 9 ! ,ITALIAN CITY-/ATES WAS 9T5SELY PREC>I\S10 ,WALEY WRITES 9 AN ASSESSM5T ?AT CAN ONLY BE REG>D$ AS AN UND]/ATEM5T4 0,!SE 9/ITUTIONS W]E SO CON/ANTLY UND] PRESSURE OR EV5 9 FULL CRISIS ?AT !RE IS LITTLE REASON TO BE PUZZL$ AT !IR FAILURE TO SURVIVE 9 MO/ ( ! CITIES40_<#d#f_> ,9T]NAL FACTIONALISM1 :I* (T5 REA*$ 9SURRECTION>Y PROPORTIONS1 0SUFFICES ON ITS [N TO EXPLA9 :Y1 9 MO/ CITIES1 ! REGIME ( A S+LE 9DIVIDUAL WAS ABLE TO SECURE ACCEPTANCE BE=E ! 5D ( ! F\RTE5? C5TURY4 ,CLE>LY ! OCCASIONAL SURVIVAL ( REPUBLICANISM AS AN EXCEPTION NE$S MORE EXPLA9+ ?AN DO ! TRIUMPHS ( ! SIGNORI4 ,REPUBLICANISM 9 DECL9E IS SE5 AS A PUZZL+ HI/ORICAL PROBLEM ONLY IF ! REPUBLIC IS REG>D$ AS ! BODY POLITIC 9 HEAL?1 ! 'TYRANNY' 7SIGNORIA7 AS A PA?OLOGICAL =M40_<#d#g_> 

,P]HAPS1 AS ,WALEY SEEMS TO SUGGE/1 WE %\LD REV]SE ! JUDGM5T MOD]N LIB]AL HI/ORIANS HAVE ( :AT CON/ITUTES ! HEAL? >ID PA?OLOGY ( A BODY POLITIC4 ,BUT IT IS FAIR TO ASK1 AS ,I HAVE ?R\<\T ?IS BOOK1 :E!R ANY K9D ( POLITICS1 MU* LESS ONE ?AT CAN BE 0EMBODI$0 9 AN ACTIVE CITIZ5RY1 IS POSSIBLE UND] A TYRANNY OR1 = ?AT MATT]1 A 0REPRES5TATIVE DEMOCRACY0 7REPUBLIC74 ,WALEY SEEMS TO SURR5D] ! NE$ = AN E?ICAL JUDGM5T ( ! COMMUNE1 ( ! CONJURATIO'S RADICAL IMPLICATIONS & ITS S5SE ( PROMISE1 IF HE ASKS US TO SURR5D] TO ! 0FACTS0 ( ! HI/ORICAL RECORD RA!R ?AN *]I% ! POSSIBILITIES CIVIC FRE$OM HOLDS = A HUMANITY ?AT HAS YET TO FULFILL ITS UNF9I%$ POT5TIALITIES = A RATIONAL WAY ( LIFE4 ,WE CAN NEV] LET ?IS COMMITM5T TO AN E?ICAL JUDGM5T GIVE WAY TO ! EVID5CE ( A GROSSLY IRRATIONAL REALITY M]ELY BECAUSE ! RECORD ( ! HUMAN 5T]PRISE SPEAKS FAULT+LY AGA9/ IT4 ,TRU? R>ELY LIES 9 ! C5T] ( EXP]I5C$ FACTS4 ,IF IT DID SO1 WE W\LD /ILL BELIEVE ! E>? IS FLAT & JU/ICE IS M]ELY ! AU?ORITY ( ! /RONG4 ,!SE >E ! IRREFRAGABLE FACTS AS !Y >E EXP]I5C$ 9 EV]YDAY LIFE4 ,HI/ORIANS1 9 TURN1 W\LD M]ELY BE TURGID *RONICL]S ( ANECDOTES1 /ORYTELL]S ( ?+S PA/ :OSE ACC\NTS CAN NEV] BE FREE ( !IR [N HIDD5 BIASES & PROCLIVITIES4 ,UNTIL V]Y REC5T TIMES1 PHILOSOPHY = MORE ?AN TWO MILL5NIA HAS W>N$ US ?AT 0BRUTE FACTS0 DO NOT REALLY EXI/ & >E NEV] FREE ( 9T]PRETATION1 EV5 AS WE D5Y HUMANITY ANY S5SE ( POSSIBILITY1 ! HOPE ( GO+ BEYOND ! 0FACTS0 & A*IEV+ ITS MO/ WOR?Y IDEALS4 0,BRUTE FACTS0 WILL BECOME REAL ONLY :5 WE BECOME BRUTI% & DEAL ) ! EXI/+ REALITY ON ITS [N T]MS1 NO DIFF]5T 9 PR9CIPLE FROM ! ADAPTIVE WAYS WE IMPUTE TO O!R LIV+ BE+S4 

