,*APT] #c 
,! ,CREATION ( ,POLITICS 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,MURRAY ,BOOK*9 

,TEXT 3 

,*APT] ,?REE3 ,! ,CREATION ( ,POLITICS 

  

,POLITICS HAS ACQUIR$ A FAIRLY ODI\S REPUTATION AMONG ! GREAT MAJORITY ( PEOPLE TODAY4 ,! WORD SEEMS TO D5OTE TE*NIQUES = ! UNSAVORY 5D ( EX]CIS+ P[] OV] HUMAN BE+S4 ,WE 0PLAY POLITICS0 NOT ONLY ON AN 9T]NATIONAL NATIONAL1 & LOCAL SCALE2 WE DO SO 9 DOME/IC RELATIONS1 9 S*OOLS & PLACES ( LE>N+1 9 ORD9>Y JOBS OR EXTRAORD9>Y C>E]S4 ,POLITICS1 9 EFFECT1 IS SE5 TO HAVE 9VAD$ ! MO/ PRIVATE RECESSES ( \R LIVES4 ,AT WOR/1 IT IS VIEW$ AS OPPRESSIVE1 MANIPULATIVE1 CUNN+LY S$UCTIVE1 & BASICALLY DEGRAD+4 ,FEW WORDS MORE READILY EVOKE A CONTEMPTU\S SNE] ?AN ! T]M 0POLITICIAN40 ,CONCEIV$ 9/RUM5TALLY AS A MEANS TO CONTROL PEOPLE1 POLITICS IS REG>D$ AS 9H]5TLY CORRUPTIVE ( BO? ITS US]1 ! POLITICIAN1 & ! PUBLIC ON :OM IT IS US$4 ,! IDEAL ( A POLITICAL LIFE E>NS FEW ACOLYTES AMONG PEOPLE ) ANY DEGREE ( MORAL PROBITY4 ,TRADITIONAL CONS]VATIVES & AN>*I/S ALIKE ID5TIFY IT ) ! /ATE & PREA* A MESSAGE ( ! ATT5UATION OR \TRI<T ABOLITION ( 0POLITICAL P[]40 ,LIB]ALS & SOCIALI/S R>ELY CELEBRATE POLITICS AS A DESID]ATUM1 BUT !Y W$ IT SO CLOSELY TO ! /ATE--A NECESSITY 9 MOD]N LIB]AL & SOCIALI/ !ORY--?AT ITS PRACTICE IS SE5 AS UNAVOIDABLE 9 A HI<LY IMP]FECT WORLD4 

,MOD]N SOCIAL IDEOLOGIES T5D TO BL5D POLITICS ) ! /ATE ALMO/ UN?9K+LY--& (T5 ?R[ SOCIETY 9TO ! BREW = GOOD MEASURE4 ,! CONFUSION ON ?IS SCORE IS MASSIVE4 ,JU/ AS !RE >E MANY PEOPLE :O1 BY VIRTUE ( ! ALL-P]VASIVE ROLE ! /ATE PLAYS 9 !IR PRIVATE LIVES1 DRAW NO DI/9CTION BETWE5 0GOV]NM5T0 & 0SOCIETY10 SO AN 9CALCULABLE NUMB] >E 9CAPABLE ( DI/+UI%+ BETWE5 ! /ATE & 0POLITICS4 ,!SE ATTITUDES & !Y >E (T51 LITTLE MORE-->E JU/IFI$ TODAY BY ORD9>Y EXP]I5CE1 AS WE %ALL SEE4 ,?AT ! SOCIAL1 POLITICAL1 & 0/ATIFI$0 >E NOT SYNONYM\S1 9DE$1 ?AT !Y >E BROADLY DEM>CATABLE >5AS ) HI/ORIES & ID5TITIES ( !IR [N1 IS SO F> REMOV$ FROM ! PUBLIC'S M9D ?AT TO DI/+UI% !M SEEMS P>ADOXICAL4.<#b.> ,! EQUATABILITY ( POLITICAL ) /ATE ACTIVITIES IS TAK5 AS A GIV54 ,! P5ETRATION ( ! TWO1 NORMALLY CONCEIV$ AS ONE COMMON PH5OM5ON1 9TO PRIVATE AFFAIRS /ILL 5C\NT]S CONSID]ABLE RESI/ANCE1 AL?\< 9 ! =M ( A PSY*OLOGICAL T5SION ?AT F9DS EXPRESSION 9 EXI/5TIAL RESI/ANCE SU* AS PETTY VIOLATIONS ( ! LAW RA!R ?AN IDEOLOGICAL CL>ITY4 

,9 REC5T YE>S1 H[EV]1 S]I\S ATTEMPTS HAVE BE5 MADE TO PROBE ! DI/9CTION BETWE5 0SOCIETY0 & POLITICS1 :I* HAS TRADITIONAL ROOTS 9 !ORETICAL DI/9CTIONS BETWE51 SOCIETY & ! /ATE4 ,! AN>*I/S HAVE BE5 SAY+ = YE>S :AT EV]YONE EI!R KN[S OR FEELS3 ! /ATE IS NOT ! SAME K9D ( PH5OM5ON AS ! FAMILY1 WORKPLACE1 FRAT]NAL & SORORAL GR\PS1 RELIGI\S CONGREGATIONS1 UNIONS & PR(ESSIONAL SOCIETIES1 9 %ORT1 ! 0PRIVATE0 WORLD ?AT 9DIVIDUALS CREATE OR 9H]IT TO MEET !IR P]SONAL & SPIRITUAL NE$S4 ,?IS P]SONAL WORLD CAN BE DESIGNAT$ AS 0SOCIAL10 H[EV] MU* 0GOV]NM5T0 P5ETRATES1 REGULATES1 OR1 9 TOTALIT>IAN /ATES1 ABSORBS ITS =MS4 ,IT IS A WORLD ?AT HAS DEEP ROOTS 9 :AT ,M>X & LAT] ,HANNAH ,>5DT W]E TO DESIGNATE AS ! 0REALM ( NECESSITY10 A WORLD :]E ! 9DIVIDUAL SATISFIES ! CONDITIONS = HIS OR H] P]SONAL SURVIVAL4 ,H]E1 BIOLOGY PROVIDES ! SOIL = A SY/EM ( SELF-MA9T5ANCE SU* ?AT PEOPLE HAVE A CULTURALLY CONDITION$ BUT SY/EMATIC WAY ( REPRODUC+ !IR K9D1 FE$+ & CLO?+ !MSELVES1 SATISFY+ !IR NE$S = %ELT] & ! SUPPORT SY/EMS = RESI/+ AN 9CLEM5T1 PRESUMABLY 0CRUEL1 MUTE1 & BL9D NATURAL WORLD40 

,TO HAVE %>P5$ ! DI/9CTION BETWE5 ! SOCIAL & ! /ATE IS ONE ( ! MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS ( TRADITIONAL AN>*I/ !ORY4 ,?AT !RE C\LD BE A POLITICAL >5A 9DEP5D5T ( ! /ATE & ! SOCIAL1 H[EV]1 WAS TO ELUDE MO/ RADICAL SOCIAL ?9K]S1 EV5 SO 9T5SE A POLITICAL '?9K] AS ,M>X :O ALL[$ = 0DEMOCRATIC0 /ATES ?AT C\LD 0EVOLVE0 T[>D SOCIALISM & 0,BONAP>TI/0 /ATES ?AT /OOD ABOVE & BALANC$ (F CONFLICT+ CLASS 9T]E/S4 ,! RE=MI/ W+ ( ,M>XIAN SOCIALISM WAS BY NO MEANS ALONE :5 IT 5VISION$ A PLIABLE /ATE ?AT C\LD BE US$ = SOCIALI/ 9T]E/S4 ,ITS [N 0F\ND+ FA!RS'3' W]E NO LESS RIDDL$ ) UNC]TA9TIES AB\T ! NATURE ( ! /ATE ?AN ! RE=MI/S >E TODAY4 

,! EM]G5CE ( ! POLITICAL REALM AS UNIQUE HAS A COMPLEX BACKGR\ND 9 ! HI/ORY ( IDEAS14 ,POLITICS AS A PH5OM5ON DI/+UI%ABLE FROM ! /ATE & FROM SOCIAL LIFE 9ITIALLY APPE>S 9 ! EXTANT WRIT+S ( ,>I/OTLE1 P]HAPS ! MO/ ,HELL5IC ( ! ,GREEK SOCIAL !ORI/S & PHILOSOPH]S4 ,) ,>I/OTLE WE >E /ILL DEAL+ 9 T]MS ( HUMAN ASSOCIATION ON ! LEVEL ( ! CITY1 OR TO BE MORE PRECISE1 ! POLIS1 :I* IS COMMONLY MI/RANSLAT$ AS ! 0CITY-/ATE604 .<#c.> 

,BY ! MIDDLE ( ! FIF? C5TURY ,B4,C41 :5 ! ,A!NIAN DEMOCRACY WAS APPROA*+ ITS HI< PO9T ( DEVELOPM5T1 ! CONCEPT ( A /ATE--( A PR(ESSIONALIZ$ BUREAUCRATIC APP>ATUS = SOCIAL CONTROL--WAS NOTABLE = ITS ABS5CE2 ,ATTIC ,GREEK CONTA9S NO WORD = /ATE4 ,! T]M IS ,LAT9 9 ORIG91 & ITS ETYMOLOGICAL ROOTS >E HI<LY AMBIGU\S4 ,IT MORE PROP]LY D5OTES A P]SON'S CONDITION 9 LIFE--HIS OR H] /ATUS OR WAY ( LIFE & 0/&+0--?AN A COMMONWEAL? OR A /ATE 9 ! MOD]N S5SE ( ! T]M4 ,NOT UNTIL ! E>LY SIXTE5? C5TURY1 :5 WE WITNESS ! RISE ( AU!NTIC NATION-/ATES & HI<LY C5TRALIZ$ MON>*IES1 DOES ! WORD COME TO MEAN A PR(ESSIONAL CIVIL AU?ORITY ) ! P[] TO GOV]N A 0BODY POLITIC40 

,!RE IS A V]Y REAL S5SE 9 :I* ! EVOLUTION ( ! WORD BROADLY REFLECTS ! EVOLUTION ( ! /ATE ITSELF4 ,NOT ?AT /ATE P[]S W]E R>ITIES 9 ! ANCI5T & M$IEVAL WORLDS4 ,]IC ,VOGEL9'S 0COSMOLOGICAL0 EMPIRES--,MESOPOTAMIAN1 ,EGYPTIAN1 ,P]SIAN--& ! MORE 0ECUM5ICAL0 ,ROMAN EMPIRE W]E C]TA9LY /ATES 9 ! S5SE ?AT !Y CONTROLL$ VA/ RES\RCES1 DOM9AT$ MILLIONS ( PEOPLE1 & W]E /RUCTUR$ ALONG HI<LY PR(ESSIONAL1 RATIONALIZ$1 & BUREAUCRATIC L9ES4 ,/ATE 9/ITUTIONS EM]G$ V]Y E>LY 9 HUMAN HI/ORY1 AL?\< 9 V>Y+ DEGREES ( DEVELOPM5T & /ABILITY1 (T5 9 0BITS & PIECES10 AS IT W]E1 ) HI<LY TRIBALI/IC FEATURES4 ,! ,PH>AONIC /ATE 9 ! ,NILE VALLEY ALREADY REA*$ BACK ?\S&S ( YE>S1 P]HAPS BEYOND ! UNIFICATION ( NOR!RN & S\!RN ,EGYPT1 LONG BE=E ! ,ROMAN EMPIRE HAD BEGUN ITS LONG DECL9E4 

,A!NS HAD A 0/ATE0 9 A V]Y LIMIT$ & PIECEMEAL S5SE4 ,DESPITE ITS GOV]NM5TAL SY/EM = DEAL+ ) A SIZABLE SLAVE POPULATION1 ! 0/ATE0 AS WE KN[ IT 9 MOD]N TIMES C\LD H>DLY BE SAID TO EXI/ AMONG ! ,GREEKS1 UNLESS WE >E SO R$UCTIONI/ AS TO VIEW ANY SY/EM ( AU?ORITY & RULE AS /ATI/4 ,SU* A VIEW W\LD GROSSLY SIMPLIFY ! ACTUAL CONDITIONS UND] :I* HUMANITY LIV$ 9 ! 0CIVILIZ$ WORLD4.<#d.> ,UNTIL REC5T TIMES1 PR(ESSIONAL SY/EMS ( GOV]NANCE & VIOL5CE COEXI/$ ) RI*LY >TICULAT$ COMMUNITY =MS AT ! BASE ( SOCIETY--CITY NEI<BORHOODS 9 ! WORLD'S FEW L>GE URBAN >EAS1 SELF-CONTA9$ T[NS & VILLAGES1 A NETWORK ( EXT5D$ K9%IP TIES1 A GREAT V>IETY ( VOCATIONAL1 MUTUAL-AID1 & FRAT]NAL GR\PS--:I* W]E L>GELY BEYOND ! REA* ( C5TRALIZ$ /ATE AU?ORITIES4 ,9 FACT1 !SE DI/9CTLY SOCIAL =MATIONS W]E NECESS>Y TO ! MA9T5ANCE ( ! /ATE4 ,!Y W]E S\RCES ( ITS REV5UES1 ITS MILIT>Y P]SONNEL1 &1 9 MANY CASES1 ! S\RCE ( MANY LABOR S]VICES = A GREAT V>IETY ( PUBLIC & RELIGI\S TASKS4 

