,*APT] #d 
,ACTION & ,REFLECTION1 OR ,NOTES T[>D A ,!ORY ( ,WEAL? & ,P[] 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,DAVID ,GRAEB] 

,TEXT 3 

,*APT] #d -- ,ACTION & ,REFLECTION1 OR ,NOTES T[>D A ,!ORY ( ,WEAL? & ,P[] 

  
  

,MOBY ,DUCK & ,DONALD1 CAPTUR$ BY ! ,>IDIANS 7,>ABS71 />T BL[+ SOAP BUBBLES1 ) :I* ! NATIVES >E 5*ANT$4 0,HA HA4 ,!Y BREAK :5 Y\ CAT* !M4 ,HEE1 HEE40 ,ALI-,B5-,GOLI1 ! *IEF1 SAYS 0IT'S REAL MAGIC4 ,MY PEOPLE >E LAU<+ LIKE *ILDR54 ,!Y CANNOT IMAG9E H[ IT WORKS40 0,IT'S ONLY A SECRET PASS$ FROM G5]ATION TO G5]ATION10 SAYS ,MOBY1 0,I WILL REVEAL IT IF Y\ GIVE US \R FRE$OM0 444 ,! *IEF1 9 AMAZEM5T1 EXCLAIMS 0,FRE$OM8 ,?AT'S NOT ALL ,I'LL GIVE Y\4 ,GOLD1 JEWELS4 ,MY TREASURE IS Y\RS1 IF Y\ REVEAL ! SECRET40 ,! ,>ABS CONS5T TO !IR [N DESPOLIATION4 0,WE HAVE JEWELS1 BUT !Y >E ( NO USE TO US4 ,!Y DON'T MAKE US LAU< LIKE MAGIC BUBBLES40 

--,DORFMAN & ,MATTEL>T1 ,H[ TO ,READ ,DONALD ,DUCK 7#a#i#g#e3#e#a7  
  

,DUT* SETTL]S1 AS ANY ,AM]ICAN S*OOL*ILD CAN TELL Y\1 B\<T ,MANHATTAN ,ISL& FROM ! LOCAL ,9DIANS = TW5TY-F\R DOLL>S WOR? ( BEADS & TR9KETS4 ,! /ORY C\LD BE CONSID]$ ONE ( ! F\ND+ MY?S ( ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES2 9 A NATION BAS$ ON COMM]CE1 ! V]Y P>ADIGM ( A REALLY GOOD DEAL4 ,! /ORY ITSELF IS PROBABLY UNTRUE 7! ,9DIANS PROBABLY ?\<T !Y W]E RECEIV+ A GIFT ( COLORFUL EXOTICA AS A TOK5 ( PEACEFUL 9T5TIONS & W]E 9 EX*ANGE GRANT+ ! ,DUT* ! RI<T TO MAKE USE ( ! L&1 NOT TO 0[N0 IT P]MAN5TLY71 BUT ! FACT ?AT SO MANY ( ! PEOPLE ,EUROPEAN M]*ANTS & SETTL]S DID 5C\NT] >\ND ! GLOBE W]E WILL+ TO ACCEPT ,EUROPEAN BEADS1 9 EX*ANGE = L& OR ANY?+ ELSE1 HAS COME TO /&1 9 \R POPUL> IMAG9ATION1 AS ONE ( ! DEF9+ FEATURES ( !IR 0PRIMITIV5ESS0--A *ILDI% 9ABILITY TO DI/+UI% WOR?LESS BAUBLES FROM ?+S ( G5U9E VALUE4 

,9 REALITY1 ,EUROPEAN M]*ANTS BEGAN C>RY+ BEADS ON !IR J\RNEYS TO ,AFRICA & ! ,9DIAN ,OCEAN BECAUSE BEADS HAD ALREADY BE5 US$ !RE AS A TRADE CURR5CY = C5TURIES4 ,ELSE:]E1 !Y F\ND BEADS W]E ! ONE ( ! FEW ,EUROPEAN PRODUCTS !Y C\LD C\NT ON ! 9HABITANTS BE+ WILL+ TO ACCEPT1 SO ?AT 9 MANY PLACES :]E BEADS HAD NOT BE5 A TRADE CURR5CY BE=E !IR >RIVAL1 !Y QUICKLY BECAME ONE AFT]W>DS4 

,BUT :Y WAS ?AT8 ,:AT WAS IT AB\T BEADS1 ( ALL ?+S1 ?AT MAKE !M SO WELL SUIT$ TO S]VE AS A M$IUM ( EX*ANGE--OR AT LEA/1 AS A M$IUM ( TRADE BETWE5 PEOPLE UNFAMILI> ) EA* O!R'S TA/ES & HABITS8 

,TRUE1 BEADS DO FIT MO/ ( ! /&>D CRIT]IA ECONOMI/S USUALLY ATTRIBUTE TO MONEY4 ,!Y MAY NOT BE DIVISIBLE1 BUT !Y >E R\<LY COMM5SURABLE1 HI<LY PORTABLE1 & !Y DO NOT DECAY4 ,BUT ! SAME C\LD BE SAID ( ANY NUMB] ( O!R OBJECTS ?AT HAVE NEV] BE5 US$ AS A MEANS ( EX*ANGE4 ,:AT SETS BEADS AP>T FROM !M SEEMS TO BE NO?+ MORE ?AN ! FACT ?AT !Y >E1 9DE$1 PLEASANT TO LOOK AT2 OR TO BE MORE PRECISE1 P]HAPS1 ?AT !Y SUIT$ = USE AS P]SONAL ADORNM5T4 ,9 ?IS AT LEA/ !Y >E 9 MU* L>G] COMPANY4 ,IT IS REM>KABLE H[ MANY ( ! ?+S ADOPT$ AS CURR5CY 9 DIFF]5T P>TS ( ! WORLD HAVE BE5 ?+S O!RWISE US$ PRIM>ILY1 IF NOT EXCLUSIVELY1 AS OBJECTS ( ADORNM5T4 ,GOLD & SILV] >E ONLY ! MO/ OBVI\S EXAMPLES3 ONE C\LD EQUALLY WELL CITE ! C[RIES & SPONDYLUS %ELLS ( ,AFRICA1 ,NEW ,GU9EA1 & ! ,AM]ICAS1 ! FEA!R MONEY ( ! ,NEW ,HEBRIDES1 OR ANY NUMB] ( SIMIL> 0PRIMITIVE CURR5CIES40 ,= ! MO/ P>T1 MONEY CONSI/S ( ?+S ?AT O!RWISE EXI/ ONLY TO BE SE54 ,T9Y COPP] AXES HAVE BE5 KN[N TO BECOME ! /UFF ( CURR5CY1 OR V]Y ?9 ONES1 BUT NEV] AXES ?AT C\LD ACTUALLY CUT D[N A TREE4 

,:AT ,I W\LD LIKE TO DO 9 ?IS *APT]--& TO A C]TA9 DEGREE1 OV] ! C\RSE ( ! RE/ ( ?IS BOOK--IS TO EXPLORE :Y ?IS %\LD BE1 & CONSID] SOME ( ! IMPLICATIONS4 ,:5EV] ONE EXAM9ES ! PROCESSES BY :I* ! VALUE ( OBJECTS IS E/ABLI%$ 7& ?IS IS TRUE :E!R ONE IS DEAL+ ) OBJECTS ( EX*ANGE OR WEAL? MORE G5]ALLY71 ISSUES ( VISIBILITY & 9VISIBILITY ALMO/ 9V>IABLY SEEM TO CROP UP4 ,= 9/ANCE1 :ILE IT IS (T5 DIFFICULT TO COME BY SY/EMATIC 9=MATION AB\T :AT PEOPLE ACTUALLY DID ) TRADE BEADS AFT] !Y HAD BE5 TRAD$1 :AT EVID5CE DOES EXI/ 9DICATES ?AT :5 !Y W]E NOT WORN AS P]SONAL ADORNM5T1 !Y W]E QUITE SELF-CONSCI\SLY CA*$ AWAY & HIDD5-- (T51 AS WE WILL SEE1 9 ELABORATELY RITUALIZ$ CONTEXTS4 ,TO UND]/& :Y1 H[EV]1 ONE HAS TO RETURN TO ! E?NOGRAPHIC LIT]ATURE & REEXAM9E A :OLE S]IES ( FAMILI> NOTIONS AB\T VALUE1 P[]1 EX*ANGE & ! HUMAN P]SON4 ,LET ME BEG91 !N1 BY CONSID]+ ! DISPLAY ( WEAL?4 

! DISPLAY ( WEAL? 

  

0,KA*9S10 WROTE ,$MUND ,LEA* 7#a#i#e#d3#a#d#b71 0DO NOT LOOK UPON MOVABLE PROP]TY AS CAPITAL TO BE 9VE/$1 !Y REG>D IT RA!R AS AN ADORNM5T TO ! P]SON40 ,!Y W\LD H>DLY BE ! ONLY ONES4 ,9S(> AS WEAL? IS AN OBJECT ( DISPLAY1 IT IS ALWAYS 9 SOME S5SE ADORNM5T TO ! P]SON4 ,9 ANY NUMB] ( SOCIETIES ! MO/ TREASUR$ =MS ( WEAL? CONSI/ ( OBJECTS ( ADORNM5T 9 ! LIT]AL S5SE3 HEIRLOOM JEWELRY1 ONE MI<T SAY1 ( ONE SORT OR ANO!R4 ,(T51 AS ) ,M>CEL ,MAUSS' FAM\S EXAMPLES FROM ,! ,GIFT-- ,KWAKIUTL COPP]S1 ,MAORI CLOAKS & AXES1 KULA >M%ELLS & NECKLACES--!Y >E NOT ONLY ! MO/ VALUABLE OBJECTS RECOGNIZ$ BY MEMB]S ( ! SOCIETIES ?AT PRODUCE !M1 BUT !IR MO/ IMPORTANT OBJECTS ( EX*ANGE AS WELL4 

,FROM ?IS P]SPECTIVE1 :AT ,I HAVE JU/ SAID AB\T MONEY MI<T NOT SEEM P>TICUL>LY SURPRIS+4 ,IF OBJECTS ( ADORNM5T >E ALREADY SO HI<LY VALU$1 :AT W\LD BE MORE NATURAL ?AN TO USE !M TO REPRES5T VALUE 9 ! AB/RACT8 ,P]HAPS !RE REALLY ISN'T MU* ( A MY/]Y AFT] ALL4 ,BUT 9 FACT ,I ?9K !RE IS4 ,BECAUSE ! K9D ( VALUE ASCRIB$ TO HEIRLOOM JEWELRY 9 MO/ SOCIETIES HAS LITTLE IF ANY?+ 9 COMMON ) ! VALUE WE USUALLY ATTRIBUTE TO MONEY4 ,9 FACT IT (T5 /&S DIAMETRICALLY OPPOS$ TO IT4 

,9 US+ ! PHRASE 0ADORNM5T TO ! P]SON0 ,LEA* WAS PROBABLY MAK+ AN OBLIQUE REF]5CE TO ,M>CEL ,MAUSS' FAM\S ESSAY ON 0! CATEGORY ( ! P]SON0 7#a#i#c#h74 ,9 ?AT ESSAY1 ,MAUSS >GUES ?AT 9 SOCIETIES LACK+ AN IDEOLOGY ( 9DIVIDUALISM 70>*AIC SOCIETIES10 AS HE CALL$ !M71 ! P]SON1 OR PUBLIC SELF ( ITS MEMB]S IS (T5 BUILT UP \T ( A COLLECTION ( SYMBOLIC PROP]TIES3 NAMES & TITLES1 RITUAL P>APH]NALIA1 OR O!R SORTS ( 9SIGNIA & BADGES ( (FICE4 ,(T5 ! V]Y POSSESSION ( SU* BADGES ( (FICE CAN BE SAID TO CONVEY TITLE TO ! (FICE 9 QUE/ION4 ,H[EV]1 SU* 9SIGNIA CANNOT BECOME OBJECTS ( EX*ANGE 9 ANY CONV5TIONAL S5SE2 GIV+ ONE AWAY W\LD BE TANTAM\NT TO AB&ON+ ONE'S SOCIAL ID5TITY 5TIRELY4 ,A K+ :O GIVES AWAY HIS CR[N IS A K+ NO LONG]4 

,!RE IS1 H[EV]1 AN OBVI\S CONT9UITY BETWE5 ,MAUSS' >GUM5TS ON ! P]SON & HIS >GUM5T 9 ,! ,GIFT 7#a#i#b#e73 ?AT GIFT-GIV+ CAN BE A P[]FUL A WAY ( CREAT+ SOCIAL BONDS BECAUSE GIFTS ALWAYS C>RY ) !M SOME?+ ( ! GIV]'S SELF4 ,IT IS 9 ?IS ESSAY ?AT ,MAUSS DEALS ) ! SORT ( 0HEIRLOOM JEWELRY0 M5TION$ ABOVE4 ,HEIRLOOMS ( ?IS SORT >E1 TYPICALLY1 UNIQUE OBJECTS4 ,EA* HAS ITS [N NAME & HI/ORY--& IT IS ! LATT] ?AT IS 9 L>G] MEASURE RESPONSIBLE = ! VALUE IT IS SE5 TO HAVE4 ,S9CE ?AT HI/ORY IS ALMO/ ALWAYS 7AT LEA/ 9 P>T7 A HI/ORY ( [N]%IP1 ! SOCIAL ID5TITIES ( GIV] & RECEIV] T5D TO BECOME 5TANGL$ 9 ?AT ( ! OBJECT--& !RE=E ALWAYS TO BE1 TO A C]TA9 EXT5T1 P>T ( ! /AKES ( ANY TRANSACTION 9 :I* IT IS 9VOLV$4 

,I HAVE ALREADY DISCUSS$ ! WAY ?AT 9 MANY SY/EMS ( EX*ANGE1 & P>TICUL>LY 9 :AT ,MAUSS CALL$ 0GIFT ECONOMIES10 DIFF]5T SORTS ( VALUABLE >E RANK$ ACCORD+ TO !IR RELATIVE ABILITIES TO CONVEY HI/ORY1 AS 9 KULA EX*ANGE 7,MUNN #a#i#h#f3#e#e-#g#c1 #a#a#a-#a#h71 9 :I* !RE IS A HI]>*Y ( TYPES ( GOODS1 ) P]I%ABLE & G5]IC SUB/ANCES LIKE FOOD AT ! BOTTOM & UNIQUE IMP]I%ABLE VALUABLES AT ! TOP4 ,>M%ELLS & NECKLACES !MSELVES >E DIVID$ 9TO NAMELESS1 G5]IC %ELLS1 RANK$ AT ! BOTTOM1 A MORE VALUABLE CLASS ( R>E %ELLS = :I* !RE IS ONLY A H&FUL EXAMPLES ( ANY GIV5 V>IETY1 & F9ALLY1 AT ! TOP1 ABSOLUTELY UNIQUE HEIRLOOMS ) !IR [N NAMES & HI/ORIES ?AT EV]YONE IS SUPPOS$ TO HAVE HE>D (4 ,BUT ALL ?IS S]VES ONLY TO UND]L9E H[ LITTLE ! VALUE ( KULA %ELLS & O!R 0HEIRLOOM JEWELRY0 RESEMBLES ?AT ( MONEY4 ,MONEY DOES NOT CONSI/ ( UNIQUE OBJECTS AT ALL4 ,AT LEA/ 9 PR9CIPLE1 IT IS ABSOLUTELY G5]IC1 ANY ONE DOLL> BILL PRECISELY ! SAME AS ANY O!R4 ,AS A RESULT MONEY PRES5TS A FRICTIONLESS SURFACE TO HI/ORY4 ,!RE IS NO WAY TO KN[ :]E A GIV5 DOLL> BILL HAS BE54 ,NOR IS !RE ANY REASON ONE %\LD C>E1 S9CE NEI!R ! ID5TITY ( ITS =M] [N]S NOR ! NATURE ( TRANSACTIONS 9 :I* IT HAS PREVI\SLY BE5 9VOLV$ 9 ANY WAY AFFECTS ITS VALUE4 ,?IS IS :Y TRANSACTIONS 9VOLV+ MONEY CAN BE SAID TO BE 0ANONYM\S03 ! SOCIAL ID5TITIES ( ?OSE TRANSACT+ NE$ NOT BECOME P>T ( ! /AKES ( ANY TRANSACTION-- 9 FACT1 !Y DO NOT HAVE TO PLAY ANY P>T 9 ! TRANSACTION AT ALL4 

