,*APT] #c 
,VALUE AS ! ,IMPORTANCE ( ,ACTIONS 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,DAVID ,GRAEB] 

,TEXT 3 

,*APT] #c -- ,VALUE AS ! ,IMPORTANCE ( ,ACTIONS 

  

,:AT IF ONE DID TRY TO CREATE A !ORY ( VALUE />T+ FROM ! ASSUMPTION ?AT :AT IS ULTIMATELY BE+ EVALUAT$ >E NOT ?+S1 BUT ACTIONS8 ,:AT MI<T A BROAD] SOCIAL !ORY ?AT />TS FROM 

?IS ASSUMPTION LOOK LIKE8 ,9 ?IS *APT]1 ,I'D LIKE TO EXPLORE ?IS POSSIBILITY 9 GREAT] DETAIL4 

,I 5D$ ! LA/ *APT] ) ! WORK ( ,NANCY ,MUNN1 ONE ( ! FEW AN?ROPOLOGI/S :O HAS TAK5 ?IS DIRECTION4 ,MUNN IS NOT QUITE ! ONLY ONE4 ,ANO!R IS ,T]5CE ,TURN]1 :O HAS DEVELOP$ SOME ( ! SAME IDEAS1 NOT SO MU* 9 ! PH5OM5OLOGICAL TRADITION1 BUT ) AN EYE TO ADOPT+ ,M>X'S LABOR !ORY ( VALUE = AN?ROPOLOGICAL USE4 ,TURN]'S WORK1 H[EV]1 HAS F\ND EV5 LESS BROAD AN AUDI5CE4 ,!RE >E MANY REASONS = ?IS4 ,MANY ( HIS MO/ IMPORTANT ESSAYS 7#a#i#hA1 #a#i#h#d1 #a#i#h#g1 #a#i#h#h7 REMA9 UNPUBLI%$2 O!RS >E EI!R SCATT]$ 9 OBSCURE V5UES 7#a#i#g#iC1 #a#i#h#eA1 ETC47 OR WRITT5 9 A LANGUAGE SO HI<LY TE*NICAL IT IS (T5 V]Y DIFFICULT = ! NON-ADEPT TO MAKE HEAD OR TAIL ( !M 7CONSID]1 = EXAMPLE1 #a#i#g#iA3#a#g#a OR #a#i#h#eB3#e#b74 ,H5CE1 :ILE A H&FUL ( AN?ROPOLOGI/S HAVE BE5 /RONGLY 9FLU5C$ BY HIS IDEAS 7,JANE ,FAJANS1 ,F]D ,MY]S1 ,/EPH5 ,SANGR51 ET AL471 ! VA/ MAJORITY HAS NEV] EV5 BE5 EXPOS$ TO !M4 ,BE=E \TL9+ ,TURN]'S APPROA*1 ?\< 7OR ANYWAY MY [N IDIOSYNCRATIC V]SION ( IT7 SOME GR\NDWORK IS PROBABLY 9 ORD]4 

! UND]SIDE ( ! ,WE/]N TRADITION 

  

,AT ! 5D ( ! LA/ *APT] ,I SUGGE/$ ?AT ONE REASON ,NANCY ,MUNN'S WORK HAS BE5 SO LITTLE TAK5 UP IS ?AT !ORIES ?AT />T FROM ACTION FALL SO F> \TSIDE ! MA9 CURR5TS ( ! ,WE/]N 9TELLECTUAL TRADITION ?AT IT'S H>D = MO/ S*OL>S TO FIGURE \T EXACTLY :AT TO DO ) !M4 ,!Y BELONG1 ONE MI<T SAY1 TO ! ,H]ACLITEAN TRADITION1 :I* 9 ,WE/]N ?\<T HAS ALWAYS BE5 SOME:AT M>G9AL4 ,WE/]N PHILOSOPHY1 AFT] ALL1 REALLY BEG9S ) ! QU>REL BETWE5 ,H]ACLITUS & ,P>M5IDES2 A QU>REL ?AT ,P>M5IDES WON4 ,AS A RESULT1 FROM ALMO/ ! V]Y />T1 ! ,WE/]N TRADITION M>K$ ITSELF BY IMAG9+ OBJECTS ?AT EXI/1 AS IT W]E1 \TSIDE ( TIME & TRANS=MATION4 ,SO MU* SO ?AT ! OBVI\S REALITY ( *ANGE HAS ALWAYS BE5 SOME?+ ( A PROBLEM4 

,IT MI<T BE USEFUL TO REVIEW ?AT QU>REL1 H[EV] QUICKLY4 ,H]ACLITUS SAW ! APP>5T FIXITY ( OBJECTS ( ORD9>Y P]CEPTION AS L>GELY AN ILLUSION2 !IR ULTIMATE REALITY WAS ONE ( CON/ANT FLUX & TRANS=MATION4 ,:AT WE ASSUME TO BE OBJECTS >E ACTUALLY PATT]NS ( *ANGE4 ,A RIV] 7?IS IS HIS MO/ FAM\S EXAMPLE7 IS NOT SIMPLY A BODY ( WAT]2 9 FACT1 IF ONE /EPS 9 ! SAME RIV] TWICE1 ! WAT] FL[+ ?R\< IT IS LIKELY TO BE 5TIRELY DIFF]5T4 ,:AT 5DURES OV] TIME IS SIMPLY ! PATT]N ( ITS FL[4.<#d#g.> ,P>M5IDES ON ! O!R H& TOOK PRECISELY ! OPPOSITE VIEW3 HE HELD ?AT IT WAS *ANGE ?AT WAS ILLUSION4 ,= OBJECTS TO BE COMPREH5SIBLE1 !Y MU/ EXI/ TO SOME DEGREE \TSIDE ( TIME & *ANGE4 ,!RE IS A LEVEL ( REALITY1 P]HAPS ONE ?AT WE HUMANS CAN NEV] FULLY P]CEIVE1 AT :I* =MS >E FIX$ & P]FECT4 ,FROM ,P>M5IDES1 ( C\RSE1 ONE CAN TRACE A DIRECT L9E BO? TO ,PY?AGORAS 7& ?US TO ,WE/]N MA? & SCI5CE7 & TO ,PLATO 7) HIS IDEAL =MS71 & H5CE TO JU/ AB\T ANY SUBSEQU5T S*OOL ( ,WE/]N PHILOSOPHY4  

 ,P>M5IDES' POSITION WAS OBVI\SLY ABSURD2 & 9DE$1 SCI5CE HAS S9CE %[N ?AT ,H]ACLITUS WAS MORE RI<T ?AN HE C\LD POSSIBLY HAVE KN[N4 ,! ELEM5TS ?AT MAKE UP SOLID OBJECTS >E1 9 FACT1 9 CON/ANT MOTION4.<#d#h.> ,BUT A FAIRLY /RONG CASE CAN BE MADE ?AT HAD ,WE/]N PHILOSOPHY NOT REJECT$ HIS POSITION = ,P>M5IDES' FALSE ONE1 WE W\LD NEV] HAVE BE5 ABLE TO DISCOV] ?IS4 ,! PROBLEM ) HIS DYNAMIC APPROA* IS ?AT :ILE OBVI\SLY TRUE IT MAKES IT IMPOSSIBLE TO DRAW PRECISE BORD]S & ?US TO MAKE PRECISE MEASUREM5TS4 ,IF OBJECTS >E REALLY PROCESSES1 WE NO LONG] KN[ !IR TRUE DIM5SIONS--AT LEA/1 IF !Y /ILL EXI/--BECAUSE WE DON'T KN[ H[ LONG !Y WILL LA/4 ,IF OBJECTS >E 9 CON/ANT FLUX1 EV5 PRECISE SPATIAL MEASURES >E IMPOSSIBLE4 ,ONE CAN TAKE AN OBJECT'S MEASURE AT A P>TICUL> MOM5T & !N TREAT ?AT AS REPRES5TATIVE1 BUT EV5 ?IS IS SOME?+ ( AN IMAG9>Y CON/RUCT1 BECAUSE SU* 0MOM5TS0 79 ! S5SE ( PO9TS 9 TIME1 ( NO DURATION1 9F9ITELY SMALL7 DO NOT REALLY EXI/--!Y1 TOO1 >E IMAG9>Y CON/RUCTS4 ,IT HAS BE5 PRECISELY SU* IMAG9>Y CON/RUCTS 70MODELS07 ?AT HAVE MADE MOD]N SCI5CE POSSIBLE4 ,AS ,PAUL ,RICOEUR HAS NOT$3  
  

,IT IS /RIK+ ?AT ,PLATO CONTRIBUT$ TO ! CON/RUCTION ( ,EUCLIDIAN GEOMETRY ?R\< HIS WORK ( D5OM9AT+ SU* CONCEPTS AS L9E1 SURFACE1 EQUALITY1 & ! SIMIL>ITY ( FIGURES1 ETC41 :I* /RICTLY =BADE ALL REC\RSE & ALL ALLUSION TO MANIPULATIONS1 TO PHYSICAL TRANS=MATION ( FIGURES4 ,?IS ASCETICISM ( MA!MATICAL LANGUAGE1 TO :I* WE [E1 9 ! LA/ ANALYSIS1 ALL \R MA*9ES S9CE ! DAWN ( ! ME*ANICAL AGE1 W\LD HAVE BE5 IMPOSSIBLE )\T ! LOGICAL H]OISM ( ,P>M5IDES D5Y+ ! 5TIRETY ( ! WORLD ( BECOM+ & ( PRAXIS 9 ! NAME ( ! SELF-ID5TITY ( SIGNIFICATIONS4 ,IT IS TO ?IS D5IAL ( MOVEM5T & WORK ?AT WE [E ! A*IEVEM5TS ( ,EUCLID1 ( ,GALILEO1 MOD]N ME*ANISM1 & ALL \R DEVICES & APP>ATUS 7,RICOEUR #a#i#g3#b#a-#b#b2 ALSO 9 ,SAHL9S #a#i#g#f3#h#a-#h#bN4#b#a7  
  

,!RE IS OBVI\SLY SOME?+ V]Y IRONIC AB\T ALL ?IS4 ,:AT ,RICOEUR IS SUGGE/+ IS ?AT WE HAVE BE5 ABLE TO CREATE A TE*NOLOGY CAPABLE ( GIV+ US HI!RTO UNIMAG9ABLE P[] TO TRANS=M ! WORLD1 L>GELY BECAUSE WE W]E FIR/ ABLE TO IMAG9E A WORLD )\T P[]S OR TRANS=MATIONS4 ,IT MAY WELL BE TRUE4 ,! CRUCIAL ?+1 ?\<1 IS ?AT 9 DO+ SO1 WE HAVE ALSO LO/ SOME?+4 ,BECAUSE ONCE ONE IS ACCU/OM$ TO A BASIC APP>ATUS = LOOK+ AT ! WORLD ?AT />TS FROM AN IMAG9>Y1 /ATIC1 ,P>M5IDEAN WORLD \TSIDE ( IT1 CONNECT+ ! TWO BECOMES AN OV]:ELM+ PROBLEM4 ,ONE MI<T WELL SAY ?AT ! LA/ C\PLE ?\S& YE>S ( ,WE/]N PHILOSOPHY & SOCIAL ?\<T HAVE BE5 & 5DLESS S]IES ( EV] MORE COMPLICAT$ ATTEMPTS TO DEAL ) ! CONSEQU5CES4 ,ALWAYS Y\ GET SAME ! ASSUMPTION ( FIX$ =MS & ! SAME FAILURE TO KN[ :]E Y\ ACTUALLY F9D !M4 ,AS A RESULT1 KN[L$GE ITSELF HAS BECOME ! GREAT PROBLEM4 ,ROY ,BHASK> HAS BE5 >GU+ = SOME YE>S N[ ?AT S9CE ,P>M5IDES1 ,WE/]N PHILOSOPHY HAS BE5 SUFF]+ FROM :AT HE CALLS AN 0EPI/EMIC FALLACY03 A T5D5CY TO CONFUSE ! QUE/ION ( H[ WE CAN KN[ ?+S ) ! QUE/ION ( :E!R ?OSE ?+S EXI/4.<#d#i.> 

,AT ITS MO/ EXTREME1 ?IS T5D5CY OP5S 9TO ,POSITIVISM3 ! ASSUMPTION ?AT GIV5 SUFFICI5T TIME & SUFFICI5TLY ACCURATE 9/RUM5TS1 IT %\LD BE POSSIBLE TO MAKE MODELS & REALITY CORRESPOND 5TIRELY4 ,ACCORD+ TO ITS MO/ EXTREME AVAT>S1 ONE %\LD NOT ONLY BE ABLE TO PRODUCE A COMPLETE DESCRIPTION ( ANY OBJECT 9 ! PHYSICAL WORLD1 BUT--GIV5 ! PR$ICTABLE NATURE ( PHYSICAL 0LAWS0--BE ABLE TO PR$ICT PRECISELY :AT W\LD HAPP5 TO IT UND] EQUALLY PRECISELY UND]/OOD CONDITIONS4 ,S9CE NO ONE HAS EV] BE5 ABLE TO DO ANY?+ ( ! SORT1 ! POSITION HAS A T5D5CY TO G5]ATE ITS OPPOSITE3 A K9D ( AGGRESSIVE NIHILISM 7N[ADAYS MO/ (T5 ID5TIFI$ ) V>I\S SPECIES ( PO/-/RUCTURALISM7 :I* AT ITS MO/ EXTREME >GUES ?AT S9CE ONE CANNOT COME UP ) SU* P]FECT DESCRIPTIONS1 IT IS IMPOSSIBLE TO TALK AB\T 0REALITY0 AT ALL4 