,! ,A!NIAN DEMOCRACY1 IF ANY?+1 WAS ! OPPOSITE ( A PR(ESSIONALIZ$ SY/EM ( GOV]NANCE ORGANIZ$ /RICTLY = SOCIAL CONTROL4 ,IF WE *OOSE TO TRANSLATE ! WORD = ! ,A!NIAN POLIS AS 0/ATE10 :I* IS DONE ) APPALL+ PROMISCUITY1 WE W\LD HAVE TO ASSUME ?AT ! NOTION ( A /ATE IS CONSI/5T ) A BODY POLITIC ( SOME =TY ?\S& MALE CITIZ5S1 ADMITT$LY AN ELITE :5 PLAC$ AGA9/ A /ILL L>G] POPULATION ( ADULT MALES POSSIBLY ?REE TIMES ?AT NUMB] :O W]E SLAVES & DIS5FRAN*IZ$ RESID5T ALI5S4 ,YET ! CITIZ5S ( ,A!NS C\LD H>DLY BE CALL$ A 0CLASS0 9 ANY MEAN+FUL S5SE ( ! T]M4 ,9DE$1 )9 ?IS BODY POLITIC1 WE 5C\NT] ECONOMIC DI/9CTIONS ?AT RUN ! 5TIRE GAMUT ( MAT]IAL RES\RCES FROM ! WEAL?Y TO ! IMPOV]I%$4 

,WE W\LD ALSO HAVE TO ASSUME ?AT ! NOTION ( A /ATE IS CONSI/5T ) A CONSCI\SLY AMATEUR SY/EM ( GOV]NANCE1 BAS$ ON ALMO/ WEEKLY POPUL> ASSEMBLIES1 A JUDICIAL SY/EM /RUCTUR$ >\ND HUGE JURIES ?AT REPRES5T ! ASSEMBLIES ON AN ATT5UAT$ SCALE1 ! SELECTION & ROTATION ( CIVIC (FICIALS BY SORTITION1 ?AT IS1 ! USE ( ! LOT1 & ! ABS5CE ( ANY POLITICAL PR(ESSIONALISM OR BUREAUCRATISM1 9CLUD+ MILIT>Y =CES ?AT >E AU!NTIC MILITIAS ( >M$ CITIZ5S RA!R ?AN PR(ESSIONAL SOLDI]S4 

,!SE FEW REM>KS DO NOT DO FULL JU/ICE TO ! ,A!NIAN SY/EM ( DEMOCRACY1 NOTABLY ITS HI< LEVEL ( CONSCI\SNESS1 CIVICISM1 COMMITM5T1 & ES!TICS4 ,!Y MU/ SUFFICE = ! PRES5T TO UND]/& H[ POLITICS WAS CREAT$ ON ! R>E OCCASIONS :5 IT APPE>$ 9 HI/ORY ) A REASONABLE DEGREE ( AU!NTICITY1 & H[ IT WAS CONCEIV$ BY ITS MO/ R5[$ !ORI/1 ,>I/OTLE4 ,IT IS TO ,>I/OTLE ?AT WE MU/ TURN = ! E>LIE/ KN[N DI/9CTIONS BETWE5 ! SOCIAL & POLITICAL REALMS1 ! H\SEHOLD & ! PUBLIC >5A4 ,! /ATE WAS NOT ALI5 TO ,>I/OTLE2 IT EXI/$ AS MON>*Y & TYRANNY1 AS EV]YONE C\LD SEE AMONG ! /ATES ?AT SURR\ND$ ! ,A!NS ( ,P]ICLES'S DAY4 ,& !Y W]E AS EASILY CONFUS$ ) ! POLIS BY ,>I/OTLE & HIS /UD5TS1 JU/ AS WE1 TODAY1 CONFUSE POLITIKOS1 ! ADM9I/RATION ( ! POLIS'S AFFAIRS1 ) ! /ATE4 ,:AT WAS C5TRAL TO ,>I/OTLE'S ?\<T1 H[EV]1 WAS ! POLIS1 NOT ?AT AMBIGU\S PH5OM5ON1 ! /ATE4 ,:AT IS C5TRAL TO MOD]N ?\<T1 BY CONTRA/1 IS ! /ATE NOT POLITICS OR1 /RICTLY SPEAK+1 ! AFFAIRS ( ADM9I/]+ AN 5TITY ?AT C\LD PASS = A POLIS4 ,H5CE1 AL?\< POLITICS & ! /ATE 9T]ME% 9 BO? CASES1 !Y DO SO 9 V]Y DIFF]5T WAYS & FROM REM>KABLY DIFF]5T P]SPECTIVES4 

,?IS DI/9CTION %\LD NOT BE R$UC$ TO A SIMPLE DIFF]5CE ( VANTAGE PO9TS T[>D A %>$ PH5OM5ON4 ,>I/OTLE & ! MOD]N SOCIAL !ORI/S >E1 9 FACT1 LOOK+ AT TWO V]Y DISSIMIL> WORLDS4 ,! DIFF]5CE BECOMES V]Y EVID5T 9 ,BOOK ,SEV5 ( ,>I/OTLE'S ,POLITICS :]E ! PROP] SIZE ( ! 0IDEAL0 POLIS IS DISCUSS$4 ,BO? ,>I/OTLE & MO/ MOD]N SOCIAL !ORI/S W\LD AGREE ?AT A COMMUNITY ?AT IS V]Y SMALL RISKS ! POSSIBILITY1 IF IT RELIES PRIM>ILY ON ITS [N RES\RCES1 ( 9ADEQUATELY FURNI%+ ITS 9HABITANTS ) ! MEANS ( EXI/5CE1 MU* LESS PROVID+ = ! 0GOOD LIFE10 H[EV] ONE *OOSES TO 9T]PRET ?IS HI<LY PROBLEMATICAL PHRASE4 ,ALMO/ PRESCI5TLY1 ,>I/OTLE D]IDES1 ! VIEW ?AT A COMMUNITY'S GREATNESS IS TO BE JUDG$ BY ITS DEMOGRAPHIC & T]RITORIAL SIZE4 ,IMPORTANT AS NUMB]S & RES\RCES MAY BE1 A POLIS ) TOO L>GE A POPULATION & >EA CANNOT HAVE A 0GOOD LEGAL GOV]NM5T4444 ,LAW .<NOMOS.> IS A =M ( ORD]1 & GOOD LAW MU/ NECESS>ILY MEAN GOOD ORD]2 BUT AN EXCESSIVELY L>GE NUMB] CANNOT P>TICIPATE 9 ORD]3 TO GIVE IT ORD] W\LD SURELY BE A TASK = DIV9E P[]1 :I* HOLDS ! UNIV]SE TOGE!R4 ,H5CE ! POLIS ALSO MU/ NECESS>ILY BE ! MO/ BEAUTIFUL ) :OSE MAGNITUDE IT COMB9ES ! ABOVE-M5TION$ LIMIT+ PR9CIPLE2 = C]TA9LY BEAUTY IS USUALLY F\ND 9 NUMB] & MAGNITUDE1 BUT !RE IS A DUE MAGNITUDE = A POLIS AS !RE IS = ALL ?+S--ANIMALS1 PLANTS1 TOOLS10 O!RWISE IT WILL LOSE 0ITS TRUE NATURE'' AS WELL AS WORKABILITY4 ,SUMM+ UP ?IS REM>KABLE BODY ( NOTIONS1 ,>I/OTLE CONCLUDES 0?AT ! BE/ LIMIT+ PR9CIPLE = A POLIS IS ! L>GE/ EXPANSION ( ! POPULATION ) A VIEW TO SELF-SUFFICI5CY ?AT CAN BE TAK5 9 AT ONE VIEW40_<#g_> 

,PROBABLY NO MOD]N SOCIAL !ORI/ W\LD REASON \T ?IS CASE = 0BEAUTY0 QUA 0MAGNITUDE0 & 0LIMIT0 QUA 0TRUE NATURE0 AS ! ESS5CE ( A COMMUNITY4 ,! EASE = HUMAN SCALE HAS BE5 >GU$ BY HET]ODOX URBANOLOGI/S ON LOGI/ICAL1 DEMOCRATIC1 & ES!TIC GR\NDS2 BUT R>ELY1 IF EV]1 HAS IT BE5 >GU$ ON E?ICAL1 9DE$ METAPHYSICAL1 GR\NDS4 ,A COMMUNITY 0?AT CAN BE TAK5 9 AT ONE VIEW0--?AT IS1 DEC5TRALIZ$1 COMPREH5SIBLE1 & ATTRACTIVE--:I* ,>I/OTLE & HIS MOD]N C\NT]P>TS REG>D AS A DESID]ATUM1 IS ROOT$ 9 MANY1 SIMIL> BUT ALSO MANY DIFF]5T PREMISES4 ,>I/OTLE SPEAKS TO US FROM AN AGE ?AT F\ND ,9 MAGNITUDE & H>MONY ! ESS5CE &1 9 ! 0TRUE NATURE0 ( A HUMAN COMMUNITY1 ! LIMIT TO A POLIS4 ,AN E?ICAL PRAGMATISM P]VADES ,>I/OTLE'S REM>KS ?AT QUALITATIVELY DIFF]S FROM ! 9/RUM5TAL PRAGMATISM ( ! MOD]N URBANOLOGI/1 H[EV] MU* ! TWO %>E A COMMON PRACTICAL VIEW ( HUMAN CONSOCIATION4 

,POLITICS1 9 TURN1 IS ALSO 9SEP>ABLE 9 ,>I/OTLE'S M9D FROM ITS E?ICAL CONTEXT4 ,M5 >E 0ANIMALS10 A FACT ?AT GREETS US E>LY ON ,9 ! ,POLITICS1 BUT !Y >E ANIMALS ( A V]Y SPECIAL K9D4 ,IT IS MAN'S DE/9Y OR TELOS1 IF HE IS TO FULFILL HIS 0TRUE NATURE10 TO LIVE 9 ! POLIS4 ,A POLIS1 H[EV]1 IS MORE ?AN A COMMUNITY OR KO9ONIA4 ,IT IS A KO9ONIA ?AT HAS REA*$ ! IDEAL =M ( A %>$ COMMONALITY ( PURPOSE AMONG M5 :OSE SELF-REALIZATION IS ! 0GOOD LIFE40 

,! 0GOOD LIFE10 9 TURN1 9CLUDES A DEGREE ( MAT]IAL SELF-SUFFICI5CY ?AT GOES BEYOND M]E SURVIVAL4 ,BUT IT DOES NOT CONSI/ 9 ON APPETITE = GOODS1 ) ALL ITS ATT5DANT EXCESSES1 ?AT CL\DS MAN'S E?ICAL & 9TELLECTUAL CL>ITY4 ,MAN TRANSC5DS HIS ANIMALITY 9S(> AS HE HAS REASON & SPEE*1 OR LOGOS1 :I* COMB9ES BO? LIT TRIBUTES 9 ! ABILITY TO SYMBOLIZE V]BALLY & G5]ALIZE LOGICALLY4 ,BUT !SE ABILITIES DO NOT GU>ANTEE ?AT MAN HAS REA*$ OR OV5 APPROXIMATES ! FULFILLM5T ( HIS POT5TIALITIES4 ,9/ITUTIONS MU/ EXI/ ?AT CON/ITUTE ! MEANS = A*IEV+ HUMAN SELF-FULFILLM5T2 A BODY ( E?ICS MU/ EXI/ ?AT GIVES ! REQUIR$ ,9/ITUTIONS SUB/ANCE AS WELL AS =M2 A WEAL? ( SOCIAL ACTIVITIES MU/ BE CULTIVAT$ 9 ! CIVIC C5T] OR AGORA ( ! POLIS1 ! GYMNASIUM1 & 9 ! !AT] AS WELL AS ! POPUL> ASSEMBLY & C\RTS TO N\RI%1 9T]ACTIONS & DISC\RSE2 A MODE ( *>ACT] DEVELOPM5T & $UCATION1 BO? ( :I* >E COMB9$ 9 ! 7,IREEK WORD PAIDEIA1 MU/ BE AT WORK TO 5RI* ! 9T]ACTIONS AMONG M5 & !REBY FO/] ! GR[? ( E?ICAL & 9TELLECTUAL 9SI<T4 