,IT IS AN AN?ROPOLOGICAL COMMONPLACE ?AT CLO?+ & ADORNM5T S]VE AS M>K]S ( SOCIAL ID5TITY4 ,9S(> AS !Y >E OBJECTS ( DISPLAY1 !Y ACT TO DEF9E DIFF]5CES BETWE5 K9DS ( PEOPLE4 ,! DISPLAY ( HEIRLOOM JEWELRY1 TOO1 C\LD BE SAID TO ASS]T ! DI/9CTIV5ESS ( ITS [N]4 ,& SO ) WEAL? 9 G5]AL3 9 \R [N SOCIETY1 ANYONE :O HAS MANAG$ TO ACCUMULATE A V]Y L>GE AM\NT ( MONEY WILL 9EVITABLY BEG9 TO TRANSLATE SOME ( IT 9TO OBJECTS ( UNIQUE HI/ORICAL VALUE3 OLD MANSIONS1 ,VAN ,GO<S1 P$IGRE$ ?OR\<BR$S--ALL ( :I* MAY BE CONSID]$ ADORNM5T TO ! [N]'S P]SON4 7,9 FACT1 !Y W\LD BE CONSID]$ RA!R ODD IF !Y DID NOT47 

,CLE>LY1 MONEY ITSELF CAN NEV] BECOME AN ADORNM5T TO ! P]SON 9 ! SAME WAY4 ,IT CAN M>K DI/9CTION ONLY 9 ! QUANTITATIVE S5SE3 SOME PEOPLE HAVE MORE ( IT1 SOME LESS4 ,BUT ,I W\LD >GUE--9 FACT ,I WILL BE D$ICAT+ MO/ ( ! NEXT TWO SECTIONS TO >GU+--?AT MONEY IS QUITE (T5 ID5TIFI$ ) ITS [N]'S P]SON1 IF 9 A SOME:AT DIFF]5T S5SE4 ,RA!R ?AN S]V+ AS A M>K ( DI/9CTIV5ESS1 IT T5DS TO BE ID5TIFI$ ) ! HOLD]'S G5]IC1 HIDD5 CAPACITIES = ACTION4 

ACTION & REFLECTION 

  

,IF ONE TURNS TO ! LIT]ATURE ON P[] RA!R ?AN ?AT ON VALUE1 !RE IS NO LACK ( MAT]IAL ON ISSUES ( VISIBILITY & 9VISIBILITY4 ,PHRASES LIKE 0PANOPTICS0 & 0! GAZE ( P[]0 HAVE BE5 B&I$ AB\T QUITE WIDELY 9 SOCIAL !ORY = SOME TIME N[4 ,MO/ ( !SE USAGES ( C\RSE GO BACK TO ! WORK ( ,MI*EL ,F\CAULT1 P>TICUL>LY ,DISCIPL9E & ,PUNI% 7#a#i#g#g3#a#g-#i#d71 9 :I* HE >GUES ?AT !RE WAS A MAJOR %IFT 9 ! WAY P[] WAS EX]CIS$ 9 ,EUROPE AT ! BEG9N+ ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY4 ,9 ! FEUDAL SY/EM ?AT HAD EXI/$ UNTIL !N1 HE WRITES1 0P[] WAS :AT WAS SE50 7#a#i#g#g3#a#h#g74 ,IT F\ND ITS PLACE 9 CA!DRALS1 9 PALACES1 & ESPECIALLY 9 ! 0MAT]IAL BODY ( ! K+10 :I* WAS ON CON/ANT DISPLAY 9 ROYAL PAGEANTS & SPECTACLES4 ,UND] FEUDALISM1 ONLY ! P[]FUL W]E 9DIVIDUALIZ$1 MADE 0MAT]IAL0 & 0P>TICUL>40 ,!IR FACES W]E DISPLAY$ ON PA9T+S & CO9S1 !IR G5EALOGIES & DE$S BECAME ! (FICIAL HI/ORY ( ! /ATE1 !IR PRIVATE LIVES ! /UFF ( PUBLIC POLICY 7#a#i#g#g3#a#i#a-#i#b74 ,! P[]LESS REMA9$ FACELESS SPECTATORS4 ,) ! 5D ( ! FEUDAL /ATE1 H[EV]1 ! T]MS ( P[] REV]SE !MSELVES4 ,9 ! 0DISCIPL9>Y SY/EMS0 ?AT BEGAN TO EM]GE AT ?IS TIME1 P[] IS EX]CIS$ BY FACELESS1 9VISIBLE BUREAUCRACIES ?AT 9SPECT1 EXAM9E1 & EVALUATE !IR OBJECTS4 ,! LOGIC IS ONE ( SURVEILLANCE1 & IT IS 5%R9$ 9 SU* NEWF\ND 9/ITUTIONS AS ! FACTORY1 ! HOSPITAL 9SPECTION1 ! S*OOL EXAM9ATION1 & ! MILIT>Y REVIEW4 ,)9 SU* 9/ITUTIONS1 NOT ONLY DO ?OSE :O WIELD P[] BECOME DEP]SONALIZ$ AB/RACTIONS1 BUT IT IS ! OBJECTS ( SURVEILLANCE :O N[ BECOME 9DIVIDUALIZ$--AT LEA/ 9S(> AS !Y EA* CAN BE 9SPECT$1 JUDG$1 & RANK$ ACCORD+ TO SPECIFIC =MAL CRIT]IA 7#a#i#g#g3#a#h#i-#i#b74 

,N[1 ,F\CAULT REPRES5TS ?IS *ANGE AS A CLEAN BREAK BETWE5 TWO 5TIRELY DIFF]5T TYPES ( REGIME1 BUT ,I ?9K IT W\LD BE BETT] TO TREAT !SE AS TWO DIFF]5T MODALITIES ( P[]1 ONES ?AT COEXI/ 9 ANY SOCIETY4 ,AFT] ALL1 IT'S NOT AS IF PAGEANTRY1 SPECTACLE1 & ! DISPLAY ( P[] DISAPPE>$ ) ! 5D ( FEUDALISM1 ANY MORE ?AN ! DISPLAY ( WEAL?4.<#h#c.> ,BUT ?IS IS NOT TO SAY ?AT !RE WAS NOT A C]TA9 %IFT ( EMPHASIS 9 ,EUROPEAN CULTURE >\ND ?AT TIME4 ,!RE >E PL5TY ( 9DICATIONS ?AT !RE WAS--NOT LEA/ ( !M *ANGES ?AT TOOK PLACE 9 /&>DS ( P]SONAL ADORNM5T AMONG ,EUROPE'S ELITE 9 ! P]IOD 9 QUE/ION4 

,J4 ,C4 ,FLUGEL1 AN HI/ORIAN ( DRESS1 HAS REF]R$ TO IT AS 0! GREAT MASCUL9E R5UNCIATION0 79 ,SILV]MAN #a#i#h#e74 ,BY ! EI<TE5? C5TURY1 WEAL?Y M5 HAD L>GELY AB&ON$ ! COLORFUL CO/UMES ( ! ,R5AISSANCE--BRI<T ORNAM5TAL CLO?+1 MAKEUP1 JEWELRY1 ETC4--ALL ( ?IS CAME TO BE REG>D$ AS APPROPRIATE ONLY = WOM54 ,BY >\ND #a#g#e1 ONE ALREADY HAD A =MAL MALE CO/UME MU* ALONG ! L9ES ( :AT W\LD SOON DEVELOP 9TO ! MOD]N BUS9ESS SUIT4 ,AS ,T]5CE ,TURN] HAS PO9T$ \T 7#a#i#hA3#e-#e#f71 ! NEW MALE G>B ACTUALLY DEVELOP$ \T ( 0SPORT+ CLO!S0--?AT IS1 HUNT+ CO/UMES FAVOR$ BY ! RURAL G5TRY--& ! *ANGE 9 ATTIRE WAS P>T & P>CEL ( A BROAD] IDEOLOGICAL %IFT AMONG ! RUL+ CLASSES2 AWAY1 ?AT IS1 FROM ! OLD >I/OCRATIC E?OS ( CONSUMPTION & T[>D AN EMPHASIS ON B\RGEOIS SOBRIETY & ! MORAL VALUE ( PRODUCTIVE WORK4 ,MALE CO/UME N[ IMPLI$ A CAPACITY = ACTION2 S9CE ! SPH]E ( CONSUMPTION CAME TO BE SE5 AS AN ESS5TIALLY FEMALE DOMA91 WOM5'S CO/UME *ANG$ LESS4 

,I MI<T ADD ?AT DIFF]5CES 9 DRESS ALSO CAME TO 5CODE AN IMPLICIT !ORY ( G5D]3 ONE 9 :I*1 AS ,JOHN ,B]G] 7#a#i#g#b3#d#e-#d#f7 HAS APTLY PUT IT1 0A MAN'S PRES5CE IS DEP5D5T ON ! PROMISE ( P[] :I* HE EMBODIES10 ON HIS CAPACITY = ACTION--0A P[] :I* HE EX]CISES ON O!RS4 ,A WOMAN'S PRES5CE10 BY CONTRA/1 0EXPRESSES H] [N ATTITUDE TO H]SELF1 & DEF9ES :AT CAN & CANNOT BE DONE TO H]40 ,B]G]'S 9SI<T1 ,I ?9K1 HAS P>TICUL>LY 9T]E/+ IMPLICATIONS = ANY ANALYSIS ( ! POLITICS ( VISION4 ,=C$1 HE SAYS 7#a#i#g#b3#d#f71 TO LIVE H] LIFE )9 ! T]MS SET BY A MALE P[] ?AT HOLDS ?AT :AT %E IS :AT %E IS SE5 TO BE BY O!RS1 0A WOMAN MU/ CONT9UALLY WAT* H]SELF4 ,%E IS ALMO/ ALWAYS ACCOMPANI$ BY H] [N IMAGE ( H]SELF4 ,:IL/ %E IS WALK+ ACROSS A ROOM OR :IL/ %E IS WEEP+ AT ! DEA? ( H] FA!R1 %E CAN SC>CELY AVOID 5VISION+ H]SELF WALK+ OR WEEP+40 ,A WOMAN 9 ?IS SITUATION CANNOT ACT SIMPLY = ! SAKE ( ACT+1 & H] SELF IS CON/ANTLY D\BL$ 9TO AN IMPLICITLY MALE SURVEYOR & FEMALE SURVEY$4.<#h#d.> 

,IT IS EASY TO SEE H[ DRESS CODES RE9=CE ?IS4 ,=MAL MALE DRESS IS DESIGN$ TO HIDE ! BODY4 ,ITS SOBRIETY SEEMS 9T5D$ TO EFFACE NOT ONLY A MAN'S PHYSICAL =M BUT HIS V]Y 9DIVIDUALITY1 R5D]+ HIM AB/RACT &1 9 A C]TA9 S5SE1 9VISIBLE4 ,CLO?+ = WOM51 ON ! O!R H&1 NOT ONLY REVEALS MORE ( ! BODY 7OR AT LEA/ H9TS AT REVEAL+ IT73 IT TRANS=MS :AT IS REVEAL$ 9TO ONE ( A COLLECTION ( OBJECTS ( ADORNM5T--BODY P>TS BECOM+ EQUIVAL5T1 AS SU*1 TO CLO?+1 MAKEUP1 & JEWELRY--?AT TOGE!R DEF9E ! WE>] AS A SI<T1 & BY EXT5SION1 AS RELATIVELY CONCRETE & MAT]IAL4 

,N[1 AS A CRITIQUE ( G5D] RELATIONS1 ?IS ANALYSIS APPLIES ONLY TO ,WE/]N SOCIETY--& RELATIVELY REC5T ,WE/]N SOCIETY AT ?AT4 ,BUT ! BASIC DIVISION BETWE5 A RELATIVELY 9VISIBLE SELF ACT+ ON ! \TSIDE WORLD & A CONCRETE & VISIBLE ONE RELAT+ PRIM>ILY TO ITSELF IS1 ,I ?9K1 ( MU* WID] SIGNIFICANCE4 ,IT MAY V]Y WELL BE 9TR9SIC TO ! DYNAMICS ( HUMAN ?\<T & ACTION !MSELVES4 

,! SAME DI*OTOMY IS IMPLICIT1 = 9/ANCE1 9 ,PI]RE ,B\RDIEU'S EMPHASIS 7#a#i#g#g7 ON H[ ! GRACE & >TI/RY ( ! TRULY COMPET5T SOCIAL ACTOR IS L>GELY DEP5D5T ON ?AT ACTOR'S NOT BE+ AW>E ( PRECISELY :AT ! PR9CIPLES ?AT 9=M H] ACTIONS >E4 ,!SE PR9CIPLES BECOME CONSCI\S ONLY :5 ACTORS >E JOLT$ \T ( !IR ACCU/OM$ WAYS ( DO+ ?+S BY SUDD5LY HAV+ TO CONFRONT SOME CLE> ALT]NATIVE TO IT--A PROCESS ,B\RDIEU REF]S TO AS 0OBJECTIFICATION40 ,ONE BECOMES SELF-CONSCI\S1 9 O!R WORDS1 :5 ONE DOES NOT KN[ PRECISELY :AT TO DO4 

,A SIMIL> DI/9CTION BETWE5 ACTION & SELF-CONSCI\SNESS IS PLAY$ \T 9 ,JACQUES ,LACAN'S NOTION ( ! 0MIRROR PHASE0 9 *ILDR5'S DEVELOPM5T 7#a#i#g#g74 ,9FANTS1 HE WRITES1 >E UNAW>E ( ! PRECISE B\ND>IES BETWE5 !MSELVES & ! WORLD >\ND !M4 ,LITTLE MORE ?AN DISORGANIZ$ BUNDLES ( DRIVES & MOTIVATIONS1 !Y HAVE NO COH]5T S5SE ( SELF4 ,9 P>T ?IS IS BECAUSE !Y LACK ANY S+LE OBJECT ON :I* TO FIX ONE4 ,H5CE ,LACAN'S 0MIRROR PHASE10 :I* BEG9S :5 ! *ILD FIR/ COMES FACE TO FACE ) SOME EXT]NAL IMAGE ( H] [N SELF1 :I* S]VES AS ! IMAG9>Y TOTALITY >\ND :I* A S5SE ( ?AT SELF CAN BE CON/RUCT$4 ,NOR IS ?IS A ONE-TIME EV5T4 ,! EGO IS1 = ,LACAN1 ALWAYS AN IMAG9>Y CON/RUCT3 9 EV]YDAY LIFE & EV]YDAY EXP]I5CE1 ONE REMA9S A CONFLICT+ MULTIPLICITY ( ?\<TS1 LIBID9AL DRIVES1 & UNCONSCI\S IMPULSES4 ,ACT+ SELF & IMAG9>Y UNITY NEV] CEASE TO /& OPPOS$4 

,BO? !ORI/S 7& ,I C\LD CITE MANY O!RS7 POSE ACTION & REFLECTION AS DIFF]5T ASPECTS OR MOM5TS ( ! SELF1 SO ?AT EXP]I5CE BECOMES A CONT9UAL SW++ BACK & =? BETWE5 !M4 ,NOT ONLY IS ?IS1 ,I ?9K1 A COMPELL+ WAY TO LOOK AT ! /RUCTURE ( HUMAN EXP]I5CE3 !RE IS A GOOD DEAL ( EVID5CE ?AT CROSS-CULTURALLY1 IT IS A V]Y COMMON ONE4 ,IT IS ALSO ONE ?AT ALMO/ ALWAYS F9DS EXPRESSION 9 METAPHORS ( VISION4 ,H]E LET ME TURN FROM CONTEMPOR>Y ,FR5* !ORI/S TO A ?OR\<LY ANTIQUAT$ ,5GLI% ONE & REF] ! READ] TO ,$W>D ,TYLOR'S DISCUSSION ( ! ORIG9S ( ! IDEA ( ! S\L 9 ,PRIMITIVE ,CULTURE 7#a#h#g#d3#d#c-#f#c74 