,ACTUALLY1 ! HI/ORY ( CIVIC FRE$OM DOES NOT 5D ) ! F\RTE5? C5TURY OR ! RISE ( ! NATION-/ATE4 ,! IDEAL ( POPUL> ASSEMBLIES AS A =M ( SELF-GOV]NANCE1 & ! CITY AS ! NUCLE> >5A = POLITICS & AN ACTIVE CITIZ5RY1 SEEMS TO HAVE 5JOY$ A REM>KABLE DEGREE ( P]SI/5CE1 ESPECIALLY IF WE BE> 9 M9D ?AT !RE W]E SO MANY FACTORS--/ATI/1 ECONOMIC1 LOGI/ICAL1 & DEMOGRAPHIC--TO WORK AGA9/4 ,?AT IT EXI/S EV5 TODAY 9 ! =M ( ! ,NEW ,5GL& T[N MEET+1 H[EV] VE/IGIAL IT APPE>S BY COMP>ISON ) ITS PA/1 IS TE/IMONY TO ! NE$ PEOPLE HAVE FELT 9 FAIRLY POLITICIZ$ REGIONS TO RETA9 =MS ( FACE-TO-FACE DECISION MAK+ & DIRECT DEMOCRACY4 ,9 FACT1 ! T[N MEET+ IS MU* TOO CLOSE TO \R DISCUSSION ( ! CITY'S FUTURE TO BE EXAM9$ 9 ANY DETAIL H]E4 ,IT MAY BE REG>D$ AS A LEGACY1 BUT IT IS /ILL A LIV+ LEGACY ?AT %\LD NOT BE CONSIGN$ TO ! PA/4 ,SUFFICE IT TO SAY1 = ! PRES5T1 ?AT FROM #agf TO ! CLOS+ YE>S ( ! ,AM]ICAN ,REVOLUTION1 IT SPREAD \T ( ,NEW ,5GL& & REA*$ AS F> S\? AS ,*>LE/ON4 ,DUR+ ?IS P]IOD1 IT FUEL$ ! REVOLUTION AS SURELY AS ! MORE WELL-KN[N ,COMMITTEES ( ,CORRESPOND5CE & SU* POPUL> SOCIETIES AS ! ,SONS ( ,LIB]TY4 ,CONSID]ABLE EF=T WAS NE$$ TO ELIM9ATE ! T[N-MEET+ =M 9 MANY COMMUNITIES ( ! NEW ,UNIT$ ,/ATES & TO NIBBLE AWAY AT ITS P[]S 9 ,NEW ,5GL& ITSELF4 ,WE %ALL SEE ?AT AS REC5TLY AS ! #a#i#fS1 ,V]MONT T[N%IPS & !IR POPUL> MEET+S ESS5TIALLY CONTROLL$ ! /ATE GOV]NM5T BECAUSE ! ,H\SE ( ,REPRES5TATIVES WAS ELECT$ BY T[NS1 NOT ALONG GEOGRAPHIC & DEMOGRAPHIC L9ES4 

,NOR CAN WE DEAL ) ! *ALL5G+ PROBLEMS RAIS$ BY ! ,SWISS ,CONF$]ATION1 A PIECE ( CONTEMPOR>Y HI/ORY ?AT SEEMS TO HAVE BE5 %UNT$ AWAY FROM 0MA9/REAM0 ACC\NTS ( CIVIC FRE$OM4 ,TO ASSIGN A FEW P>AGRAPHS TO A LIV+ ILLU/RATION ( CONF$]ALISM1 P>TICIPATORY DEMOCRACY1 & ACTIVE CITIZ5%IP1 DESPITE ! PHILI/9E SMUGNESS ( ,SWISS LIFE & ! CONS]VATISM ( ,SWISS POLITICS1 W\LD BE DO+ VIOL5CE TO ! EXTRAORD9>Y EXAMPLE ( FRE$OM ?AT IS ALSO ) US4 ,IT WILL REQUIRE A SECTION ( A LAT] *APT] ON CIVIC CONF$]AL =MS TO EV5 REMOTELY APPROXIMATE ! 9SI<TS ,B5JAM9 ,B>B] BR+S TO ?IS ISSUE 9 HIS DISCUSSION ( DIRECT DEMOCRACY 9 ! ,SWISS CANTONS4 ,:AT ,B>B] ASKS US TO RECOGNIZE IS ?AT DEMOCRATIC =MS 9 !MSELVES1 H[EV] RADICAL !Y MAY SEEM TO BE1 0>E 9H]5TLY NEI!R CONS]VATIVE NOR PROGRESSIVE2 !Y CAN BE EMPLOY$ TO BR+ AB\T RAPID & EV5 RADICAL *ANGE UND] CONDITIONS ( CONS5SUS & UNITY ( GOV]N+ & PEOPLE4 ,!Y CAN OB/RUCT RE=M & P>ALYZE EFFECTIVE GOV]NM5T ALTOGE!R :]E ! PEOPLE >E NO LONG] ONE ) !IR GOV]NORS OR SYNONYM\S ) !IR GOV]NM5T4444 ,DEMOCRACY 9 ,SWITZ]L& APPE>S REACTION>Y BECAUSE ! CONDITIONS ?AT JU/IFY IT HAVE ]OD$2 DEMOCRACY 9 ! VILLAGES ( ,GRAUBUND5 IS FAIL+ BECAUSE ! VILLAGE COMMUNITIES >E !MSELVES MORIBUND4 ,NEI!R ! 9/ITUTIONS !MSELVES NOR A PUTATIVE PEASANT M5TALITY IS TO BLAME40_<#d#h_> ,DEMOCRACY1 9 SUM1 HAS ITS [N PR]EQUISITES1 & IT WILL BE NO SMALL P>T ( ! COM+ *APT]S TO EXAM9E !M 9 ! LI<T ( MOD]N SOCIETAL PROBLEMS--,AM]ICAN1 ,EUROPEAN1 ,GRAUBUND51 NO LESS ?AN ?OSE ?AT EXI/ = A ,NEW ,5GL& T[N-MEET+ DEMOCRACY4 