,ALL ?IS IS A F9E ILLU/RATION ( :Y MO/ ( US ORD9>Y MORTALS F9D PHILOSOPHICAL DEBATES SO PO9TLESS4 ,! LOGIC IS 9 DIRECT CONTRADICTION ) ?AT ( ORD9>Y LIFE EXP]I5CE4 ,MO/ ( US >E ACCU/OM$ TO DESCRIBE ?+S AS 0REALITIES0 PRECISELY BECAUSE WE CAN'T COMPLETELY UND]/& !M1 CAN'T COMPLETELY CONTROL !M1 DON'T KN[ EXACTLY H[ !Y >E GO+ TO AFFECT US1 BUT NONE!LESS CAN'T JU/ WI% !M AWAY4 ,IT'S :AT WE DON'T KN[ AB\T !M ?AT BR+S HOME ! FACT ?AT !Y >E REAL4 

,AS ,I SAY1 AN ALT]NATIVE1 ,H]ACLITEAN /RA9 HAS ALWAYS EXI/$--ONE ?AT SEES OBJECTS AS PROCESSES1 AS DEF9$ BY !IR POT5TIALS1 & SOCIETY AS CON/ITUT$ PRIM>ILY BY ACTIONS4 ,ITS BE/-KN[N MANIFE/ATION IS NO D\BT ! DIALECTICAL TRADITION ( ,HEGEL & ,M>X4 ,BUT :ATEV] =M IT TAKES1 IT HAS ALWAYS BE5 ALMO/ IMPOSSIBLE TO 9TEGRATE ) MORE CONV5TIONAL PHILOSOPHY4 ,IT HAS T5D$ TO BE SE5 AS EXI/+ SOME:AT (F TO ! SIDE1 AS ODD OR SOME:AT MY/ICAL4 ,C]TA9LY1 IT HAS SEEM$ ?AT WAY 9 COMP>ISON ) :AT SEEM$ LIKE ! H>D-HEAD$ REALISM ( MORE POSITIVI/ APPROA*ES-- RA!R IRONICALLY1 CONSID]+ ?AT IF ONE MANAGES TO GET PA/ ! (T5 CONVOLUT$ LANGUAGE1 ONE USUALLY F9DS P]SPECTIVES A LOT MORE 9 TUNE ) COMMON-S5SE P]CEPTIONS ( REALITY4.<#e.> 

,ROY ,BHASK> & ?OSE :O HAVE S9CE TAK5 UP SOME V]SION ( HIS 0CRITICAL REALI/0 APPROA* 7,BHASK> #a#i#g#i1 #a#i#h#f1 #a#i#h#i1 #a#i#i#a1 #a#i#i#dA1 #a#i#i#dB2 ,COLLI] #a#i#i1 #a#i#i#d2 ,>*]1 ,BHASK>1 ,COLLI]1 ,LAWSON & ,NORRIE #a#i#i#h7 HAVE BE5 TRY+ = SOME YE>S N[ TO DEVELOP A MORE REASONABLE ONTOLOGY4 ,! RESULT+ >GUM5TS >E NOTORI\SLY DIFFICULT1 BUT IT MI<T HELP TO SET \T SOME ( HIS CONCLUSIONS1 9 %AMELESSLY ABBREVIAT$ =M1 BE=E CONT9U+3  

,REALISM4 ,BHASK> >GUES = A 0TRANSC5D5TAL REALISM03 ?AT IS1 RA!R ?AN LIMIT+ REALITY TO :AT CAN BE OBS]V$ BY ! S5SES1 ONE MU/ ASK 9/EAD 0:AT W\LD HAVE TO BE ! CASE0 9 ORD] TO EXPLA9 :AT WE DO EXP]I5CE4 ,9 P>TICUL>1 HE SEEKS TO EXPLA9 0:Y >E SCI5TIFIC EXP]IM5TS POSSIBLE810 & ALSO1 AT ! SAME TIME 0:Y >E SCI5TIFIC EXP]IM5TS NECESS>Y80  

,POT5TIALITY4 ,HIS CONCLUSION3 :ILE \R EXP]I5CES >E ( EV5TS 9 ! REAL WORLD1 REALITY IS NOT LIMIT$ TO :AT WE CAN EXP]I5CE 70! EMPIRICAL071 OR EV51 TO ! SUM TOTAL ( EV5TS ?AT CAN BE SAID TO HAVE TAK5 PLACE 70! ACTUAL074 ,RA!R1 ,BHASK> PROPOSES A ?IRD LEVEL 70! REAL074 ,TO UND]/& IT1 ONE MU/ ALSO TAKE ACC\NT ( 0P[]S0-- ?AT IS1 DEF9E ?+S 9 P>T 9 T]MS ( !IR POT5TIALS OR CAPACITIES4 ,SCI5CE L>GELY PROCE$S BY HYPO!SIZ+ :AT 0ME*ANISMS0 MU/ EXI/ 9 ORD] TO EXPLA9 SU* P[]S1 & !N BY LOOK+ = !M4 ,! SE>* IS PROBABLY 5DLESS1 BECAUSE !RE >E ALWAYS DEEP] & MORE FUNDAM5TAL LEVELS 7I4E41 FROM ATOMS TO ELECTRONS1 ELECTRONS TO QU>KS1 & SO ON71 BUT ! FACT ?AT !RE'S NO 5D TO ! PURSUIT DOES NOT MEAN REALITY DOESN'T EXI/2 RA!R1 IT SIMPLY MEANS ONE WILL NEV] TO BE ABLE TO UND]/& IT COMPLETELY4  

,FRE$OM4 ,REALITY CAN BE DIVID$ 9TO EM]G5T /RATUM3 JU/ AS *EMI/RY PRESUPPOSES BUT CANNOT BE 5TIRELY R$UC$ TO PHYSICS1 SO BIOLOGY PRESUPPOSES BUT CANNOT BE R$UC$ TO *EMI/RY1 OR ! HUMAN SCI5CES TO BIOLOGY4 ,DIFF]5T SORTS ( ME*ANISMS >E OP]AT+ ON EA*4 ,EA*1 FUR!RMORE1 A*IEVES A C]TA9 AUTONOMY FROM ?OSE BEL[2 IT W\LD BE IMPOSSIBLE EV5 TO TALK AB\T HUMAN FRE$OM W]E ?IS NOT ! CASE1 S9CE \R ACTIONS W\LD SIMPLY BE DET]M9$ BY *EMICAL OR BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES4  

,OP5 ,SY/EMS4 ,ANO!R ELEM5T ( 9DET]M9ACY COMES FROM ! FACT ?AT REAL-WORLD EV5TS OCCUR 9 0OP5 SY/EMS02 ?AT IS1 !RE >E ALWAYS DIFF]5T SORTS ( ME*ANISMS1 D]IV$ FROM DIFF]5T EM]G5T /RATA ( REALITY1 AT PLAY 9 ANY ONE ( !M4 ,AS A RESULT1 ONE CAN NEV] PR$ICT PRECISELY H[ ANY REAL-WORLD EV5T WILL TURN \T4 ,?IS IS :Y SCI5TIFIC EXP]IM5TS >E NECESS>Y3 EXP]IM5T >E WAYS ( CREAT+ TEMPOR>Y 0CLOS$ SY/EMS0 9 :I* ! EFFECTS ( ALL O!R ME*ANISMS >E1 AS F> AS POSSIBLE1 NULLIFI$1 SO ?AT ONE CAN ACTUALLY EXAM9E A S+LE ME*ANISM 9 ACTION4  

,T5D5CIES4 ,AS A RESULT1 IT IS BETT] NOT TO REF] TO UNBREAKABLE SCI5TIFIC 0LAWS0 BUT RA!R ( 0T5D5CIES10 :I* 9T]ACT 9 UNPR$ICTABLE WAYS4 ,( C\RSE1 ! HI<] ! EM]G5T /RATA ONE IS DEAL+ )1 ! LESS PR$ICTABLE ?+S BECOME1 ! 9VOLVEM5T ( HUMAN BE+S ( C\RSE BE+ ! MO/ UNPR$ICTABLE FACTOR ( ALL4.<#e#a.>  
  

,= \R PURPOSES1 ! DETAILS >E NOT AS IMPORTANT AS ! OV]ALL ?RU/3 ?AT ! ,H]ACLITEAN POSITION1 :I* LOOKS AT ?+S 9 T]MS ( !IR DYNAMIC POT5TIALS1 IS NOT A MATT] ( AB&ON+ SCI5CE BUT IS1 RA!R1 ! ONLY HOPE ( GIV+ SCI5CE A SOLID ONTOLOGICAL BASIS4 ,BUT IT ALSO MEANS ?AT 9 ORD] TO DO SO1 ?OSE :O WI% TO MAKE CLAIMS TO SCI5CE WILL HAVE TO AB&ON SOME ( !IR MO/ AMBITI\S--ONE IS TEMPT$ TO SAY1 TOTALIT>IAN1 P>ANOID--DREAMS ( ABSOLUTE OR TOTAL KN[L$GE1 & ACCEPT A C]TA9 DEGREE ( HUMILITY AB\T :AT IT IS POSSIBLE TO KN[4 ,REALITY IS :AT ONE CAN NEV] KN[ COMPLETELY4 ,IF AN OBJECT IS REAL1 ANY DESCRIPTION WE MAKE ( IT WILL NECESS>ILY BE P>TIAL & 9COMPLETE4 ,?AT IS1 9DE$1 H[ WE CAN TELL IT IS REAL4 ,! ONLY ?+S WE CAN HOPE TO KN[ P]FECTLY >E ONES ?AT EXI/ 5TIRELY 9 \R IMAG9ATIONS4 

,:AT IS TRUE ( NATURAL SCI5CE IS ALL ! MORE TRUE ( SOCIAL SCI5CE4 ,:ILE ,BHASK> HAS ACQUIR$ A REPUTATION MA9LY AS A PHILOSOPH] ( SCI5CE1 HIS ULTIMATE 9T]E/ IS SOCIAL2 HE IS TRY+ TO COME UP ) ! PHILOSOPHICAL GR\ND = A !ORY ( HUMAN EMANCIPATION1 A WAY ( SQU>+ SCI5TIFIC KN[L$GE ) ! IDEA ( HUMAN FRE$OM4 ,H]E1 TOO1 ! ULTIMATE MESSAGE IS ONE ( HUMILITY3 ,CRITICAL ,REALI/S HOLD ?AT IT IS POSSIBLE TO PRES]VE ! NOTION ( A SOCIAL REALITY &1 !RE=E1 ( A SCI5CE ABLE TO MAKE TRUE /ATEM5TS AB\T IT--BUT ONLY IF ONE AB&ONS ! SORT ( POSITIVI/ NUMB]-CRUN*+ ?AT PASSES = SCI5CE AMONG MO/ CURR5T SOCIOLOGI/S OR ECONOMI/S1 & GIVES UP ON ! IDEA ?AT SOCIAL SCI5CE WILL EV] BE ABLE TO E/ABLI% PR$ICTIVE LAWS4 

,A LA/ WORD ON ! ,H]ACLEITIAN P]SPECTIVE BE=E PASS+ ON TO ,M>X4 ,?IS CONC]NS ! NOTION ( MAT]IALISM4 ,9 ! ,M>XI/ TRADITION AS ELSE:]E1 ! ASSUMPTION HAS USUALLY BE5 ?AT A MAT]IALI/ ANALYSIS IS ONE ?AT PRIVILEGES C]TA9 SPH]ES OV] O!RS4 ,!RE >E MAT]IAL 9FRA/RUCTURES & IDEOLOGICAL SUP]/RUCTURES2 ! PRODUCTION ( FOOD1 %ELT]1 OR MA*9E TOOLS IS CONSID]$ MORE FUNDAM5TALLY MAT]IAL ?AN ! PRODUCTION ( S]MONS OR SOAP OP]AS OR ZON+ LAWS4 ,?IS IS EI!R BECAUSE !Y ANSW] MORE FUNDAM5TAL1 OR IMM$IATE1 HUMAN NE$S2 OR ELSE1 BECAUSE 7AS ) LAW1 RELIGION1 >T1 EV5 ! /ATE7 !Y >E CONC]N$ ) ! PRODUCTION ( AB/RACTIONS4 ,BUT IT HAS ALWAYS SEEM$ TO ME ?AT TO TREAT LAW1 OR RELIGION1 AS 0AB\T0 AB/RACTIONS IS TO DEF9E !M V]Y MU* AS !Y DEF9E !MSELVES4 ,IF ONE W]E TO 9SI/ ON SEE+ ALL SU* SPH]ES PRIM>ILY AS DOMA9S ( HUMAN ACTION1 IT QUICKLY BECOMES OBVI\S ?AT JU/ AS MU* AS ! PRODUCTION ( FOOD REQUIRES ?9K+1 >T & LIT]ATURE >E REALLY A SET ( MAT]IAL PROCESSES4 ,LIT]ATURE1 FROM ?IS K9D ( MAT]IALI/ P]SPECTIVE1 W\LD NO LONG] BE SO MU* AB\T 0TEXTS0 7USUALLY ?\<T ( AS AB/RACTIONS ?AT CAN !N SEEM TO FLOAT AP>T FROM TIME OR SPACE7 BUT AB\T ! WRIT+ & READ+ ( !M4 ,?IS IS OBVI\SLY 9 EV]Y WAY MAT]IAL3 ACTUAL1 FLE%-&-BLOOD PEOPLE HAVE TO WRITE !M1 !Y HAVE TO HAVE ! LEISURE & RES\RCES1 !Y NE$ P5S OR TYPEWRIT]S OR COMPUT]S1 !RE >E PRACTICAL CON/RA9TS ( EV]Y SORT 5TAIL$ 9 ! CIRCULATION ( LIT]ATURE1 & SO ON4 