,TYLOR SURVEYS ! T]M9OLOGY US$ TO DESCRIBE ! S\L 9 DOZ5S ( DIFF]5T LANGUAGES ACROSS ! WORLD4 ,ALMO/ ALL ( !M1 HE F9DS1 FALL 9TO ONE ( TWO GR\PS4 ,ON ! ONE H&1 !RE IS :AT MI<T BE CALL$ ! 0LIFES\L10 OR VITAL PR9CIPLE 9 HUMANS1 (T5 FIGURATIVELY ID5TIFI$ ) ! HE>T OR BREA?4 ,! CONNOTATION IS ( A HIDD5 =CE RESPONSIBLE = ! ANIMATION ( ! BODY1 & USUALLY = SU* AB/RACT P[]S AS ?\<T & 9T5TIONALITY AS WELL4 ,! LIFE-S\L REPRES5TS1 9 %ORT1 A P]SON'S 9N] CAPACITY = ACTION1 !IR 9N] P[]S4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 !RE IS A V]Y DIFF]5T K9D ( 0S\L10 TYPICALLY REF]R$ TO BY SOME WORD :OSE PRIM>Y MEAN+ IS EI!R 0%AD[0 OR 0REFLECTION40 ,9 EI!R CASE1 ! T]M CONJURES UP A P]SON'S PHYSICAL APPE>ANCE1 DETA*$ FROM !IR ACTUAL PHYSICAL BE+4 ,9 ALMO/ ALL ( ,TYLOR'S EXAMPLES1 ?IS 0IMAGE-S\L0 7IF ,I MAY CALL IT ?AT7 IS SAID TO BE ABLE TO W&] FREE ( ! BODY4 ,ALMO/ ALWAYS1 TOO1 IT IS BELIEV$ TO 5DURE AFT] ! BODY'S DEA?--:I* ! 0LIFE-S\L0 MO/ (T5 IS NOT4 

,?\< ,TYLOR CLAIM$ !SE TWO W]E ULTIMATELY ID5TIFI$1 HIS [N EVID5CE MAKES IT CLE> ?AT MO/ CULTURES DO NOT ID5TIFY !M AT ALL4 ,!Y T5D TO SEE !M AS SEP>ATE1 IF COMPLEM5T>Y1 ASPECTS ( ! SELF4 ,! DI/9CTION MAY NOT BE A UNIV]SAL ONE 7C]TA9LY IT ISN'T UNIV]SAL 9 ! RELATIVELY =MAL T]MS ,TYLOR US$72 BUT IT IS SO REM>KABLY COMMON ?AT IT SEEMS REASONABLE TO ASK :Y4 ,:Y %\LD MIRROR IMAGES %\LD BE SO OBVI\S A METAPHOR = ! PUBLIC SELF8 ,:AT IS IT AB\T P[]S ( ACTION ?AT MAKE !M SEEM 9VISIBLE8 

,P]HAPS ! BE/ ANSW] TO ! SECOND QUE/ION COMES FROM ,?OMAS ,HOBBES 7#a#i#f#h3#f#e#i2 CF4 ,PYE #a#i#h#d3#i#c-#i#d71 :O SUGGE/$1 9 DISCUSS+ IDOLATRY1 ?AT :ATEV] IS 9VISIBLE IS 0UNKN[N1 ?AT IS1 ( AN UNLIMIT$ P[]40 ,TOTAL LACK ( SPECIFICITY1 9 O!R WORDS1 IMPLIES AN 9F9ITE POT5TIAL4 ,:AT IS 5TIRELY UNKN[N C\LD BE ANY?+--H5CE1 IT C\LD DO ANY?+ AS WELL4 

,:AT ?IS W\LD IMPLY IS ?AT ! HID+ ( ! BODY & EFFACEM5T ( 9DIVIDUALITY 5C\NT]$1 = 9/ANCE1 9 =MAL MALE CLO?+ IS ITSELF A WAY ( /AT+ ?AT A MAN IS TO BE DEF9$ BY HIS CAPACITY = ACTION--OR1 AS ,B]G] PUTS IT1 0! PROMISE ( P[] HE EMBODIES40 ,IT W\LD ALSO HELP TO EXPLA9 :Y HUMAN CAPACITIES = ACTION 9 G5]AL--:AT ,TYLOR CALL$ ! 0LIFE S\L0--%\LD SO (T5 BE DEF9$ AS SOME?+ IMPOSSIBLE TO SEE4 

,TO BE VISIBLE ON ! O!R H& IS TO BE CONCRETE & 0SPECIFIC0 7A WORD D]IV$ FROM ! ,LAT9 SPEC]E1 :I* MEANS 0TO LOOK AT074 ,IT IS ALSO TO BE ! OBJECT ( ACTION RA!R ?AN ONE :O ACTS ON O!RS3 ,B]G] NOTES ?AT EV5 :5 GAZ+ 9TO A MIRROR1 A WOMAN'S SELF CAN BE SAID TO BE SPLIT BETWE5 ALI51 MALE OBS]V] & PASSIVE1 FEMALE OBS]V$4 ,9 A SIMIL> WAY1 ! P[] EX]CIS$ ?R\< ! DISPLAY ( WEAL? OR ROYAL SPL5DOR IS NOT A P[] ?AT ACTS DIRECTLY ON O!RS4 ,IT IS ALWAYS1 9 ITS ESS5CE1 A P]SUASIVE P[]1 MEANT TO 9SPIRE 9 O!RS ACTS ( COMPLIANCE1 HOMAGE OR RECOGNITION DIRECT$ T[>DS ! P]SON 5GAG+ 9 DISPLAY4.<#h#e.> 

,?IS ANYWAY IS ONE IMPLICATION ( ,B]G]'S ANALYSIS ( 0FEMALE PRES5CE0 7#a#i#g#b3#d#f-#d#h71 ONE ( GREAT SIGNIFICANCE = ! /UDY ( P[] 9 G5]AL3 

,M5 SURVEY WOM5 BE=E TREAT+ !M4 ,CONSEQU5TLY H[ A WOMAN APPE>S TO A MAN CAN DET]M9E H[ %E WILL BE TREAT$4 ,TO ACQUIRE SOME CONTROL OV] ?IS PROCESS1 A WOMAN MU/ CONTA9 IT & 9T]IORIZE IT4 ,?AT P>T ( A WOMAN'S SELF :I* IS ! SURVEYOR TREATS ! P>T :I* IS ! SURVEY$ SO AS TO DEMON/RATE TO O!RS H[ H] :OLE SELF W\LD LIKE TO BE TREAT$4 ,& ?IS EXEMPL>Y TREATM5T ( H]SELF BY H]SELF CON/ITUTES H] PRES5CE4 ,EV]Y WOMAN'S PRES5CE REGULATES :AT IS & IS NOT 0P]MISSIBLE0 )9 H] PRES5CE4 ,EV]Y ONE ( H] ACTIONS--:ATEV] ITS DIRECT PURPOSE OR MOTIVATION-- IS ALSO READ AS AN 9DICATION ( H[ %E W\LD LIKE TO BE TREAT$4 

,:AT ,B]G] DESCRIBES IS CLE>LY A K9D ( P[] BORN ( SUBORD9ATION4 ,P]HAPS IT IS BETT] TREAT$ AS A M]E RESIDUAL ( P[]1 ALL ?AT'S LEFT TO ?OSE :O HAVE NO ACCESS TO ! MORE DIRECT V>IETY4 ,BUT 9 PURELY =MAL T]MS1 !RE IS LITTLE TO DI/+UI% IT FROM ! K9D ( P[] EX]CIS$ ?R\< ! DISPLAY ( >I/OCRATIC WEAL? OR ROYAL SPL5DOR4 ,K+S & NOBLES TOO C\LD BE SAID TO HAVE DECORAT$ !MSELVES ) WEAL? 9 ORD] TO 0DEMON/RATE TO O!RS H[ !IR :OLE SELVES W\LD LIKE TO BE TREAT$40 ,AFT] ALL1 9 ! F9AL ANALYSIS1 A K+'S /ATUS IS BAS$ ON HIS ABILITY TO P]SUADE O!RS TO RECOGNIZE HIM AS SU*--& TO PAY HIM TRIBUTE = ?AT REASON4 ,BY MAK+ A %[ ( MAGNIFIC5CE1 A K+ IS ABLE TO DEF9E HIMSELF 9 SU* A WAY ?AT O!RS >E MOV$ TO TRANSF] SOME ( !IR WEAL? TO HIM4 ,!Y DO SO NOT AS P>T ( ANY IMPLICIT EX*ANGE1 NOT BY VIRTUE ( ANY?+ !Y EXPECT ! K+ TO DO1 BUT SIMPLY BY VIRTUE ( ! SORT ( P]SON !Y BELIEVE HIM TO BE4.<#h#f.> ,BY COV]+ !MSELVES ) GOLD1 !N1 K+S P]SUADE O!RS TO COV] !M ) GOLD AS WELL4 

,MAX ,WEB] 7#a#i#g#h3#d#i-#i#a7 ONCE OBS]V$ ?AT FEUDAL >I/OCRATS T5D$ TO JU/IFY !IR /ATUS ?R\< !IR WAY ( BE+1 !IR MODE ( LIFE 9 ! PRES5T1 :ILE ! L[] ORD]S--9CLUD+ ! M]CANTILE CLASSES--T5D$ TO DEF9E !MSELVES BY :AT !Y DID1 CREAT$1 OR ASPIR$ TO4 ,H]E1 TOO1 ! DI*OTOMY LIVES ON1 N[ L>GELY DISPLAC$ ONTO IDEAS AB\T G5D]4 ,JU/ AS M5 ( HI< /ATUS T5D TO BE DEF9$ 9 B\RGEOIS T]MS1 AS ACTIVE PRODUC]S1 ELITE WOM5 HAVE 9H]IT$ ! OLD >I/OCRATIC ROLE ( PASSIVE CONSUM]S4 ,AS ! POET HAS IT1 0,MAN ,DOES1 ,WOMAN ,IS0 7,GRAVES #a#i#f#d74 

,WEB]'S WAY ( FRAM+ ! ISSUE IS P>TICUL>LY USEFUL 9 BR++ \T ITS RELATION%IP TO TIME4 ,9 A S5SE1 ! DI/9CTION BETWE5 MY 0ACTION0 & 0REFLECTION0 IS REALLY ONLY ONE BETWE5 ACTIONS TO BE C>RI$ \T 9 ! FUTURE & ONES ALREADY C>RI$ \T 9 ! PA/4 0,! PROMISE ( P[]0 A MAN EMBODIES IS HIS POT5TIAL = ACT+ 9 ! FUTURE2 AT ! SAME TIME1 A 0WOMAN'S EXEMPL>Y TREATM5T ( H]SELF 0 CONSI/S ( ACTIONS %E HAS ALREADY UND]TAK51 OR AT LEA/ ONES %E IS /ILL 9 ! PROCESS ( C>RY+ \T4 ,! P]SON C\LD BE SAID TO VANI% 9 ITS ORI5TATION TO ACTION BECAUSE ACTION EXPRESSES A COMPLETION ?AT ONLY CAN EXI/ 9 ! FUTURE4 ,AT ! SAME TIME1 ONE'S VISIBLE P]SONA1 ONE'S 0BE+10 IS SIMPLY ! CUMULATIVE EFFECTS ( ACTIONS ?AT HAVE BE5 DIRECT$ T[>DS ONE 9 ! PA/--( ALL ?OSE ACTIONS ?AT HAVE MADE ONE :AT ONE IS4 ,BE+--IF IT IS SOCIALLY SIGNIFICANT--IS CONGEAL$ ACTION1 & JU/ AS EV]Y CATEGORY IS ! O!R SIDE ( A SET ( PRACTICES 7,TURN] & ,FAJANS #a#i#h#h71 EV]Y UNIQUE BE+ IS ! RESULT ( AN EQUALLY S+UL> HI/ORY4 ,BY 5GAG+ 9 P]SUASIVE DISPLAY1 !N1 ALL ONE IS REALLY DO+ IS CALL+ ON O!RS TO IMITATE ACTIONS ?AT >E IMPLICITLY BE+ SAID TO HAVE ALREADY BE5 C>RI$ \T 9 ! PA/4 

MONEY V]SUS CO9 

  

,SO F>1 ,I'VE BE5 >GU+ ?AT ,MAUSS' GIFTS >E CAU<T UP 9 ! SPECIFIC SOCIAL ID5TITY ( !IR GIV]S & RECEIV]S 7!IR EXT]IOR 0IMAGE10 ONE MI<T SAY72 MONEY1 ID5TIFI$ ) A P]SON'S G5]IC & 9VISIBLE 9N] P[]S4 ,I AM NOT ! FIR/ P]SON TO HAVE MADE ?IS PO9T4 ,9 FACT1 SOME?+ V]Y SIMIL> CAN BE F\ND 9 ! OP5+ *APT]S ( ,M>X'S ,CAPITAL1 9 :I* HE TALKS AB\T ! DYNAMICS ( COMMODITY EX*ANGE4 

,9 ,M>X'S CONCEPTION ( ! CAPITALI/ M>KETPLACE1 MONEY & COMMODITIES >E CONT9UALLY BE+ R$EF9$ 9 ! P]CEPTIONS ( !IR BUY]S & SELL]S1 %IFT+ BACK & =? BETWE5 :AT HE CALLS AB/RACT 0CONT5T0 & CONCRETE 0=M40 ,! DIALECTICAL T]M9OLOGY MAY SEEM A BIT OBSCURE TO MOD]N READ]S1 BUT ! MEAN+ ( !SE T]MS IS NOT REALLY ALL ?AT DIFF]5T FROM MY [N 0ACTION0 & 0REFLECTION40 

,LET ME BEG9 ) ONE ( ,M>X'S [N EXAMPLES 7#a#i#f#g3#a#h-#f#b74 ,SAY ONE MAN HAS TW5TY Y>DS ( L952 ANO!R HAS A COAT4 ,! TWO AGREE TO EX*ANGE ONE = ! O!R4 ,BY DO+ SO1 !Y >E AGREE+ ?AT ! VALUE ( ! TWO OBJECTS IS EQUIVAL5T4 ,H[EV]1 EA* HAS A V]Y DIFF]5T WAY ( P]CEIV+ ?AT EQUIVAL5CE4 ,! FIR/ AIMS TO ACQUIRE ! COAT2 OBVI\SLY1 !N1 IT IS ! P>TICUL>1 MAT]IAL QUALITIES ( ! COAT ?AT >E IMPORTANT TO HIM4 ,?IS IS NOT AT ALL TRUE ( HIS ATTITUDE T[>D ! L954 ,! L95 IS JU/ A MEANS TO HIS 5D3 ANY?+ ELSE W\LD HAVE DONE JU/ AS WELL1 PROVID$ ITS VALUE WAS CONSID]$ EQUIVAL5T TO ?AT ( ! COAT4 ,AS ,M>X PUTS IT1 FROM HIS PO9T ( VIEW ! L95 IS A M]E AB/RACTION2 ! COAT A CONCRETE1 SPECIFIC 0=M40 ,( C\RSE1 FROM ! O!R MAN'S PO9T ( VIEW1 EXACTLY ! OPPOSITE IS TRUE4 

,M>X HELD ?IS IS TRUE ( ALL TRANSACTIONS1 9CLUD+ ?OSE 9VOLV+ MONEY4 ,EV]Y?+ DEP5DS ON ! PO9T ( VIEW--& ! 9T5TIONS--( ! ACTORS4 ,IF ,I SELL A COMMODITY1 MY OBJECT IS TO ACQUIRE MONEY--!RE=E1 IT IS MONEY ?AT SEEMS A CONCRETE 0=M0 TO ME2 ! GOODS ,I HAVE TO SELL SEEM A =MLESS AB/RACTION4 ,FROM ! PO9T ( VIEW ( ! PUR*AS]1 ( C\RSE1 IT IS ! O!R WAY >\ND4 