,! MO/ DAZZL+1 ALMO/ METEORIC EXAMPLE ( CIVIC LIB]TY & DIRECT DEMOCRACY 9 MOD]N TIMES IS ! RISE & BRIEF ASC5DANCY ( ! SECTIONAL ASSEMBLIES 9 ! ,GREAT ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 A MOVEM5T ?AT ADDRESSES ! TYPICAL QUE/ION ( :E!R OR NOT A FACE-TO-FACE DEMOCRACY IS POSSIBLE 9 A L>GE CITY1 9DE$ BY ! /&>DS ( TWO C5TURIES AGO A WORLD CITY4 ,IT %\LD BE KEPT 9 M9D ?AT EI<TE5?-C5TURY ,P>IS1 :]E ! SECTIONAL ASSEMBLIES FL\RI%$1 WAS ! CAPITAL ( CONT95TAL ,EUROPE'S MO/ ABSOLUTE MON>*IES1 A CITY ?AT1 MORE SO ?AN ANY O!R ASIDE FROM ,LONDON1 SEEM$ TO HAVE BE5 A CREATURE ( ! NATION-/ATE4 

,UND] ! ,B\RBONS1 ,P>IS HAD V]Y LITTLE SELF-GOV]NM5T ( ITS [N4 ,RUL$ MORE OR LESS DIRECTLY BY ! MON>*Y1 IT GROAN$ UND] ! IMPOSITION ( AN 9EPT REGAL ADM9I/RATION & A CORRUPT NOBILITY ?AT R$UC$ ITS L[] ORD]S TO %E] DE/ITUTION4 ,YET )9 A SPAN ( ONLY F\R YE>S1 ,P>IS ACQUIR$ NOT ONLY COMPLETE CONTROL OV] ITS [N CIVIC AF,FAIRS BUT CREAT$ A SY/EM ( CONTROL ?AT WAS BUILT >\ND FACE-TO-FACE NEI<BORHOOD ASSEMBLIES1 COORD9AT$ BY A COMMUNE ?AT1 AT ITS REVOLUTION>Y HI<PO9T1 CALL$ = ! COMPLETE RE/RUCTUR+ ( ,FRANCE 9TO A CONF$]ATION ( FREE COMMUNES4 ,?IS DEM& WAS TO SURVIVE = NE>LY A C5TURY AFT] ! REVOLUTION1 :5 IT BECAME ! 9SURRECTION>Y PROGRAM ( ! MORE FAM\S ,P>IS ,COMMUNE ( #a#g#i#a4 

,IRONICALLY1 ! SECTIONAL ASSEMBLIES HAVE !IR ORIG9 9 ! SIXTY DI/RICT ASSEMBLIES ,L\IS ,X,V,I CONV5$ 9 ,P>IS TO ELECT ! CITY'S MIDDLE-CLASS DEPUTIES TO ! ,E/ATES ,G5]AL4 ,!SE ASSEMBLIES W]E DIRECT$ TO SELECT ! #adg ELECTORS :O1 9 TURN1 W]E TO *OOSE ,P>IS'S TW5TY DEPUTIES TO ! ,?IRD ,E/ATE4 ,! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 AL?\< SPURR$ 9TO ACTION BY ! P[] PLAYS BETWE5 ! ,?IRD ,E/ATE & ! MON>*Y1 REALLY BEGAN FROM BEL[ &1 MO/ TYPICALLY1 AS A RESULT ( ,P>ISIAN MILITANCY4 ,DESPITE ! HI<LY DISCRIM9ATORY FRAN*ISE ?AT ! ,X+ IMPOS$ ON HIS [N CAPITAL--NE>LY A QU>T] ( ! CITY'S POPULATION WAS DIS5FRAN*IZ$ 9 CONTRA/ TO A SIX? 9 ! RE/ ( ,FRANCE--! DI/RICT ASSEMBLIES W]E HI<LY SPIRIT$ & ACT$ 9 FLAT DEFIANCE ( ! ?RONE4 ,!Y REJECT$ ! PRESID+ (FIC]S ) :OM !Y W]E SADDL$ BY ! MUNICIPALITY & *OSE PRESID+ (FIC]S ( !IR [N2 ! #adg ELECTORS TO :OM !Y W]E 5TITL$ W]E UNABA%$LY RAIS$ TO F\R HUNDR$2 & :AT IS P]HAPS MO/ DAMN+1 !Y REFUS$ TO GO HOME AS ! MON>*Y DIRECT$ !M TO DO4 ,!Y DEFIANTLY E/ABLI%$ !MSELVES AS P]MAN5T FIXTURES ( ,P>IS'S MUNICIPAL GOV]NM5T4 ,! F\R HUNDR$ ELECTORS1 9 TURN1 BEGAN TO MEET ALMO/ DAILY AT ! MUSEUM & %ORTLY AFT]W>DS AT ! ,T[N ,HALL1 :]E !Y SIMPLY $G$ \T ! ROYAL APPO9TEES TO ! MUNICIPAL GOV]NM5T4 ,! ELECTORS1 9 EFFECT1 BECAME A PROVISIONAL ,P>IS1 0,COMMUNE0' UNTIL AN AU!NTIC ,COMMUNE WAS CON/ITUTIONALLY ELECT$4 ,BY ,SEPTEMB] #a#g#i1 ! ,P>IS ,COMMUNE NUMB]$ ?REE HUNDR$ & COEXI/$ UNEASILY ) ! SIXTY DI/RICT ASSEMBLIES FROM :I* IT DREW ITS REPRES5TATIVES4 