,?IS MI<T SEEM A WEAK1 COMPROMIS$ V]SION ( 0MAT]IALISM10 BUT IF APPLI$ CONSI/5TLY1 IT W\LD REALLY BE QUITE RADICAL4 ,SOME?+ ( ! P[] ( ! APPROA* MI<T BE JUDG$ BY H[ MU* IT T5DS TO ANNOY PEOPLE4 ,MO/ S*OL>S CONSID] ACKN[L$GM5T ( ! MAT]IAL M$IUM ( !IR PRODUCTION AS SOMEH[ IMP]T95T4 ,EV5 A DISCIPL9E LIKE AN?ROPOLOGY T5DS TO PRES5T ITSELF AS FLOAT+ OV] MAT]IAL REALITIES1 EXCEPT1 P]HAPS1 :5 DESCRIB+ ! IMM$IATE EXP]I5CE ( FIELDWORK2 C]TA9LY IT W\LD BE CONSID]$ RUDE TO PO9T \T1 :ILE DISCUSS+ ! M]ITS ( AN AN?ROPOLOGICAL MONOGRAPH1 ?AT IT WAS WRITT5 BY AN AU?OR :O WAS WELL AW>E ?AT ALMO/ EV]YONE :O W\LD EV5TUALLY BE READ+ IT W\LD BE DO+ SO NOT BECAUSE !Y *OSE TO BUT BECAUSE SOME PR(ESSOR =C$ !M TO1 OR1 ?AT F9ANCIAL CON/RA9TS 9 ! ACADEMIC PUBLI%+ 9DU/RY 5SUR$ ?AT IT C\LD NOT EXCE$ #c PAGES4 ,BUT OBVI\SLY ALL ?IS IS RELEVANT TO ! K9D ( BOOKS WE WRITE4 ,AT ANY RATE1 ?IS IS ! SORT ( MAT]IALISM ,I'LL BE ADOPT+ 9 ?IS BOOK3 ONE ?AT SEES SOCIETY AS >IS+ FROM CREATIVE ACTION1 BUT CREATIVE ACTION AS SOME?+ ?AT CAN NEV] BE SEP>AT$ FROM ITS CONCRETE1 MAT]IAL M$IUM4 

,M>X'S !ORY ( VALUE 

  

,! FIR/ ?+ ONE %\LD PROBABLY SAY AB\T ,M>X'S LABOR !ORY ( VALUE IS ?AT IT'S NOT ! SAME AS ,DAVID ,RIC>DO'S4 ,PEOPLE (T5 CONFUSE !M4 ,RIC>DO >GU$ ?AT ! VALUE ( A COMMODITY 9 A M>KET SY/EM CAN BE CALCULAT$ 9 T]MS ( ! 0MAN-H\RS0 ?AT W5T 9TO MAK+ IT1 & !RE=E IT %\LD BE !ORETICALLY POSSIBLE TO CALCULATE PRECISELY H[ MANY PEOPLE WORK$ H[ LONG 9 ! PROCESS ( MAK+ IT 7&1 PRESUMABLY1 MAK+ ! RAW MAT]IALS1 %IPP+ !M FROM PLACE TO PLACE1 & SO ON47 ,9 FACT1 ,M>X FELT ,RIC>DO'S APPROA* WAS 9ADEQUATE4 ,:AT MAKES CAPITALISM UNIQUE1 HE >GU$1 IS ?AT IT IS ! ONLY SY/EM 9 :I* LABOR--A HUMAN BE+'S CAPACITY TO TRANS=M ! WORLD1 !IR P[]S ( PHYSICAL & M5TAL CREATIVITY-- CAN ITSELF BE B\<T & SOLD4 ,AFT] ALL1 :5 AN EMPLOY] HIRES WORK]S1 HE DOES NOT USUALLY PAY !M BY ! TASK COMPLET$3 HE PAYS !M BY ! H\R1 ?US PUR*AS+ !IR ABILITY TO DO :ATEV] HE TELLS !M TO DO DUR+ ?AT P]IOD ( TIME4.<#e#b.> ,H5CE1 9 A WAGE-LABOR ECONOMY1 9 :I* MO/ PEOPLE HAVE TO SELL !IR CAPACITY TO WORK 9 ?IS WAY1 ONE CAN MAKE CALCULATIONS ?AT W\LD BE IMPOSSIBLE 9 A NON-CAPITALI/ SOCIETY3 ?AT IS1 LOOK AT ! AM\NT ( LABOR 9VE/$ 9 A GIV5 OBJECT AS A SPECIFIC PROPORTION ( ! TOTAL AM\NT ( LABOR 9 ! SY/EM AS A :OLE4 ,?IS IS ITS VALUE4.<#e#c.> 

,! CONCEPT MAKES MU* BETT] S5SE IF ONE BE>S 9 M9D ?AT ,M>X'S !ORY ( VALUE WAS NOT MEANT TO BE A !ORY ( PRICES4 ,M>X WAS NOT P>TICUL>LY 9T]E/$ 9 COM+ UP ) A MODEL ?AT W\LD PR$ICT PRICE FLUCTUATIONS1 UND]/& PRIC+ ME*ANISMS1 & SO ON4 ,ALMO/ ALL O!R ECONOMI/S HAVE BE51 S9CE !Y >E ULTIMATELY TRY+ TO WRITE SOME?+ ?AT W\LD BE ( USE TO ?OSE OP]AT+ )9 A M>KET SY/EM4 ,M>X WAS WRIT+ SOME?+ ?AT W\LD BE ( USE = ?OSE TRY+ TO OV]?R[ SU* A SY/EM4 ,!RE=E1 HE BY NO MEANS ASSUM$ ?AT PRICE PAID = SOME?+ WAS AN ACCURATE REFLECTION ( ITS WOR?4 ,IT MI<T BE BETT]1 !N1 TO ?9K ( ! WORD 0VALUE0 AS MEAN+ SOME?+ MORE LIKE 0IMPORTANCE40 ,IMAG9E A PIE *>T1 REPRES5T+ ! ,U4,S4 ECONOMY4 ,IF ONE W]E TO DET]M9E ?AT ! ,U4,S4 ECONOMY DEVOTES1 SAY1 #ai P]C5T ( ITS ,G,D,P TO HEAL? C>E1 #af P]C5T TO ! AUTO 9DU/RY1 #g P]C5T TO ,T,V & ,HOLLYWOOD1 & 4#b P]C5T TO ! F9E >TS1 ONE CAN SAY ?IS IS A MEASURE ( H[ IMPORTANT !SE >EAS >E TO US AS A SOCIETY4 ,M>X IS PROPOS+ WE SIMPLY SUB/ITUTE LABOR AS A BETT] MEASURE3 IF ,AM]ICANS SP5D #g P]C5T ( !IR CREATIVE 5]GIES 9 A GIV5 YE> PRODUC+ AUTOMOBILES1 ?IS IS ! ULTIMATE MEASURE ( H[ IMPORTANT IT IS TO US TO HAVE C>S4 ,ONE CAN !N EXT5D ! >GUM5T3 IF ,AM]ICANS HAVE SP5T1 SAY1 4#g P]C5T OR SOME SIMIL>LY 9F9ITESIMAL PROPORTION ( !IR CREATIVE 5]GIES 9 A GIV5 YE> ON ?IS C>1 !N ?AT REPRES5TS ITS VALUE4 ,?IS IS BASICALLY ,M>X'S >GUM5T1 EXCEPT ?AT HE WAS SPEAK+ ( A TOTAL M>KET SY/EM1 :I* W\LD BY N[ GO BEYOND ANY P>TICUL> NATIONAL ECONOMY TO 9CLUDE ! WORLD4 

,AS A FIR/ APPROXIMATION !N1 ONE MI<T SAY ?AT ! VALUE A GIV5 PRODUCT--OR1 = ?AT MATT]1 9/ITUTION--HAS IS ! PROPORTION ( A SOCIETY'S CREATIVE 5]GY IT S9KS 9TO PRODUC+ & MA9TA9+ IT4 ,IF AN OBJECTIVE MEASURE IS POSSIBLE1 IT W\LD HAVE TO BE SOME?+ LIKE ?IS4 ,BUT OBVI\SLY ?IS CAN NEV] BE A PRECISE MEASURE4 0,CREATIVE 5]GIES10 H[EV] !Y'RE DEF9$1 >E NOT ! SORT ( ?+ ?AT CAN BE QUANTIFI$4.<#e#d.> ,! ONLY REASON ,M>X FELT ONE C\LD MAKE SU* CALCULATIONS--H[EV] APPROXIMATE-- )9 A CAPITALI/ SY/EM WAS BECAUSE ( ! EXI/5CE ( A M>KET 9 LABOR4 ,= LABOR--9 EFFECT1 HUMAN CAPACITIES = ACTION1 S9CE :AT Y\ >E SELL+ TO Y\R BOSS IS Y\R ABILITY TO WORK--TO BE B\<T & SOLD1 !RE HAD TO BE A SY/EM = CALCULAT+ ITS PRICE4 ,?IS 9 TURN MEANT AN ELABORATE CULTURAL APP>ATUS 9VOLV+ SU* ?+S AS TIME C>DS1 CLOCK-PUN*+1 & WEEKLY OR BIWEEKLY PAY*ECKS1 NOT TO M5TION RECOGNIZ$ /&>DS AB\T ! PACE & 9T5SITY ( LABOR EXPECT$ ( ANY P>TICUL> TASK 7PEOPLE >E R>ELY1 EV5 9 ! MO/ EXPLOITATIVE CONDITIONS1 EXPECT$ TO WORK TO ! ABSOLUTE LIMITS ( !IR PHYSICAL & M5TAL CAPACITIES71 :I* 5ABLES ,M>X TO REF] TO 0SOCIALLY NECESS>Y LABOR TIME40 ,!RE >E CULTURAL /&>DS1 !N1 BY :I* LABOR CAN BE R$UC$ TO UNITS ( TIME1 :I* CAN !N BE C\NT$1 ADD$1 & COMP>$ TO ONE ANO!R4 ,IT IS IMPORTANT TO /RESS ! APP>ATUS ?R\< :I* ?IS IS DONE IS AT ! SAME TIME MAT]IAL & SYMBOLIC3 !RE HAVE TO BE REAL1 PHYSICAL CLOCKS TO PUN*1 BUT ALSO1 SYMBOLIC M$IA ( REPRES5TATION1 SU* AS MONEY & H\RS4 

,( C\RSE1 EV5 :]E MO/ PEOPLE >E WAGE LABOR]S1 IT'S NOT AS IF ALL CREATIVITY IS ON ! M>KET4 ,EV5 9 \R [N M>KET-RIDD5 SOCIETY !RE >E ALL SORTS ( DOMA9S--RANG+ FROM H\SEWORK TO HOBBIES1 POLITICAL ACTION1 P]SONAL PROJECTS ( ANY SORT--:]E IS NO SU* HOMOG5IZ+ APP>ATUS4 ,BUT IT IS PROBABLY NO CO9CID5CE ?AT IT'S PRECISELY H]E :]E ONE HE>S AB\T 0VALUES0 9 ! PLURAL S5SE3 FAMILY VALUES1 RELIGI\S VIRTUES1 ! ES!TIC VALUES ( >T1 & SO ON4 ,:]E !RE IS NO S+LE SY/EM ( VALUE1 ONE IS LEFT ) A :OLE S]IES ( HET]OG5E\S1 DISP>ATE ONES4 

,:AT1 !N1 DOES ONE DO :]E !RE IS NO M>KET 9 LABOR AT ALL1 OR NONE ?AT IS ESPECIALLY IMPORTANT8 ,DOES ! SAME ?+ HAPP58 ,?AT IS1 IS IT POSSIBLE TO APPLY ANY?+ LIKE ,M>X'S VALUE ANALYSIS TO ! VA/ MAJORITY ( HUMAN SOCIETIES--OR TO ANY ONE ?AT EXI/$ PRIOR TO ! EI<TE5? C5TURY8 ,= AN?ROPOLOGI/S 7OR = ?AT MATT]1 ?OSE :O W\LD LIKE TO ?9K AB\T AN ALT]NATIVE TO CAPITALISM7 ?IS IS OBVI\SLY ONE ( ! MO/ IMPORTANT QUE/IONS4 

! 0PRAXIOLOGICAL APPROA*0 

  