,9 O!R WORDS1 IT IS ALWAYS ! OBJECT ( ACTION--! OBJECT ( DESIRE-- ?AT IS CONCRETE & P>TICUL> 9 ! EYES ( ! P]SON :O IS ACT+ OR DESIR+4 ,! MEANS HAVE NO P>TICUL> FEATURES ( !IR [N4 ,9/EAD1 !Y T5D TO BE ID5TIFI$ ) ! US]'S [N P[]S ( ACTION4 

,9 HIS DISCUSSION ( HO>D+ 9 ,A ,CONTRIBUTION TO ! ,CRITIQUE ( ,POLITICAL ,ECONOMY 7#a#i#g3#a#b#e-#c#g7 & ! ,GRUNDRISSE 7#a#i#g#a3#b#b#h-#c#d71 ,M>X PHRASES ! DI/9CTION BETWE5 MONEY 9 ITS AB/RACT & CONCRETE ASPECTS AS A DI/9CTION BETWE5 0MONEY0 & 0CO940 0,CO910 HE SAYS1 IS ! PHYSICAL OBJECT (F]$ 9 EX*ANGE4 ,IT ONLY BECOMES 0MONEY0 9 ! /RICT S5SE ( ! T]M :5 IT IS TEMPOR>ILY )DRAWN FROM CIRCULATION--?AT IS1 :5 IT IS NOT ! IMM$IATE OBJECT ( ANYONE'S ACTION BUT 9/EAD REPRES5TS A K9D ( UNIV]SAL POT5TIAL = ACTION4 ,BY HOLD+ ON TO ! /UFF1 ! HO>D] PRES]VES HIS P[]1 :I* IS ! P[] TO BUY ANY?+ AT ALL4 ,= ! HO>D]1 MONEY BECOMES A K9D ( ASCETIC RELIGION--,M>X LIK5S IT TO ,PURITANISM--9 :I* ! [N] T5DS TO DEVELOP AN 9T5SELY P]SONAL1 EV5 SECRETIVE RELATION%IP ) ! S\RCE ( HIS P[]S4 ,! IMPULSE1 ONCE ONE HAS ACCUMULAT$ A SUB/ANTIAL HO>D1 IS ALWAYS TO HIDE IT 9 ! GR\ND :]E NO ONE ELSE CAN SEE IT3  
  

,AN \TW>D EXPRESSION ( ! DESIRE TO )DRAW MONEY FROM ! /REAM ( CIRCULATION & TO SAVE IT FROM ! SOCIAL METABOLISM IS ! BURY+ ( IT1 SO ?AT SOCIAL WEAL? IS TURN$ 9TO AN IMP]I%ABLE SUBT]RANEAN HO>D ) AN 5TIRELY FURTIVE PRIVATE RELATION%IP TO ! COMMODITY-[N]4 ,DOCTOR ,B]NI]1 :O SP5T SOME TIME AT ,AURANGZEB'S C\RT AT ,DELHI1 RELATES ?AT M]*ANTS1 ESPECIALLY ! NON-,MUSLIM HEA!NS1 9 :OSE H&S NE>LY ! 5TIRE COMM]CE & ALL MONEY >E CONC5TRAT$--SECRETLY BURY !IR MONEY DEEP 9 ! GR\ND1 0BE+ HELD 9 ?RALL TO ! BELIEF ?AT ! MONEY !Y HIDE DUR+ !IR LIFETIME WILL S]VE !M 9 ! NEXT WORLD AFT] !IR DEA?40 7,M>X #a#i#g3#a#c2 ORIG9AL EMPHASIS7  
  

,AS HIS EXAMPLE IMPLIES1 ,M>X DID NOT SEE SU* BEHAVIOR AS D]IV+ FROM CAPITALISM P] SE BUT FROM ! NATURE ( MONEY ITSELF1 FROM ITS AB/RACT & ALMO/ MY/ICAL P[]S4 ,9 A SIMIL> VE91 ,5GELS 79 ,%ELL #a#i#g#h3#d#a7 SUGGE/$ ?AT CO9$ MONEY1 :5 FIR/ 9TRODUC$ 9TO ! ,GREEK WORLD 9 ! SEV5? C5TURY ,B,C1 WAS NOT SE5 AS AN ECONOMIC 9/RUM5T SO MU* AS A MAGICAL *>M3 AS HE PUTS IT1 0A TALISMAN ?AT C\LD AT WILL TRANS=M ITSELF 9TO ANY DESIRABLE OR DESIR$ OBJECT40 

,5GELS WAS NO D\BT GETT+ A BIT C>RI$ AWAY ) HIMSELF4 ,BUT AS ,M>C ,%ELL 7#a#i#g#h3#f#b7 PO9TS \T 9 A BRILLIANT ESSAY CALL$ 0,! ,R+ ( ,GYGES10 ! /ORIES TOLD 9 ANCI5T ,GREECE AB\T ! MAN :O FIR/ CO9$ MONEY DID FOCUS ON A MAGICAL *>M ( SORTS4 ,!Y W]E AB\T A R+ ?AT C\LD MAKE ITS WE>] 9VISIBLE 7#a#i#g#h3#f#b74 

,GYGES1 A SIX?-C5TURY RUL] ( ,LYDIA1 WAS WIDELY CR$IT$ 9 ANTIQUITY-- AS HE IS TODAY--) HAV+ BE5 ! FIR/ K+ TO CO9 MONEY4 ,ACCORD+ TO ,H]ODOTUS1 ,GYGES WAS NOT A LEGITIMATE K+ AT ALL BUT A USURP]4 ,ORIG9ALLY A M]E C\RTI] & FRI5D ( ,K+ ,C&AULES1 HIS RISE TO P[] BEGAN :5 HIS FRI5D1 GIV5 TO MU* LAVI% PRAISE ( HIS WIFE'S BEAUTIFUL BODY1 F9ALLY CONV9C$ HIM TO CONCEAL HIMSELF 9 ! QUE5'S *AMB]S 9 ORD] TO PROVE ?AT HE WAS NOT EXAGG]AT+4 ,! QUE51 HAV+ DISCOV]$ :AT HAPP5$1 & \TRAG$ AT ?IS ASSAULT ON H] MODE/Y1 DEM&$ ?AT ,GYGES EI!R KILL ! K+ & TAKE HIS PLACE1 OR =FEIT HIS [N LIFE4 ,GYGES !RE=E CONCEAL$ HIMSELF ONCE AGA9 9 ! SAME SPOT1 WAIT$ = ! K+ TO PAY HIS NI<TLY VISIT TO HIS WIFE1 & DID AWAY ) HIM4 

,9 ,H]ODOTUS1 ! /ORY IS1 AS ,%ELL EMPHASIZES1 9T5D$ TO P>ALLEL ANO!R /ORY ( USURPATION1 ! /ORY ( ,DEIOCES ! ,M$E4 ,?IS IS ALSO ,H]ODOTUS' MY? ( ! ORIG9S ( TYRANNY4 

,DEIOCES WAS A ,M$IAN NOBLEMAN :O DEVELOP$ A REPUTATION AS A JUDGE-- SO GREAT WAS HIS REPUTATION1 9 FACT1 ?AT :5 HE TRI$ TO /EP D[N FROM HIS (FICE1 ! PEOPLE (F]$ HIM ! K+%IP 9 ORD] TO RETA9 HIM4 ,AS SOON AS HE HAD ! P[]1 ,DEOICES HID HIMSELF BEH9D A GOLD5 WALL 9 HIS CAPITAL & E/ABLI%$ A RULE ?AT NO ONE %\LD BE ALL[$ TO SEE HIM2 AT ! SAME TIME1 HE FILL$ HIS K+DOM FULL ( SPIES4 

,! TWO /ORIES P>ALLEL EA* O!R 9 A NUMB] ( WAYS4 ,GYGES WAS ! F\ND] ( ! RUL+ DYNA/Y ( ,LYDIA1 ,DEIOCES ?AT ( ,M$IA2 ! MEET+ ( !IR TWO DESC5DANTS1 ,CROESUS & ,CYRUS1 :5 ,LYDIA WAS CONQU]$ BY ! ,P]SIAN EMPIRE1 WAS ! CULM9ATION ( ! FIR/ HALF ( ,H]ODOTUS' HI/ORY4 ,9 C]TA9 WAYS ! TWO >E ALSO 9V]SIONS ( ONE ANO!R4 ,GYGES US$ HIS 9VISIBILITY TO GA9 P[]1 BUT IT WAS A P[] ?AT HE APP>5TLY WIELD$ 9 ! TRADITIONAL1 PUBLIC FA%ION4 ,DEIOCES ON ! O!R H& MANAG$ TO CONV]T HIS FAME1 HIS PUBLIC VISIBILITY1 9TO P[]--BUT 9 DO+ SO HE TRANS=M$ ! T]MS 9 :I* ?AT P[] WAS EX]CIS$1 MAK+ IT 9VISIBLE & PRIVATE4 ,GYGES BECAME A K+1 EV5 IF HE DID SO ?R\< ILLEGITIMATE MEANS2 ,DEIOCES BECAME A TYRANT4 

,TAK5 ?IS WAY ! TWO /ORIES MOVE 9 OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS1 & IT SEEMS TO ME ?AT IT MAKES A GREAT DEAL ( S5SE ?AT !Y %\LD4 ,GYGES AFT] ALL WAS NOT CONSID]$ ! 9V5TOR ( MONEY2 HE WAS CONSID]$ ! 9V5TOR ( CO9AGE-- & !SE >E NOT AT ALL ! SAME ?+4 

,%ELL GOES ON TO PRES5T A GREAT DEAL ( EVID5CE ?AT ,GREEKS ( ,H]ODOTUS' TIME DID T5D TO TALK AB\T MONEY AS HAV+ A C]TA9 K9D ( 9VISIBLE P[]1 ONE POLITICALLY DANG]\S = ! V]Y REASON ( ITS 9VISIBILITY4 ,PLATO FIR/ 9TRODUCES ! /ORY ( ,GYGES :5 ONE ( ! P>TICIPANTS 9 HIS DIALOGUE CLAIMS ?AT WEAL? IS A GOOD ?+ BECAUSE IT CAN MAKE ! [N] 9VISIBLE TO ! AV5G+ EYES ( ,HADES :5 HE DIES 7A CURI\S E*O ( ! ,H9DU M]*ANTS CIT$ BY ,M>X72 ,HADES ITSELF MEANS 0UNSE510 & ,PLATO ELSE:]E CLAIMS ?AT ,PLUTUS1 ! GOD ( ,HADES1 IS SO NAM$ BECAUSE ! WORD = 0WEAL?0 IS PL\TOS1 & BECAUSE GOLD & SILV] 0COME UP FROM BEL[ \T ( ! E>?0 7,%ELL #a#i#g#h3#b#aN#b#e74 ,S9CE IT REPRES5T$ PRIVATE 9T]E/S RA!R ?AN ?OSE ( ! /ATE1 MONEY WAS SE5 TO HAVE MU* 9 COMMON ) TYRANNY--DEF9$ AS ! EX]CISE ( /ATE P[] 9 ! PRIVATE 9T]E/4 

,PUBLIC & PRIVATE1 VISIBLE & 9VISIBLE3 !SE W]E NO M]E CASUAL METAPHORS4 ,! DI/9CTION BETWE5 PUBLIC & PRIVATE WAS C5TRAL TO ! WAY ! ,GREEK POLIS DEF9$ ITSELF4 ,JEAN-,PI]RE ,V]NANT 7#a#i#h#c7 HAS DESCRIB$ ! EM]G5CE ( ! POLIS1 OV] ! SIX? & SEV5? C5TURIES ,B,C1 AS A PROCESS ( DISCLOSURE & UNVEIL+1 EV5 DESACRALIZATION1 9 :I* EV]Y P[] ?AT HAD ONCE BE5 SECRET OR CONF9$ TO ! 9T]IORS ( >I/OCRATIC FAMILIES WAS BR\<T 9TO ! PUBLIC DOMA9 ( ! AGORA :]E IT WAS VISIBLE TO ALL4 ,DEBATES BEGAN TO BE C>RI$ \T 9 PUBLIC1 LAWS PUBLI%$4 0,! OLD SACRA1 BADGES ( 9VE/ITURE1 RELIGI\S SYMBOLS1 EMBLEMS1 WOOD5 IMAGES1 JEAL\SLY PRES]V$ AS TALISMANS ( P[] 9 ! PRIVACY ( PALACES OR ! CRANNIES ( PRIE/LY H\SES0 W]E GRADUALLY 0MOV$ TO ! TEMPLE1 AN OP5 & PUBLIC PLACE0 7#a#i#h#c3#e#d74 

,! FURTIVE P[] ( MONEY WAS NO EXCEPTION3 PRIVATE HO>D+ WAS DISC\RAG$ BY ! /ATE4 ,TO ! EXT5T ?AT MONEY REMA9$ HIDD51 IT WAS SE5 AS SOME?+ DANG]\S1 SUBT]RANEAN1 A ?REAT TO ! COHESIV5ESS ( ! POLITICAL COMMUNITY4 ,! /ATE ( C\RSE KEPT ITS [N HO>D1 ITS PUBLIC TREASURY1 BUT IT MADE A PO9T ( KEEP+ IT 9 A =M ?AT WAS VISIBLE TO ALL3 ! ,A!NIAN GOLD RES]VES1 = 9/ANCE1 W]E US$ TO PLATE ! MONUM5TAL /ATUE ( ,A!NA 9 ! ,P>!NON4 ,:AT IT DID RELEASE = PRIVATE USE1 ! /ATE RELEAS$ /AMP$ ) ITS [N IMPRESSION4 

,H5CE ,I RETURN ONCE AGA9 TO ! DI/9CTION BETWE5 MONEY & CO94 ,I %\LD EMPHASIZE ?AT ,GYGES WAS NOT CR$IT$ ) ! 9V5TION ( MONEY4 ,HE WAS CR$IT$ ) ! 9V5TION ( CO9AGE4 ,!Y >E H>DLY ! SAME ?+4 ,IF ONE SIMPLY DEF9ES MONEY AS ECONOMI/S DO--AS A MEASURE & M$IUM ( EX*ANGE--!N ONE CAN C]TA9LY SAY ?AT GOLD & SILV] HAD ALREADY EXI/$ 9 ! ,MIDDLE ,EA/ = SEV]AL ?\S& YE>S4 ,IT HAS BE5 US$ 9 ,LYDIA & ,GREECE AS WELL4 ,IT IS JU/ ?AT BE=E ,GYGES1 ?IS MONEY WAS NOT /AMP$ \T 9 UNI=M D5OM9ATIONS BY ! /ATE4 ,PEOPLE C>RI$ IT >\ND 9 NUGGETS1 LUMPS1 & BITS1 & M]*ANTS KEPT SCALES ) :I* TO WEI< ! /UFF \T AT EA* TRANSACTION4 ,IT MI<T SEEM AN UNWIELDY WAY TO GO AB\T BUY+ & SELL+1 BUT ANY SY/EM MA9TA9$ UN*ANG$ = ?\S&S ( YE>S MU/ HAVE WORK$ WELL 5\< FROM ! PO9T ( VIEW ( ! PEOPLE US+ IT4 ,:Y1 !N1 DID GOV]NM5TS 9 ,LYDIA &1 SOON AFT]1 ,GREECE BEG9 TO *ANGE ?+S8 