,UND]LY+ !SE V>I\S 0MEANS0 IS ,>I/OTLE'S EMPHASIS ON HUMAN SOLID>ITY OR PHILIA1 :I* 9CLUDES FRI5D%IP 7! COMMON ,5GLI% TRANSLATION = ! ,GREEK T]M7 BUT :I* IS A WORD MORE F>-REA*+ 9 ITS CONNOTATION ( CIVIC COMMONALITY4 ,! ,9TIMACIES ( FRI5D%IP MAY BE RES]V$ = A LIMIT$ FEW1 BUT  
PHILIA IMPLIES AN EXPANSIVE DEGREE ( SOCIALITY ?AT IS A CIVIC ATTRIBUTE ( ! POLIS & ! POLITICAL LIFE 9VOLV$ 9 ITS ADM9I/RATION4 ,MAN IS 0BY HIS NATURE0 A POLITICAL ANIMAL OR ZOON POLITIK51 :I* IS TO SAY ?AT HE IS DE/9$ NOT ONLY TO LIVE 9 A COMMUNITY BUT ALSO TO COMMUNIZE4 ,9 CRITICIZ+ ,LYLCOPHRON ! ,SOPHI/1 :O CONT5DS ?AT ! POLIS IS A 0M]E ALLIANCE0 AMONG M5 TO PREV5T !M FROM 9FLICT+ H>M ON EA* O!R 7,HOBBES'S LAT] VIEW ( ! 0SOCIAL CONTRACT07 & PROMOTE ! EX*ANGE ( GOODS TO SATISFY !IR 9DIVIDUAL NE$S1 ,>I/OTLE >GUES ?AT ! POLIS IS AN 5D 9 ITSELF1 ! REALIZATION ( MAN'S NE$ = CONSOCIATION AP>T FROM ITS MAT]IAL B5EFITS4 0,IF M5 =M$ ! COMMUNITY & CAME TOGE!R = ! SAKE ( WEAL?10 HE DECL>$1 0!IR %>E 9 !  
POLIS .<W\LD BE.> PROPORTIONATE TO !IR %>E 9 ! PROP]TY1 SO ?AT ! >GUM5T ( ! *AMPIONS ( OLIG>*Y W\LD APPE> TO BE VALID444 2 BUT IF ON ! O!R H& ! POLIS WAS =M$ NOT = ! SAKE ( FIFE ONLY BUT RA!R = ! GOOD LIFE444 & IF ITS OBJECT IS NOT MILIT>Y ALLIANCE = DEF5SE AGA9/ 9JURY BY ANYBODY1 .<&.> IT DOES NOT EXI/ = ! SAKE ( TRADE & ( BUS9ESS RELATIONS10 ! POLIS W\LD BE MORE ?AN A COMMUNITY & ITS CITIZ5S W\LD 0TAKE CIVIC VIRTUE & VICE 9TO !IR PURVIEW40 ,9DE$1 LACK+ A CONC]N = 0CIVIC VIRTUE & VICE10 M5 W\LD =M COMMUNITIES NO DIFF]5T FROM ?OSE ( ANIMALS OR SLAVES1 :O >E SIMPLY CONC]N$ ) SURVIVAL4 ,COMMUNITIES UNIT$ BY M]E ECONOMIC & MILIT>Y ALLIANCES--&1 H]E1 ,>I/OTLE HAS ! ,ETRUSCANS & ,C>?AG9IANS 9 M9D--W\LD BE NO DIFF]5T FROM ! ASSOCIATIONS O!R PEOPLE E/ABLI% :O1 = ALL 0AGREEM5TS AB\T IMPORTS & COV5ANTS .<TO AB/A9.> FROM DI%ONE/Y & TREATIES444 = MUTUAL DEF5SE10 HAVE NO 0(FICIALS 9 COMMON0 & TAKE NO 0CONC]N AS TO ! MORAL *>ACT] ( ! O!R40_<#h_> 

,BY CONTRA/1 ! H\SEHOLD IS ! SPH]E ( M]E SURVIVAL1 ! PLACE TO :I* \R ZOON POLITIK5 REPAIRS TO SATISFY HIS BIOLOGICAL NE$ = FOOD1 CLO?+1 %ELT]--9 SUM1 ! 0REALM ( NECESSITY0 TO CITE ,M>X'S COMMONLY US$ PHRASE4 ,IT IS ! DOMA9 ( ! MAN'S WIFE1 *ILDR51 K91 & SLAVES :]E AN APOLITICAL 0K+%IP0 7PATRI>*Y7 PREVAILS4 ,H]E1 ! MAN'S RELATION%IP BETWE5 HIS [N P]SON & ! MEMB]S ( HIS DOME/IC GR\P IS DET]M9$ NOT BY LOGOS BUT BY NE$1 & ! SOCIAL TIE IS /RICTLY ONE ( 0RUL]0 & 0RUL$40 0,! FAMILY10 WE >E BLUNTLY TOLD BY ,>I/OTLE1 0IS ! ASSOCIATION E/ABLI%$ BY NATURE = ! SUPPLY ( M5'S EV]YDAY WANTS4440_<#i_> 

,BUT M5 ASPIRE = MORE & ACCORD+LY GR\P !IR FAMILIES TOGE!R TO =M VILLAGES4 ,TO ! EXT5T ?AT VILLAGES >E TRANS=M$ BY MAN'S POT5TIAL = ! GOOD LIFE 9TO E?ICAL & CULTURAL COMMUNITIES1 ! POLIS BEG9S TO APPE>4 ,! FAMILY /ILL EXI/S TO SATISFY MAN'S ANIMAL WANTS4 ,H5CE ! TWO WORLDS ( ! SOCIAL & POLITICAL EM]GE1 ! LATT] FROM ! =M]4 ,>I/OTLE'S APPROA* TO ! RISE ( ! POLIS IS EMPHATICALLY DEVELOPM5TAL &1 9 ?IS WAY1 RESEMBLES ,PLATO'S ACC\NT ( ! RISE ( ! 0IDEAL  
POLIS0 9 ,! ,REPUBLIC4.<#e.> ,! POLIS IS ! CULM9ATION ( A POLITICAL :OLE FROM ! GR[? ( A SOCIAL & BIOLOGICAL P>T1 A REALM ( ! LAT5T & ! POSSIBLE4 ,FAMILY & VILLAGE DO NOT DISAPPE> 9 ,>I/OTLE'S TREATM5T ( ! SUBJECT1 BUT !Y >E 5COMPASS$ BY ! FULL] & MORE COMPLETE DOMA9 ( ! POLIS4 

,! DI/9CTION BETWE5 ! SOCIAL & POLITICAL 9 ,>I/OTLE'S ?9K+ IS /RIK+LY PROCESSUAL3 ! DIFF]5CE IS EXPLA9$ BY ! GR[? & DEVELOPM5T ( ! SOCIAL 9TO ! POLITICAL1 NOT BY !IR POL>IZATION & M]E SUCCESSION4 ,! /ATE HAS NOT YET EM]G$ 9 A =M ?AT GIVES IT A UNIQU5ESS AP>T FROM ! O!R TWO DOMA9S4 0,BUIE0 PROP]LY BELONGS TO ! FAMILY4 ,:]E IT DOES APPE> 9 ! KO9ONIA1 IT IS SIMPLY A BRUTE EXT5SION ( ! PATRI>*AL FAMILY TO ! CIVIC WORLD 7MON>*IA7 OR IT TAKES ! =M ( A DESPOTISM RUL$ BY A TYRANT 7TYRANNOS74 ,& ,>I/OTLE VIEWS MON>*IES & TYRANNIES AS W>P$ OR UNF9I%$ =MS ( CIVIC ADM9I/RATION ?AT >E UNBECOM+ TO A POLIS1 AL?\< RULE BY A MON>* ) ITS TRADITIONAL CON/RA9TS ON ! RUL] IS TO BE PREF]R$ TO RULE BY A TYRANT1 :I* IS ! >BITR>Y SUPREMACY ( ONE MAN4 

,NOR DOES HE PREF] ! RULE ( ! FEW OV] ! MANY--AN >I/OCRACY AT BE/ & AN OLIG>*Y AT WOR/4 ,BY ! SAME TOK51 DEMOCRACY ?AT ,>I/OTLE UND]/&S TO BE ! RULE ( ! MANY OV] ! FEW--SPECIFICALLY1 A CONDITION :]E ! 0POOR0 RULE OV] ! 0WEAL?Y0--IS BY NO MEANS DESIRABLE1 AL?\< HE DOES NOT SEEM TO F9D IT AS ABHORR5T AS >BITR>Y ONE-MAN RULE4 

,! BE/-ORD]$ POLIS IS /RUCTUR$ >\ND A SY/EM ( GOV]NANCE :]E ! MO/ E?ICALLY & MAT]IALLY M]ITORI\S /RATUM ( ! POPULATION MANAGES ! POLIS'S AFFAIRS 9 ! 9T]E/S ( ALL4 ,?IS 0POLITY0 OR 0M]ITOCRACY10 AS IT HAS BE5 CALL$1 IS AN E?ICAL UNION ?AT SIMULTANE\SLY YIELDS ! 0GOOD LIFE0 9 A MORAL & MAT]IAL S5SE4 ,POLITICS CONSI/S ( ! PRACTICAL REASON 7PHRONESIS7 & ACTION 7PRAXIS7 ?AT 5T]S 9TO SU* A FELICIT\S KO9ONIA4 

,A!NIAN POLITICS WAS NO?+ IF IT WAS NOT VITAL1 9DE$ VOLUBLE1 & POPUL> 9 EV]Y S5SE ( ! T]M4 ,)9 A SPAN ( SOME ?REE C5TURIES1 ! ,A!NIAN PEOPLE & !IR R5EGADE >I/OCRATIC SURROGATES SU* AS ,SOLON1 ,KLEIS!NES1 & ,P]IKLES W]E TO DISMEMB] ! TRADITIONAL FEUDAL SY/EM ( ,HOM]IC TIMES1 WAGE A /EADY W> AGA9/ PRIVILEGE )9 ! CITIZ5 BODY1 & TURN ! POPUL> ASSEMBLY FROM A LIFELESS1 R>ELY CONV5$ MASS MEET+ 9TO A VITAL ON-GO+ =UM = MAK+ MAJOR DECISIONS1 !REBY OP5+ PUBLIC LIFE TO EV]Y ,A!NIAN ADULT MALE4 ,P[] CEAS$ TO BE ! PR]OGATIVE ( A SMALL1 WELL-BORN /RATUM ( ! POPULATION4 ,IT BECAME A CITIZ5 ACTIVITY4 ,A!NS'S HI/ORIC CAL5D> IS M>K$ BY SEE?+ UPSURGES ( ! PEOPLE1 />TL+ FLUCTUATIONS BETWE5 >I/OCRATIC RULE1 TYRANNY1 LIMIT$ POPUL> GOV]NM5T1 UNTIL1 BY ! LATT] HALF ( ! FIF? C5TURY ,B4,C41 ,A!NIAN POLITICAL LIFE /ABILIZ$ >\ND A FACE-TO-FACE DEMOCRACY ( ! MO/ RADICAL K9D4 ,WE MAY ASSUME ?AT SIMIL> DEVELOPM5TS OCCURR$3 9 MANY ,HELL5IC  
POLEIS ?AT W]E TO ALLY !MSELVES ) ,A!NS = 9T]NAL POLITICAL REASONS AS WELL AS MUTUAL DEF5SE4 

,9 ANY CASE1 9 RECORD$ HI/ORY WE HAVE NO /RUCTURE COMP>ABLE TO ! ,A!NIAN DEMOCRACY4 ,POPUL> ASSEMBLIES SU* AS ! ,NEW ,5GL& T[N MEET+ & ! ,P>ISIAN REVOLUTION>Y SECTIONS ( #a#g#i#c-#i#d W]E TO APPE> ELSE:]E OV] TIME4 ,! ,SWISS ,CONF$]ATION IS ONE ( ! FEW AMONG MANY ABORT$ OR 9COMPLETE EXAMPLES :]E POPUL> CONTROL =M$ ! UND]P9N+S ( AN ON-GO+ POLITICAL SY/EM4 ,A!NS1 H[EV]1 IS UNIQUE HI/ORICALLY 9 ?AT ! POLIS FO/]$ A DEGREE ( CITIZ5 P>TICIPATION NOT ONLY 9 ! DECISION-MAK+ ACTIVITIES ( ! ASSEMBLY BUT 9 ! EV]YDAY POLITICS ( ! AGORA ?AT IMPELL$ ITS ADMIR]S OV] ! AGES TO REG>D IT ) UNCRITICAL ADULATION AS EVID5CE ( A 0PURE0 DEMOCRACY--& ITS OPPON5TS AS EVID5CE ( A HORR5D\S 0MOBOCRACY40 