,IT W\LD HAVE BE5 EASI] IF ,M>X HAD GIV5 US MORE ( A CLUE 9 HIS [N WRIT+S4 ,! CLOSE/ ,M>X HIMSELF EV] CAME TO WRIT+ G5]AL SOCIAL !ORY WAS 9 SOME ( HIS E>LIE/ !ORETICAL WRIT+S3 HIS ,!SES ON ,FEU]BA*1 #ahdd ,MANUSCRIPTS1 & ESPECIALLY ,! ,G]MAN ,IDEOLOGY1 CO-WRITT5 ) ,5GELS BETWE5 #ahde & #a#h#d#f4 ,?IS WAS ! P]IOD :5 ,M>X WAS LIV+ 9 ,P>IS & MAK+ A BROAD ACC\NT+ ) ! RADICAL PHILOSOPHICAL CIRCLES 9 :I* HE'D SP5T HIS 9TELLECTUAL Y\? 9 ,G]MANY4 ,9 DO+ SO1 !SE WORKS MAP \T A SYN!SIS ( TWO V]Y DIFF]5T 9TELLECTUAL TRADITIONS3 ! ,G]MAN IDEALISM ( ! ,HEGELIAN S*OOL1 & ! MAT]IALISM ( ! ,FR5* ,5LI<T5M5T4 ,! ADVANTAGE ( ,HEGEL'S DIALECTICAL APPROA* TO HI/ORY1 ,M>X FELT1 WAS ?AT IT WAS 9H]5TLY DYNAMIC2 RA!R ?AN />T+ FROM SOME FIX$ NOTION ( :AT A HUMAN BE+1 OR ! PHYSICAL WORLD1 IS LIKE1 IT WAS ! /ORY ( H[ HUMANITY EFFECTIVELY CREAT$ ITSELF ?R\< 9T]ACT+ ) ! WORLD >\ND IT4 ,IT WAS1 9 EFFECT1 AN ATTEMPT TO SEE :AT ! HI/ORY W\LD LOOK LIKE IF ONE ASSUM$ FROM ! />T ?AT ,H]ACLITUS HAD BE5 RI<T4 ,NOT ONLY WAS IT AB\T ACTION3 ULTIMATELY1 :AT ,HEGEL'S PHILOSOPHY WAS AB\T WAS ! HI/ORY ( H[ HUMANITY BECOMES FULLY SELF-CONSCI\S ?R\< ITS [N ACTIONS2 IT WAS ITS F9AL A*IEVEM5T ( TRUE SELF-UND]/&+ 7:I* ,HEGEL1 MODE/LY1 BELIEV$ TO HAVE BE5 A*IEV$ 9 HIMSELF 7 :I* LAID OP5 ! POSSIBILITY ( HUMAN FRE$OM4 ,! PROBLEM WAS ?AT NEI!R ! CONS]VATIVE ,HEGEL NOR ! RADICAL ,Y\NG ,HEGELIANS 7:O >GU$ ! PROCESS HAD NOT BE5 COMPLET$1 & MORE DRA/IC MEASURES1 SU* AS AN ATTACK ON RELIGION1 W]E REQUIR$7 />T$ FROM REAL1 FLE%-&-BLOOD HUMAN BE+S4 ,9/EAD1 !IR ACTIVE SUBJECTS W]E ALWAYS AB/RACTIONS LIKE 0,M9D10 0,REASON10 0,SPIRIT10 0,HUMANITY10 OR 0! ,NATION40 ,M>X PROPOS$ A MAT]IALI/ ALT]NATIVE4 ,BUT NEI!R WAS ,M>X ESPECIALLY HAPPY ) ! MAT]IALISM ( HIS DAY1 :I* WAS MA9LY A PRODUCT ( ,FR5* ,5LI<T5M5T PHILOSOPH]S LIKE ,HELVETIUS4 ,! PROBLEM ) 0ALL PREVI\S MAT]IALISM10 HE NOT$ 9 HIS ,!SES ON ,FEU]BA*1 IS ?AT IT DID NOT SEE HUMAN BE+S AS DRIV5 BY SELF-CONSCI\S PROJECTS AT ALL4 ,IT SAW !M AS VIRTUALLY PASSIVE3 DRIV5 BY A FIX$ SET ( BASIC1 PHYSICAL NE$S1 SIMPLY 0ADAPT+0 TO !IR 5VIRONM5T 9 SU* A WAY AS TO BE/ SATISFY !M4 ,:AT HE PROPOS$1 9/EAD1 WAS A SYN!SIS3 9 :I* HUMAN BE+S >E SE5 AS ACTIVE1 9T5TIONAL1 IMAG9ATIVE CREATURES1 BUT AT ! SAME TIME1 PHYSICAL ONES ?AT EXI/ 9 ! REAL WORLD4 ,?AT 7AS HE PUT IT ELSE:]E7 0M50 MAKE !IR [N HI/ORIES1 BUT NOT UND] CONDITIONS ( !IR [N *OOS+4 

,IT'S C]TA9LY TRUE ?AT ,M>X'S WORK (T5 SEEMS TO PULL 9 SEV]AL DIFF]5T DIRECTIONS AT ONCE4 ,TAKE = EXAMPLE HIS FAM\S DESCRIPTION ( ! F\R 0MOM5TS0 9 ,! ,G]MAN ,IDEOLOGY 9 :I* HE & ,5GELS SET \T ! BASIC MAT]IAL REALITIES ?AT HAVE TO BE TAK5 9TO ACC\NT BE=E ONE CAN TALK AB\T HUMANS TO BE ABLE TO 0MAKE HI/ORY0 7#a#h#d#f .<#a#i#g3#d#h-#e#a.>74 ,:AT SEP>ATES HUMANS FROM ANIMALS IS ?AT HUMANS PRODUCE !IR MEANS ( LIVELIHOOD4 ,HE ALSO NOTES ?AT HUMAN BE+S1 9 ORD] TO EXI/1 NOT ONLY 7#a7 NE$ TO PRODUCE BASIC REQUIREM5TS1 LIKE FOOD & %ELT]2 BUT ?AT 7#b7 ! ACT ( PRODUC+ 9 ORD] TO MEET SU* NE$S WILL ALWAYS CREATE NEW NE$S2 ?AT 7#c7 9 ORD] TO CONT9UE TO EXI/ HUMAN BE+S NE$ TO PRODUCE O!R HUMAN BE+S1 :I* 5TAILS PROCREATION1 *ILD-RE>+1 ! FAMILY1 ETC41 & ?AT 7#d7 S9CE HUMANS NEV] PRODUCE ANY ( !SE ?+S 9 ISOLATION1 EV]Y SOCIETY MU/ ALSO HAVE RELATIONS ( COOP]ATION4 ,IT IS ONLY AFT] ?IS HAS BE5 TAK5 9TO ACC\NT1 ,M>X NOTES1 ?AT ONE CAN BEG9 TO TALK AB\T 0CONSCI\SNESS10 :I*1 HE EMPHASIZES1 0H]E MAKES ITS APPE>ANCE 9 ! =M ( AGITAT$ LAY]S ( AIR1 S\NDS1 9 %ORT1 ( LANGUAGE0 7#a#h#d#f3#e-#e#a71 :I* 9 TURN >ISES FROM PEOPLE'S NE$S TO TALK TO EA* O!R RA!R ?AN 9DEP5D5TLY 9 ! M9DS ( 9DIVIDUAL HUMAN BE+S4 

,?IS C]TA9LY S\NDS LIKE IT'S MOV+ T[>DS ! SORT ( DIVISION BETWE5 MAT]IAL 9FRA/RUCTURE & IDEOLOGICAL SUP]/RUCTURE LAID \T1 MO/ EXPLICITLY1 9 HIS PREFACE TO ,A ,CONTRIBUTION TO ! ,CRITIQUE ( ,POLITICAL ,ECONOMY 7#a#h#e#i74 ,BUT ?IS ALSO MOVES AWAY FROM ,M>X'S C5TRAL 9SPIRATION3 :I* IS ?AT CONSCI\SNESS IS NOT ! IC+ ON ! CAKE ( PRODUCTION1 BUT RA!R1 FUNDAM5TAL TO PRODUCTION ITSELF4 ,= ,M>X1 :AT SETS HUMANS AP>T FROM ANIMALS WAS PRECISELY ?AT HUMANS PRODUCE ?+S 9 A SELF-CONSCI\S MANN]4 ,:AT MAKES US HUMAN IS NOT SO MU* 0REASON0 7AT LEA/ 9 ! MOD]N1 PROBLEM-SOLV+ S5SE7 AS IMAG9ATION3  
  

,WE PRESUPPOSE LABOR 9 A =M ?AT /AMPS IT AS EXCLUSIVELY HUMAN4 ,A SPID] CONDUCTS OP]ATIONS ?AT RESEMBLE ?OSE ( A WEAV]1 & A BEE PUTS TO %AME MANY AN >*ITECT 9 ! CON/RUCTION ( H] CELLS4 ,BUT :AT DI/+UI%ES ! WOR/ >*ITECT FROM ! BE/ ( BEES IS ?IS1 ?AT ! >*ITECT RAISES HIS /RUCTURE 9 IMAG9ATION BE=E HE ]ECTS IT 9 REALITY4 7,CAPITAL ,I3 #a#g#h7  
  

,HUMANS 5VISION :AT !Y W\LD LIKE TO HAVE BE=E !Y MAKE IT2 AS A RESULT1 WE CAN ALSO IMAG9E ALT]NATIVES4 ,HUMAN 9TELLIG5CE IS ?US 9H]5TLY CRITICAL1 :I*1 9 TURN1 IS CRUCIAL TO ,M>X'S CONCEPTION ( HI/ORY BECAUSE ?IS :I* = ! POSSIBILITY ( REVOLUTION4 

,IF ONE TURNS BACK TO ! ORIG9AL F\R MOM5TS ) ?IS 9 M9D1 H[EV]1 ONE HAS ! BASIS 7)1 P]HAPS1 A T9Y A BIT ( REF9EM5T & RE>RANGEM5T7 = A V]Y P[]FUL !ORY ( ACTION 7,TURN] #a#i#h#d3#a#a2 ,FAJANS #a#i#i#c3#c74 ,! RESULT W\LD LOOK SOME?+ LIKE ?IS4 ,9 ANY SOCIETY1 ONE MI<T SAY1 PRODUCTION 5TAILS3  

,AN EF=T TO FULFILL P]CEIV$ NE$S ON ! P>T ( ! PRODUC] 7!SE1 AS ,M>X NOTES1 MU/ ALWAYS 9CLUDE BASIC NECESSITIES LIKE FOOD & %ELT]1 BUT >E NEV] LIMIT$ TO ?IS474 ,IT ALSO 9CLUDES ! KEY 9SI<T ?AT 0OBJECTS0 EXI/ 9 TWO S5SES3 NOT JU/ AS PHYSICAL OBJECTS ?AT ACTUALLY EXI/ 9 ! WORLD1 BUT ALSO1 9S(> AS !Y >E PRES5T 9 SOMEONE'S 7SOME SUBJECT'S7 CONSCI\SNESS1 AS OBJECTS ( ?AT SUBJECT'S ACTION 9 SOME S5SE OR ANO!R--EV5 IF ?IS IS ONLY 9 ! M9IMAL S5SE ( ACTIVE OBS]VATION & /UDY4 7,?IS IS :AT HE >GU$ ,FEU]BA*'S MAT]IALISM OV]LOOK$47  

,HUMANS BE+ SOCIAL CREATURES1 ?IS ALSO MEANS PRODUC+ A SY/EM ( SOCIAL RELATIONS 7FAMILIES1 CLANS1 GUILDS1 SECRET SOCIETIES1 GOV]NM5T M9I/RIES1 ETC417 )9 :I* PEOPLE COORD9ATE !IR PRODUCTIVE ACTIONS ) ONE ANO!R4 ,9 P>T ?IS ALSO MEANS ?AT PRODUCTION ALSO 5TAILS  

PRODUC+ ! PRODUC] AS A SPECIFIC SORT ( P]SON 7SEAM/RESS1 H>EM EUNU*1 MOVIE />1 ETC474 ,9 COOP]AT+ ) O!RS1 A P]SON DEF9ES H]SELF 9 A C]TA9 WAY--?IS CAN BE REF]R$ TO AS ! 0REFLEXIVE0 ELEM5T 9 ACTION4 ,IT ALSO USUALLY MEANS BE+ ASCRIB$ C]TA9 SORTS ( P[] OR AG5CY1 OR ACTUALLY ACQUIR+ !M4.<#e#e.>  

,! PROCESS IS ALWAYS OP5-5D$1 PRODUC+ NEW NE$S AS A RESULT ( 7#a71 7#b7 & 7#c7 & ?US BE>+ )9 IT ! POT5TIAL = ITS [N TRANS=MATION4  
  

,SO WE />T ) A NOTION ( 9T5TIONAL ACTION1 PRODUCTIVE ACTION AIM$ AT A C]TA9 GOAL4 ,?IS ACTION PRODUCES SOCIAL RELATIONS & 9 DO+ SO TRANS=MS ! PRODUC]S !MSELVES4 ,/AT$ ?IS WAY1 ! MODEL SEEMS /RAI<T=W>D 5\<4 ,!RE'S NO ELEM5T 9 IT ?AT'S NOT PRETTY SELF-EVID5T4 ,BUT TO APPLY IT CONSI/5TLY1 ONE W\LD HAVE TO RE?9K ALL SORTS ( ACCEPT$ ELEM5TS ( SOCIAL !ORY4 ,TAKE = EXAMPLE ! NOTION ( 0SOCIAL /RUCTURE40 ,IF ONE />TS FROM ?IS BROAD NOTION ( PRODUCTION1 0SOCIAL /RUCTURES0--LIKE ANY O!R SORT ( /RUCTURE-->E REALLY JU/ PATT]NS ( ACTION4 ,BUT !Y >E V]Y COMPLICAT$ PATT]NS3 !Y NOT ONLY COORD9ATE ALL SORTS ( 9T5TIONAL HUMAN ACTION1 !Y >E ALSO ! MEANS ?R\< :I* ACTORS >E CONT9UALLY R$EF9+ & EV5 REMAK+ !MSELVES AT ! SAME TIME AS !Y >E REPRODUC+ 7& ALSO 9EVITABLY1 *ANG+7 ! L>G] CONTEXT ?R\< :I* ALL ?IS TAKES PLACE4 ,EV5 = AN \TSIDE OBS]V]1 IT IS NOT EASY TO KEEP TRACK ( ALL ( ?IS4 ,!RE >E C]TA9 PO9TS--= EXAMPLE1 ! PRECISE B\ND>IES BETWE5 9DIVIDUAL & COLLECTIVE CREATIVITY--?AT WE CAN PROBABLY NEV] FULLY UND]/&4 ,FROM 9SIDE ! SY/EM1 IT IS WELL NI< IMPOSSIBLE4 