,! T5SION BETWE5 ! ,COMMUNE & ITS DI/RICT ASSEMBLIES & )9 ! ASSEMBLIES !MSELVES M\NT$ AS ! REVOLUTION>Y FEV] ( !' CITY ROSE4 ,! DI/9CTION BETWE5 PROP]TI$ 0ACTIVE CITIZ5S0 :O HAD FRAN*ISE RI<TS & PROP]TYLESS 0PASSIVE0 ONES :O W]E EXPECT$ TP BE LITTLE MORE ?AN POLITICAL BY/&]S ULTIMATELY MADE ANY EXCLUSION ( ! DIS5FRAN*IZ$ PEOPLE1 ! SANS CULOTTES1 9CREAS+LY AWKW>D4 ,BY ?IS TIME1 ! 0DI/RICTS0 HAD BE5 R5AM$ 0SECTIONS0 & !IR NUMB] R$UC$ FROM SIXTY TO =TY-EI<T BY ! ,NATIONAL ,ASSEMBLY 9 ORD] TO DIM9I% !IR P[]4 ,DESPITE SU* ATTEMPTS TO SUPPRESS ! 0DI/RICTS0 & LAT] ! 0SECTIONS0 AS DELIB]ATIVE BODIES1 ! ASSEMBLIES L>GELY IGNOR$ ! ,NATIONAL ,ASSEMBLY'S DECREES4 ,9 ,MAY #a#g#i1 ! ,ASSEMBLY TRI$ TO LIMIT ! CONC]NS ( ! SECTIONAL ASSEMBLIES TO PURELY MUNICIPAL ISSUES1 A PLOY TYPIPAL TO ?IS DAY ( CONS]VATIVE ELEM5TS 9 ,NEW ,5GL& T[N MEET+S1 BUT ! RE/RICTION ULTIMATELY PROV$ TO BE 9EFFECTUAL4 ,) ! \TBREAK ( W>1 ! REVOLUTION MOV$ M>K$LY LEFTW>D4 ,9 ,JULY #a#g#i#b1 ! ,!AT]-,FRANCAIS SECTIPN DECRE$ ! ELIM9ATION ( ALL DI/9CTIONS BETWE5 0ACTIVE0 ANIL 0PASSIVE0 CITIZ5S1 A DECREE ?AT WAS QUICKLY ADOPT$ BY ALL ! =TY-EI<T SECTIONS ( ,P>IS4 ,! SECTIONAL ASSEMBLIES W]E N[ ?R[N OP5 TO ALL ! UND]PRIVILEG$ ORD]S ( ,P>IS3 ! LABOR+ CLASSES1 RELATIVELY UNSKILL$ >TISANS1 C>P5T]S1 CON/RUCTION WORK]S1 NASC5T PROLET>IANS ( ! TEXTILE & LUXURY GOODS WORK%OPS1 & ! LIKE4 ,A YE> LAT]1 ON ,DANTON'S REQUE/1 ! NEWLY ELECT$ REVOLUTION>Y ,CONV5TION ?AT REPLAC$ ! ,NATIONAL ,ASSEMBLY DBCRE$ ?AT POOR CITIZ5S C\LD RECEIVE A /IP5D ( =TY S\S =1 ATT5D+ SECTIONAL ASSEMBLIES1 :I* W]E R$UC$ TO TWO A WEEK1 PRESUMABLY SO ?AT !  
SANS CULOTTES C\LD ATT5D !M ) REASONABLE REGUL>ITY4 ,! ATTEMPT BY ! LIB]AL ,GIROND9S TO CLOSE ALL SECTIONAL ASSEMBLIES BY N9E 9 ! EV5+ SO ?AT WORK+ SANS CULOTTES W\LD BE UNABLE TO ATT5D ! ASSEMBLIES AFT] !Y RETURN$ HOME CONTRIBUT$ GREATLY TO ! POPUL> 9SURRECTION ?AT REMOV$ !M FROM ! ,CONV5TION & BR\<T ! ,JACOB9S TO P[]4 