,IF POLITICS IS TAK5 TO BE A =M ( POPUL> ACTIVITY 9 ADM9I/]+ PUBLIC LIFE ?AT1 /RICTLY SPEAK+1 IS NEI!R A1 /ATE1 CONCEIV$ AS A HI<LY PR(ESSIONALIZ$ SY/EM ( GOV]NANCE1 NOR A 0SOCIETY10 CONCEIV$ AS =MS ( P]SONAL ASSOCIATION = PROMOT+ SURVIVAL & WELL-BE+1 ! ,A!NIANS' C\LD BE SAID TO HAVE LIT]ALLY CREAT$ POLITICS4 ,IT WAS A P>O*IAL POLITICS BY MOD]N 0GLOBAL0 DEF9ITIONS ( ! T]M3 CIVIC RA!R ?AN REGIONAL 91SCALE1 LIMIT$ TO A M9ORITY ( ! POPULATION1 ,HELL5IC 9 ITS PURVIEW ( ! 0CIVILIZ$0 WORLD1 CONTEMPTU\S ( SLAVES1 WOM51 ! 0B>B>IANS0 BEYOND ! CONF9ES ( ! ,GREEK E?NOS1 & RESID5T ALI5S :O P]=M$ MU* ( SKILL$ WORK & 5GAG$ 9 MO/ ( ITS TRAD+ ACTIVITIES4 

,QUALITATIVELY1 H[EV]1 ,A!NS MADE UP 9 DEP? :AT IT LO/ ,9 SCOPE4 ,IT MAY WELL BE1 AS ! ,JEWI% ,ZEALOTS W]E TO BELIEVE1 ?AT A SPECIAL 9SI<T ( A SPIRITUAL OR MORAL NATURE IS ! PRIVILEGE NOT ,( GREAT EMPIRES BUT ( SMALL COMMUNITIES ON ! M>G9S ( ! GREAT CLASSICAL ECUM5ES4 ,BO? PEOPLES1 ! ,HELL5ES & ! ,ISRAELITES1 PROVIDE VISIBLE EVID5CE ( ! TRU? ?AT MAY BE HIDD5 ,9 ?IS SEEM+LY SELF-S]V+ CONVICTION4 ,YET A 0CREATION0 HAD ,C]TA9LY EM]G$ ?AT OP5$ A NEW DISP5SATION 9 HUMAN AFFAIRS4 ,A NEW REALM ( LIFE HAD APPE>$1 ! POLITICAL REALM1 W9* WAS TO ACQUIRE MANY DIFF]5T MEAN+S BUT :OSE ORIG9S 9 CLASSICAL ,GREECE /ILL KEEP FAI? ) ! PRI/9E VALUES & PRACTICES ?AT IMP>T MEAN+ TO ?OSE ILL-US$ WORDS1 ! 0PUBLIC SPH]E40 

,! ,ROMAN ,REPUBLIC1 :I* LOOMS HI< 9 ITS IMPACT ON ! ,EURO-,AM]ICAN POLITICAL TRADITION1 /&S 9 M>K$1 CONTRA/ TO ! ,A!NIAN NOTION ( A PUBLIC SPH]E41 ,POLYBIUS1 ! ,GREEK *RONICL] ( ,ROME'S RISE TO WORLD HEGEMONY1 (F]S US ! CLASSICAL !ORY ( REPUBLICAN1 GOV]NM5T1 A !ORY ?AT WAS TO DEEPLY AFFECT ! ?9K+ ( ,AM]ICAN & ,FR5* CON/ITUTIONALI/S 9 ! EI<TE5? C5TURY4 

,ACCORD+ TO ,POLYBIUS1 ! VIRTUES ( MON>*Y W]E EMBODI$ ,I,I,I ! CONSULS1 ! TWO *IEF MAGI/RATES ( ! ,REPUBLIC4 ,! ,SONATE PROVID$ ! ,REPUBLIC ) ! ADVANTAGES ( >I/OCRACY1 ) ITS GRADATIONS 9 DESC5D+ ORD] ( CONSUL>1 PRETORIAN1 A$ILITIAN1 TRIBUNITIAL1 & QUE/ORIAL RANKS4 ,! IMAGE ( ! ,ROMAN ,S5ATE FREELY DEBAT+ PUBLIC ISSUES IS ESS5TIALLY A MY?3 NO S5ATOR C\LD VOICE HIS VIEWS ON AN ISSUE UNLESS ! PRESID+ CONSUL SOLICIT$ HIS OP9ION1 & !SE REQUE/S W]E DIRECT$ 9 A /RICT HI]>*ICAL SEQU5CE ?AT (T5 LEFT LITTLE TIME = ORATORY BY ! BODY'S L[] ORD]S4 ,F9ALLY1 DEMOCRACY WAS REPRES5T$ BY SEV]AL ASSEMBLIES ( ! PEOPLE4 ,!SE ASSEMBLIES 7SOME F\R HAVE BE5 ID5TIFI$7 REFLECT$1 9 !IR V>IETY & ASC5DANCY1 ! =TUNES ( ! PLEBEIANS & O!R L[LY ORD]S 9 !IR CONFLICTS ) ! RUL+ PATRICIATE4 ,:ATEV] !IR ORIG9S1 ,ROMAN POPUL> ASSEMBLIES ELECT$ ALL ! MAGI/RATES ( ,ROME1 SOME ( :OM1 SU* AS ! TRIBUNES & PRETORS1 HAD 5ORM\S CONTROL OV] O!R BRAN*ES ( ! GOV]NM5T DUR+ !IR HEYDAY4 

,ASSEMBLIES C\LD BE US$ BY AMBITI\S POLITICIANS TO BYPASS ! ,S5ATE & 5ACT LAWS ?AT ! RUL+ OLIG>*IES OPPOS$4 ,H5CE1 TWO POLITICAL /RATEGIES EXI/$ DUR+ ! MORE F]V5T P]IODS ( ! REPUBLICAN ]A3 AN OLIG>*ICAL ONE & A POPUL> ONE4 ,!  
COMITIA C5TURIATA =M$ ! PR9CIPAL POPUL> LAW-MAK+ BODY ( REPUBLICAN TIMES4 ,A COMPLEX MIX ( WEI<T$ VOT+ GR\PS SORT$ \T ACCORD+ TO MILIT>Y /ATUS &1 LAT]1 ACCORD+ TO CLASSES BAS$ ON PROP]TY & AGE1 ! ASSEMBLY WAS HI<LY /RUCTUR$ ALONG HI]>*ICAL L9ES4 ,IT ELECT$ ,ROME'S CONSULS1 PRETORS1 & C5SORS--EA* SUCCESSIVELY =M+ ! MO/ IMPORTANT OR PRE/IGI\S MAGI/RATES ( ! REPUBLIC4 ,! ELECTIVE FUNCTIONS ( ! COMITIA C5TURIATA W]E TO BE SL[LY SUPPLANT$ BY ! ,ROMAN TRIBAL ASSEMBLY1 ! COMITIA TRIBUTA1 L>GELY BAS$ ON T]RITORIAL DIVISIONS 9 :I* #ce TRIBES W]E CLASSIFI$ 9TO #ca RURAL TRIBES & #d URBAN ONES4 ,COEXI/+ ) BO? ( !SE RANK$ ASSEMBLIES1 !  
PLEBS HAD !IR [N EXCLUSIVE CONCILIUM PLEBIS FROM :I* ALL PATRICIANS W]E EXCLUD$4 ,! CONCILIUM *OSE ITS [N TRIBUNES & $ILES1 ! LATT] CON/ITUT+ (FICIALS :O ADM9I/]$ PUBLIC WORKS & POLICE & TOOK *>GE ( ! GRA9 SUPPLY & GAMES ?AT GAVE ! CITY SU* ILL-FAM$ DI/9CTION4 

,WE [E ! WORD 0PLEBISCITE0 7PLEBISCITIA7 TO ! RI<T ( ! PLEBEIAN TRIBUNES TO SUBMIT LAWS = ! APPROVAL ( ! CONCILIUM4 ,EI!R ! ,CAMPUS ,M>TIUS ALONG ! WE/W>D B5D ( ! ,TIB] OR ! ,=UM CON/ITUT$ ! PR9CIPAL MEET+ PLACES = !SE ASSEMBLIES1 & DISCUSSION1 IF IT OCCURR$ AT ALL1 WAS M9IMAL4 ,LAWS1 $ICTS1 DECL>ATIONS ( W> W]E PRES5T$ TO ! PEOPLE BY (FICIALS SU* AS CONSULS1 PRETORS1 & TRIBUNES2 ELECTIONS & CONFIRMATIONS W]E VOT$ UPON ME?ODICALLY4 ,WE CANNOT SAY ) C]TA9TY ?AT ,ROMAN POPUL> ASSEMBLIES W]E SIMPLY MUTE4 ,BE=E ! ASSEMBLIES DIVID$ 9TO !IR SPECIFIC UNITS1 ! HI<LY /RUCTUR$ COMITIA WAS PREC$$ BY A LOOSELY ORGANIZ$ CONTIO :]E DISCUSSION MAY HAVE BE5 POSSIBLE4 0,! CONTIO MAY BE A SURVIVAL ( AN E>LY =M ( ASSEMBLY10 OP9$ ! LATE ,LILLY ,ROSS ,TAYLOR1 0LIKE ?AT ( ! ,HOM]IC W>RIORS OR ! ,SP>TANS ( LAT] TIMES1 9 :I* M5 EXPRESS$ !IR OP9ION BY %\T+40_<#a_> ,IF SO1 !  
CONTIO DOES NOT BR+ ! ,ROMAN ASSEMBLY =M ANY CLOS] TO ! HI<LY TALKATIVE ,A!NIAN ASSEMBLY4 ,9DE$1 ,GREEK OBS]V]S ( ,ROMAN PROC$URES F\ND ! DIFF]5CE BETWE5 ! CONTIO &  
COMITIA CONFUS+4 0,) NO SU* DI/9CTION 9 ,GREEK L&S BETWE5 MEET+S = SPEAK+ & ?OSE = VOT+10 ,ROSS NOTES1 0,GREEK WRIT]S ON ,ROMAN 9/ITUTIONS HAVE DIFFICULTY ) ! WORD CONTIO40_<#a#a_> ,POLYBIUS & ,DIO ,CASSIUS W]E TO CALL ! ASSEMBLIES BY ONE WORD1 DEMOS1 OR1 SIMPLY1 ! PEOPLE4 ,APPIAN1 AN ,ALEX&RIAN ,GREEK1 & ,PLUT>*1 :O WAS BORN 9 ,BOEOTIA1 SEEM TO HAVE BE5 REMOV$ SUFFICI5TLY FROM ! TRADITIONAL POLIS TO DESIGNATE ! ,ROMAN ASSEMBLY =M AS AN EKKLESIA1 ! ,GREEK WORD = ! POPUL> ASSEMBLY ?AT1 AS ,ROSS EMPHASIZES1 0COMB9$ SPEAK+ & VOT+40_<#a#b_> ,IF ! CONTIO WAS ANY?+ LIKE ! ,HOM]IC & ,SP>TAN ASSEMBLIES1 IT DID MORE LI/5+ ?AN SPEAK+1 VOIC+ ITS APPROVAL BY ACCLAMATION & %\TS RA!R ?AN BY ORATORY4 

,POLYBIUS'S ASSOCIATION ( ! ,ROMAN ASSEMBLIES ) DEMOCRACY ,IS SPECI\S4 ,! REPUBLIC HAD NO DEMOCRATIC COMPON5T 9 ! ,HELL5IC S5SE ( ! T]M1 & SPEE*1 :ILE RELATIVELY FREE1 WAS MORE AN AFFAIR ( DELIV]+ ELITI/ RHETORIC TO MANIPULABLE AUDI5CES 9 ! ,=UM ?AN ! V]BAL 9T]*ANGE ( POLITICAL EQUALS4 ,A FACE-TO-FACE RELATION%IP1 BETWE5 ACTIVE CITIZ5S = ! PURPOSE ( >RIV+ AT A CONS5SUS IS ALI5 TO REPUBLICAN SY/EMS ( GOV]NM5T4 ,A DEMOCRACY IS P>TICIPATORY2 A REPUBLIC1 REPRES5TATIVE4 ,! FIR/ 9VOLVES ! EX]CISE ( P[] DIRECTLY BY ! PEOPLE2 ! ,SECOND1 ITS DELEGATION TO SELECT$ SURROGATES1 :O !N RECON/ITUTE ! POLITICAL REALM ?AT 9ITIALLY EXI/$ AT ! BASE ( !  
KO9ONIA 9TO A DI/9CTLY SEP>ATE & USUALLY PR(ESSIONAL P[] AT ITS SUMMIT4 ,REPUBLICS >E BEYOND ! IMM$IATE REA* ( POPUL> CONTROL2 DEMOCRACIES >E NOT EV5 CONFRONT$ BY ! ISSUE ( ! DISPLACEM5T ( P[]4 