,:AT EVID5CE !RE IS SUGGE/S ! 9V5TION ( CO9AGE DID LITTLE TO MAKE TRADE EASI]4 ,ANCI5T ,GREECE WAS DIVID$ 9TO HUNDR$S ( T9Y CITY/ATES2 EV]Y ONE BEGAN ISSU+ !IR [N CO9AGE1 EA* ) ITS [N SY/EM ( D5OM9ATIONS2 !SE D5OM9ATIONS MI<T BE BAS$ ON ANY ( A V>IETY ( 5TIRELY DIFF]5T SY/EMS ( WEI<TS & MEASURES4 ,S9CE ! CO9S CIRCULAT$ WIDELY1 ! AV]AGE M>KETGO] WAS LIKELY TO >RIVE ) A P\* FULL ( COMPLETELY HET]OG5E\S CURR5CIES1 :I*1 = ALL 9T5TS & PURPOSES1 MI<T AS WELL HAVE A R&OM ASSORTM5T ( LUMPS ( GOLD & SILV]4 ,= MO/ IMPORTANT TRANSACTIONS1 ,GREEK M]*ANTS W]E /ILL OBLIG$ TO WEI< CO9S \T ON SCALES4 ,AS ,MOSES ,F9LEY 7#a#i#g#d3#a#f#f-#f#i2 ,VIDAL-,NAQUET & ,AU/9 #a#i#g#h7 NOTES1 CO9AGE WAS NOT CREAT$ TO IMPROVE ECONOMIC EFFICI5CY4 ,IT WAS NOT SO MU* AN ECONOMIC MEASURE AS A POLITICAL ONE4 ,TO BE ABLE TO ISSUE ONE'S [N CURR5CY WAS A M>K ( POLITICAL 9DEP5D5CE3 EV]Y CITY/ATE1 H[EV] SMALL1 FELT OBLIG$ TO DO SO4 ,BUT ,I DON'T ?9K ?IS IS A FULL EXPLANATION3 ONE C\LD /ILL ASK :Y ! ISSU+ ( CO9AGE BECAME A M>K ( 9DEP5D5CE TO BEG9 )4 

,:AT ,I AM SUGGE/+ IS ?AT IF ! POLIS FELT ! NE$ TO /AMP MONEY ) ITS [N IMAGE1 IT DID SO BECAUSE IT SAW MONEY AS A DANG]\S1 FURTIVE P[] ?AT HAD TO BE TAM$ & DOME/ICAT$ BY R5D]+ IT VISIBLE4 ,! EMBLEM ( PUBLIC AU?ORITY WAS TO BE IMPRESS$ ON IT ?R\< VIOL5CE1 LIT]ALLY HAMM]$ 94 ,! RESULT+ CO9S W]E (T5 ?+S ( GREAT BEAUTY4 ,SOME W]E R5[N$ AS WORKS ( >T EV5 9 !IR [N DAY4 ,BUT 9 ! 5D1 ! V]Y FACT ?AT ! /ATE WAS WILL+ TO SEEK \T ! F9E/ >TI/S ( ! DAY TO CA/ ITS DIES C\LD BE CONSID]$ EVID5CE ( H[ DESP]ATE IT HAD BECOME TO SUB/ITUTE SOME O!R DEF9ITION ( VALUE = ONE ?AT HAD A CONT9UAL CAPACITY TO ELUDE IT4 ,IT WAS AN ATTEMPT TO TRANS=M MONEY 9TO AN OBJECT ( ADORNM5T1 SOME?+ VISIBLE 9 ! MO/ EXEMPL>Y ( FA%IONS4.<#h#g.> 

,! LEG5D ( ,GYGES CONTA9S NO EXPLICIT REF]5CE TO ! 9V5TION ( CO9AGE4 ,/ILL1 ONE MI<T SAY ?AT IT IS ITSELF A MODEL = ! PROCESS3 ! TRANS=MATION ( PRIVATE & 9VISIBLE P[]S 9TO LEGITIMATE1 POLITICAL ONES-- ONES MADE LIMIT$ & P>TICUL> BY ! PUBLIC GAZE4 

V>I\S K9DS ( FETI%ISM 

  

,E>LI] ,I MADE A DI/9CTION BETWE5 TWO SORTS ( SOCIAL P[]3 ! P[] TO ACT DIRECTLY ON O!RS1 & ! P[] TO DEF9E ONESELF 9 SU* A WAY AS TO CONV9CE O!RS H[ !Y %\LD ACT T[>D Y\4 ,ONE T5DS TO BE ATTRIBUT$ TO ! HIDD5 CAPACITIES ( ! ACTOR1 ! O!R TO VISIBLE =MS ( DISPLAY4 ,BY N[1 IT %\LD BE EASY TO SEE H[ ?IS SAME ANALYSIS CAN ALSO BE APPLI$ TO VALUE4 ,IF MONEY T5DS TO BECOME AN EXT5SION ( ITS HOLD]'S CAPACITIES TO ACT ON ! WORLD 7?US 9SPIR+1 ACCORD+ TO ,M>X1 ! IMPULSE TO HIDE IT71 OBJECTS :OSE VALUE IS SE5 TO LIE 9 !IR P>TICUL> HI/ORIES OR ID5TITIES HAVE AN EQUALLY /RONG T5D5CY TO BE ASSIMILAT$ TO ! SOCIAL ID5TITY OR P]SONA ( !IR [N]S1 ?US G5]AT+ ! IMPULSE TO %[ !M (F4 

,IT IS IMPORTANT TO EMPHASIZE ?AT !SE T]MS >E NEV] FIX$4 ,FEW OBJECTS >E SIMPLY ONE ?+ OR ANO!R4 ,9 A M>KET SY/EM1 AS ,M>X REM9DS US1 MONEY & COMMODITIES >E ALWAYS TWO ?+S AT ONCE1 S9CE BUY] & SELL] CONCEIVE !M FROM OPPOSITE PO9TS ( VIEW4 ,& 9 ANY SY/EM ( VALUE !RE >E1 AT ! V]Y LEA/1 CON/ANT DIV]SIONS & SLIPPAGES BACK & =?1 CONT9UAL /RUGGLES OV] DEF9ITION4 ,(T5--AS 9 ! CASE ( ! ,GREEK POLIS--!SE /RUGGLES >E QUITE OP5LY POLITICAL ONES4 ,& 9S(> AS !Y 9VOLVE ATTEMPTS TO RECONCILE SU* CONTRA/+ VALUES AS >TI/IC BEAUTY1 WEAL?1 & CIVIC AU?ORITY1 ONE MI<T SAY ?AT 9 ESS5CE1 !Y >E ALWAYS POLITICAL4 

,! CON/ANT TRANS=MATION ( ! VISIBLE 9TO ! 9VISIBLE & BACK AGA9 MI<T PROVIDE AN ANSW] TO ! QUE/ION ) :I* ,I BEGAN ?IS *APT]3 ,:Y BEADS8 ,:Y1 9 SO MANY SOCIETIES1 %\LD MONEY CONSI/ ( OBJECTS ( ADORNM5T8 

,RECALL ?AT AT ! TIME1 ,I CONTRA/$ MONEY TO ! SORT ( OBJECTS ( ADORNM5T ?AT PLAY$ SO C5TRAL A ROLE 9 ,MAUSS' WRIT+S ON ! GIFT--AS 9 AN?ROPOLOGICAL EX*ANGE !ORY 9 G5]AL4 ,!SE1 ,I SAID1 W]E UNIQUE TREASURES1 & AS SU* 5TIRELY DIFF]5T FROM MONEY4 ,BUT ,MAUSS HIMSELF REM>KS ?AT ! R>E/ & MO/ VALUABLE ( !M--,MAORI AXES & CLOAKS1 ,KWAKIUTL COPP]S1 & KULA >M%ELLS & NECKLACES--W]E ALL SE5 AS HAV+ A P]SONALITY1 WILL1 & 9TELLIG5CE ( !IR [N4 ,IT IS ALMO/ AS IF ! V]Y FACT ( AN OBJECT'S HAV+ AN 9DIVIDUAL ID5TITY--A UNIQUE =M1 A NAME1 A HI/ORY--IMPLI$ ! PRES5CE SOME SORT ( HIDD5 LIFE-=CE OR AG5CY BEH9D IT1 JU/ AS1 9 ,TYLOR1 ! 9N] LIFE-S\L ALWAYS LIES HIDD5 BEH9D A P]SON'S UNIQUE EXT]IOR 0IMAGE40.<#h#h.> 

,BUT :Y %\LD HEIRLOOMS T5D TO HAVE A CAPACITY = ACTION ATTRIBUT$ TO !M8 ,9 P>T1 IT IS PROBABLY AN EFFECT ( !IR VALUE4 ,VALUE1 AFT] ALL1 IS SOME?+ ?AT MOBILIZES ! DESIRES ( ?OSE :O RECOGNIZE IT1 & MOVES !M TO ACTION4 ,JU/ AS ROYAL SPL5DOR CALLS ON ITS AUDI5CE TO DO AS O!RS HAVE DONE1 SO DOES ! P]CEPTION ( VALUE 9 OBJECTS ( EX*ANGE4 0,O!RS HAVE S\<T TO ACQUIRE !SE ?+S10 IS ! IMPLICIT MESSAGE1 0& !RE=E SO %\LD Y\40 

,9 A BROAD] S5SE1 ! VALUE ( HEIRLOOMS IS ALWAYS1 AS ,I HAVE SAID1 AN HI/ORICAL VALUE1 D]IV$ FROM ACTS ( PRODUCTION1 USE1 OR APPROPRIATION ?AT HAVE 9VOLV$ ! OBJECT 9 ! PA/4 ,! VALUE ( AN HEIRLOOM IS REALLY ?AT ( ACTIONS3 ACTIONS :OSE SIGNIFICANCE HAS BE51 AS IT W]E1 ABSORB$ 9TO ! OBJECT'S CURR5T ID5TITY--:E!R ! EMPHASIS IS PLAC$ ON ! 9SPIR$ LABORS ( ! >TI/ :O CREAT$ IT1 ! L5G?S TO :I* SOME PEOPLE HAVE BE5 KN[N TO GO TO ACQUIRE IT1 OR ! FACT ?AT IT WAS ONCE US$ TO CUT (F A MY?ICAL GIANT'S HEAD4 ,S9CE ! VALUE ( ! ACTIONS HAS ALREADY BE5 FIX$ 9 ! PHYSICAL BE+ ( ! OBJECT1 IT IS P]HAPS A %ORT LEAP TO BEG9 ATTRIBUT+ ! AG5CY BEH9D SU* ACTIONS TO ! OBJECT AS WELL1 & SPEAK1 AS ,MAUSS DOES1 ( VALUABLES ?AT TRANSF] !MSELVES FROM [N] TO [N] OR ACTIVELY 9FLU5CE !IR [N]S' FATES4 

,! OBVI\S COMP>ISON H]E IS ) ,M>X'S ANALYSIS ( COMMODITY FETI%ISM & ( MONEY4 ,ACCORD+ TO ,M>X1 ! ONLY ?+ REALLY LY+ BEH9D ! SPECIFIC1 MAT]IAL =M ( ! OBJECT ONE DESIRES TO BUY IS ! HUMAN 5]GY ?AT W5T 9TO PRODUC+ IT2 EV5 SO1 ! DESIR] T5DS TO SEE ?OSE P[]S AS 9TR9SIC TO ! OBJECT ITSELF4 ,!Y SEEM TO GIVE IT A WILL & P[] ( ITS [N4 ,IF NO?+ ELSE1 COMMODITIES C]TA9LY EX]T A P[] OV] ANYONE :O DESIRES !M4 ,M>X'S COMMODITIES DIFF] FROM HEIRLOOMS L>GELY BECAUSE 9 !IR CASE1 ! ILLUSION ( AG5CY EM]GES FROM ! FACT ?AT !IR TRUE HI/ORY HAS BE5 =GOTT52 9 ! CASE ( HEIRLOOMS1 ! VALUE ?AT MAKES ! ILLUSION ( AG5CY POSSIBLE D]IVES FROM ?AT V]Y HI/ORY1 REAL OR IMAG9$4 ,9 EI!R CASE1 5]GIES ?AT W5T 9TO CREAT+ ! P>TICUL> =M ( ! OBJECT & MADE IT DESIRABLE >E DISPLAC$2 !Y COME TO SEEM A <O/LY AG5CY ?AT GUIDES ITS PRES5T MOVEM5TS4 ,! OBJECT ( DESIRE BECOMES AN ILLUSORY MIRROR ( ! DESIR]'S [N MANIPULAT$ 9T5TIONS4 

,ALL ?IS1 9 TURN1 W\LD MAKE ! V>I\S MIRROR METAPHORS ?AT HAVE CROPP$ UP OV] ! C\RSE ( ?IS *APT].<#h#i.> MU* EASI] TO UND]/&4 ,A P]SON LOOK+ 9TO A MIRROR IS SPLIT 9TO ACTIVE & PASSIVE1 OBS]V] & OBS]V$4 ,! V]Y P]CEPTION ( ONE'S [N IMAGE IMPLIES ! EXI/5CE ( AN UNSE5 AG5T :O IS SEE+ IT4 ,WALT] ,ONG 7#a#i#g#g3#a#b#a-#d#d7 HAS EV5 SUGGE/$ ?AT IT IS 9 ! NATURE ( VISION ALWAYS TO SUGGE/ A BEYOND1 SOME?+ UNSE54 ,EYES TAKE 9 ONLY ! SURFACES ( ?+S4 ,TO TELL IF A CO9 IS GOLD OR M]ELY GILD$1 Y\ DON'T />E AT IT3 Y\ BITE IT1 WEI< IT ON Y\R PALM1 OR RAP IT TO HE> ! S\ND4 ,LOOK+ AT A ?+1 ACCORD+ TO ,ONG1 IS ALWAYS LOOK+ AT A M]E FRACTION ( A ?+1 & ! VIEW] IS ALWAYS AT LEA/ VAGUELY AW>E ?AT !RE IS SOME?+ FUR!R UND]NEA?4 

,AT ANY RATE1 ! CONT9UITIES BETWE5 ACTION & REFLECTION1 ! CON/ANT MOVEM5TS BETWE5 VISIBLE & 9VISIBLE =MS ( VALUE1 ! FACT ?AT VALU$ OBJECTS >E SO (T5 SE5 AS EMBODY+ A HIDD5 P[] ALL MAKE IT EASI] TO SEE H[ MONEY MI<T EM]GE FROM OBJECTS ( ADORNM5T4 ,!SE ?+S >E ALWAYS SLIPP+ 9TO !IR OPPOSITES4 

,AT ?IS PO9T ,I CAN F9ALLY RETURN TO BEADS4 

,I AM NOT SURE IF BEADS HAVE EV]1 ANY:]E1 BE5 US$ AS MONEY 9 A FULLY MONET>IZ$ ECONOMY4 ,ALMO/ ALWAYS1 !Y HAVE PLAY$ ! ROLE ( TRADE CURR5CY--AS AN ANONYM\S MEANS ( EX*ANGE BETWE5 PEOPLE ( DIFF]5T CULTURAL WORLDS1 MO/ (T5 BETWE5 MEMB]S ( SOCIETIES 9 :I* !RE IS A FULL-BL[N COMM]CIAL ECONOMY & O!RS 9 :I* !RE IS NOT4 ,NO D\BT ONE REASON BEADS L5D !MSELVES SO WELL TO ?IS ROLE IS ?AT !Y CAN BE SO EASILY TRANS=M$ BACK & =? FROM UNIQUE =MS TO G5]IC ONES3 !Y CAN BE B\<T 9 BULK1 SEWN TOGE!R 9TO ELABORATE BEADWORK OR ONTO O!R =MS ( ADORNM5T1 & !N--:5EV] ! NE$ IS FELT--BROK5 UP 9TO 9DIVIDUAL1 MUTUALLY 9DI/+UI%ABLE ITEMS ONCE AGA94 ,IT MAKES !M IDEALLY SUIT$ TO PASS BACK & =? BETWE5 RADICALLY DIFF]5T DOMA9S 7OR1 IF Y\ REALLY MU/1 0REGIMES07 ( VALUE4 ,LET ME TAKE UP ONE EXAMPLE ( H[ TRADE BEADS C\LD BE TAK5 UP4 

,MADAGASC> & ! SLAVE TRADE 

  

,9DIAN ,OCEAN TRADE BEADS W]E 9 WIDE USE 9 ,MADAGASC> AT LEA/ FROM ! TWELF? C5TURY ,A4,D4 7,V]9 #a#i#h#f71 & PROBABLY WELL BE=E4 ,R$ CORAL1 & LAT] R$ GLASS BEADS1 SEEM TO HAVE FUNCTION$ AS A TRADE CURR5CY4 ,9 ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY1 ,EUROPEAN M]*ANTS /OPP+ = PROVISIONS ON !IR WAY TO ! ,EA/ ,9DIES F\ND ?AT !SE W]E ! ONLY K9D ! 9HABITANTS W\LD READILY ACCEPT 9 EX*ANGE = !IR CATTLE4 ,DUR+ ! EI<TE5? C5TURY1 H[EV]1 ! IMPORTANCE ( BEADS DECL9$ ) ! RISE ( ! SLAVE TRADE1.<#i.> :I* WAS CONDUCT$ L>GELY 9 SILV]4 ,SPANI% DOLL>S GRADUALLY TOOK ! PLACE R$ BEADS ONCE HAD4 