,9 FACT1 9DIVIDUAL ACTORS T5D TO BE AW>E ( ONLY ! FIR/ ( ! F\R MOM5TS 7! SPECIFIC ?+ !Y >E MAK+ OR DO+1 ! SPECIFIC 5D !Y HAVE 9 M9D7.<#e#f.>2 IT IS MU* H>D] TO KEEP TRACK ( ! O!R ?REE4 ,ONE C\LD WELL >GUE ?AT ALL ! GREAT PROBLEMS ( SOCIAL !ORY EM]GE FROM ?IS S+LE DIFFICULTY--:E!R IT BE ,DURKHEIM'S FAM\S OBS]VATION ?AT EV5 ?\< 0SOCIETY0 IS JU/ A COLLECTION ( 9DIVIDUALS1 EV]Y ONE ( ?OSE 9DIVIDUALS SEES IT AS AN ALI5 =CE CON/RA9+ !M1 OR ,M>X'S1 AB\T ! WAY 9 :I* \R [N CREATIONS COME TO SEEM ALI5 5TITIES ) P[] OV] US 7CF4 ,TAUSSIG #a#i#i#c74 

,IMAG9ATION1 !N1 MAY BE ESS5TIAL TO ! NATURE ( PRODUCTIVE ACTION1 BUT IMAG9ATION ALSO HAS ITS LIMITS4 ,OR1 TO PUT IT ANO!R WAY1 HUMAN ACTION IS SELF-CONSCI\S BY NATURE1 BUT IT IS NEV] 5TIRELY SO4 

,ONE MI<T SAY !RE >E TWO ORD]S ( CRITICAL !ORY4 ,! FIR/ SIMPLY S]VES TO DEMON/RATE ?AT \R NORMAL WAY ( LOOK+ AT ! WORLD--OR ( SOME PH5OM5A )9 IT--IS FLAW$3 9COMPLETE OR MI/AK51 & TO EXPLA9 H[ ?+S REALLY WORK4 ,! SECOND1 MORE P[]FUL NOT ONLY EXPLA9S H[ ?+S ACTUALLY WORK1 BUT DOES SO 9 SU* A WAY AS TO ACC\NT = :Y PEOPLE DID NOT P]CEIVE IT ?AT WAY TO BEG9 )4 ,M>XI/ APPROA*ES HOLD \T ! PROMISE ( DO+ PRECISELY ?AT4.<#e#g.> ,BUT IF ONE CONSID]S ! OV]ALL ?RU/ ( ,M>X'S WRIT+S1 FROM HIS E>LI] 0PHILOSOPHICAL0 WORKS TO ! !ORY ( FETI%ISM 9 ,CAPITAL1 ONE F9DS ?AT :AT HE PRODUC$ WAS LESS A !ORY ( FALSE CONSCI\SNESS ?AN A !ORY ( P>TIAL CONSCI\SNESS3.<#e#h.> ONE 9 :I* ACTORS F9D IT ALMO/ IMPOSSIBLE TO DI/+UI% !IR [N P>TICUL> VANTAGE ON A SITUATION FROM ! OV]ALL /RUCTURE ( ! SITUATION ITSELF4 ,BE=E SETT+ IT \T1 ?\<1 ,I MU/ MAKE A BRIEF DET\R ON ! PROBLEM ( /RUCTURE4 

DYNAMIC /RUCTURES 

  

,AN?ROPOLOGICAL IDEAS ( /RUCTURE1 ( C\RSE1 L>GELY CAME \T ( ,SAUSSUREAN L+UI/ICS4 ,I HAVE ALREADY DESCRIB$ ,SAUSSURE'S CONCEPTION ( LANGUAGE AS A SY/EM ( SIGNS ?AT EXI/S 9 A /ATE ( EQUILIBRIUM1 EA* ELEM5T CONTRIBUT+ TO ! DEF9ITION ( ! O!RS4 ,APPLY+ ?IS TO AN?ROPOLOGY CREAT$ NOTORI\S DILEMMAS4 ,:]E1 EXACTLY1 WAS ?IS AB/RACT SY/EM TO BE F\ND8 ,H[ WAS ONE TO RELATE LANGUE & P>OLE1 SYN*RONY & DIA*RONY1 ! AB/RACT SY/EM1 SE5 AS EXI/+ \TSIDE ( TIME1 & ! REAL EV5TS--PEOPLE SPEAK+1 WRIT+1 & SO ON1 NONE ( !M FULLY AW>E ( ! PR9CIPLES ?AT GUIDE !IR [N PRACTICE1 EV5 ?\< !IR PRACTICE IS ! ONLY WAY WE HAVE ( GETT+ AT ?OSE PR9CIPLES 9 ! FIR/ PLACE8 ,BY N[ IT %\LD BE APP>5T ?AT ?IS IS JU/ ANO!R V>IATION ( ! SAME ,P>M5IDEAN PROBLEM3 H[ DOES ONE RELATE ! MODELS TO REALITY8 

,AN?ROPOLOGICAL WISDOM TO ! CONTR>Y1 H[EV]1 ,SAUSSUREAN /RUCTURALISM WAS NEV] ! ONLY ONE >\ND4 ,!RE IS A ,H]ACLITEAN ALT]NATIVE3 ! /RUCTURALISM DEVELOP$ BY ,FR5* PSY*OLOGI/ ,JEAN ,PIAGET 7SEE ,PIAGET #a#i#g2 ,TURN] #a#i#g#c7--:I* />TS FROM ACTION1 & VIEWS 0/RUCTURE0 AS ! COORD9ATION ( ACTIVITY4.<#e#i.> 

,AN?ROPOLOGI/S1 H[EV]1 HAVE R>ELY F\ND MU* USE = ,PIAGET'S /RUCTURALISM4 ,:5 !Y M5TION IT AT ALL1 IT'S USUALLY TO DISMISS IT AS LACK+ 9 CULTURAL DEP? & S5SITIVITY4.<#f.> ,APPLI$ TO ,PIAGET'S [N WRIT+S1 ?IS IS C]TA9LY TRUE4 ,SAUSSURE WAS 9T]E/$ 9 ! DIFF]5T WAYS DIFF]5T LANGUAGES DEF9E REALITY2 ,PIAGET1 9 ! 9TELLECTUAL DEVELOPM5T ( *ILDR54 ,IT'S NOT H>D TO SEE :Y AN?ROPOLOGI/S W]E DRAWN TO ONE & NOT ! O!R4 ,BUT IT ALSO SEEMS TO ME ! ACCUSATION IS SOME:AT SELF-FULFILL+4 ,AFT] ALL1 IF ,PIAGETIAN MODELS LACK CULTURAL DEP?1 IT'S 9 P>T BECAUSE AN?ROPOLOGI/S HAVE NEV] SE5 FIT TO DEVELOP !M4 

,PIAGET'S SPECIFIC >GUM5TS AB\T /AGES ( *ILD DEVELOPM5T >E N[ CONSID]$ \TMOD$2 :AT'S IMPORTANT H]E1 ?\<1 >E NOT ! P>TICUL>S1 BUT ! OV]ALL APPROA*4 ,ABOVE ALL HIS PREMISE3 ?AT 0IT IS ALWAYS & EV]Y:]E ! CASE ?AT ELEM5T>Y =MS ( 9TELLIG5CE ORIG9ATE FROM ACTION40.<#f#a.> ,*ILDR5 9T]ACT ) !IR 5VIRONM5T2 !Y DEVELOP BASIC S*EMATA ( ACTION 7GRABB+1 PULL+1 ETC471 & WAYS ( COORD9AT+ !M4 ,NEXT1 *ILDR5 />T TO DEVELOP MORE COMPLEX & G5]ALIZ$ MODES ( ?\<T ?R\< A PROCESS ,PIAGET CALLS 0REFLEXIVE AB/RACTION10 9 :I* !Y BEG9 TO UND]/& ! LOGICAL PR9CIPLES IMMAN5T 9 !IR [N 9T]ACTION ) ! WORLD1 & !SE SAME S*EMES ( COORD9ATION--:I* !MSELVES1 9 TURN1 BECOME MORE REF9$ & MORE EFFECTIVE AS A RESULT4 7,?IS ALL[S = FUR!R PROCESSES ( REFLEXIVE AB/RACTION1 & SO ON47 ,!RE'S NO NE$ H]E TO LAUN* 9TO DETAILS1 BUT !RE >E A FEW PO9TS ?AT WILL BE CRUCIAL TO BE> 9 M9D4 ,! FIR/ IS ?AT ,PIAGET 9SI/S ?AT ! BASIS ( ANY SY/EM ( KN[L$GE IS ALWAYS A SET ( PRACTICES3 ,MA!MATICS1 = EXAMPLE1 IS NOT D]IV$ FROM ! 0IDEA ( NUMB]0 BUT FROM ! PRACTICE ( C\NT+4 ,! AB/RACT CATEGORIES1 H[EV] IMPORTANT1 NEV] COME FIR/4 ,! SECOND1 ?AT A /RUCTURE CAN ALWAYS BE SE5 AS A SET ( TRANS=MATIONS1 BAS$ ON C]TA9 9V>IANT PR9CIPLES 7?IS CAN BE AS SIMPLE AS A MATT] ( MOV+ PIECES ACROSS A BO>D1 :I* /AYS ! SAME73 ! DEF9+ FEATURE ( SU* TRANS=MATIONS BE+ ?AT !Y >E REV]SIBLE 7! PIECES CAN BE MOV$ BACK AGA974 

,! CRUCIAL ?+ PO9T IS ?AT :AT WE CALL /RUCTURE IS NOT SOME?+ ?AT EXI/S PRIOR TO ACTION4 ,ULTIMATELY1 0/RUCTURE0 IS ID5TICAL ) ! PROCESS ( ITS [N CON/RUCTION4 ,COMPLEX AB/RACT SY/EMS >E SIMPLY ! WAY ACTORS COME TO UND]/& ! LOGIC ( !IR [N 9T]ACTIONS ) ! WORLD4 ,IT'S ALSO CRUCIAL TO BE> 9 M9D ?AT ! PROCESS ( 0REFLEXIVE AB/RACTION0 IS OP5-5D$4 ,PIAGET DOES NOT BELIEVE ?AT DEVELOPM5T IS SIMPLY A MATT] ( A*IEV+ A C]TA9 LEVEL & !N /OPP+2 !RE >E ALWAYS NEW & MORE COMPLEX LEVELS ONE C\LD G5]ATE4 ,H]E ,PIAGET 9VOKES ! ,G]MAN MA!MATICIAN ,KURT ,GODEL1 :O MANAG$ TO %[ ?AT NO LOGICAL SY/EM 7SU* AS1 SAY1 MA!MATICS7 C\LD DEMON/RATE ITS [N 9T]NAL CONSI/5CY2 9 ORD] TO DO SO1 ONE HAS TO G5]ATE A MORE SOPHI/ICAT$1 HI<] LEVEL ?AT PRESUMES IT4 ,S9CE ?AT LEVEL WILL NO BE ABLE TO DEMON/RATE ITS [N PR9CIPLES EI!R1 ONE !N HAS TO GO ON TO G5]ATE ANO!R LEVEL AFT] ?AT1 & SO ON AD 9F9ITUM4 

,GODEL %[$ ?AT ! CON/RUCTION ( A DEMON/RABLY CONSI/5T444 !ORY REQUIRES NOT SIMPLY AN 0ANALYSIS0 ( ITS 0PRESUPPOSITIONS10 BUT ! CON/RUCTION ( ! NEXT 0HI<]0 !ORY6 ,PREVI\SLY1 IT WAS POSSIBLE TO VIEW !ORIES AS LAY]S ( A PYRAMID1 EA* RE/+ ON ! ONE BEL[1 ! !ORY AT GR\ND LEVEL BE+ ! MO/ SECURE BECAUSE CON/ITUT$ BY ! SIMPLE/ MEANS1 & ! :OLE FIRMLY POIS$ ON A SELF-SUFFICI5T BASE4 ,N[1 H[EV]1 0SIMPLICITY0 BECOMES A SIGN ( WEAKNESS & ! 0FA/5+0 ( ANY /ORY 9 ! $IFICE ( HUMAN KN[L$GE CALLS = ! CON/RUCTION ( ! NEXT HI<] /ORY4 ,TO REV]T \R E>LI] IMAGE1 ! PYRAMID ( KN[L$GE NO LONG] RE/S ON F\NDATIONS BUT HANGS ON ITS V]TEX1 & IDEAL PO9T NEV] REA*$1 &1 MORE CURI\S1 CON/ANTLY RIS+6 7,PIAGET #a#i#g3#c#d7 

,JU/ AS ) ,BHASK>'S CONCEPTION ( SCI5TIFIC 9QUIRY1 P]FECTLY CONT5T TO DISCOV] EV] MORE BASIC LEVELS ( REALITY )\T EV] HITT+ B$ROCK1 WE >E DEAL+ ) AN OP5-5D$ SY/EM4 ,ONE CAN ALWAYS CON/RUCT A MORE SOPHI/ICAT$ PO9T ( VIEW4 

,?IS MI<T SEEM ALL V]Y AB/RACT1 BUT IT SUGGE/S NEW WAYS TO LOOK AT ANY NUMB] ( LONG-/&+ PROBLEMS 9 AN?ROPOLOGY4 ,TAKE1 = EXAMPLE1 ,PI]RE ,B\RDIEU'S WORK ON HABITUS 7#a#i#g#i1 ETC474 ,B\RDIEU HAS LONG DRAWN ATT5TION TO ! FACT--ALWAYS A MATT] ( FRU/RATION TO AN?ROPOLOGI/S--?AT A TRULY >TFUL SOCIAL ACTOR IS ALMO/ GU>ANTE$ NOT TO BE ABLE TO (F] A CLE> EXPLANATION ( ! PR9CIPLES UND]LY+ H] [N >TI/RY4 ,ACCORD+ TO ! ,GODELIAN_/,PIAGETIAN P]SPECTIVE1 IT'S EASY TO SEE :Y ?IS %\LD BE4 ,! LOGICAL LEVEL ON :I* ONE IS OP]AT+ IS ALWAYS AT LEA/ ONE LEVEL HI<] ?AN ?AT :I* ONE CAN EXPLA9 OR UND]/&--:AT ! ,RUSSIAN PSY*OLOGI/ ,VYGOTSKY 7#a#i#g#h3#g#i-#i#a7 REF]R$ TO AS ! 0PROXIMAL LEVEL0 ( DEVELOPM5T4.<#f#b.> ,9 FACT1 ONE C\LD >GUE ?IS MU/ NECESS>ILY BE ! CASE1 S9CE 7EXPLANATION ITSELF BE+ A =M ( ACTION7 9 ORD] TO EXPLA9 OR UND]/& ONE'S ACTIONS FULLY1 ONE HAS TO G5]ATE A MORE SOPHI/ICAT$ 70/RONG]10 MORE 5COMPASS+7 LEVEL ( OP]ATIONS1 :OSE PR9CIPLES1 9 TURN1 ONE W\LD NOT BE FULLY ABLE TO EXPLA92 & 9 ORD] TO EXPLA9 ?AT ONE1 YET ANO!R2 & SO ON )\T 5D4 