,AL?\< ! DETAILS ( H[ !SE LOCAL ASSEMBLIES FUNCTION$ LEAVES MU* TO BE DESIR$1 P>TLY BECAUSE ! M9UTES ( ! SECTIONS W]E LO/ 9 ! FLAMES ( ! ,P>IS ,COMMUNE ( #a#h#g#a1 P>TLY1 TOO1 BECAUSE !IR HI/ORY HAS YET TO BE WRITT5 BY HI/ORIANS SYMPA!TIC TO !IR DEC5TRALI/IC \TLOOK1 WE KN[ 5\< TO DESCRIBE !M 9 BROAD T]MS4 ,SECTIONAL ASSEMBLIES MET AT LEA/ TWICE WEEKLY 9 ! SUMM] & AUTUMN ( #a#g#i#c1 ! HI< TIDE ( ! SANS CULOTTE MOVEM5T & (T5 W5T 9TO 0P]MAN5T SESSION0 DUR+ HECTIC P]IODS ( ! REVOLUTION4 ,ATT5DANCE FLUCTUAT$ WIDELY FROM A HUNDR$ OR LESS :5 ! AG5DA WAS R\T9E TO OV]FL[+ HALLS 7USUALLY 9 /ATE-COMM&E]$ *UR*ES & *APELS7 :5 S]I\S ISSUES CONFRONT$ ! REVOLUTION>Y PEOPLE4 ,/RUCTURALLY1 EA* SECTION HAD A PRESID5T ) A COMMITTEE TO ASSI/ HIM1 A RECORD+ SECRET>Y1 TELL]S = C\NT+ VOTES1 & U%]S TO MA9TA9 ORD]4 ,AL?\< IT IS NOT V]Y CLE> H[ FIX$ !SE POSITIONS W]E1 ! ,PRESID5T'S COMMITTEE WAS R5EW$ MON?LY BY AN ASSEMBLY VOTE1 & V]Y FEW PRESID5TS SEEM TO HAVE HELD (FICE = MORE ?AN A YE>4 ,EA* SECTION1 IT MU/ BE /RESS$1 MADE ITS [N RULES & PROBABLY V>I$ 9 =M & ! FREQU5CY ( ITS MEET+S4 

,A MULTITUDE ( REVOLUTION>Y COMMISS>S & COMMITTEES SURFAC$ FROM !SE ASSEMBLIES & DEALT ) A L>GE NUMB] ( IMPORTANT ECONOMIC1 POLITICAL1 & MILIT>Y PROBLEMS4 ,WE HAVE ONLY TO 5UM]ATE ! NAMES ( ! SECTIONAL COMMITTEES TO GA9 SOME IDEA ( ! FUNCTIONS ?IS NEI<BORHOOD DEMOCRACY UND]TOOK4 ,ASIDE FROM ITS ASSEMBLEE G5]ALE ( ! LOCAL CITIZ5 BODY1 EA* SECTION'S 0MO/ IMPORTANT FUNCTION1 ?AT ( POLICE1 WAS 5TRU/$ TO A COMMISSAIRE DE POLICE1 AID$ BY SIXTE5 COMMISSAIRES DE SECTION4 ,TO MEET ! NE$S ( LOCAL ADM9I/RATION ! SECTIONS =M$ ALMO/ AS MANY COMMITTEES AS A MOD]N ,AM]ICAN T[N OR CITY4 ,!RE W]E COMITES CIVILE & COMITES REVOLUTIONAIRES 7,VIGILANCE ,COMMITTEES72 !RE W]E COMITES DE BI5FAISANCE 7,RELIEF ,COMMITTEES71 COMITES MILITAIRES1 COMITES D'AGRICULTURE1 &  
COMMISSIONS DE SALPETRES 7= PROVID+ GUNP[D]74 ,EA* SECTION HAD ITS [N REVOLUTION>Y C\RT SY/EM & JU/ICES ( ! PEACE AS WELL AS SPECIAL COMMITTEES TO ORGANIZE WORK = ! UNEMPLOY$ 7ATELI]S DE *>ITE71 OR T5?-DAY FE/IVITIES 7FETES DECADAIRES71 OR OP5-AIR SUPP]S = ! POOR 7BANQUETS POPULAIRES74.<#h.> 

,! =TY-EI<T SECTIONAL ASSEMBLIES1 9 TURN1 W]E COORD9AT$ BY ! ,P>IS ,COMMUNE TO :I* EA* SECTION ELECT$ ?REE DEPUTIES AT AN ASSEMBLEE PRIMAIRE4 ,ALSO AT ?IS SPECIAL ASSEMBLY1 USUALLY QUITE HEAVILY ATT5D$1 ! SECTIONS ELECT$ ! ,BUREAU ( ! ,COMMUNE3 ! CITY'S MAYOR1 ITS PROCUREUR1 & HIS TWO DEPUTIES1 :O ESS5TIALLY CON/ITUT$ A COMMUNAL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE TO :I* SIXTE5 ADM9I/RATEURS W]E *OS5 FROM ! ,COMMUNE'S NORMAL COMPLEM5T ( #add SECTIONAL REPRES5TATIVES4 ,TO BUFF] ?IS RA!R MANIPULATIVE EXECUTIVE FROM POPUL> PRESSURE1 AN ADDITIONAL ?IRTY-TWO MEMB]S W]E ADD$ TO ! ,BUREAU TO =M A  
,CORPS ,MUNICIPAL4 ,:5 ?IS MAJE/IC GR\P ( =TY-EI<T SECTIONAL NOTABLES CONV5$ ) ! REMA9+ N9ETY-TWO DEPUTIES ?AT =M$ ! ,COMMUNE1 IT BORE ! SOLEMN TITLE ( ! ,CONSEIL ,G5]AL DE LA ,COMMUNE OR1 AS IT CAME TO BE KN[N 9 ! HI/ORICAL LIT]ATURE1 ! ,COMMUNE'S ,G5]AL ,C\NCIL4 