,R\SSEAU1 ) B>ELY CONCEAL$ IRONY = ! ,FR5* PHILOSOPHES :O W]E SO 5DE>$ TO ,5GLI% CON/ITUTIONALISM1 WAS TO DRAW !SE DI/9CTIONS %>PLY4 0,SOV]EIGNTY1 = ! SAME REASON AS IT MAKES IT 9ALI5ABLE1 CANNOT BE REPRES5T$4 ,IT LIES ESS5TIALLY 9 ! G5]AL WILL1 & WILL DOES NOT ADMIT ( REPRES5TATION3 IT IS EI!R ! SAME1 OR O!R2 !RE IS NO 9T]M$IATE POSSIBILITY4 ,! DEPUTIES ( ! PEOPLE1 !RE=E1 >E NOT & CANNOT BE ITS REPRES5TATIVES3 !Y >E M]ELY ITS /EW>DS1 & CAN C>RY ?R\< NO DEF9ITIVE ACTS4 ,EV]Y LAW ! PEOPLE HAS NOT RATIFI$ 9 P]SON IS NULL & VOID--IS1 9 FACT1 NOT A LAW4 ,! PEOPLE ( ,5GL& REG>DS ITSELF AS FREE3 BUT IT IS GROSSLY MI/AK53 IT IS FREE ONLY DUR+ ! ELECTION ( MEMB]S ( P>LIAM5T4 ,AS SOON AS !Y >E ELECT$1 SLAV]Y OV]TAKES IT1 & IT IS NO?+40_<#a#c_> 

,! ,ROMAN CULT ( LIB]TAS IS /RUCTUR$ >\ND P]SONAL FRE$OM_/NOT POLITICAL4 ,AN 9DIVIDUAL CAN EX]CISE A WIDE RANGE ( *OICES 9 VOCATIONS1 RESPONSIBILITIES1 & ! SATISFACTION ( TA/ES4 ,ROMAN LIC5SE DUR+ ! ,EMPIRE1 ) ITS ALMO/ PSY*OTIC APPETITE = 'EXTREMES1 M]ELY EXP&$ ?IS CULT 9TO A WAY ( LIFE4 ,CR$O WAS W>P$ 9TO EXTRAVAGANT PRACTICE ) ! RESULT ?AT ! /ATE SOON F\ND IT CEAS$ TO 5JOY ! SUPPORT ( ITS CITIZ5RY4 ,ITS CITIZ5S FL$ FROM MILIT>Y S]VICE1 PUBLIC OBLIGATIONS1 TAX LEVIES1 & ! MO/ M9IMAL COMMUNAL RESPONSIBILITIES4 ,ACCORD+LY1 EV]Y ASPECT ( GOV]NM5T HAD TO BE PR(ESSIONALIZ$1 ,UND] ! ,EMPIRE1 ,ROME'S TROOPS W]E M]C5>IES1 9CREAS+LY ( ALI5 BIR? & CULTURE2 ITS BUREAUCRACY BECAME AN ELABORATE APP>ATUS1 /AFF$ BY NUM]\S EX-SLAVES :O HAD ACQUIR$ ! SKILLS = POLITICAL AFFAIRS ?AT !IR =M] MA/]S LO/ & ?AT ,ROMAN CITIZ5S G5]ALLY NEGLECT$4 

,?IS EXTRAORD9>Y ]OSION ( P]SONAL COMPET5CE BLEMI%ES EV]Y ASPECT ( ! IMP]IAL ]A4 ,BUT EV5 ! REPUBLIC PREP>$ ! WAY = ,ROME'S DECL9E1 ,9 ! POLITICAL SPH]E1 ,ROMAN LIB]TAS NEV] BECAME FRE$OM1 ! ,GREEK VISION ( ELEU!RIA BAS$ ON EQUALITY4 ,ONE SE>*ES ,LAT9 = A T]M O!R ?AN LIB]TAS OR  
LIC5TIA ?AT EXPRESSES ! C5TRICITY ( 9DIVIDUAL POLITICAL JUDGM5TS1 9 %ORT1 A T]M ?AT DOES NOT SORT ! 9DIVIDUAL 9TO ! COLLECTIVE & WEI<T$ UNITS ( ! COMITIA & C\NCILIUM4 ,! SE>* IS A VA9 ONE4 ,! ,ROMAN CONCEPT ( POLITICAL LIFE IS CORPORATI/1 EV5 /ATI/1 TO ! CORE1 & !RE IS NO RECIPROCAL 9T]ACTION BETWE5 ! P]SONAL & ! POLITICAL4 

,TO F9D AN 9DIVIDUAL :O HAS ROOM = A POLITICAL FIFE1 WE TURN TO ! ,ROMAN NOBLE OR WELL-BORN = EXAMPLES4 ,H]E1 POLITICAL LIFE IS OBLIGATORY--9DE$1 AP>T FROM W>1 ! AU!NTIC CALL+ ( AN >I/OCRAT4 ,H5CE IT IS TO BE CONCEIV$ AS A PR(ESSION & SUFF]S FROM ! V]Y PR(ESSIONALIZATION ( POLITICS ?AT ,GREEK DEMOCRATS TRI$ SO ASSIDU\SLY TO AVOID4 ,Y\NG M5 ( PATRICIAN L9EAGE W]E TRA9$ FROM BIR? 9 DICTION & RHETORIC1 PHYSICAL FITNESS & MILIT>Y SKILLS1 AMIABILITY & !4 >TS ( 9FLU5CE4 ,OV]LY MANN]$ & SELF-CONSCI\S1 !Y W]E TAU<T TO GA9 FAVOR ) ! P[]FUL & BEFRI5D ! POT5TIALLY 9FLU5TIAL4 ,BY DEGREES1 !Y W]E 9ITIAT$ 9TO LEGAL SKILLS & AFFAIRS TOGE!R ) M>TIAL >TS & !@> PO/URES ( COMM&4 ,POLYBIUS ADVISES US ?AT T5 YE>S ( MILIT>Y S]VICE >E NECESS>Y BE=E A MAN CAN ASPIRE TO A POLITICAL C>E]--A PR]EQUISITE ?AT WAS M]CIFULLY ABBREVIAT$ 9 ! LAT] YE>S ( ! ,REPUBLIC4 ,ONE !N W5T 9TO ! S]VICE ( A PROV9CIAL GOV]NOR & MOV$ ONW>D1 AT HOME1 TO A M9OR MAGI/RATE OR A MILIT>Y TRIBUNE4 

,TO BECOME A PRETOR WAS ! 0NEXT OBLIGATORY (FICE10 AS ,TAYLOR PUTS IT1 FOLL[$ BY ! CONSUL%IP1 IF AT ALL POSSIBLE4 ,BETWE5 TIMES1 ONE HELD IMPORTANT (FICES 9 ! PROV9CES :]E ! OPPORTUNITIES = 5RI*M5T & PLUND] W]E IMM5SE4 ,!SE BROAD \TL9ES ( ! NOBLEMAN'S TRA9+ & C>E] C\LD BE PA9T$ ) DETAILS ?AT MORE APPROPRIATELY DESCRIBE POLITICK+1 RA!R ?AN POLITICS4 ,! RI<T FRI5DS1 DEVOT$ CLI5TS1 & SUITABLE P]SONAL CONNECTIONS W]E CRITICALLY IMPORTANT 9 A*IEV+ PUBLIC (FICE & POLITICAL R5[N4 

,EV5 MORE SIGNIFICANT ?AN ! ,ROMAN CULT ( LIB]TAS WAS ! ,ROMAN CULT ( AMICITIA1 ! ,LAT9 WORD = 0FRI5D%IP40 ,C>E] SUCCESS DEP5D$ NOT ONLY UPON L9EAGE & WEAL? BUT ALSO ON ! ELABORATE SY/EM ( FRI5DS & %>$ OBLIGATIONS A RIS+ PATRICIAN DEVELOP$4 ,I USE ! WORD 0SY/EM0 ADVIS$LY TO S+LE \T ! COMPLEX MA*9]Y ( P]SONAL TIES & 9T]ACTIONS ON :I* ! :OLE /RUCTURE ( RULE WAS BAS$4 ,ROMAN 0POLITICS0 MU/ BE SE5 AS A NETWORK ( CLI5TS & ASSOCIATES RA!R ?AN DUBS & P>TIES4 ,! FI]CE DIFF]5CES BETWE5 FACTIONS 9 ! ,REPUBLIC1 ?AT F9ALLY BR\<T IT TO RU9 W]E MORE P]SONAL 9 NATURE ?AN POLITICAL4 ,CIC]O'S ALLUSIONS TO ! P>TES ( ! POPULORES & ! OPTIMATES 7! 0P>TIES0 ( ! 0PEOPLE0 & 0>I/OCRATS10 TO USE !SE T]MS 9 A MOD]N S5SE7 >E EVID5CE ( DIFF]5CES 9 ME?ODS ( MANIPULATION RA!R ?AN PROGRAMS4 ,NONE ( ! NOBLES1 ) ! EXCEPTION ( ! BRO!RS ,GRAC*I1 OV] TRI$ TO REALLY %IFT POLITICAL P[] FROM ! PATRICIAN ELITE TO ! POPULACE4 ,9DE$1 ,ROMAN POLITICIANS W]E R>ELY BURD5$ BY ,NONTIM5TALITY = ! OPPRESS$ OR ! PLI<T ( ! COMMON]S4 

,TO USE ! PEOPLE = P]SONAL 5DS & C>E] AMBITIONS1 H[EV]1 WAS A WIDESPREAD TE*NIQUE1 NOT ONLY DUR+ REPUBLICAN TIMES BUT ALSO DUR+ ! IMP]IAL ]A4 ,NOR W]E ! ,ROMAN PEOPLE ! WORSE ,= ! USE ( SU* DEMAGOGIC TACTICS4 ,NOBLES GAVE IMM5SE QUANTITIES ( !IR WEAL? TO GA9 POPUL> SUPPORT AGA9/ !IR RIVALS4 ,A /EADY FL[ ( EMOLUM5TS1 GIFTS1 FE/IVALS1 & GAMES CAME TO BE EXPECT$ BY ! ,ROMAN PEOPLE AS A *>ACT]I/IC FEATURE ( POLITICS4 ,ROMAN CLI5T & GIFT POLITICS1 9 TURN1 ACCEL]AT$ ! DEGRADATION ( ! CITIZ5RY1 FO/]+ AN APPETITE = S5SATIONALISM & BRUTALITY ?AT EM]G$ 9 M>K$ CONTRA/ ) ITS TRADITIONAL REPUBLICAN SPIRIT & VIRTUES4 0,PUBLIC ?+S0 OR  
RES PUBLICA BECAME A HI<LY M]*&ISABLE COMMODITY--A 0?+0 TO BE SOLD1 B\<T1 & PILF]$4 ,9 ?IS RESPECT1 ! ,EMPIRE *ANG$ V]Y LITTLE 9 ,ROMAN 0POLITICS40 ,IT M]ELY MADE ! PROCESS ( DEMORALIZATION1 VULG>IZATION1 & PILF]+ MORE SY/EMATIC & ORD]LY4 

,E>LY ,ROME DID NOT PRODUCE A BRE$ ( K9DLY M5--NOR1 = ?AT MATT]1 DID ,A!NS & O!R ,GREEK POLEIS1 ,K9DNESS & S5TIM5TALITY >E NOT CLASSICAL TRAITS4 ,OBLIGATION & DUTY >E ! PREF]R$ P]SONAL ATTRIBUTES ( ! ANCI5T WORLD4 ,BUT !SE ATTRIBUTES DID CREATE AN IDEAL ( A HI<LY COMMITT$1 MORALLY C]TA91 & FI]CELY 9DEP5D5T YEOMANRY4 ,! L&HOLD+S ( !SE YEOM5 PROVID$ ! MAT]IAL COMPET5CE = A SOLID 9DEP5D5CE ( M9D & A S5SE ( COMMUNITY ROOT$NESS4 ,BEH9D ! MORE DI/+UI%$ NAMES ( E>LY REPUBLICAN ,ROME1 SU* AS ,C9C9NATUS1 :O LEFT HIS F>M/EAD = VIGOR\S PUBLIC S]VICE1 W]E ! /]N TRADITIONS ( FAMILY CULTS1 CIVIC DEITIES1 & AN UNBLEMI%$ ANCE/RY--A L9EAGE TO BE *]I%$ BECAUSE IT EXHIBIT$ SOLDI]LY SIMPLICITY & AGR>IAN VIRTUES4 ,DIGNATAS & HONOR>E W]E TO BE PRIZ$ OV] WEAL?1 SOCIAL /ATUS1 & PUBLIC E/EEM1 AL?\< 9V>IABLY SU* REW>DS CAME ) FAMILY PROBITY4 