,IM]9A1 ! P>T ( ,MADAGASC> :OSE LAT] HI/ORY IS BE/ KN[N1 IS LOCAT$ ON ! C5TRAL PLATEAU ( ! ISL&1 F> FROM ! MAJOR PORTS ( TRADE4 ,IM]9A WAS1 = MU* ( ?IS TIME1 SOME?+ ( A BACKWAT]4 ,POLITICALLY FRAGM5T$1 IT WAS A REGUL> T>GET = SLAVE-RAID]S FROM ! COA/S2 & ITS RUL]S W]E ALMO/ CON/ANTLY AT W> ) ONE ANO!R1 P>TLY TO SECURE CAPTIVES !Y C\LD SELL TO ! =EIGN M]*ANTS--MO/ ( !M APP>5TLY ,9DIAN ,MUSLIMS BUT 9CLUD+ ! OCCASIONAL ,EUROPEAN--:O P]IODICALLY PASS$ ?R\< ! C\NTRY4 

,MAURICE ,BLO* 7#a#i#i3#a#h#b-#h#e7 HAS DESCRIB$ ! ECONOMIC SITUATION ?AT PREVAIL$ >\ND #a#g#g#g1 :5 ! FIR/ ,EUROPEAN ACC\NT ( ,M]9A SOCIETY WAS WRITT54 ,!RE W]E WEEKLY M>KETS ?R\<\T ,IM]9A1 9 :I* ALL SORTS ( GOODS W]E AVAILABLE = SALE4 ,= MONEY1 SILV] DOLL>S W]E CUT UP 9TO A S]IES ( SMALL] D5OM9ATIONS--! SMALLE/ BE+ #a_/#g#b? ( A DOLL>--& WEI<$ \T AT EA* TRANSACTION4.<#i#a.> ,H[EV]1 AS ,BLO* PO9TS \T1 ! SUPPLY ( SILV] WAS UNRELIABLE & IF TOO MU* TIME W5T BY )\T SLAVE TRAD]S PASS+ ?R\<1 IT W\LD (T5 DRY UP & ! MONEY ECONOMY CEASE TO FUNCTION4 ,AS SOON AS ONE APPE>$ AGA91 M>KETS REVIV$ & RUL]S W]E ONCE AGA9 ABLE TO COLLECT TAXES4 

,ONE REASON ! MONEY SUPPLY C\LD DRY UP SO QUICKLY WAS ! HABIT ( MELT+ D[N IMPORT$ CO9S TO PRODUCE SILV] *A9S & O!R ORNAM5TS4 ,ALONG ) BEADS1 SILV] ORNAM5TS W]E ! MO/ IMPORTANT =MS ( P]SONAL ADORNM5T 9 ,IM]9A AT ?IS TIME4 ,*A9S 9 P>TICUL>--! L>GE/ CONTA9+ AS MU* AS F\R HUNDR$ DOLL>S' WOR? ( SILV]--(T5 BECAME IMPORTANT FAMILY HEIRLOOMS 7,$MUNDS #a#h#i#g3#d#g#d-#g#f74 ,IT WAS NOT EV]Y FAMILY1 H[EV]1 ?AT WAS ALL[$ TO [N !M4 ,! S\RCES >E FRU/RAT+LY VAGUE1 BUT APP>5TLY !RE WAS A FAIRLY ELABORATE SET ( SUMPTU>Y LAWS REG>D+ CLO!S & P]SONAL ORNAM5TS4 ,R$ BEADS1 = EXAMPLE1 C\LD BE WORN ONLY BY M5 OR WOM5 ( NOBLE /ATUS2 ! BULK ( ! POPULATION SEEM1 9 !ORY1 NOT TO HAVE BE5 ALL[$ TO WE> EXP5SIVE ADORNM5T ( ANY K9D AT ALL4 

,?AT AT LEA/ IS ! IMPLICATION ( AN ACC\NT ( ! ROYAL ASSEMBLY HELD 9 #a#h#c#d1 AT :I* ! SUMPTU>Y LAWS W]E ABOLI%$4 ,BY ?IS TIME1 ,IM]9A WAS A UNIFI$ K+DOM & ITS K+1 ,RADAMA ,I1 SIGNATORY TO A TREATY ) ,5GL& ABOLI%+ ! SLAVE TRADE2 ! ACC\NT IS BAS$ ON ?AT ( ,RADAMA'S ,BRITI% ADVIS]1 ,JAMES ,HA/IE1 AS PUBLI%$ 9 ,WILLIAM ,ELLIS' ,HI/ORY ( ,MADAGASC> 7#a#h#c#g1 #b3#c#b-#c#c74 

,! ,BRITI% GOV]NM5T HAD S5T ,RADAMA SE$S & CUTT+S = POT5TIAL CA% CROPS ?AT MI<T SUB/ITUTE = ! EXPORT ( SLAVES1 & AT ?IS ASSEMBLY HE DI/RIBUT$ !M TO REPRES5TATIVES ( HIS PEOPLE1 URG+ ON !M ADVANTAGES ( COMM]CIAL AGRICULTURE4 ,SEV]AL REPRES5TATIVES1 H[EV]1 OBJECT$ ?AT MO/ ( ,RADAMA'S SUBJECTS HAD LITTLE MOTIVATION TO COMPETE OV] WEAL?1 S9CE SUMPTU>Y LAWS DID NOT ALL[ !M TO ACQUIRE ANY ( ! GOOD ?+S ONE C\LD BUY ) IT4 ,AFT] SOME DISCUSSION1 ! K+ AGRE$ TO ABOLI% ! LAWS4 ,! RESULT1 ACCORD+ TO ,ELLIS1 WAS AN \TP\R+ ( PUBLIC CELEBRATION UNMAT*$ S9CE ! ABOLITION ( ! TRADE ITSELF4 

,>\ND ! SAME TIME--P]HAPS IT WAS AT ! SAME ASSEMBLY--,RADAMA ALSO ANN\NC$ ?AT ANY DEBT 9CURR$ = ! PURPOSE ( BUY+ ORNAM5TS = ! DEAD W\LD NO LONG] BE CONSID]$ RECOV]ABLE 7,ELLIS #a#h#c#g1 #b3#c#d74 ,IT WAS NECESS>Y TO DO SO1 HE SAID1 BECAUSE 444 MANY P]SONS1 5DEAVOR+ TO MAKE A DISPLAY ( RESPECT = DECEAS$ RELATIVES1 (T5 CONTRACT$ DEBTS 9 PUR*AS+ VALUABLE CLO!S & ORNAM5TS TO ?R[ 9TO ! GRAVES ( ! DEP>T$1 AGREEABLY TO ANCI5T USAGE2 & SEV]AL 9/ANCES OCCURR$1 :]E 9DIVIDUALS HAD BE5 R$UC$ TO SLAV]Y ON ACC\NT ( !IR 9ABILITY TO DIS*>GE ! DEBTS SO CREAT$4 ,?US ! DEAD HAD BE5 5VELOP$ 9 RI* CLO?+1 COV]$ ) ORNAM5TS1 & SURR\ND$ ) SILV]1 :IL/ ! NE>E/ LIV+ RELATIVES W]E BY !SE MEANS R$UC$ TO ! L[E/ /ATE ( DEGRADATION4 

,SUMPTU>Y LAWS PRESUMABLY DID NOT APPLY TO ! DEAD4 ,EV5 IF !Y HAD1 !RE W\LD HAVE BE5 LITTLE WAY ( 5=CE !M1 S9CE NO ONE W\LD HAVE D>$ TO 5T] AN UNRELAT$ P]SON'S TOMB4 

,IT IS H>D TO AVOID ! IMPRESSION ?AT TAK5 TOGE!R1 !SE MEASURES AM\NT$ TO AN ATTEMPT TO %IFT ! COMPETITION OV] ADORNM5T FROM ! DEAD TO ! LIV+--TO BR+ IT \T 9TO ! OP51 SO TO SPEAK4 ,IF SO1 IT WAS NOT A P>TICUL>LY SUCCESSFUL ONE4 ,AL?\< BURY+ EXP5SIVE ORNAM5TS 9 TOMBS PROBABLY DID BECOME LESS COMMON AS TIME W5T ON1 ! HABIT ( WE>+ !M NEV] TOOK HOLD AMONG ! COMMON PEOPLE4 ,QUITE ! OPPOSITE3 OV] ! FOLL[+ DECADES EV5 ! RI* APPE> TO HAVE AB&ON$ !M4 ,BY MID-C5TURY1 DESCRIPTIONS ( WEAL?Y PEOPLE DECK$ \T 9 BEADS & SILV]1 SO COMMON 9 ,RADAMA'S TIME1 DISAPPE> FROM TRAVEL]S' ACC\NTS 7CF4 ,$MUNDS74 ,MANY ( ! HUGE SILV] *A9S & O!R ELABORATE =MS ( JEWELRY MU/ HAVE BE5 MELT$ D[N OR BURI$4 ,O!RS W]E RETA9$ AS FAMILY HEIRLOOMS BUT R>ELY IF EV] WORN OR DISPLAY$4 ,! ONE >EA 9 :I* BO? BEADS & SILV] ORNAM5TS DID CONT9UE TO BE US$ AFT] ,RADAMA'S TIME WAS ! ONE WAY !IR CURR5T 7MO/LY PLA/IC & T97 DESC5DANTS >E /ILL US$ TODAY3 9 ! MAK+ ( ODY1 OR MAGIC *>MS4 

ODY & SAMPY 

  

,! T]M ODY WAS TYPICALLY APPLI$ TO OBJECTS ?AT S]V$ A S+LE PURPOSE4 ,! PURPOSES C\LD V>Y 5ORM\SLY--TO PREV5T ATTACKS BY CROCODILES1 TO GU>ANTEE ! SUCCESS ( A J\RNEY1 TO 9SPIRE LOVE OR TO MAKE AN OPPON5T'S TONGUE TRIP OV] HIS WORDS 9 C\RT--BUT !Y W]E ALWAYS LIMIT$4 ,ODY W]E ALSO [N$ BY 9DIVIDUALS2 *>MS CALL$ SAMPY PROVID$ A MORE G5]AL PROTECTION = L>G] SOCIAL GR\PS4 ,MO/ DESC5T GR\PS1 = 9/ANCE1 SEEM TO HAVE HAD !IR [N SAMPY1 & !RE W]E ROYAL SAMPY ?AT GU>D$ ! K+DOM AS A :OLE4 ,! LATT] W\LD P]IODICALLY BE BR\<T BE=E ! K+'S SUBJECTS1 & WAT] 9 :I* ! SAMPY HAD BE5 WA%$ W\LD BE SPR9KL$ ON ! ASSEMBL$ PEOPLE TO PROTECT !M FROM SORC]Y1 DISEASE1 & O!R DANG]S 7,B]G #a#i#g#i74 

,ODY & SAMPY W]E NOT1 H[EV]1 OBJECTS ( DISPLAY4 ,! V>I\S MAGICAL SUB/ANCES ?AT MADE !M UP W]E ALMO/ ALWAYS HIDD5 9SIDE 9 A HORN1 BOX1 OR SMALL SAT*EL1 & ! CONTA9]S W]E USUALLY KEPT \T ( SI<T AS WELL4 ,EV5 :5 ONE C>RI$ OR WORE !M1 IT WAS USUALLY UND]NEA? ONE'S CLO!S4 ,MO/ ODY W]E KEPT 9SIDE1 WRAPP$ 9 SILK CLO?1 ON ! DOME/IC ALT> ?AT WAS ALWAYS SET UP 9 ! NOR!A/ CORN] ( ! [N]'S H\SE4 ,SAMPY W]E EV5 MORE ELABORATELY PRES]V$ 9 IRON POTS OR *E/S3 EV5 :5 !Y W]E P]IODICALLY BR\<T \T BE=E ! PUBLIC1 PLAC$ ATOP LONG POLES 9 PUBLIC C]EMONIES1 !Y W]E ALWAYS SWA!D 9 SILK & ?US EFFECTIVELY 9VISIBLE 7CF4 ,CALLET #a#i#h3#a#g#i1#a#i-#i#a74 

,AS = ! HIDD5 +R$I5TS !MSELVES1 !Y MA9LY CONSI/$ ( PIECES ( ! WOOD1 LEAVES1 B>K1 OR ROOTS ( R>E TREES4 ,ALL ( IT WAS 0M$IC9E0 OR FANAFODY1 NO =MAL DI/9CTION BE+ DRAWN BETWE5 :AT WE W\LD CONSID] H]BAL REM$IES 7E4G41 AN 9FUSION ( CRU%$ LEAVES = AN UPSET /OMA*7 & C]EMONIAL MAGIC 7E4G41 PRAY+ TO A PIECE ( WOOD TO DIRECT LI<TN+ ON ONE'S 5EMIES74 ,P]HAPS 9 E>LY TIMES1 & C]TA9LY BY ?AT ( ,RADAMA1 BEADS & SILV] ORNAM5TS W]E 9CORPORAT$ 9TO ?IS PH>MACOLOGICAL SY/EM2 9 MANY CASES1 POPUL> V>IETIES ( BEAD W]E NAM$ AFT] SOME K9D ( MAGICAL WOOD1 :OSE P[]S ?AT BEAD WAS !N ASSUM$ TO %>E 7CF4 ,B]N>D-,?I]RY #a#i#d#f3#h#d74 ,I %\LD EMPHASIZE1 H[EV]1 ?AT !SE P[]S W]E NOT SE5 TO D]IVE FROM ! NATURE ( ! MAT]IALS !MSELVES4 ,! LATT] W]E LITTLE MORE ?AN A CONDUIT4 

,! EFFICACY ( A *>M WAS REF]R$ TO AS ITS HAS9A4 ,9 N9ETE5?C5TURY ,IM]9A1 ALMO/ ALL RITUAL ACTION 9VOLV$ ! CREATION OR MANIPULATION ( HAS9A--A T]M ,ALA9 ,DELIVRE 7#a#i#g#d3#a#d#d-#d#e7 DEF9ES AS ! CAPACITY TO AFFECT ! WORLD ?R\< IMP]CEPTIBLE MEANS4 ,MO/ (T51 HE ADDS1 HAS9A TURN$ ON ! RELATION BETWE5 AN 9VISIBLE SPIRIT & A MAT]IAL OBJECT ?R\< :I* ?AT SPIRIT C\LD COME 9TO CONTACT ) HUMAN BE+S3 ANCE/ORS W]E SPIRITS ONE 5C\NT]$ MA9LY ?\< !IR TOMBS OR RELICS2 ,VAZIMBA1 SPIRITS ONE 5C\NT]$ ?R\< C]TA9 TREES1 ROCKS1 OR SPR+S2 & SO ON4 ,ALL !SE OBJECTS BECAME CONDUITS ( ! SPIRIT'S AG5CY1 & C\LD ?US BE REF]R$ TO AS MAS9A--?AT IS1 0HAV+ HAS9A40 ,! SAME WAS TRUE ( ODY1 :OSE P[] WAS D]IV$ FROM ! RELATION BETWE5 ! +R$I5TS & A CLASS ( SPIRITS CALL$ ,RANAK&RIANA4 