,OR CONSID]1 AGA91 ! PH5OM5ON ( RITES ( PASSAGE1 A CLASSIC ISSUE 9 AN?ROPOLOGY S9CE ,>NOLD ,VAN ,G5NEP'S ESSAY ( #a#i#i4 ,VAN ,G5NEP >GU$ ?AT ALL SU* RITUALS1 ACROSS ! WORLD1 ALWAYS CONTA9 AT LEA/ ?REE /AGES4 ,!Y BEG9 ) RITES ( SEP>ATION1 9 :I*1 SAY1 A BOY UND]GO+ 9ITIATION IS SEP>AT$ FROM HIS OLD ID5TITY1 AS A *ILD1 & 5D ) RITES ( RE9TEGRATION1 9 :I* HE IS RE9TEGRAT$ 9TO ! SOCIAL ORD] 9 HIS NEW ID5TITY1 AS A MAN4 ,! LIM9AL /AGE IS ! ONE ?AT FALLS 9 BETWE51 :5 ! BOY IS1 AS IT W]E1 SUSP5D$ BETWE5 ID5TITIES1 NOT QUITE ONE ?+1 NOT QUITE ANO!R4 ,AS ,VICTOR ,TURN] NOT$ 7#a#i#f#g71 ?IS /AGE HAS A T5D5CY TO TAKE ON SOME V]Y /RANGE1 0ANTI-/RUCTURAL0 QUALITIES3 ?OSE :O PASS ?R\< IT >E AT ONCE SACR$ & POLLUT+1 CREATIVE & DE/RUCTIVE1 DIV9E & MON/R\S1 & ULTIMATELY BEYOND ANY?+ ?AT CAN BE EXPLA9$ BY ! ORD] ( NORMAL LIFE4 ,BUT AS ,T]5CE ,TURN] HAS OBS]V$ 7#a#i#g#g2 SEE #a#i#i#c3#b#b-#b#f73 ACCORD+ TO ! ,PIAGETIAN APPROA*1 ?IS IS1 AGA91 MU* AS %\LD BE4 ,BECAUSE H]E TOO !RE IS A DIFF]5CE ( LOGICAL LEVELS4 ,TO MA9TA9 A SY/EM ( CLASSIFICATION--I4E41 ONE ?AT DIVIDES MALES 9TO *ILDR51 ADOLESC5TS1 ADULTS1 & SO ON--REQUIRES A C]TA9 LEVEL ( LOGICAL OP]ATIONS2 IT IS1 LIKE ANY SET ( CATEGORIES1 ! 0O!R SIDE0 ( A SET ( ACTIVITIES4 ,TO OP]ATE ON ! LEVEL :]E Y\ CAN TRANS=M ONE CATEGORY 9TO ! O!R IMPLIES 5T]+ 9TO A HI<]1 5COMPASS+ LEVEL2 OR1 TO PUT IT ANO!R WAY1 ) P[]S ( A FUNDAM5TALLY DIFF]5T NATURE ?AN ?OSE :I* OP]ATE 9 ORD9>Y LIFE1 9 :I* PEOPLE 0>E0 ONE ?+ OR ANO!R4.<#f#c.> ,H]E TOO1 ! HI<E/ LEVEL ( OP]ATIONS IS ONE ?AT CANNOT BE REPRES5T$ OR FULLY ACC\NT$ =--AT LEA/ 9 SOCIAL T]MS4 ,REPRES5T+ SU* P[]S BECOMES A PROBLEM4 ,EV]YDAY CATEGORIES DO NOT APPLY4 ,H5CE1 ! T5D5CY TO RESORT TO MY/]Y1 P>ADOX1 UNKN[ABILITY1 OR SY/EMATIC 9V]SIONS ( NORMAL WAYS ( DO+ ?+S--A 0WORLD TURN$ UPSIDE D[N40 

,IT'S EASY TO SEE H[ ?IS P]SPECTIVE MI<T HAVE ALL SORTS ( IMPORTANT IMPLICATIONS4 ,MO/ ,DURKHEIMIAN RITUAL ANALYZES TURN1 9 ONE WAY OR ANO!R1 ON ! CONCEPT ( 0! SACR$10 USUALLY SE5 A PO9T ( TRANS=MATION OR METAMORPHOSIS ?AT /&S AP>T FROM PR(ANE EXI/5CE1 & ?AT1 = A ,DURKHEIMIAN1 IS ! PO9T :]E ! 9DIVIDUAL COMES 9TO CONTACT ) ! P[] ( SOCIETY ITSELF--SOCIETY BE+ = ,DURKHEIM AN EM]G5T REALITY ( ITS [N1 /&+ BEYOND & CON/RA9+ ! 9DIVIDUAL4 ,AS ,I HAVE ALREADY REM>K$1 ! NOTION ULTIMATELY HAS MU* 9 COMMON ) ,M>X'S CONCEPTION ( ALI5ATION 7:I* AFT] ALL1 ALSO SET (F FROM A /UDY ( RELIGION71 ! MO/ DRAMATIC DIFF]5CE BETWE5 ! TWO BE+ ONE ( ATTITUDE3 UNLIKE ,M>X1 ,DURKHEIM DIDN'T SEE ANY?+ P>TICUL>LY WRONG ) ! FACT ?AT SOCIETY SEEM$ TO IMPOSE ITSELF ON 9DIVIDUALS AS AN ALI5 =CE1 ANY MORE ?AN HE HAD ANY PROBLEM ) ! EXI/5CE ( SOCIAL HI]>*IES4 ,M>X1 :O OBJECT$ TO BO?1 SAW !M AS TWO SIDES ( ! SAME CO94 ,TO UND]/& FULLY ! P>ALLELS BETWE5 ,M>X & ,PIAGET1 H[EV]1 ONE MU/ LOOK A LITTLE MORE CLOSELY AT ,PIAGET'S NOTION ( EGOC5TRISM4 

EGOC5TRISM & P>TIAL CONSCI\SNESS 

  

,ONE ( ,PIAGET'S MORE REM>KABLE A*IEVEM5TS WAS TO TAKE A FACT ?AT ALMO/ ANYONE KN[S--?AT *ILDR5 T5D TO SEE !MSELVES AS ! C5T] ( ! UNIV]SE--& MAKE IT ! BASIS = A SY/EMATIC !ORY ( 9TELLECTUAL & MORAL DEVELOPM5T4 ,EGOC5TRISM1 ACCORD+ TO ,PIAGET1 IS A MATT] ( ASSUM+ ONE'S [N1 SUBJECTIVE P]SPECTIVE ON ! WORLD IS ID5TICAL ) ! NATURE ( ! WORLD ITSELF4 ,DEVELOPM5T1 9 TURN1 BECOMES A MATT] ( 9T]NALIZ+ ! FACT ?AT O!R ONES >E POSSIBLE2 OR1 TO PUT IT A BIT MORE TE*NICALLY1 CREAT+ /RUCTURES :I* >E REALLY ! COORD9ATION ( DIFF]5T POSSIBLE P]SPECTIVES4 ,V]Y Y\NG *ILDR51 = EXAMPLE1 DO NOT UND]/& ?AT OBJECTS CONT9UE TO EXI/ :5 !Y >E NO LONG] LOOK+ AT !M4 ,IF A BALL ROLLS \T ( SI<T1 IT IS SIMPLY GONE4 ,TO UND]/& ?AT IT IS /ILL !RE IS TO UND]/& FIR/ ( ALL ?AT !RE >E O!R ANGLES FROM :I* ONE MI<T BE LOOK+ AT IT1 FROM :I* ONE W\LD /ILL BE ABLE TO SEE IT4 ,9 OLD] *ILDR51 EGOC5TRISM MI<T MEAN ANY?+ FROM A *ILD'S 9ABILITY TO IMAG9E ?AT O!RS MI<T NOT UND]/& :AT %E'S TELL+ !M1 TO ! DIFFICULTY 7:I* (T5 5DURES SURPRIS+LY LATE 9 LIFE7 9 REALIZ+ ?AT IF ,I HAVE A BRO!R NAM$ ,ROB]T1 !N ,ROB]T ALSO HAS A BRO!R1 :O IS ME4 

,EGOC5TRISM1 !N1 9VOLVES FIR/ & =EMO/ AN 9ABILITY TO SEE ?+S FROM O!R PO9TS ( VIEW4 ,EV5 IF IT'S A MATT] ( UND]/&+ ! CONT9UAL EXI/5CE ( OBJECTS1 ONE IS AW>E ( !M ?R\< POT5TIAL P]SPECTIVES3 :5 ONE LOOKS AT A C>1 OR A DUCK1 OR A M\NTA91 ! FACT ?AT !RE >E O!R SIDES TO IT 7O!R P]SPECTIVES FROM :I* ONE C\LD BE LOOK+ AT IT7 BECOMES 9T]NALIZ$ 9TO ! V]Y NATURE ( :AT ONE IS P]CEIV+4 ,IT W\LD SIMPLY NOT LOOK ! SAME O!RWISE4 ,H5CE1 = ,PIAGET1 A*IEV+ MATURITY IS A MATT] ( 0DEC5T]+0 ONESELF3 ( BE+ ABLE TO SEE ONE'S [N 9T]E/S OR P]SPECTIVE AS SIMPLY ONE P>T ( A MU* L>G] TOTALITY NOT 9TR9SICALLY MORE IMPORTANT ?AN ANY O!R4 

,9 MATT]S SOCIAL1 H[EV]1 ONE CLE>LY CANNOT DO ?IS ALL ! TIME4 ,IT IS ONE ?+ BE>+ 9 M9D1 :5 ONE LOOKS AT A H\SE1 ?AT IT HAS MORE ?AN ONE SIDE TO IT2 QUITE ANO!R TO BE CONT9UALLY AW>E ( H[ A FAMILY MU/ SEEM TO EV]Y MEMB] ( IT1 OR H[ EA* MEMB] ( A GR\P ( PEOPLE WORK+ ON SOME COMMON PROJECT W\LD SEE :AT WAS GO+ ON4 ,9 FACT1 HUMAN BE+S >E NOTORI\SLY 9CAPABLE ( DO+ SO ON A CONSI/5T BASIS4 ,H]E AGA91 !RE APPE>S TO BE A V]Y CONCRETE LIMIT TO ! HUMAN IMAG9ATION4 