,!SE /]N & DUTIFUL F>M]S W]E TO FILL ! LEGIONS COMM&$ BY ,SCIPIO 9 ! BRUTAL W>S ) ,C>?AGE4 ,!Y W]E ! FODD] ( CO/LY1 LONG-T]M1 & DEBILITAT+ CONFLICTS ?AT BR\<T RU9 TO !IR F>MS & ! DE/RUCTION ( !IR SOCIAL MOOR+S4 ,!REAFT]1 AN UNYIELD+ PATRICIATE1 TOO URBANE TO VALUE ! 9NOC5T SIMPLICITY ( ITS [N RURAL ANCE/ORS1 EFFAC$ :AT ! ,PUNIC ,W>S HAD L>GELY UNDONE--! IDEALS ( REPUBLICAN VIRTUE & ! AGR>IAN MAT]IAL CONDITIONS 9 :I* ?IS S5SE ( VIRTUE & DUTY WAS ROOT$4 ,C9C9NATUS BELONG$ TO A SOCIAL WORLD RA!R ?AN A POLITICAL ONE4 ,GOV]NANCE 9 HIS DAY WAS SE5 AS A DOME/IC RESPONSIBILITY 9 :I* A PUBLIC S]VANT T5D$ TO ! NE$S ( ! PEOPLE MORE AS A FA!R ?AN AN ADM9I/RATOR4 ,SU* M5 BECAME %ORT-LIV$ DICTATORI )\T EV] E/ABLI%+ DICTATOR%IPS2 !Y PROMPTLY W5T BACK TO !IR F>MS AFT] ANSW]+ ! CALL TO PUBLIC S]VICE4 ,!Y DID NOT ?IR/ = P[]1 MU* LESS PR(ESSIONALIZE IT4 

,BUT ,ROME C\LD NOT /RIKE ! BALANCE BETWE5 >I/OCRATIC VALUES & PUBLIC RI<TS A*IEV$ BY ,A!NS4 ,MORE PRECISELY1 ,ROME FAIL$ TO TURN ! GOV]NANCE ( ! CIVITAS 9TO A G5U9ELY POLITICAL COMMUNITY4 ,M5 LIKE ,C9C9NATUS W]E TO LOSE NOT ONLY ! L&HOLD+S ?AT GAVE !M 9DEP5D5CE ( M9D & SPIRIT2 !Y W]E TO LOSE ! SOCIAL BASE = PUBLIC COMMITM5T )\T DEVELOP+ A POLITICS ?AT C\LD CONTROL & CONTA9 ! NEW CIVIC DISP5SATION ?AT WAS =M+ >\ND !M4 ,LIKE ,A!NS1 ,ROME WAS TO GR[--&1 LIKE ,A!NS1 IT WAS TO BE BR\<T 9TO A BROAD REGIONAL !AT] ( P[] RELATION%IPS & RESPONSIBILITIES4 ,BUT :]E ,A!NS DRA/ICALLY REWORK$ ITS YEOMAN SOCIETY 9TO A VITAL PUBLIC REALM ?AT FO/]$ ACTIVE CITIZ5%IP AMONG ALL ITS SOCIAL ELEM5TS1 ,ROME P]MITT$ ITS YEOMANRY TO DISSOLVE 9TO ROOTLESS CON/ITU5CIES & ITS PUBLIC FIFE TO LANGUI%4 ,A REPUBLIC RA!R ?AN A DEMOCRACY CAME 9TO EXI/5CE ) A DEGREE ( ADM9I/RATIVE +5UITY UNPREC$5T$ 9 ! HI/ORY ( JURISPRUD5CE1 EFFICI5CY1 & MILIT>Y PR[ESS4 ,BUT = ?IS A*IEVEM5T IT PAID A P5ALTY ?AT ULTIMATELY SPELL$ ITS DEA?4 ,! LATE ,ROMAN ,REPUBLIC WAS NOT A WORLD ?AT C\LD N\RI% A ,C9C9NATUS OR EV5 A ,M>CUS ,PORTIUS ,CATO1 :OSE WRIT+S >E FILL$ ) D5UNCIATIONS ( ,ROME'S MORAL DEBASEM5T1 LASCIVI\SNESS1 & EXTRAVAGANCE4 ,POLITICS WAS CLAIM$ ALMO/ EXCLUSIVELY BY ! PATRICIATE & JEAL\SLY GU>D$ FROM ANY S]I\S 9VASION BY ! PEOPLE4 ,9 ?IS SONSE1 REPUBLICAN ,ROME WAS TRUE TO ITSELF3 LIKE ALL ELITI/ REGIMES1 IT W\LD HAVE BE5 EXCEPTIONAL IF IT FAIL$ TO TURN FROM AN 9CREAS+LY OLIG>*ICAL REPUBLIC 9TO A COMPLETELY DESPOTIC EMPIRE4 

,A!NS & ,ROME ULTIMATELY BECAME LEG5D>Y MODELS = TWO TYPES ( 0POPUL>0 GOV]NM5T3 A DEMOCRACY & A REPUBLIC4 ,& LAT] SOCIAL !ORI/S & POLITICAL PRACTITION]S :O HAD LO/ ANY MON>*IC PROCLIVITIES W]E TO CLE>LY FAVOR A REPUBLICAN SY/EM ( GOV]NANCE OV] A DEMOCRATIC ONE4 

,BUT DEMOCRATIC NOTIONS ( A BODY POLITIC DID NOT DISAPPE>4 ,!Y W]E TO SURFACE FROM ! DEP?S ( A POPUL> 0UND]GR\ND0 ( DEVIANT ,*RI/IAN SECTS ?R\<\T '! ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 SU* AS ! ,BRE?R5 ( ! ,FREE ,SPIRIT1 ,ANABAPTI/ MOVEM5TS1 & BLATANTLY AN>*IC CONV5TICLES DUR+ ! ,RE=MATION ,]A4 ,LIKE ,A!NS1 !Y W]E NOT )\T !IR FLAWS3 ELITES >E TO BE F\ND )9 ELITES1 SA9TS )9 L>G] COMMUNITIES ( BELIEV]S1 & ! LIKE4 ,NEV]!LESS1 VILLAGE DEMOCRACIES KEPT ALIVE /RONG TRADITIONS ( POPUL> ASSEMBLIES ?AT MAY HAVE BE5 9H]IT$ FROM DI/ANT ,NEOLI?IC & SIMIL> 9/ITUTIONS'& ?AT ALSO EM]G$ 9 MANY M$IEVAL T[NS4 ,! NOTION ( ! 0PEOPLE0 OR DEMOS DID NOT DISAPPE>4 ,! IDEALS ( 0POPUL> RULE0 W]E TO L+] ON FROM CLASSICAL ANTIQUITY WELL 9TO MOD]N TIMES4 

,MORE COMMONLY1 H[EV]1 REPUBLICAN !ORIES ( GOV]NANCE W]E HYBRIDIZ$ ) DEMOCRATIC NOTIONS1 & !Y W]E TO PRODUCE RIS+ DEM&S ( SELF-GOV]NANCE ) 9/ITUTIONS ?AT W]E R$OL5T ( DEMOCRATIC ,A!NS4 ,MA*IAVELLI'S ,PR9CE & ,DISC\RSES GLITT] ) A FASC9AT+ MIXTURE ( REPUBLICAN & DEMOCRATIC IDEAS1 L>GELY TRANSLAT$ 9TO ! VIRTUES ( HIS BELOV$ ,ROMAN ,REPUBLIC1 ,HIS AV]SION = ! IDLE NOBILITY IS PRON\NC$4 ,POLITICS1 9 ,MA*IAVELLI'S EYES1 IS NOT ! F>E = ! SLO?FUL1 IGNORANT1 & CRE/$ BOORS :O >E ! FATU\S HEIRS ( TITLES & >I/OCRATIC P$IGREES4 ,IT IS A HI<LY SKILL$ CRAFT ?AT MU/ BE EX]CIS$ AS G5TLY BY ! PR9CE 9 HIS RELATION%IP ) ! PEOPLE AS IT MU/ BE EX]CIS$ RU?LESSLY BY HIM 9 HIS RELATION%IP ) HIS RIVALS4 ,MA*IAVELLI'S DEM& = A TOTAL COMMITM5T BY HIS *OS5 SOV]EIGN TO POLITICS REFLECTS ! EM]G5CE ( A NEW K9D ( MAN1 ! ,R5AISSANCE PR9CE3 SECUL>1 KE5LY 9TELLIG5T1 SKILLFUL1 & CUNN+4 ,HE IS A MAN ( REASON RA!R ?AN FAI?1 ( JUDGM5T RA!R ?AN BELIEF1 & SELF-RELIANCE RA!R ?AN DEP5D5CY1 ,A NEW POLITICAL DISP5SATION IS 9 ! AIR1 A MOD]N ONE1 ?AT DRAWS ITS PREC$5TS FROM ! S5ATORIAL P>TY ( ! E>LY ,ROMAN ,REPUBLIC RA!R ?AN ! SAC]DOTAL P>TY ( ! M$IEVAL *UR*4 ,MA*IAVELLI'S REF]5CES >E TO ,SCIPIO1 NOT TO ,AUGU/9E2 TO ,LIVY1 NOT ,AQU9AS4 

,BUT )9 ?IS REPUBLICAN IDEA ( A M]ITOCRACY1 ,MA*IAVELLI ADVANCES = SIXTE5?-C5TURY ,ITALIAN CONCEPTS ?AT C\LD BE F\ND 9 ,P]IKLES & ! ,A!NIAN COMMITM5T TO AMATEURISM4 ,COMP>ABLE ONLY TO HIS1 HATR$ ( ! NOBILITY IS HIS HATR$ ( M]C5>IES :O W]E PLAGU+ & PLUND]+ ,ITALY 9 HIS DAY--PR(ESSIONAL SOLDI]S4 ,! MO/ COMM&+ NE$ ( A WELL-ORD]$ /ATE1 HE TELLS US1 IS A CITIZ5->MY4 ,M]C5>IES >E AS UNRELIABLE AS !Y >E UNSCRUPUL\S4 ,!Y >E BORN PLUND]]S :O HAVE NO ALLEGIANCES O!R ?AN ?OSE ?AT MONEY CAN BUY4 0,M]C5>Y CAPTA9S >E EI!R V]Y CAPABLE M5 OR NOT10 HE DECL>ES2 0IF !Y >E1 Y\ CANNOT RELY ON !M1 = !Y WILL ALWAYS ASPIRE TO !IR [N GREATNESS1 EI!R BY OPPRESS+ Y\1 !IR MA/]1 OR BY OPPRESS+ O!RS AGA9/ Y\R 9T5TIONS2 BUT IF ! CAPTA9 IS NOT AN ABLE MAN1 HE WILL G5]ALLY RU9 Y\4 ,& IF IT IS REPLI$ TO ?IS1 ?AT :OEV] HAS >M$ =CES WILL DO ! SAME1 :E!R !SE >E M]C5>IES OR NOT1 ,I W\LD REPLY ?AT AS >MIES >E TO BE US$ EI!R BY A PR9CE OR BY A REPUBLIC1 ! PR9CE MU/ GO 9 P]SON TO TAKE ! POSITION ( CAPTA91 & ! REPUBLIC MU/ S5D ITS [N CITIZ5S4 ,IF ! MAN S5T TURNS \T TO BE 9COMPET5T1 IT MU/ *ANGE HIM2 & IF CAPABLE1 KEEP HIM BY LAW FROM GO+ BEYOND ! PROP] LIMITS4 ,& IT IS SE5 BY EXP]I5CE ?AT ONLY PR9CES & >M$ REPUBLICS MAKE V]Y GREAT PROGRESS1 :]EAS M]C5>Y =CES DO NO?+ BUT H>M1 & ALSO AN >M$ REPUBLIC SUBMITS LESS EASILY TO ! RULE ( ONE ( ITS CITIZ5S ?AN A REPUBLIC >M$ BY =EIGN =CES40_<#a#d_> 