,TO USE AN ODY1 ONE HAD TO FIR/ REMOVE IT FROM ITS WRAPP+S1 !N CALL ON IT TO 0WAKE0 & ADDRESS IT 9 PRAY]4 ,(T5 ONE W\LD HAVE TO EXPLA9 9 SOME DETAIL :AT ! *>M WAS BE+ ASK$ TO DO1 & :Y4 ,ODY1 9 O!R WORDS1 W]E TREAT$ LIKE CONSCI\S BE+S2 !Y W]E OBJECTS VE/$ ) A SORT ( DISEMBODI$ 9TELLIG5CE4 ,9 PRAY]S !Y W]E (T5 9VOK$ 9 SU* T]MS AS 0Y\ :O HAVE NO EYES BUT CAN /ILL SEE1 NO E>S BUT CAN /ILL HE>10 OR 0Y\ :OSE NAME IS KN[N BUT :OSE FACE IS NEV] SE50 7,VIG #a#i#f#i3#e#i-#f2 ,CALLET #a#i#h3#h#d2 CF4 ,RUUD #a#i#f#i3#b#a#h74 ,MALAGASY S\RCES >E ALWAYS C>EFUL TO DI/+UI% BETWE5 ?IS CONSCI\SNESS 7& CAPACITY = ACTION71 ID5TIFI$ ) ! SPIRIT1 & ! 0WOOD0 OR PHYSICAL +R$I5TS ( A *>M 7,CALLET #a#i#h3#h#b-#h#e74 ,H[EV]1 & ?IS IS :]E ?+S GET COMPLICAT$1 :ILE A *>M'S P]SONALITY & CAPACITY = ACTION WAS ID5TIFI$ ) A DISEMBODI$ SPIRIT1 ?AT SPIRIT HAD NO?+ TO DO ) ITS 9DIVIDUAL ID5TITY4 ,9 9VOCATIONS1 ONE CALL$ \T TO ODY BY !IR NAMES2 BUT ! NAME WAS NOT ?AT ( A SPIRIT4 ,IT WAS SIMPLY ! NAME ( ! MO/ IMPORTANT PIECE ( WOOD ?AT MADE !M UP4 ,:AT MADE ODY DIFF]5T FROM ONE ANO!R1 !N1 W]E !IR +R$I5TS4 

,ALL ?IS IS P>T ( A MU* BROAD] ,MALAGASY RITUAL LOGIC1 ONE ALREADY SUGGE/$ BY ,DELIVRE4 ,ALL SPIRITUAL =CES 9 ! ,MALAGASY COSMOS T5D TO BE G5]IC BE+S4 ,!Y ONLY TAKE ON 9DIVIDUAL ID5TITY ?R\< ! OBJECTS BY MEANS ( :I* PEOPLE COME 9TO CONTACT ) !M4 ,9 !MSELVES !Y >E ALL1 = ALL 9T5TS & PURPOSES1 9DI/+UI%ABLE4 ,9 SOME MY?S1 !Y >E SAID TO BE QUITE LIT]ALLY ID5TICAL 9 APPE>ANCE 7,OTT9O #a#i#g#h3#c#f72 !Y >E ALWAYS ID5TICAL 9 ! UNI=M AMBIGUITY ?AT SURR\NDS !M1 !IR COMPLETE LACK ( DEF9+ FEATURES--:I* 9 ! CASE ( ! ,RANAK&RIANA IS BR\<T HOME BY ! CONT9UAL EMPHASIS ALL S\RCES PLACE ON H[ DIFFICULT IT IS TO SEE !M4 ,RANAK&RIANA W]E SAID TO LIVE 9 CAVES OR LI<TLESS PLACES :]E !IR VOICES W]E HE>D BUT !IR =MS C\LD NOT BE MADE \T4 ,!Y W]E SAID TO FLY AWAY AS SOON AS ONE TRI$ TO SET EYES ON !M2 LIKEWISE1 9 PRAY]S SU* AS ?OSE CIT$ ABOVE1 !Y W]E REGUL>LY DESCRIB$ AS 9VISIBLE OR BODILESS4 

,! UNI=M AMBIGUITY ( ,MALAGASY SPIRITUAL =CES HAS L$ TO 5DLESS DEBATES AMONG =EIGN OBS]V]S4 ,!RE HAVE BE5 LONG DISCUSSIONS1 = 9/ANCE1 OV] :E!R T]MS LIKE ,ZANAH>Y 70CREATOR0 OR 0GOD07 %\LD BE TRANSLAT$ 9 ! S+UL> OR ! PLURAL4 ,FROM A ,*RI/IAN /&PO9T ?IS IS OBVI\SLY A V]Y IMPORTANT QUE/ION4 ,BUT IT DOES NOT SEEM TO HAVE BE5 A QUE/ION ANYONE ELSE 9 ,MADAGASC> HAS EV] F\ND P>TICUL>LY IMPORTANT4 ,I W\LD SUGGE/ ?AT ! AMBIGUITY IS ITSELF REALLY HALF ! PO9T3 9 ! ABS5CE ( ANY SORT ( DEF9+ FEATURE1 0SPIRITS0 BECOME %E] =MLESS POT5TIAL4 ,! T]M ZANAH>Y1 = EXAMPLE1 C\LD APPLY TO ANY BE+ CAPABLE ( CREATION ?R\< IMP]CEPTIBLE MEANS2 RA!R ?AN ASK :AT SU* BE+S W]E LIKE1 OR H[ MANY ( !M !RE W]E1 IT MAKES MORE S5SE TO SEE ?IS P[] ( CREATION AS EM]G+ FROM !IR V]Y LACK ( DEF9ITION4 ,!IR G5]IC NATURE IS ITSELF A WAY ( REPRES5T+ P[] OR UNLIMIT$ POSSIBILITY4 

,BY ?IS LOGIC1 IT WAS ! FACT ?AT ! +R$I5TS ( *>MS W]E HIDD5 FROM SI<T ?AT GAVE !M !IR G5]IC CAPACITY = ACTION4 ,H[EV]1 ODY W]E NOT SIMPLY G5]IC POT5TIAL4 ,! +R$I5TS ?AT MADE !M UP W]E SPECIFIC OBJECTS1 & IT WAS ?OSE +R$I5TS ?AT DET]M9$ ! SPECIFIC WAYS 9 :I* ?AT CAPACITY C\LD MAKE ITSELF KN[N4 ,EA* +R$I5T1 9 O!R WORDS1 CORRESPOND$ TO ONE ( AN ODY'S P[]S4 

,L>S ,VIG 7#a#i#f#i71 A ,NORWEGIAN MISSION>Y1 PROVIDES SOME V]Y DETAIL$ DESCRIPTIONS ( H[ ODY W]E SUPPOS$ TO WORK4 ,CONSID]1 = EXAMPLE1 HIS ACC\NT ( A POPUL> ODY BASY1 OR 0RIFLE *>M10 MEANT TO PROTECT SOLDI]S FROM 5EMY BULLETS 7,VIG #a#i#f#i3#g-#g#b74 ,! *>M CONTA9S FIFTE5 ELEM5TS 9 ALL1 MO/ ( !M BITS ( WOOD4 ,9 ! 9VOCATION1 ! NAME ( EA* IS CALL$ \T & ! ELEM5T CALL$ ON TO ACT4 ,9 EA* CASE1 ! WORDS US$ TO DESCRIBE ! ACTION >E D]IV$ FROM ?AT ELEM5T'S NAME4 ,! FIR/1 A PIECE ( ! >IFY PLANT 7! WORD >IFY IS FROM A ROOT MEAN+ 0TO TURN ASIDE071 IS CALL$ ON TO TURN ASIDE ! BULLETS FIR$ BY ! 5EMY4 ,ANO!R SLIV] ( WOOD CALL$ BETAMBANA 70MANY OB/ACLES07 IS ASK$ TO 0/OP ! 5EMY FROM ATTACK+1 MAKE SOME DISA/] OCCUR ?AT WILL BE AN OB/ACLE TO !IR ATTACK0 7#g#a71 & SO ON4 ,9 ALMO/ EV]Y CASE1 ! ACTION ( ! *>M IS DIRECT$ \TW>D1 T[>D SOMEONE O!R ?AN ! P]SON US+ IT--& ?IS TOO IS TYPICAL ( ,MALAGASY ODY4 ,RIFLE *>MS NEV] MAKE !IR [N]S IMP]VI\S TO BULLETS4 ,!Y MAKE PEOPLE %OOT+ AT !M MISS4 ,LOVE MAGIC DOES NOT MAKE ! US] BEAUTIFUL4 ,IT 9VOKES DESIRE DIRECTLY 9 SOMEONE ELSE4 ,RA!R ?AN *ANGE ! QUALITIES ( ! BE>]1 ODY ALWAYS CONF] ON H] A C]TA9 CAPACITY = ACTION4 ,LIKE ,M>X'S HO>DS ( HIDD5 GOLD1 OR ,5GEL'S TALISMAN1 ! HIDD5 ELEM5TS ( *>MS W]E1 9 EFFECT1 ID5TIFI$ ) !IR [N]S' ABILITY TO ACT UPON ! WORLD4 

SACRIFICE & ! CREATION ( *>MS 

  

,?IS PLAY ( ! P>TICUL> & ! G5]IC1 ! SE5 & ! UNSE51 RECURR$ ON EV]Y LEVEL ( ,M]9A RITUAL PRACTICE4 ,SO TOO DID ! L9K BETWE5 WORDS & OBJECTS IMPLI$ 9 ! PRAY]S CIT$ ABOVE4 

,TAKE RITUALS ( SACRIFICE4 ,SORONA1 ! WORD US$ = :AT WE W\LD CALL 0SACRIFICE10 ACTUALLY HAD A MU* BROAD] MEAN+4 ,IT C\LD BE APPLI$ TO ANY 0RELIGI\S C]EMONY TO OBTA9 A DESIR$ B5EFIT FROM ?AT TO :I* ONE PRAYS0 7,RI*>DSON #a#h#h#e3#e#i#a74 ,EV5 MORE (T51 ! WORD SORONA WAS US$ NOT = ! RITUAL ITSELF1 BUT = OBJECTS MEANT TO REPRES5T ?AT 0DESIR$ B5EFIT0 & ?AT W]E 9T5TIONALLY PRES]V$ AS (F]+S = ?AT REASON4 ,9 ?IS S5SE1 SORONA W]E ! OPPOSITE ( FADITRA--OBJECTS REPRES5T+ EVILS TO BE AVOID$--?AT W]E 9T5TIONALLY CA/ AWAY4 

,MO/ RITUALS 9VOLV$ SU* ACTS ( CONSECRATION & CA/+ AWAY4 ,EA* TIME ! K+ DISPAT*$ A MILIT>Y EXP$ITION1 WE >E TOLD 7,CALLET #a#i#h3#e#a-#e#b71 ! ROYAL A/ROLOG]S W\LD (F] AN UNBROK5 SILV] CO9.<#i#b.> AS SORONA1 PRAY+ ?AT ! >MY W\LD REMA9 SIMIL>LY :OLE & NOT BE BROK5 9TO PIECES BY ! 5EMY4 ,!N !Y W\LD CA/ A P9* ( A%ES FROM ! K+'S HE>? TO ! W9DS AS A FADITRA1 PRAY+ AS !Y DID SO ?AT ! >MY %\LD NOT BE DE/ROY$ AS HAD ! WOOD N[ R5D]$ A%4 

,MO/ (T51 ! D$ICATION ( SORONA W\LD BE ACCOMPANI$ BY A V[4 ,ONE MI<T1 SAY1 PLACE A BEAD OR BULRU% ON ! RITUAL %ELF 9 ! NOR!A/ CORN] ( ONE'S H\SE1 PROMIS+ AS ONE DID SO TO SACRIFICE A %EEP OR A BULLOCK TO ! 9VISIBLE P[]S IF ! 0DESIR$ B5EFIT0 WAS OBTA9$4 ,IF IT WAS1 SACRIFIC+ ! ANIMAL W\LD ITSELF BE CALL$ A SORONA1 & ! HEAD & FEET ( ! SACRIFIC$ ANIMAL W\LD ALSO BE PRES]V$ 7CF4 ,SIBREE L#h#h3#c#b-#c#c74 

,N[1 SORONA (T5 CONSI/$ ( EXACTLY ! SAME K9D ( OBJECTS ?AT W]E US$ AS +R$I5TS ( ODY4 ,LIKE !M1 !Y DID NOT USUALLY REPRES5T OBJECTS SO MU* AS ACTIONS 79 ! EXAMPLE ABOVE3 BE+ DE/ROY$1 HOLD+ TOGE!R74 ,F9ALLY1 AT LEA/ 9 SOME CASES1 SORONA C\LD BECOME ODY4 ,H]E IS :AT ,ELLIS 7#a#h#c#g1 ,I3#d#c#e7 HAS TO SAY AB\T ! LATT]3  
  

,! SORONA OP]ATES AS A *>M TO BR+ ! DESIR$ FAVOR1 & IS SOMETIMES AN ANIMAL SACRIFICE1 ( :I*1 :5 KILL$1 ! PR9CIPAL FAT IS EAT54 ,9 SOME CASES IT CONSI/S 9 WE>+ SOME >TICLE SPECIFI$ BY ! SIKIDY .<DIV9ATION.>2 & 9 SU* 9/ANCES IT BECOMES1 9 C\RSE ( TIME1 AN ODY--?AT IS1 A *>M OR AMULET--:I*1 ?\< ADOPT$ AT FIR/ = A P>TICUL> OBJECT1 IS ULTIMATELY REG>D$ AS POSSESS+ SOME 9TR9SIC VIRTUE1 & !RE=E IS /ILL WORN AFT] ! IMAG9$ CASE = ITS IMM$IATE USE HAS CEAS$4 

,!SE SORONA SOMETIMES CONSI/ ( PIECES ( SILV]1 OR ( SILV] *A9S2 & SOMETIMES ( BEADS1 MORE OR LESS VALUABLE4 ,OCCASIONALLY /R+S ( BEADS1 ( DIFF]5T COLORS1 >E MADE1 & WORN >\ND ! NECK & WRI/S ( ! (F]]4 

,BEADS & SILV]1 9 O!R WORDS1 W\LD BE WORN AS A SORONA TO REPRES5T ! 0DESIR$ B5EFIT0 79 ?IS CASE WEAL?7 &1 AS SU*1 DISPLAY$ ON ! P]SON ( ! SACRIFIC]4 ,& :ILE ,ELLIS DOES NOT EXPLICITLY SAY ?IS1 ON BECOM+ ODY ! +R$I5TS W]E PRESUMABLY HIDD51 AS ! +R$I5TS ( ODY ALWAYS T5D$ TO BE4 ,?AT1 AT ANY RATE1 SEEMS TO BE :AT HAPP5$ TO SORONA D$ICAT$ ON ! RITUAL %ELF ( ONE'S H\SE--! SAME PLACE ?AT A FAMILY'S ODY OR SAMPY W]E NORMALLY KEPT4 ,ONCE ONE'S PRAY]S W]E ANSW]$1 !Y C\LD SIMPLY BE WRAPP$ 9 SILK TO JO9 ! O!R ODY 7,CALLET #a#i#h3#e#f2 ,*APUS & ,RATSIMBA #a#i#e#c3#i#aN#a#c#d74  
  

,TO SUM UP1 !N3 

,SORONA W]E MAT]IAL TOK5S ( REQUE/4 ,!Y REPRES5T$ ! DESIRES OR 9T5TIONS ( ?OSE :O (F]$ !M1 ! ACTION !Y WI%$ ! =MLESS & 9VISIBLE P[]S TO TAKE4 ,!Y C\LD ALMO/ BE SE5 AS PHYSICAL HI]OGLYPHS1 REPRODUC+ 9 VISIBLE =M ! WORDS ) :I* ONE PRAY$4 ,ONCE ?OSE PRAY]S HAD BE5 ANSW]$1 H[EV]1 ! /ATUS ( ! OBJECTS *ANG$4 ,!Y CAME TO BE SE5 AS ! EMBODIM5TS OR CONDUITS ( ?OSE SAME 9VISIBLE P[]S1 AS OBJECTS ?R\< :I* HUMAN BE+S C\LD 5T] 9TO RELATIONS ) !M4 ,AS A RESULT !Y W]E NO LONG] DISPLAY$ BUT HIDD5 AS ! ELEM5TS ( ODY--PLAC$ 9 HORNS OR BOXES OR SACKS1 WRAPP$ 9 R$ SILK1 OR O!RWISE PUT \T ( SI<T4 ,ODY C\LD ALMO/ BE SE5 AS EXAMPLES ( ! ,MAUSSIAN GIFT 9 REV]SE3 RA!R ?AN BE+ P>T ( ! GIV]'S P]SON1 ! GIFT COMES TO CON/ITUTE ! P]SON ( ! RECEIV]4 