,( C\RSE1 ! MORE COMPLEX ! SOCIAL SITUATION1 ! MORE DIFFICULT SU* IMAG9ATIVE FEATS BECOME4 ,:I* BR+S US BACK TO ! ORIG9AL PO9T D]IV$ FROM ,M>X3 ?AT IT IS ALMO/ IMPOSSIBLE = SOMEONE 5GAG$ 9 A PROJECT ( ACTION1 9 %AP+ ! WORLD 9 SOME WAY1 TO UND]/& FULLY H[ !IR ACTIONS SIMULTANE\SLY CONTRIBUTE TO 7A7 RE-CREAT+ ! SOCIAL SY/EM 9 :I* !Y >E DO+ SO 7EV5 IF ?IS IS SOME?+ SO SIMPLE AS A FAMILY OR (FICE71 & ?US 7B7 REFLEXIVELY RE%AP+ & R$EF9+ !IR [N SELVES4 ,9 FACT1 ACCORD+ TO ,TURN]1 IT'S REALLY ! SAME PO9T3 BECAUSE 9 ORD] TO UND]/& ?IS FULLY1 ONE W\LD HAVE TO BE ABLE TO COORD9ATE ! SUBJECTIVE PO9TS ( VIEW ( EV]YONE 9VOLV$--TO SEE H[ !Y ALL FIT TOGE!R 7OR1 9 ! CASE ( CONFLICT1 DON'T71 & SO ON4 ,?AT ASPECT :I* FALLS \TSIDE \R COMPREH5SION1 EV5 ?\< IT IS A PRODUCT ( \R [N ACTIONS1 T5DS TO SEEM SOME?+ :I* /&S ALI51 AP>T FROM US1 SOME?+ ?AT CON/RA9S & CONTROLS US RA!R ?AN ! O!R WAY >\ND4 ,9 E>LY WORKS LIKE ,! ,G]MAN ,IDEOLOGY1 ,M>X EMPHASIZ$ ! P>ADOXICAL NATURE ( ! DIVISION ( LABOR 9 MOD]N SOCIETY3 ?AT :ILE IT CREAT$ A G5U9E COMMON 9T]E/ ON ! LEVEL ( SOCIETY AS IT A :OLE1 S9CE PEOPLE NE$ ONE ANO!R 9 ORD] TO SURVIVE1 IT DOES SO BY CONF9+ EV]YONE TO SU* LIMIT$ 9T]E/S & P]SPECTIVES )9 IT ?AT NONE W]E REALLY ABLE TO P]CEIVE IT4 ,IT WAS PRECISELY ! FACT ?AT PEOPLE >E CONF9$ TO !SE P>TIAL P]SPECTIVES ?AT1 ,M>X >GU$1 GAVE RISE TO ALI5ATION3 ! 0CONSOLIDATION ( :AT WE \RSELVES PRODUCE 9TO AN OBJECTIVE P[] ABOVE US10 ! FACT ?AT \R P[]S APPE> TO US 9 /RANGE1 EXT]NAL =MS 7,OLLMAN #a#i#g#a74 ,COMMODITY FETI%ISM IS REALLY JU/ ANO!R V]SION ( ! SAME ?+4 ,IT IS ! RESULT1 ABOVE ALL1 ( ! FACT ?AT ! M>KET CREATES A VA/ RUPTURE BETWE5 ! FACTORIES 9 :I* COMMODITIES >E PRODUC$1 & ! PRIVATE HOMES 9 :I* MO/ >E F9ALLY CONSUM$4 ,IF A COMMODITY--A FUTON1 A VIDEO CASSETTE1 A BOX ( TALCUM P[D]--FULFILLS A HUMAN NE$1 IT IS BECAUSE HUMAN BE+S HAVE 9T5TIONALLY DESIGN$ IT 9 ORD] TO DO SO2 !Y HAVE TAK5 RAW MAT]IALS &1 BY ADD+ !IR /R5G? & 9TELLIG5CE1 %AP$ IT TO FULFILL ?OSE NE$S4 ,! OBJECT1 !N1 EMBODIES HUMAN 9T5TIONS4 ,?IS IS :Y CONSUM]S WANT TO BUY IT4 ,BUT BECAUSE ( ! PECULI>1 ANONYM\S NATURE ( A M>KET SY/EM1 ?AT :OLE HI/ORY BECOMES 9VISIBLE FROM ! CONSUM]'S PO9T ( VIEW4 ,FROM H] P]SPECTIVE1 !N1 IT LOOKS AS IF ! VALUE ( ! OBJECT--EMBODI$ 9 ITS ABILITY TO SATISFY H] WANTS--IS AN ASPECT ( ! PRODUCT ITSELF4 ,ALL ?OSE 9T5TIONS SEEM TO BE ABSORB$ 9TO ! PHYSICAL =M ( ! OBJECT ITSELF1 ?IS BE+ ALL ?AT %E CAN SEE4 ,9 O!R WORDS1 %E TOO IS CONFUS+ H] [N 7P>TIAL1 SUBJECTIVE7 P]SPECTIVE ) ! 7TOTAL1 OBJECTIVE7 NATURE ( ! SITUATION ITSELF1 & AS A RESULT1 SEE+ OBJECTS AS HAV+ HUMAN P[]S & PROP]TIES4 ,?IS IS PRECISELY ! SORT ( ?+--! ATTRIBUTION ( SUBJECTIVE QUALITIES TO OBJECTS--?AT ,PIAGET >GUES IS TYPICAL ( *ILDHOOD EGOC5TRISM AS WELL 7CF4 ,TURN] & ,FAJANS #a#i#h#h74.<#f#d.> 

,! SAME LOGIC IS REPRODUC$ ON EV]Y LEVEL ( COMM]CIAL LIFE1 :]E EV]YONE T5DS TO SPEAK ( PRODUCTS & MONEY AS PROPELL+ !MSELVES ALONG1 SELL+ !MSELVES1 FLOOD+ M>KETS OR FLEE+ FROM ADV]SE 9VE/M5T CLIMATES2 BECAUSE1 FROM !IR [N P>TICUL>1 P>TIAL1 9T]E/$ P]SPECTIVE1 ALL ?IS MI<T AS WELL BE TRUE4 

,:I* ALL[S ME TO MAKE A F9AL OBS]VATION AB\T SOME ( ! MO/ COMMON OBJECTIONS TO A ,PIAGETIAN APPROA*4 

,AN?ROPOLOGI/S T5D TO BE EXTREMELY SUSPICI\S ( ANY G5]AL !ORY ?AT EV5 HOLDS \T ! POT5TIAL ( >GU+ ?AT C]TA9 PEOPLE >E MORE SANE1 MORE 9TELLIG5T1 OR MORE RATIONAL ?AN O!RS4 ,!Y >E V]Y RI<T TO BE SUSPICI\S4 ,IT DOES SEEM ?AT ! MOM5T SU* MODELS >E GIV5 ANY 9TELLECTUAL LEGITIMACY1 !Y >E IMM$IATELY SNAT*$ UP BY RACI/S & *AUV9I/S ( ONE K9D OR ANO!R & US$ TO SUPPORT ! MO/ OBNOXI\S POLITICAL POSITIONS4 ,! ,PIAGETIAN CASE WAS NO EXCEPTION3 ONE TEAM ( RESE>*]S1 = EXAMPLE1 ADM9I/]$ ,PIAGETIAN TE/S TO ,>UNDA-SPEAK]S 9 ,AU/RALIA1 AS A RESULT ( :I* !Y CONCLUD$ ?AT ,>UNDA ADULTS HAD NOT A*IEV$ 0OP]ATIONAL LEVELS0 ( 9TELLIG5CE 7SEE ,PIAGET #a#i#g3#a#a#g-#a#i74 ,! RESULT WAS ANO!R ATTEMPT TO REVIVE ! NOTION1 L>GELY AB&ON$ S9CE ! DAYS ,LEVY-,BRUHL1 ( 0PRIMITIVE M5TALITY0 ON ,PIAGETIAN GR\NDS 7E4G41 ,HALLPIKE #a#i#g#i74 ,( C\RSE1 = ! AN?ROPOLOGI/1 ! IDEA ( ! ,>UNDA BE+ SIMPLE-M9D$ IS PRETTY />TL+3 AFT] ALL1 !SE >E ! SAME PEOPLE O!RWISE FAM\S = MA9TA9+ ONE ( ! MO/ COMPLICAT$ K9%IP SY/EMS KN[N TO AN?ROPOLOGICAL SCI5CE--9CLUD+ AN EI<T-SECTION PRESCRIPTIVE M>RIAGE SY/EM SO 9TRICATE IT TOOK ,WE/]N S*OL>S DECADES TO UNRAVEL IT4 ,TO >GUE ?AT SU* PEOPLE >E 9CAPABLE ( SOPHI/ICAT$ ?\<T SEEMS OBVI\SLY RIDICUL\S3 EV5 IF1 LIKE PEOPLE EV]Y:]E1 !Y >E UNLIKELY TO FULLY GRASP ! PR9CIPLES UND]LY+ !IR [N MO/ SOPHI/ICAT$ =MS ( ACTION4 

,EV5 :5 ?+S >E NOT ?IS BLATANTLY E?NOC5TRIC1 ! NORMAL MODEL = A MATURE1 FULLY EVOLV$ 9DIVIDUAL IS USUALLY PRETTY CULTURALLY SPECIFIC4 ,IT'S MU* ! SAME AS ! MODEL 0,WE/]N]40 ,ONE IS1 AT LEA/ IMPLICITLY1 ?9K+ ( SOME =TYI% :ITE GUY 9 A SUIT1 P]HAPS A BANK] OR A /OCKBROK]4 ,! ADVANTAGE ( A ,M>XI/ TAKE ON ,PIAGET ( C\RSE IS ?AT SAID BANK] OR /OCKBROK] IS NO LONG] ! MODEL ( SOMEONE :O GETS IT RI<T BUT ( SOMEONE :O GETS IT WRONG3 AS HE FLIPS ?R\< ! BUS9ESS SECTION READ+ H[ GOLD IS DO+ ?IS & PORK BELLIES DO+ ?AT1 HE IS 5GAG+ 9 ! V]Y P>ADIGM ( ADULT EGOC5TRISM4 ,AN ,>UNDA SPEAK]1 ONE SUSPECTS1 W\LD BE MU* LESS LIKELY TO BE QUITE SO NAIVE4 

,DAS ,KAPITAL AS SYMBOLIC ANALYSIS 

  

,! KEY TO A BROAD] ,M>XIAN !ORY ( VALUE1 ?\<1 LIES MO/ ( ALL 9 ,M>X'S ANALYSIS ( MONEY4 

,ECONOMI/S ( ,M>X'S DAY1 LIKE ECONOMI/S N[1 T5D$ TO SPEAK ( MONEY AS A 0MEASURE0 & A 0M$IUM0 ( VALUE4 ,IT IS A MEASURE BECAUSE ONE CAN USE IT TO COMP>E ! VALUE ( DIFF]5T ?+S3 E4G41 TO SAY ?AT ONE /EAKFRITES IS WOR? ! SAME AS FIVE LOAVES ( BREAD4 ,9 ?IS CAPACITY1 ! MONEY CAN BE A COMPLETE AB/RACTION1 !RE'S NO NE$ = PHYSICAL CO9S OR BILLS TO PLAY A P>T AT ALL4 ,:5 MONEY ACTS AS A M$IUM ( EX*ANGE--?AT IS1 TO ACTUALLY BUY BREAD OR PAY = AN ORD] ( /EAK--?IS IS ( C\RSE NO LONG] TRUE4 ,9 EI!R CASE1 MONEY IS SIMPLY A TOOL4 ,M>X'S 9NOVATION WAS TO DRAW ATT5TION TO A ?IRD ASPECT ( MONEY1 :AT MI<T BE CALL$ ITS REFLEXIVE MOM5T3 MONEY AS A VALUE 9 ITSELF4 ,A TOOL FACILITATES ACTION2 IT IS A MEANS TO AN 5D4 ,FROM ! P]SPECTIVE ( PEOPLE ACTUALLY 5GAG$ 9 MANY F9ANCIAL TRANSACTIONS1 ,M>X OBS]VES1 MONEY IS ! 5D4 ,IT BECOMES ! V]Y EMBODIM5T ( VALUE1 ! ULTIMATE OBJECT ( DESIRE4 

,ONE MI<T ?9K ( ?IS AS ! FLIP-SIDE ( COMMODITY FETI%ISM4 ,:5 WORK]S AGREE TO WORK = WAGES1 !Y PLACE !MSELVES 9 A POSITION 9 :I* = !M1 MONEY IS ! 5D ( ! :OLE PROCESS4 ,!Y P]=M !IR CREATIVE1 PRODUCTIVE ACTIONS 9 ORD] TO GET PAID4 ,BUT = ,M>X ?IS IS ( SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE1 BECAUSE ! VALUE ?AT ! MONEY REPRES5TS IS1 9 ! LA/ ANALYSIS1 ?AT ( LABOR ITSELF4.<#f#e.> 

,:AT'S HAPP5+ H]E ACTUALLY GOES WELL BEYOND ! FETI%IZATION ( COMMODITIES4 ,& IT IS EV5 MORE FUNDAM5TAL TO ! NATURE ( CAPITALISM4 ,:AT MONEY MEASURES & M$IATES1 ACCORD+ TO ,M>X1 IS ULTIMATELY ! IMPORTANCE ( C]TA9 =MS ( HUMAN ACTION4 ,9 MONEY1 WORK]S SEE ! MEAN+ OR IMPORTANCE ( !IR [N CREATIVE 5]GIES1 !IR [N CAPACITY TO ACT1 & BY ACT+ TO TRANS=M ! WORLD1 REFLECT$ BACK AT !M4 ,MONEY REPRES5TS ! ULTIMATE SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE ( !IR ACTIONS1 ! MEANS BY :I* IT IS 9TEGRAT$ 9 A TOTAL 7M>KET7 SY/EM4 ,BUT IT CAN DO SO BECAUSE IT IS ALSO ! OBJECT ( !IR ACTIONS2 ?AT'S :Y !Y >E WORK+3 9 ORD] TO RECEIVE A PAY*ECK AT ! 5D ( ! WEEK4 ,H5CE1 IT IS A REPRES5TATION ?AT PLAYS A NECESS>Y ROLE 9 BR++ 9TO BE+ ! V]Y ?+ IT REPRES5TS4 

,READ]S COM+ TO ,CAPITAL EXPECT+ TO READ ! WORK ( A 0MAT]IAL DET]M9I/0 >E (T5 RA!R SURPRIS$ TO DISCOV] ?AT ! BOOK />TS \T ) :AT CAN ONLY BE CALL$ A S]IES ( DETAIL$ SYMBOLIC ANALYZES3 ( COMMODITIES1 MONEY1 & FETI%ISM4 ,BUT :AT SORT ( !ORY ( SYMBOLISM1 EXACTLY1 IS ,M>X WORK+ )8 ,! BE/ WAY TO ?9K AB\T IT1 P]HAPS1 IS TO SAY ?AT1 LIKE HIS !ORY ( PRODUCTIVE ACTION1 IT COMB9ES ELEM5TS ( TWO TRADITIONS3 ONE ?AT WE W\LD N[ SEE AS ESS5TIALLY ,G]MAN1 ! O!R ,FR5*4 ,ONE MI<T CALL !M !ORIES ( MEAN+1 & !ORIES ( SIGNIFICATION4 ,! FIR/1 :I* HAD ITS ROOTS 9 ,HEGEL BUT ALSO GAVE RISE TO H]M5EUTICS1 SEES MEAN+ AS ESS5TIALLY ID5TICAL ) 9T5TIONALITY4 ,! MEAN+ ( A /ATEM5T IS :AT ! SPEAK] MEANT TO SAY4 ,ONE READS A TEXT 9 ORD] TO UND]/& ! AU?OR'S 9T5T2 IT IS ?IS 9T5TIONALITY ?AT UNIFIES ! P>TS ( ! TEXT 9TO A COH]5T :OLE4 ,H]M5EUTICS FIR/ DEVELOP$ 9 BIBLICAL S*OL>%IP1 :]E ?IS W\LD HAVE TO BE TRUE IF ONE ASSUMES 7AS BIBLICAL S*OL>S DID7 ?AT :AT ! ,BIBLE ULTIMATELY CONVEYS IS ! WILL ( ,GOD4 0,SIGNIFICATION0--:I* LAT] F\ND ITS EXPON5T 9 ,F]D9& DE ,SAUSSURE--IS BAS$ ON A NOTION ( CONTRA/1 ! SIGNIFICATION ( A T]M BE+ ! WAY IT IS DIFF]5T FROM ! O!R T]MS 9 A SET 7SLIC+ ! PIE ( REALITY AGA974 ,:AT ,M>X IS TALK+ AB\T COMB9ES ELEM5TS ( BO?4 ,MONEY HAS MEAN+ = ! ACTORS1 !N1 BECAUSE IT SUMS UP !IR 9T5TIONS 7OR1 ! IMPORTANCE ( !IR 9T5TIONAL ACTIONS1 :I* COMES D[N TO PRETTY MU* ! SAME ?+74 ,H[EV]1 IT CAN DO SO ONLY BY 9TEGRAT+ !M 9TO A CONTRA/IVE TOTALITY1 ! M>KET1 S9CE IT IS ONLY BY MEANS ( MONEY ?AT MY 9DIVIDUAL ACTIONS & CAPACITIES BECOME 9TEGRAT$ AS A PROPORTION ( ! TOTALITY ( EV]YONE'S 7SEE ,TURN] #a#i#g#iC3#b-#b#a74 