,MA*IAVELLI'S >GUM5T CLE>LY TIPS T[>D A REPUBLIC & AN >M$ CITIZ5RY RA!R ?AN A PR9CE & A PR(ESSIONAL >MY4 ,CLE>LY1 IF PR9CELY GOV]NM5T WAS C5TRAL TO HIS CONC]NS1 ! PR9CE'S COMPET5CE W\LD NORMALLY BE BEYOND ANY LEGAL ASSESSM5T4 ,!RE W\LD BE NO?+ ?AT C\LD PREV5T HIM FROM 0GO+ BEYOND ! PROP] LIMITS10 9DE$1 TO TOL]ATE ANY LIMITS AT ALL4 ,NOR C\LD ,MA*IAVELLI1 :OSE M9D WAS /EEP$ 9 ! ,GREEK & ,ROMAN CLASSICS1 HAVE BE5 UNM9DFUL ?AT ! ,A!NIAN MILIT>Y =CES1 9 CONTRA/ TO ! ,ROMAN IMP]IAL ONES1 W]E /RUCTUR$ >\ND CLE>LY ACC\NTABLE CAPTA9S :O W]E /RICTLY REGULAT$ BY LAW1 9DE$ BY ! EKKLESIA OR POPUL> CITIZ5-ASSEMBLY4 ,AMATEURISM TAKES HI< PRIORITY OV] PR(ESSIONALISM & POLITICAL ,9/ITUTIONS1 VISIBLY PEOPL$ BY A FREE1 & AN >M$1 CITIZ5RY1 OV] A /ATE P[] ) ITS M]C5>Y BUREAUCRATS & SOLDI]S4 

,MA*IAVELLI UND\BT$LY HAD HIS EYES %>PLY FOCUS$ ON ,ITALY & ! CAUSE ( NATIONAL 9DEP5D5CE1 BUT HIS FEET W]E FIRMLY PLANT$ 9 HIS BELOV$ ,FLOR5CE & ! CAUSE ( FRE$OM4 ,! SAP FL[$1 AS IT W]E1 FROM ! ROOTS UPW>D--FROM CITY TO NATION--) ! RESULT ?AT A REPUBLICAN1 EV5 PR9CELY1 /ATE WAS N\RI%$ BY & MIX$ ) CIVIC DEMOCRATIC NOTIONS4 

,IDEOLOGICALLY1 ! HYBRIDIZATION ( TWO V]Y DI/9CT & POT5TIALLY CONFLICT+ CLASSICAL IDEAS ( PUBLIC GOV]NANCE >ISES FROM A S]I\S CONFUSION OV] :AT WE MEAN BY POLITICS & /ATECRAFT4 

,! RISE ( ! NATION-/ATE FROM ! SIXTE5? C5TURY ONW>D GREATLY ALT]$ ! 5TIRE FRAMEWORK ( POLITICAL DISC\RSE4 ,! BASIC UNIT ( PUBLIC GOV]NANCE WAS ! CITY1 NOT L>G] 5TITIES SU* AS ! PROV9CE1 NATION1 OR EMPIRE4 ,A CITIZ5'S ALLEGIANCES TO GOV] N9 G 9/ITUTIONS C\LD BE COM=TABLY 5UM]AT$ AS A V]Y DI/9CT HI]>*Y ( LOYALTIES4 ,HE WAS FIR/ & =EMO/ A T[NSMAN4 ,! T[N WAS ! AU!NTIC & MO/ MEAN+FUL LOCUS ( HIS P]SONAL & PUBLIC LIFE4 ,ONLY SECOND>ILY DID HE ID5TIFY HIMSELF ) A PROV9CE OR A REGION4 ,! IDEA ( 0NATIONALITY0 WAS AT BE/ VAGUE1 ?AT IS :5 IT EXI/$ AT ALL4 ,ROMANS 9 ! MO/ F>-FLUNG REA*ES ( ! EMPIRE CONSI/5TLY VISUALIZ$ !MSELVES AS CITIZ5S ( ! IMP]IAL CITY4 ,AMONG ! ,GREEKS1 CIVIC LOYALTY WAS VIRTUALLY ALL-CONSUM+3 ,A!NIANS1 = EXAMPLE1 %>PLY & DISDA9FULLY DI/+UI%$ !MSELVES FROM ,SP>TANS OR ,COR9?IANS1 A S5TIM5T ?AT WAS FREELY RECIPROCAT$ BY ALL CITIZ5S ( O!R  
POLEIS ) RESPECT TO O!R ,GREEK CITIES4 ,! ,/OIC PHILOSOPH]S :O W]E TO PAVE ! WAY = ,*RI/IANITY 9SI/$ WELL 9TO ,ROMAN TIMES ?AT CIVIC LOYALTY DEFIL$ ! NOVEL NOTION ?AT ALL M5 W]E BRO!RS4 ,BUT ! ,/OIC NOTION & ITS V]Y NOVELTY HAS ! R+ ( AN IDEOLOGICAL PROTE/ AGA9/ ! MORE POPUL> VIEW ?AT CITIZ5%IP IMPLIES A PRIM>Y LOYALTY TO ONE'S T[N1 NOT TO A VAG>Y CALL$ 0HUMANITY40 

,! RISE ( ! NATION-/ATE ALT]$ ?IS HI]>*Y ( LOYALTIES--&1 ) ?IS *ANGE1 ! WAY 9 :I* POLITICS WAS CONCEIV$4 

,NOT ?AT ANCI5T & M$IEVAL CIVIC P>O*IALISM WAS AN UNBLEMI%$ DESID]ATUM4 ,P>O*IALISM HAD A V]Y H>MFUL1 (T5 DEHUMANIZ+1 EFFECT ON URBAN LIFE G5]ALLY4 ,! T5D5CY TO SET ONE CITY AGA9/ ANO!R FO/]$ LOCAL *AUV9ISM ) SU* PA?OLOGIES AS E?NIC ANTAGONISMS1 W>S1 & CULTURAL 9TROV]SION4 ,9 A WORLD :]E ! CITY PRODUC$ A DEEP S5SE ( E?NIC & CULTURAL ID5TITY ?AT COMP>ES ) ! MOD]N WORLD'S MO/ /RID5T =MS ( NATIONALISM1 ! CONQUE/ ( ONE CITY BY ANO!R (T5 T]M9AT$ 9 ! %E] ANNIHILATION ( A PEOPLE AS A DI/9CT COMMUNITY4 ,ROME'S TOTAL DE/RUCTION ( ,C>?AGE 9 ! LA/ ( ! ,PUNIC W>S WAS NOT M]ELY ! DISMANTL+ ( A MAJOR ANCI5T CITY2 IT WAS ! 5SLAVEM5T & TOTAL EFFACEM5T ( A PEOPLE--( !IR ID5TITY1 CULTURE1 TRADITIONS1 UNIQU5ESS1 9DE$ !IR V]Y CLAIM TO EXI/4 ,J]I*O1 ,TROY1 & ,J]USALEM W]E TO SUFF] SIMIL> FATES1 TO CITE ONLY ! MO/ WELL-KN[N EXAMPLES ( :AT URBAN DE/RUCTION (T5 MEANT 9 ! E>LY & CLASSICAL WORLDS--AN ACT ( DEVA/ATION COMP>ABLE ONLY TO G5OCIDE 9 ! MOD]N WORLD4 

,) ! RISE ( NATIONALISM & ! NATION-/ATE1 ! /ATE BEGAN TO ASSUME IDEOLOGICAL PREEM95CE OV] ! CITY1 & EV5 RADICAL SOCIAL ?9K]S BEGAN TO =MULATE !IR POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES 9 BROAD T]RITORIAL OR NATIONAL T]MS4 ,PURITAN REVOLUTION>IES ?\<T ( !IR 0RI<TS0 NOT AS CITIZ5S ( ,LONDON1 :I* =M$ ! REAL C5T] ( P>LIAM5T>Y UNRE/ AGA9/ ! C\RT1 BUT AS 0,5GLI%M540 ,PURITAN !ORY1 BAS$ ON A DOCTR9E ( NATURAL RI<TS1 =MULAT$ !SE 0RI<TS0 NOT 9 ! *>ACT]I/ICALLY CIVIC =MS ( POPUL> ASSEMBLIES & POLITICS BAS$ ON P]SONAL 9TIMACY2 A NATION1 0,5GL&10 WAS CONCEIV$ AS ! LEG5D>Y VICTIM ( 9VAD+ 0B>B>\S0 ,NORMANS :O HAD CROSS$ ! *ANNEL FROM ,FRANCE SOME FIVE HUNDR$ YE>S E>LI] & IMPOS$ A ROYAL TYRANNY ON A REPRES5TATIVE SY/EM ( ,SAXON SELF-GOV]NANCE4 ,! ,COMBATANTS 9 ! REVOLUTION EXPRESS$ !IR LOYALTIES 9 T]MS ( !IR ADH]5CE TO 0P>LIAM5T0 OR ! 0C\RT40 ,L>G]-?AN-LIFE ,9/ITUTIONS1 F> BEYOND ! REA* ( ! ORD9>Y CITIZ51 BEGAN TO ,SUPPLANT ! CIVIC 9/ITUTIONS )9 :I* SOME K9D ( FACE-TO-FACE DEMOCRACY WAS FEASIBLE4 ,REPUBLICANISM1 9 EFFECT1 WAS A RADICAL IDEOLOGY ( NATIONS RA!R ?AN CITIES & /ATECRAFT BECAME ! 0POLITICS0 ( HI<LY C5TRALI/IC /ATE /RUCTURES4 

,IT IS H>D TO OV]/ATE ! AM\NT ( 9TELLECTUAL MIS*IEF ! EXT5SION ( ! WORD POLITICS1 BASICALLY ROOT$ 9 ! CIVIC LIFE ( ! POLIS1 PRODUC$ :5 IT WAS P]MITT$ TO 5COMPASS /ATECRAFT4 ,CLASSICAL POLITICS ALWAYS IMPLI$ ! EXI/5CE ( A BODY POLITIC--9 ITS [N WAY1 A K9D ( ECOLOGICAL COMMUNITY 9 ! SOCIAL S5SE EV5 9 ,ROME1 :5 ! WORDS POPULUS ,ROMANUS CAME TO MEAN LITTLE MORE ?AN AN >I/OCRATIC OLIG>*Y4 ,! CLASSICAL NOTION ( A BODY POLITIC WAS NOT A EUPHEMISM = AN 0ELECTORATE0 OR A 0CON/ITU5CY10 AS IT IS TODAY2 IT WAS A REAL1 PHYSICAL1 & CLE>LY OBS]VABLE 5TITY4 ,IT C\LD BE SE5 DAILY 9 PUBLIC SQU>ES :]E HEAT$ DISCUSSIONS OV] POLITICAL ISSUES 9T]M+L$ ) ! *IT*AT ( P]SONAL & BUS9ESS PROBLEMS2 IT ASSEMBL$ ) ALMO/ WEEKLY REGUL>ITY ON A HILLSIDE ( ,A!NS1 ! ,PNYX1 :]E MEET+S ( ! EKKLESIA W]E CONV5$1 OR IT GA!R$ 9 OP5 SPACES ( ! ,ROMAN ,=UM :]E ! COMITIA TRIBUTA (T5 HELD ITS SESSIONS4 ,IT C\LD BE HE>D QUITE AUDIBLY1 :E!R BY ACCLAMATION 9 ,SP>TA1 >GUM5TS 9 ,A!NS1 OR EV5 9 ! MO/ DESPOTIC ( ,ROME'S IMP]IAL P]IODS :5 ! HOOTS & %\TS ( COMMON]S AT ! ,COLISEUM REM9D$ ! EMP]ORS ?AT !Y W]E NOT BEYOND ! REA* ( PUBLIC CRITICISM4 ,9 MORE MILITANT TIMES1 ?IS BODY POLITIC RIOT$ 9 ,ROME'S ,/4 ,PET]'S ,SQU>E DUR+ ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES & /ORM$ 9TO ,FLOR5T9E *UR*ES TO HE> ! S]MONS ( ,SAVON>OLA DUR+ ! ,R5AISSANCE4 ,9 %ORT1 ! BODY POLITIC EXI/$ 9 ! LIT]AL S5SE ?AT IT WAS A TANGIBLE1 PROTOPLASMIC 5TITY ?AT EXPRESS$ ITS CONC]NS 9 ! EYE-TO-EYE CONTACT ( P]SONAL CONFRONTATION & F]V5T DISC\RSE4 