,! MORE RADICAL SECTIONS ( ,P>IS W]E NOT UNM9DFUL ?AT !SE CONC5TRIC R+S ( AU?ORITY SURR\ND+ ! COMMUNE'S ,BUREAU W]E MEANT TO CAM\FLAGE AN 9N] CIRCLE ( EXECUTIVES :O W]E AS DISQUIET$ BY ! IRASCIBILITY ( ! SECTIONS AS ! ,CONV5TION WAS ( ! ,COMMUNE1 A BODY ?AT IT REALLY SAW AS A DANG]\S *ALL5GE TO ! NATION-/ATE4 ,AL?\< ! ,COMMUNE EV5TUALLY BECAME MORE RADICAL UND] SECTIONAL PRESSURE AS TIME W5T BY1 ! SECTIONS W]E ALWAYS MORE RADICAL ?AN ! ,COMMUNE & BEGAN TO ACT V]Y MU* ON !IR [N4 ,:5 NECESS>Y1 AS WAS FREQU5TLY ! CASE1 SANS CULOTTE SECTIONS DID NOT HESITATE TO BYPASS ! ,COMMUNE COMPLETELY & =M !IR [N 9T]LOCK+ COMMITTEES & NETWORKS4 ,DELEGATIONS FROM ONE SECTION (T5 VISIT$ ! ASSEMBLIES ( ANO!R1 :]E !Y W]E USUALLY GREET$ ) F]V5T EMBRACES1 HORTATORY SPEE*ES ( WELCOME1 & *>ACT]I/IC 0KISSES ( FRAT]NITY10 :I* (T5 CULM9AT$ ) BANQUETS TOPP$ BY 5DLESS TOA/S TO LIB]TY & ! BRO!RHOOD ( MAN4 ,AS ,F4 ,FURET ET AL4 TELL US3 0,FROM ! ANGLE ( POLITICAL SOLID>ITY1 ! P>TICIPANTS 9 ACTIVITIES ( ! SECTIONS SAW !MSELVES AS =M+ A :OLE1 A 'FAMILY' ( 'BRO!RS & FRI5DS1' :]E ! USE ( ! FAMILI> =M TU BROKE D[N ALL ! B>RI]S ( SOCIAL & CULTURAL ORIG94 ,\TSIDE ! SECTION ?IS FRAT]NAL SOLID>ITY WAS FUR!R EXPRESS$ BY 'FRAT]NIZATION1' A SORT ( PACT = MUTUAL AID BETWE5 ! POPUL> SECTIONS TO RESI/ ! PRESSURE ( ! >I/OCRATS & ! MOD]ATES1 & !N TO ELIM9ATE !M FROM ! COMMITTEES :I* !Y CONTROLL$4 ,?US ON ,MAY #a#d1 #a#g#i#c1 ! ,SOCIAL ,CONTRACT SECTION1 UND] ! DIRECTION ( ITS PRESID5T1 W5T 9 A BODY TO ! ,LOMB>D SECTION TO *ASE \T ! '>I/OCRACY4' ,9 ?IS WAY ! SECTIONS W]E REG5]AT$ 9 ! B\RGEOIS QU>T]S DOM9AT$ BY ! MOD]ATES BE=E ! FALL ( ! ,GIROND9S1 & BY ! 'NEW MOD]ATES' AFT] ! MON? ( ,SEPTEMB] #a#g#i#c40_<#d#i_> 