,NO D\BT ?IS WAS ONLY ONE WAY AMONG MANY ( CREAT+ ODY4 ,BUT IT APPE>S TO HAVE BE5 ONE P>TICUL>LY RELEVANT TO BEADS & MONEY--PROVID+ A H9T1 P]HAPS1 ( ! ME*ANISMS BY :I* OBJECTS ( ADORNM5T C\LD SO SUDD5LY & SO G5]ALLY VANI% FROM SI<T & BECOME HIDD5 TALISMANS4 ,AS SORONA1 BEADS & SILV] *A9S EXPRESS$ ! WE>]'S DESIRE TO GA9 WEAL?4 ,WE>+ !M OP]AT$ 9 ! SAME WAY AS ANY DISPLAY ( WEAL?3 IT WAS A P]SUASIVE ACT--EV5 IF1 9 ?IS CASE1 ! OBJECT ( P]SUASION WAS AN AB/RACT & 9VISIBLE P[]4 ,& H]E1 TOO1 ! ACTIONS ONE C>RI$ \T T[>D ONESELF W]E MEANT TO S]VE AS MODELS = ! ACTION ONE WI%$ TO 9SPIRE O!RS TO TAKE4 ,BY COV]+ ONESELF ) WEAL?1 ONE HOP$ TO MOVE O!RS TO DO ! SAME4 

,ONCE PROV5 EFFECTIVE1 H[EV]1 IT FOLL[$ FROM ! LOGIC ( ,MALAGASY RITUAL ?AT !SE SAME OBJECTS--!SE SORONA--%\LD BECOME ID5TIFI$ ) ! P[]S ?AT HAD ANSW]$ ! APPEAL1 & SO BE HIDD5 AWAY4 ,!Y BECAME ODY1 ) ! P[] TO DRAW WEAL? TO ! BE>] ON A REGUL> BASIS4 ,& EV5 TODAY1 ?IS IS PRECISELY ! FUNCTION ( BEADS & SILV] ORNAM5TS4 ,:5 !Y APPE> AS +R$I5TS 9 MAGIC *>MS1 !Y ALMO/ ALWAYS ACT1 DIRECTLY OR 9DIRECTLY1 TO DRAW WEAL? TO ! [N]4 

! POLITICAL DIM5SION1 OR TAXES AS RITUAL SACRIFICE 

  

,I HAVE NOT YET EV5 T\*$ ON ! POLITICAL ASPECTS ( ! USE ( MONEY 9 ,IM]9A1 A TOPIC DEALT ) 9 SOME DETAIL BY ,BLO* 7#a#i#i7--OR ON ! POLITICS ( VISIBILITY & 9VISIBILITY 9 G5]AL4 ,:ILE !RE IS NO ROOM H]E TO 5T] 9TO !SE SUBJECTS 9 ANY DETAIL1 IT MI<T BE USEFUL TO 5D ) AN ILLU/RATION ( SOME ( ! DIRECTIONS SU* AN ANALYSIS MI<T TAKE4 

,I HAVE BE5 DESCRIB+ ,M]9A RITUAL AS A S]IES ( TE*NIQUES = CREAT+ & *ANNEL+ HAS9A4 ,:ILE !RE IS NO WORD 9 ,MALAGASY ?AT REALLY CORRESPONDS TO \R 0RITUAL10 ONE ( ! WORDS US$ MO/ (T5 TO DESCRIBE RITUALS WAS 7& IS7 MANAS9A3 LIT]ALLY1 0TO 5D[ ) HAS9A0 OR 0TO MAKE SOME?+ MAS9A0 7MAS9A BE+ ! ADJECTIVAL =M74 

,UND] ! ,M]9A K+DOM1 ! V]B MANAS9A WAS MO/ COMMONLY US$ = ! ACT ( PRES5T+ GIFTS ( MONEY TO ! SOV]EIGN4 ,?IS WAS P>TLY BECAUSE UNBROK5 SILV] CO9S1 ! K9D ?AT W]E GIV5 9 SU* C]EMONIES1 W]E !MSELVES CALL$ HAS9A4 ,HAS9A HAD TO BE GIV5 EV]Y TIME ! K+ MADE AN (FICIAL APPE>ANCE1 & DUR+ PUBLIC ASSEMBLIES OR ! ANNUAL ,ROYAL ,BA? C]EMONY IT DEVELOP$ 9TO AN ELABORATE RITUAL 9 :I* REPRES5TATIVES ( EA* ( ! V>I\S RANKS1 ORD]S1 & GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS ( ! K+DOM (F]$ TRIBUTE 9 TURN4 ,BUT IF ONE IMAG9ES ! CO9S AS A K9D ( SORONA1 IT IS EASY TO SEE H[1 9 PRES5T+ !SE CO9S TO ! K+1 SUBJECTS GAVE HIM HAS9A 9 ! O!R S5SE AS WELL4 

,:5 :OLE SILV] CO9S W]E US$ AS SORONA OR ELEM5TS 9 *>MS-- :I* !Y OCCASIONALLY W]E--IT IS USUALLY SAID ?AT ! CO91 BE+ R\ND & UNBROK51 /OOD = :OL5ESS & P]FECTION4 ,I HAVE ALREADY M5TION$ ONE 9/ANCE 9 :I* A SILV] CO9 REPRES5T$ ! 9TEGRITY ( ! NATIONAL >MY4 ,MORE (T5 CO9S US$ 9 ROYAL RITUAL W]E SAID TO REPRES5T ! 9TEGRITY ( ! K+DOM1 ! HOPE ?AT ITS UNITY REMA9 9TACT4 ,! ACT ( GIV+ A CO9 AS A TOK5 ( LOYALTY1 !N1 CAN BE SE5 AS ITSELF CREAT+ ! K+--OR1 AT LEA/1 CREAT+ ! P[] BY :I* HE UNIFIES ! K+DOM3 9 A WORD1 HIS HAS9A4 

,?IS IS /AT$ ALMO/ EXPLICITLY :51 AT ! HI< PO9T ( ! ,M]9A RITUAL YE>1 ! CLIMAX ( ! ,ROYAL ,BA? C]EMONY1 ! SOV]EIGN DISPLAY$ HIMSELF BE=E REPRES5TATIVES ( ! PEOPLE1 :O PRES5T$ HIM ) HAS9A4 ,IMM$IATELY AFT]W>DS1 HE HID BEH9D A SCRE5 TO BA!1 CRY+ \T AS HE DID SO1 0MAY ,I BE MAS9A40 ,AFT] ?IS HE EM]G$ TO SPR9KLE HIS SUBJECTS ) ! WAT] 9 :I* HE HAD JU/ BA!D1 9 EXACTLY ! SAME WAY AS SAMPY KEEP]S1 ON O!R OCCASIONS1 SPR9KL$ ! PEOPLE ) WAT] ?AT HAD BE5 US$ TO BA! ! NATIONAL SAMPY 7CF4 ,B]G #a#i#g#i2 ,BLO* #a#i#h#g74 ,H]E1 COMPRESS$ 9TO A BRIEF SUCCESSION ( RITUAL GE/URES1 IS ! :OLE PATT]N ( SORONA & ODY3 AN OBJECT1 DISPLAY$ TO REPRES5T ! DESIRES ( ! K+DOM1 BECOMES AN 9VISIBLE *>M REGUL>LY CAPABLE ( BR++ ?OSE DESIRES TO FRUITION4 

PROSPECTS & CONCLUSIONS 

  

,A C5TRAL CLAIM ( ?IS *APT] IS ! EXI/5CE ( A V]Y WIDESPREAD DI/9CTION BETWE5 ! P[] TO ACT DIRECTLY ON O!RS 7A POT5TIAL ?AT CAN ONLY BE REALIZ$ 9 ! FUTURE7 & ! P[] TO MOVE O!RS TO ACTION BY DISPLAY+ EVID5CE ( H[ ONE'S SELF HAS BE5 TREAT$ 9 ! PA/4 ,BO?1 ,I HAVE >GU$1 T5D TO BE EXPRESS$ ?R\< METAPHORS ( VISION3 ! FIR/ REPRES5T$ AS SOME?+ HIDD51 ! SECOND REALIZ$ ?R\< =MS ( VISUAL DISPLAY4 

,SO1 TOO1 ! DI/9CTION BETWE5 ! P[] ( MONEY & ! P[] 7OR1 IF Y\ LIKE1 VALUE7 ( :AT ,I HAVE BE5 CALL+ 0HEIRLOOM JEWELRY40 ,MONEY T5DS TO BE REPRES5T$ AS AN 9VISIBLE POT5CY BECAUSE ( ITS CAPACITY TO TURN 9TO MANY O!R ?+S4 ,MONEY IS ! POT5TIAL = FUTURE SPECIFICITY EV5 IF IT IS A POT5TIAL ?AT CAN BE REALIZ$ ONLY ?R\< A FUTURE ACT ( EX*ANGE4 ,9 ?IS IT /&S OPPOS$ TO OBJECTS :OSE VALUE IS ROOT$ 9 PA/ ACTIONS 7:ATEV] !SE MAY BE74 ,! LATT] >E NOT ONLY (T5 OBJECTS ( DISPLAY 9 !IR [N RI<T3 !Y HAVE A P[] TO 9SPIRE ACTIONS 9 O!RS1 A P[] ?AT CLE>LY HAS MU* 9 COMMON ) ?AT ( >I/OCRATIC DISPLAY OR ROYAL SPL5DOR4 ,BUT IF1 AT ITS SIMPLE/1 >I/OCRATIC DISPLAY CALLS ON ! VIEW] TO DELIV] WEAL? OR R5D] HOMAGE TO ! DISPLAY] BECAUSE O!RS HAVE ALREADY DONE SO1 ! MO/ ELEM5T>Y =M ( EX*ANGE VALUE IS JU/ ! OPPOSITE3 IT 9SPIRES ONE TO TRY TO ACQUIRE AN OBJECT SIMPLY BECAUSE O!RS HAVE TRI$ TO DO SO 9 ! PA/4 

,IF ?IS IS SO1 TO UND]/& ! VALUE ATTRIBUT$ TO ANY P>TICUL> OBJECT MEANS ?AT ONE MU/ UND]/& ! MEAN+ ( ! V>I\S ACTS ( CREATION1 CONSECRATION1 USE & APPROPRIATION1 & SO ON1 ?AT MAKE UP ITS HI/ORY4.<#i#c.> ,ONE MU/ ASK3 ,:I* ( !SE ACTIONS DET]M9E :I* ASPECT ( ITS VALUE8 ,:I* AMONG !M >E ?OSE ?AT RECOGNIZE ! VALUE BE+ CALL$ ON TO REPEAT8 ,& !N !RE IS ! PROBLEM ( FETI%ISM1 A NOTORI\SLY TRICKY ONE4 ,P]HAPS ! BE/ WAY TO DESCRIBE ! VIEW ( FETI%ISM ,I HAVE BE5 DEVELOP+ H]E IS TO SAY ?AT :5 ONE RECOGNIZES VALUE 9 AN OBJECT1 ONE BECOMES A SORT ( BRIDGE ACROSS TIME4 ,?AT IS1 ONE RECOGNIZES NOT ONLY ! EXI/5CE ( A HI/ORY ( PA/ DESIRES & 9T5TIONS ?AT HAVE GIV5 %APE TO ! PRES5T =M ( ! OBJECT1 BUT ?AT HI/ORY EXT5DS ITSELF ?R\< ONE'S [N DESIRES1 WI%ES1 & 9T5TIONS1 NEWLY MOBILIZ$ 9 ?AT V]Y ACT ( RECOGNITION4 ,9 FETI%IZ+ AN OBJECT1 !N1 ONE IS MI/AK+ ! P[] ( A HI/ORY 9T]NALIZ$ 9 ONE'S [N DESIRES1 = A P[] 9TR9SIC TO ! OBJECT ITSELF4 ,FETI% OBJECTS BECOME MIRRORS ( ! BEHOLD]'S [N MANIPULAT$ 9T5TIONS4 ,& 9 A WAY1 ! V]Y NOTION ( DESIRE--AT LEA/1 AS ,I HAVE BE5 DEVELOP+ IT 9 ?IS *APT]--DEM&S SU* FETI%IZATION4 

,CONSID] ,GYGES1 MAK+ HIMSELF 9VISIBLE SO AS TO GAZE ON ! BODY ( ! ,LYDIAN QUE5--OR1 = ?AT MATT]1 ANY ( ?OSE G5]ICALLY DRESS$ B\RGEOIS MALES GAZ+ AT ANY ( ?OSE ORNAM5TAL1 P>TICUL> B\RGEOIS WOM54 ,9VISIBILITY & AB/RACTION H]E (F] A WAY ( 9DICAT+ ! P[] TO ACT 7& LOOK+ IS C]TA9LY A =M ( ACTION71 BUT CAN !Y NOT EQUALLY WELL BE SE5 AS IMPLY+ ?AT ! MAN IS A CREATURE ( DESIRE1 TO BE *>ACT]IZ$ 7AT ?AT MOM5T ANYWAY7 NOT BY :AT HE IS OR HAS BUT BY :AT HE IS NOT1 BY AN ABS5CE OR A LACK8 ,AFT] ALL1 IT IS JU/ ?IS S5SE ( ABS5CE1 OR 9COMPLETION1 ?AT MOVES US TO ACTION TO BEG9 )4 ,NEXT1 CONSID] ,M>X'S ANALYSIS ( EX*ANGE1 9 :I* ! DESIR$ OBJECT IS ALWAYS CONCRETE & P>TICUL>4 ,C\LD ONE NOT SAY ?AT ! AB/RACTION1 ! LACK ( DEF9ITION ATTRIBUT$ TO ! DESIR] & HIS POSSESSIONS1 IS ALSO A WAY ( FIGUR+ DESIRE8 ,IT IS AN ABS5CE1 IF ONE ?AT NECESS>ILY IMPLIES ! RECOGNITION ( SOME IMAG9>Y TOTALITY ?AT W\LD BE ITS RESOLUTION4 ,9 SU* SITUATIONS1 ,I AM SUGGE/+1 ! OBJECT ( DESIRE PLAYS MU* ! SAME ROLE AS ,LACAN'S MIRROR-OBJECTS3 IT REPRES5TS AN IMAG9$ :OL5ESS ON :I* DESIR]S CAN FIX !IR [N 9*OATE S5SE ( SELF4 ,OR--TO RETURN = ! MOM5T TO ,M>X'S [N DIALECTICAL T]M9OLOGY-- IT MAKES ! DESIR] SEEM AN AB/RACT CONT5T ?AT CAN BE REALIZ$ ONLY ?R\< ?AT P>TICUL> CONCRETE =M4.<#i#d.> 

,EV5 AT ?IS MO/ 9DIVIDUAL LEVEL1 !N1 ACTION & REFLECTION 5DLESSLY IMPLY EA* O!R 9 AN 9F9ITE V>IETY ( CONV]SIONS & TRANS=MATIONS4 ,ON GR&] LEVELS ( HI/ORICAL *ANGE1 SIMIL> DYNAMICS >E ALWAYS 9 ! PROCESS ( TRANS=M+--OR AT LEA/ CONTE/+--! V]Y CATEGORIES BY :I* VALUE IS P]CEIV$4 ,& IF ! ,MALAGASY EXAMPLE--) ITS ROYAL ATTEMPTS TO TURN MONEY-/UFFS 9TO ICONS ( NATIONAL UNITY1 & ITS POPUL> ATTEMPTS TO DIV]T !M 9TO HIDD5 S\RCES ( P[]--DEMON/RATES ANY?+1 IT IS ?AT !SE /RUGGLES OV] VALUE >E ALWAYS1 9 ! 5D1 POLITICAL--IF ONLY BECAUSE ! MO/ IMPORTANT POLITICAL /RUGGLES 9 ANY SOCIETY 7& H]E ,I RETURN TO ,TURN] #a#i#i#fB7 WILL ALWAYS BE OV] H[ VALUE ITSELF IS TO BE DEF9$4 

,FROM 3 ,!,AN>*I/,LIBR>Y4ORG4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,JANU>Y #g1 #bba 3 ,*APT] #d -- ,ADD$4 
,JANU>Y #a#g1 #bbb 3 ,*APT] #d -- ,UPDAT$4 

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