,?IS EYE-TO-EYE CONTACT ( ACTIVE CITIZ5S WAS AN ORGANIC POLITICS 9 ITS MO/ MEAN+FUL1 PROTOPLASMIC1 & SELF-FULFILL+ S5SE4 ,POLITICAL ASSEMBLIES W]E NOT M]E AUDI5CES ON :I* PUBLIC (FICIALS PRACTIC$ !IR >TS ( /ATECRAFT2 !Y W]E LEGISLATIVE COMMUNITIES UNIT$ BY A REASONABLE COMMONALITY ( %>$1 PUBLIC 9T]E/S & E?ICAL PRECEPTS4 ,?AT POLITICAL LIFE HAD WORK$ ITS WAY \T ( SOCIAL LIFE TO ACQUIRE A DI/9CT ID5TITY ( ITS [N & PRESUPPOS$ SOCIAL =MS AS ITS UND]P9N+S IS EVID5T 5\< FROM ANY ACC\NT ( ! POLIS OR ITS NE>-EQUIVAL5T 9 ! M$IEVAL CITY-/ATE OR 0COMMUNE40 ,BUT EV5 SO CONS]VATIVE A ?9K] AS ,>I/OTLE NEV] CONFUS$ A FAMILY OR A WORK%OP ) ! AGORA1 :]E PUBLIC AFFAIRS W]E NORMALLY DISCUSS$1 & ! EKKLESIA4 ,:]E ! BODY POLITIC PHYSICALLY ASSEMBL$ TO MAKE PUBLIC DECISIONS4 ,H5CE1 ! ,GREEK POLIS WAS NEV] A /ATE 9 ANY MOD]N S5SE ( ! T]M ) PR(ESSIONAL SURROGATES = AN ASSEMBL$ BODY POLITIC1 NOR WAS IT A SOCIAL 5TITY SU* AS A 0FAMILY0 ?AT UNIT$ ! PEOPLE 9TO AN AU!NTIC K9 GR\P4 ,>I/OTLE'S NOTION ( PHILIA OR SOLID>ITY AS A CRUCIAL PRECONDITION = A POLITICAL LIFE EXPRESS$ ! UNIQUE ID5TITY POLITICS POSSESS$ AS A =M ( GOV]NANCE1 ONE ,?AT TRANSC5D$ M]E K9%IP OBLIGATIONS4 ,IF K9SM5 W]E OBLIGAT$ TO EA* O!R BY VIRTUE ( BLOOD TIES & TRIBAL CU/OM1 CITIZ5S W]E OBLIGAT$ TO EA* O!R BY VIRTUE ( CIVIC TIES & E?ICAL PRECEPTS4 

,IF POLITICS CAN BE SAID TO HAVE EM]G$ FROM SOCIETY 9 ! /RICT S5SE ?AT ,I USE ! LATT] WORD TO D5OTE FAMILIAL1 VOCATIONAL1 & SOCIABLE RELATION%IPS1 SO /ATECRAFT CAN BE SAID TO HAVE EM]G$ FROM POLITICS CONCEIV$ AS ! ACTIVITIES ( A DIRECTLY 9VOLV$ BODY POLITIC4 ,>I/OCRACIES1 MON>*IES1 & REPUBLICS ULTIMATELY DISSOLVE ! BODY POLITIC AS A P>TICIPATORY 5TITY1 AN ESS5TIALLY ECOLOGICAL PH5OM5\ 9TO AN AMORPH\S MASS ( PRIVATIZ$ 0SOCIAL0 BE+S WE SO APTLY CALL AN ELECTORATE OR A CON/ITU5CY4 ,! 0DEPUTIES ( ! PEOPLE0 REPLACE ! PEOPLE1 TO USE ,R\SSEAU'S PI?Y =MULATION1 & BUREAUCRATIC 9/ITUTIONS REPLACE POPUL> ASSEMBLIES4 ,! ID5TITY ( POLITICS AS A UNIQUE PH5OM5ON TO BE DI/+UI%$ FROM O!R1 PRESUMABLY 0SOCIAL0 ACTIVITIES1 IS NOT A CONCEPT ?AT WAS CONF9$ TO CLASSICAL ?9K]S SU* AS ,>I/OTLE4 ,IT IS A RECURR+ & (T5 P]PLEX+ PROBLEM ?AT APPE>S 9 ! WRIT+S ( ,R\SSEAU1 9 CON/ITUTIONAL DOCUM5TS ( ! PA/ ?AT DI/+UI% BETWE5 0ACTIVE0 7PROP]TI$7 CITIZ5S & 0PASSIVE0 7PROP]TYLESS7 CITIZ5S1 & TODAY1 MO/ /RIK+LY1 9 ! WRIT+S ( A HI<LY GIFT$ POLITICAL PHILOSOPH]1 ,HANNAH ,>5DT4 

,:AT IS SO CURI\S AB\T ?IS LIT]ATURE & ITS ATTEMPT TO S+LE ,\T POLITICS AS A CLE>LY ID5TIFIABLE >EA ( PUBLIC ACTIVITY IS ! EXT5T TO :I* IT IS BURD5$ BY ! 9/ITUTIONAL WEI<T ( ! NATION-/ATE4 ,>5DT'S DI/9CTION BETWE5 A 0POLITICAL REALM0 & ONE ?AT IS 0SOCIAL0 ALL[S = V]Y LITTLE DIFF]5CE BETWE5 POLITICAL ACTIVITY & /ATECRAFT4 ,! /ATE HAS SO ?OR\<LY M]G$ ) ! POLITICAL--9/ITUTIONALLY & FUNCTIONALLY--?AT ! TWO ALMO/ SEEM ID5TICAL4 ,:AT IS REM>KABLE IS ?AT MOD]N SOCIAL !ORY DOES NOT F9D ?IS CONGRU5CE ( V]Y DIFF]5T >5AS ( PUBLIC GOV]NANCE PROBLEMATICAL4 ,CLE> AS ! OLD ,>I/OTELIAN DI/9CTION BETWE5 ! SOCIAL & POLITICAL MAY BE1 ! EQUALLY CRUCIAL DI/9CTION BETWE5 ! POLITICAL & ! /ATI/ T5DS TO BE LO/ 9 ! MOD]N LIT]ATURE ON POLITICS4 ,POLITICAL ACTIVITY & /ATECRAFT HAVE BECOME SO ?OR\<LY 9T]MIX$ 9 !ORY & L',OALITY ?AT ! PRES5T-DAY USAGE ( ! WORD 0POLITICS0 IS TAK5 TO BE ! 0>T0 ( ! POLITICIAN1 :O1 = ALL PRACTICAL PURPOSES1 REPLACES ! BODY POLITIC4 ,?AT ! /ATE HI/ORICALLY DEPOLITICIZ$ TILLS BODY POLITIC & ESS5TIALLY DISB&$ IT 9/ITUTIONALLY SEEMS LIKE A MEAN+LESS IDEOLOGICAL CURIOSITY 9 A WORLD :]E POLITICAL ACTIVITY0 TAKES ! =M ( AN ON-GO+ BATTLE ( POLITICAL GLADIATORS 9 A /RANGELY MUT$1 ALMO/ EMPTY >5A4 

,P]HAPS ! MA9 REASON :Y ! CONFUSION BETWE5 POLITICS & /ATECRAFT P]SI/S SO /RONGLY TODAY IS ?AT WE HAVE LO/ SI<T ( ! HI/ORIC S\RCE & PR9CIPAL >5A ( ANY AU!NTIC POLITICS--! CITY4 ,WE NOT ONLY CONFUSE URBANIZATION ) CITIFICATION1 BUT WE HAVE LIT]ALLY DROPP$ ! CITY \T ( ! HI/ORY ( IDEAS--BO? 9 T]MS ( ! WAY IT EXPLA9S ! PRES5T HUMAN CONDITION & ! SY/EMS ( PUBLIC GOV]NANCE IT CREATES4 ,NOT ?AT WE LACK ANY VALUABLE HI/ORIES ( ! CITY OR ATTEMPTS TO EVALUATE IT SOCIOLOGICALLY4 ,BUT \R URBAN LIT]ATURE G5]ALLY NEGLECTS ! RELATION%IP BETWE5 ! CITY & ! REM>KABLE PH5OM5ON ( CITIZ5%IP IT PRODUCES4 ,URBAN HI/ORIANS T5D TO FIXATE ON L>GELY N>RATIVE ACC\NTS ( ! CITY'S DEVELOPM5T FROM VILLAGE TO MEGALOPOLIS--ACC\NTS ?AT >E RIDDL$ BY NO/ALGIA = ! PA/ OR A BRUTE ACCEPTANCE ( EXI/+ URBAN CONDITIONS & ! FUTURE !Y PORT5D4 ,! NOTION ?AT ! CITY IS ! S\RCE ( IMM5SELY PROVOCATIVE POLITICAL1 E?ICAL1 & ECONOMIC !ORIES--9DE$1 ?AT ITS 9/ITUTIONS & /RUCTURES EMBODY !M--IS G5]ALLY ALI5 TO ! MOD]N SOCIAL !ORI/4 

,AN E?ICAL 9T]PRETATION ( HI/ORICAL URBAN /&>DS MU/ HI<LI<T ONE C5TRAL ISSUE3 ! NE$ TO RECOV] CIVIC =MS & VALUES ?AT FO/] AN ACTIVE CITIZ5RY4 ,?IS AM\NTS TO SAY+ ?AT WE MU/ RECOV] POLITICS AGA9--NOT ONLY ! SOCIAL =MS ( P]SONAL 9T]C\RSE ?AT UND]P9 EV]Y K9D ( HUMAN ACTIVITY4 ,! CITY1 CONCEIV$ AS A NEW K9D ( E?ICAL UNION1 A HUMANLY SCAL$ =M ( P]SONAL EMP[]M5T1 A P>TICIPATORY1 EV5 ECOLOGICAL SY/EM ( DECISION MAK+1 & A DI/9CTIVE S\RCE ( CIVIC CULTURE--?IS CIVIC NOTION ( COMMUNITY MU/ BE BR\<T BACK AGA9 9TO ! HI/ORY ( HUMAN IDEAS & PRACTICAL WISDOM4 ,IT MU/ BE CRITICALLY REEXAM9$ AS A REALM ( ?\<T & ACTIVITY ?AT GIVES RISE--AS IT DID 9 V>I\S P]IODS ( HI/ORY--TO POLITICAL CONSOCIATION1 A POLITICS ?AT PLACES FAMILY1 WORK1 FRI5D%IP1 >T1 & VALUES )9 ! L>G] CONTEXT ( A R\ND$ CIVIC WORLD4 ,POLITICS1 9 EFFECT1 MU/ BE RECREAT$ AGA9 IF WE >E TO RECLAIM ANY DEGREE ( P]SONAL & COLLECTIVE SOV]EIGNTY OV] \R DE/9Y4 ,! NUCLE> UNIT ( ?IS POLITICS IS NOT ! IMP]SONAL BUREAUCRAT1 ! PR(ESSIONAL POLITICIAN1 ! P>TY FUNCTION>Y1 OR EV5 ! URBAN RESID5T 9 ALL ! SPL5DOR ( HIS OR H] CIVIC ANONYMITY4 ,IT IS ! CITIZ5--A T]M ?AT EMBODIES ! CLASSICAL IDEALS ( PHILIA1 AUTONOMY1 RATIONALITY1 &1 ABOVE ALL1 CIVIC COMMITM5T1 ,! ELUSIVE CITIZ5 :O SURFAC$ HI/ORICALLY 9 ! ASSEMBLIES ( ,GREECE1 9 ! COMMUNES ( M$IEVAL ,EUROPE1 9 ! T[N MEET+S ( ,NEW ,5GL&1 & 9 ! REVOLUTION>Y SECTIONS ( ,P>IS MU/ BE BR\<T TO ! =EGR\ND ( POLITICAL !ORY4 ,= )\T HIS OR H] PRES5CE & )\T A CLE> UND]/&+ ( HIS OR H] G5ESIS1 DEVELOPM5T1 & POT5TIALITIES1 ANY DISCUSSION ( ! CITY IS LIKELY TO BECOME ANEMICALLY 9/ITUTIONAL & =MAL4 ,A CITY W\LD ALMO/ C]TA9LY BECOME A %APELESS BLOB1 A M]E *AOS ( /RUCTURES1 /REETS1 & SQU>ES IF IT LACK$ ! 9/ITUTIONS & =MS APPROPRIATE TO ! DEVELOPM5T ( AN ACTIVE CITIZ5RY4 ,BUT )\T ! CITIZ5S TO OCCUPY !SE 9/ITUTIONS & FILL !SE =MS1 WE MAY CREATE AN 5DLESS V>IETY ( CIVIC 5TITIES--BUT LIKE ! GREAT URBAN BELTS ?AT ?REAT5 TO DEV\R !M1 !Y W\LD BE COMPLETELY SOCIALLY LIFELESS & ECOLOGICALLY D5ATUR$4 

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