,IT IS DIFFICULT TO FULLY CONVEY ! 5ORM\S P[]S ! SECTIONS ACCRU$ BY #agic BE=E !Y W]E SUBV]T$ BY ! ,CONV5TION4 ,! TITLES ( !IR V>I\S COMITES & COMMISSIONS DO NOT' TELL US H[ 9T5SELY ACTIVE ! SECTIONS HAD BECOME 9 ! ADM9I/RATION ( !IR NEI<BORHOODS & F9ALLY 9 RUNN+ ! 5TIRE CITY ( ,P>IS4 ,!Y W]E S\RCES ( 9=MATION ON LOCAL C\NT]REVOLUTION>IES & GRA9 SPECULATORS1 BO? ( :OM EXI/$ BY ! NE/FUL 9 ! CITY4 ,!Y BECAME ! DISP5S]S ( A R\<-&-READY POPUL> JU/ICE1 ! GU>DIANS ( ! 0MAXIMUM0 ?AT REGULAT$ ! PRICE ( /APLES1 ! DISP5S]S ( FOOD = ! POOR & SU/5ANCE = ! WID[$ & ORPHAN$1 ! C>ETAK]S ( REFUGEES FROM ! PROV9CES & ! HOMELESS :O ALL BUT LIV$ ON ! /REETS4 ,!Y W]E ! AU!NTIC ORGANIZ]S ( ! GREAT J\RNEES1 ! 9SURRECTION>Y 0DAYS0 ?AT PU%$ ! REVOLUTION 9 AN 9CREAS+LY EGALIT>IAN DIRECTION MU* TO ! DISMAY ( ! ,JACOB9S1 :OM !Y MI/AK5LY WOR%IP$ ) ALMO/ UN?9K+ REV]5CE BE=E !Y W]E BETRAY$ BY ! ,ROBESPI]RES1 ,DANTONS1 & ,SA9T-,JU/S4 ,!Y =G$ ! 0HOLY PIKE0 ?AT >M$ ! REVOLUTION>Y POPULACE & MADE IT POSSIBLE = IT TO 9T]V5E DIRECTLY 9 ! ,CONV5TION'S PROCE$+S & ALT] ! C\RSE ( ITS DECREES & LAWS4 ,GO+ EV5 FUR!R1 ! SECTIONS BEGAN TO 9T]V5E SIGNIFICANTLY 9 ! ECONOMY ( ! CITY4 ,!IR COMITES D'AGRICULTURE SC\R$ ! C\NTRYSIDE TO FE$ ! CITY1 !IR COMMITTEES TO E/ABLI% ATELI]S DE *>ITE FREELY APPROPRIAT$ WORK%OPS AB&ON$ BY WEAL?Y EMIGRES & US$ !M TO PROVIDE JOBS = ! UNEMPLOY$ :O MADE UNI=MS1 WEAPONS1 & GUNP[D] FPR ! EMBATTL$ REVOLUTION>Y >MIES AT ! FRONT4 ,NOT UNLIKE ! ,A!NIAN FE/IVALS ( AN E>LI] AGE ?AT DID SO MU* TO CEM5T ! POLIS TOGE!R1 ! SECTIONS NOT ONLY CALL$ P]IODIC FETES DECADAIRES & NEI<BORHOOD BANQUETS POPULAIRES BUT HELP$ TO /AGE ! F]V5T CITYWIDE CELEBRATIONS ?AT OCCURR$ ?R\<\T ! REVOLUTION1 FO/]+ A S5SE ( CIVIC FRAT]NITY ?AT ,P>IS WAS TO R>ELY SEE AGA9 AFT] #a#g#i#c1 :5 ! 0YE> ( ! SANS CULOTTES0 PASS$ 9TO HI/ORY4 ,& IT WAS !SE CANAILLE1 OR 0RABBLE0 AS !Y W]E ALSO CALL$1 :O W]E TO BE PU%$ FROM ?O /AGE ( HI/ORY & %OT D[N BY ! ?\S&S 9 ! REACTION ?AT FOLL[$ ! T5? ( ,!RMIDOR 7,JULY #b#h1#a#g#i#d71 :5 ,ROBESPI]RE & HIS FOLL[]S W]E GUILLOT9$4 

,F9ALLY1 0,FROM ! PR9CIPLE ( POPUL> SOV]EIGNTY10 OBS]VE ,FURET & HIS COLLEAGUES1 0! SANS CULOTTES W5T AS F> AS ! NOTION ( DIRECT GOV]NM5T4 ,) ! SAME V]VE :I* MADE !M RISE AGA9/ ! ,GIROND9S1 9 ! SUMM] ( #agic C]TA9 SECTIONS DEM&$ TO KEEP !IR [N CIVIL RECORDS1 TO LEVY !IR [N TAXES1 & TO R5D] JU/ICE )\T APPEAL4 ,NO LIMITATIONS %\LD BE IMPOS$ UPON ! ASSEMBLY ( CITIZ5S1 :I* DECID$ EV]Y?+4 ,A DECISION BY ! ,CONV5TION 7,SEPTEMB] #i1 #a#g#i#c7 HAV+ LIMIT$ SECTION MEET+S TO TWO DAYS A WEEK1 ! SANS CULOTTES GOT >\ND ! DECREE BY HOLD+ A DAILY MEET+ ( ! ',SOCIETY ( ! SECTION4' ,?IS ASSEMBLY CLAIM$ TO SUP]VISE ! CIVIL S]VANTS & MAGI/RATES1 :O 9 !IR EYES W]E M]ELY !IR SUBORD9ATES4 ,MEMB]S ( ! COMITES CIVILES1 REVOLUTION>Y COMMISSIONS1 POLICE COMMISSION]S1 OR COMMISSION]S = SUPPLIES W]E SUBJECT$ TO CON/ANT SURVEILLANCE BY ! SECTIONS1 AT LEA/ AS LONG AS ! LATT] MA9TA9$ !IR 9DEP5D5CE FROM ! REVOLUTION>Y GOV]NM5T4 ,C5SURE1 'PURIFY+' VOTES1 & REVOCABILITY ( ELECT$ P]SONS W]E ! PR9CIPAL MEANS BY :I* ?IS POPUL> SOV]EIGNTY WAS EX]CIS$1 ACCORD+ TO ! ,R\SSEAUEAN PR9CIPLE ( A SOV]EIGN & 9DIVISIBLE POPUL> OP9ION40_<#e_> 

,! WELL-TO-DO CLASSES ( ,FRANCE HAD EV]Y?+ TO FE> FROM !SE SECTIONAL ASSEMBLIES & A RADICAL ,COMMUNE ( ,P>IS4 ,AL?\< IT WAS HI<LY UNLIKELY ?AT ! L>GELY B\RGEOIS DI/RICTS ( #a<i EV] 5VISION$ A ,FRANCE GOV]N$ BY A COMPLETELY POPUL> DIRECT DEMOCRACY1 ! RISE & GR[+ 9FLU5CE ( ! SECTIONAL ASSEMBLIES CLE>LY EVOK$ IMAGES ( A CONF$]AL ,FRANCE /RUCTUR$ >\ND SECTIONS SIMIL> TO ! ,P>ISIAN 9 ALL ! CITIES & T[NS ( ! C\NTRY--A NATIONWIDE COMMUNE ( COMMUNES4 ,! EXT5T TO :I* ?IS VISION ( AN 5TIRE ,EUROPEAN C\NTRY BEGAN TO TAKE HOLD ( ! POPUL> IMAG9ATION AS E>LY AS ,NOVEMB]1 #a#g#i#b1 IS SUGGE/$ BY A /ATEM5T ?AT ! ,SECTION DE LA ,CITE CIRCULAT$ = ! APPROVAL ( O!R SECTIONAL ASSEMBLIES4 0,! CITIZ5S ( ,P>IS DECL>E 444 ?AT !Y RECOGNIZE NO SOV]EIGNTY EXCEPT A MAJORITY ( ! COMMUNES ( ! REPUBLIC 44! /ATEM5T PROVOCATIVELY DECL>ES1 0?AT !Y ONLY RECOGNIZE DEPUTIES ,9 ! ,CONV5TION AS COMPOS]S ( A DRAFT CON/ITUTION & PROVISIONAL ADM9I/RATION ( ! REPUBLIC40 ,BY ! SPR+ ( #a#g#i#c1 SU* VIEWS CEAS$ TO BE ISOLAT$4 ,ON ,APRIL #bi ( ! FOLL[+ YE>1 !  
,CONSEIL ,G5]AL ( ! ,COMMUNE1 :I* IS TO SAY ! BROADE/ ( ! CONC5TRIC GR\PS )9 ?AT BODY1 TOOK PRACTICAL /EPS T[>D IMPLEM5T+ ! IDEA ( A F$]ATION ( COMMUNES BY E/ABLI%+ A CORRESPOND+ COMMITTEE TO COMMUNICATE ) ! #d#d1 MUNICIPALITIES ( ,FRANCE4 ,9 A PR9T$ CIRCUL> TO ! MUNICIPALITIES1 ! COMMITTEE'S SECRET>Y BOLDLY DECL>$3 0,?AT IS ! ONLY K9D ( F$]ALISM ! PEOPLE ( ,P>IS WANT4444 ,ALL ! COMMUNES 9 ,FRANCE %\LD BE SI/]S40_<#e#a_> 

,= ALL HIS BIASES & PRECONCEPTIONS1 ,DANIEL ,GU]9 IS ON SOLID GR\ND :5 HE RESOLUTELY CONCLUDES1 0,! B\RGEOIS PHILOSOPH]S :O HAD PRON\NC$ DIRECT DEMOCRACY UNWORKABLE 9 L>GE C\NTRIES .<NO LESS ,R\SSEAU ?AN O!R SOCIAL !ORI/S ( HIS DAY.>1 ON ! GR\NDS ?AT IT W\LD BE MAT]IALLY IMPOSSIBLE TO BR+ ALL ! CITIZ5S TOGE!R 9 ONE MEET+1 W]E ?US PROV$ WRONG4 ,! ,COMMUNE HAD SPONTANE\SLY DISCOV]$ A NEW =M ( REPRES5TATION MORE DIRECT & MORE FLEXIBLE ?AN ! P>LIAM5T>Y SY/EM & :I* :ILE NOT P]FECT1 = ALL =MS ( REPRES5TATION HAVE !IR FAULTS1 R$UC$ ! DISADVANTAGES TO A M9IMUM40 ,9DE$1 IT IS D\BTFUL IF ! ,COMMUNE & ! SECTIONAL ASSEMBLIES C\LD BE REG>D$ AS A SY/EM ( 0REPRES5TATION40 ,! SANS CULOTTES HAD GONE MU* FUR!R ?AN ANY ASSEMBLY =M ( :I* WE KN[ 9 E/ABLI%+ A DIRECT DEMOCRACY1 ?IS 9 ! V]Y HE>T ( A NATION-/ATE ?AT ! ,JACOB9S HAD C5TRALIZ$ TO A DEGREE ?AT W\LD HAVE BE5 ! 5VY ( ,FRANCE'S MO/ ABSOLUTI/ MON>*S4 

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