,AS A FIR/ APPROXIMATION3 

,MONEY IS A CONCRETE TOK5 ( VALUE4 ,VALUE IS ! WAY 9 :I* AN 9DIVIDUAL ACTOR'S ACTIONS TAKE ON MEAN+1 = ! ACTOR H]SELF1 BY BE+ 9CORPORAT$ 9TO A L>G] SOCIAL :OLE4 

,OBVI\SLY1 ,M>X WAS NO MORE DRAW+ ON ! H]M5EUTIC TRADITION ITSELF ?AN HE WAS ! ,SAUSSUREAN2 HIS APPROA* GOES BACK1 9/EAD1 TO ,HEGEL1 :O ALSO 9SI/S ON EXAM9+ ACTIONS 9 T]MS ( H[ !Y >E 9TEGRAT$ 9TO L>G] 0CONCRETE TOTALITIES40 ,ANY P>TICUL> ACTION1 OR PROCESS1 BECOMES MEAN+FUL 79 ,HEGELIAN LANGUAGE1 TAKES ON 0CONCRETE1 SPECIFIC =M07 ONLY BY BE+ 9TEGRAT$ 9TO SOME L>G] SY/EM ( ACTION2 JU/ AS ! P>TS ( A WAT*1 SAY1 >E COORD9AT$ 9 !IR MOTION BY ! OV]ALL /RUCTURE ( ! :OLE 7?US MAK+ ! P>TS M]E 0AB/RACT CONT5T10 & ! WAT*1 0CONCRETE =M074 ,( C\RSE1 !RE IS NO 5D TO H[ LONG ONE CAN CONT9UE ?IS SORT ( ANALYSIS3 ! WAT* ITSELF MI<T WELL BE 9TEGRAT$ 9TO SOME L>G] PROCESS1 SAY1 A RACE1 :]EBY IT TOO BECOMES M]ELY ! AB/RACT CONT5T TO A L>G] CONCRETE =M1 & SO ON4 ,SO H]E TOO1 ! SY/EM IS ULTIMATELY OP5-5D$4 

M>KETLESS SOCIETIES 

  

,AT ?IS PO9T1 >M$ ) ?IS ,M>XIAN VIEW ( /RUCTURE1 WE CAN ONCE AGA9 RETURN TO \R ORIG9AL QUE/ION3 H[ TO APPLY A ,M>XIAN !ORY ( VALUE TO SOCIETIES )\T A M>KET4 

,:AT ,TURN] SUGGE/S 7#a#i#h#d7 IS ?AT MO/ ,M>XI/ AN?ROPOLOGI/S HAVE 5D$ UP CREAT+ A SLI<TLY DIFF]5T V]SION ( ,SUB/ANTIVISM4 ,?AT IS1 !Y TOO HAVE SIMPLY EXAM9$ ! 0WAY 9 :I* A SOCIETY MAT]IALLY PROVISIONS ITSELF10 EXCEPT ?AT :]E ,POLANYI'S FOLL[]S MA9LY EXAM9$ DIFF]5T MODES ( EX*ANGE1 ,M>XI/S %IFT$ ! FOCUS TO PRODUCTION4 ,/>T+ FROM VALUE ON ! O!R H& W\LD MEAN ASK+3 IS MAT]IAL PRODUCTION ( ?IS SORT REALLY :AT IS MO/ IMPORTANT TO ?IS SOCIAL SY/EM8 ,IF WE LIMIT \RSELVES TO /ATELESS SOCIETIES--! ONES ?AT HAVE UP UNTIL N[ PROV$ ! LEA/ AM5ABLE TO ,M>XI/ /YLES ( ANALYSIS--IT QUICKLY BECOMES OBVI\S ?AT ! SORT ( ACTIVITIES WE W\LD DEF9E AS ECONOMIC1 P>TICUL>LY SUBSI/5CE ACTIVITY1 >E BY NO MEANS ?AT ON :I* !Y SP5D ! GREAT] P>T ( !IR TIME1 OR 0CREATIVE 5]GIES0 H[EV] DEF9$ 7,TURN] #a#i#g#iC2 #a#i#h#d74 ,MO/ D$ICATE F> MORE TO :AT1 BROADLY SPEAK+1 C\LD BE CALL$ SOCIALIZATION1 AT LEA/ IF ONE DEF9ES ! LATT] TO 9CLUDE NOT ONLY PRIM>Y *ILD C>E BUT ALL ?OSE O!R ACTIONS ?AT GO 9TO %AP+ HUMAN BE+S4 ,?IS W\LD MAKE SOCIALIZATION A CONT9UAL PROCESS ?AT DOES NOT SIMPLY /OP ) ADOLESC5CE1 OR :ATEV] >BITR>Y CUT (F PO9T MO/ PEOPLE IMPLICITLY IMPOSE3 OV] ! C\RSE ( ONE'S LIFE1 PEOPLE >E ALMO/ ALWAYS 5GAG$ 9 A CON/ANT PROCESS ( *ANG+ !IR SOCIAL POSITION1 ROLES & /ATUSES1 & DO+ SO HAV+ TO LE>N H[ TO BEHAVE 9 !M4 ,LIFE IS ?US A CON/ANT $UCATIONAL PROCESS4 

,MYSELF1 ,I SUSPECT ONE ( ! MA9 REASON = ?IS NEGLECT IS SIMPLE SEXISM4 ,PRIM>Y *ILD C>E IS ALMO/ EV]Y:]E SE5 AS QU9TESS5TIAL WOMAN'S WORK2 ANALY/S T5D TO SEE SOCIALIZATION ON ! :OLE AS BE+ TOO CLOSE TO NURTURE & TOO DI/ANT FROM ! K9D ( /R5U\S & DRAMATIC MUSCUL> ACTIVITY--BURLY M5 HAMM]+ AWAY AT GL[+ IRON1 SP>KS FLY+ EV]Y:]E--! T]M 0PRODUCTION0 BR+S MO/ READILY TO M9D4 ,! MODEL ONE W\LD />T FROM W\LD HAVE TO BE ESS5TIALLY FEM99E4 ,BUT !N1 ?IS ONLY GOES TO UND]L9E ?AT ! MO/ FUNDAM5TAL 9EQUALITY 9 SU* SOCIETIES IS 9DE$ ?AT BAS$ ON G5D]--SOME?+ ?AT 9 !ORY WE ALREADY KNEW4 

,H[ DOES ONE !N GO ON TO ANALYZE ?IS K9D ( PRODUCTION8 ,WELL1 9 FACT1 ! MAT]IALS ALREADY EXI/4 ,!RE IS A HUGE1 VOLUM9\S AN?ROPOLOGICAL LIT]ATURE ON ! /UDY ( K9%IP4 ,TRUE1 IT DOES NOT />T (F FROM ! SAME PREMISES BUT IT C]TA9LY PROVIDES PL5TY MAT]IAL FROM :I* TO WORK4 ,& EV5 A MORE TRADITIONAL ,M>XI/ AN?ROPOLOGI/ LIKE ,]IC ,WOLF 7#a#i#h#c7 HAS US$ ! T]M 0K9%IP MODE ( PRODUCTION0 TO DESCRIBE SU* SOCIETIES4 ,:ILE IT IS ALSO TRUE ?AT ,M>XI/ AN?ROPOLOGI/S HAVE USUALLY 9SI/$ ?AT K9%IP SY/EMS >E ULTIMATELY DET]M9$ BY ! PRODUCTION ( MAT]IAL ?+S1 !RE'S NO REASON ONE CAN'T SIMPLY JETTISON ?IS BIT & KEEP AS MU* AS SEEMS USEFUL ( ! RE/4 ,! REAL PO9T IS H[ ONE W\LD GO AB\T ANALYZ+ A K9%IP SY/EM1 OR SOME SIMIL> AN?ROPOLOGICAL OBJECT1 9 ! SAME WAY ?AT ,M>X ANALYZ$ ! M>KET SY/EM 9 CAPITALISM4 

,SO 9 :AT WAY DO ! ACTIONS ( %AP+ PEOPLE BECOME EMBODI$ 9 VALUE-=MS1 ?AT IS1 =MS ?AT REFLECT ! MEAN+ ( MY ACTIONS TO MYSELF 9 SOME TANGIBLE =M AS SOME OBJECT OR ACTION ?AT ,I DESIRE8 ,& 9 :AT WAY DOES ?IS PROCESS ALL[ = FETI%ISM--TO PEOPLE FAIL+ TO RECOGNIZE ! DEGREE TO :I* !Y !MSELVES >E PRODUC+ VALUE--& = EXPLOITATION--A MEANS BY :I* SOME PEOPLE APPROPRIATE ! SURPLUS VALUE G5]AT$ BY O!RS8 

! ,BA9+2 PRODUCTION & REALIZATION 

  

,A GOOD PLACE TO />T ) MI<T BE ,JANE ,FAJANS' WORK ON ! ,BA9+ ( ,PAPUA ,NEW ,GU9EA 7#a#i#i#cB1 #a#i#i#g2 ,TURN] & ,FAJANS #a#i#h#g74 ,! ,BA9+1 A POPULATION ( T>O F>M]S :O LIVE 9 SCATT]$ HAMLETS 9 ! M\NTA9\S 9T]IOR ( ,EA/ ,NEW ,BRITA91 >E SOME:AT NOTORI\S 9 ! AN?ROPOLOGICAL LIT]ATURE = !IR ALMO/ COMPLETE LACK ( ANY ELABORATE SOCIAL /RUCTURE4 ,FAJANS DESCRIBES !IR SOCIETY AS A K9D ( 0EGALIT>IAN AN>*ISM0 BECAUSE ( !IR LACK ( POLITICAL /RUCTURES2 9 FACT1 !Y LACK 5DUR+ SOCIAL /RUCTURES ( ALMO/ ANY K9D :ATEV]4 ,NOT ONLY >E !RE NO *IEFS OR 0BIG M510 BUT NO CLANS1 L9EAGES1 AGE GRADES1 NO 9ITIATION SOCIETIES1 RITUAL OR EX*ANGE ASSOCIATIONS1 OR ANY?+1 REALLY1 ?AT CAN BE CALL$ A 0RITUAL SY/EM40.<#f#f.> ,!RE WAS A TIME :5 AN?ROPOLOGI/S US$ ! T]M 0SIMPLE SOCIETY0 AS A EUPHEMISM = 0PRIMITIVE02 NORMALLY1 ! T]M WAS AN OBVI\S MISNOM]1 BUT ! ,BA9+ APPE> AS CLOSE AS ONE IS LIKELY TO F9D TO A G5U9ELY SIMPLE SOCIETY4 ,!RE >E DOME/IC GR\PS & 9DIVIDUAL K9DR$S1 & ?AT'S AB\T IT4 ,P]HAPS AS A RESULT1 ,BA9+ SOCIETY ALSO APPE>S TO BE S+UL>LY LACK+ 9 MY/IFICATION4 

,ACCORD+ TO ,FAJANS1 ,BA9+ SOCIETY IS BAS$ ON SOME?+ V]Y MU* LIKE A LABOR !ORY ( VALUE4 ,:AT DI/+UI%ES HUMANS FROM ANIMALS IS ! FACT ?AT HUMANS WORK2 WORK1 OR 0SWEAT10 IS CONSID]$ ! QU9TESS5TIAL HUMAN ACTIVITY4 ,IT IS CONCEIV$ L>GELY 9 T]MS ( ! G5]ATION ( HEAT3 FIRE OR 0SWEAT0 9 G>D5+1 :I* IS 9 TURN SE5 AS ! QU9TESS5TIAL =M ( WORK4 ,H5CE ! BASIC S*EMA ( ACTION1 OR :AT ,MUNN W\LD CALL VALUE TEMPLATE1 IS ONE ( ! APPLICATION ( HUMAN LABOR TO TRANS=M NATURE 9TO CULTURE1 0SOCIALIZATION0 9 ! BROADE/ S5SE4 ,IT'S A TEMPLATE ( VALUE BECAUSE ! ABILITY TO DO SO IS ! MA9 ?+ ?AT BR+S ONE PRE/IGE 9 ,BA9+ LIFE4 ,:ILE G>D5+ WORK IS ! P>ADIGM1 RAIS+ *ILDR5 7LIT]ALLY1 0FE$+0 !M7 IS SE5 9 ! SAME T]MS4 ,IT IS A MATT] ( TRANS=M+ 9FANTS1 :O >E SE5 AS RELATIVELY WILD CREATURES :5 !Y >E BORN1 9TO FULLY =M$ SOCIAL BE+S1 HUMANS :OSE HUMANITY1 9 TURN1 IS DEF9$ L>GELY AS A CAPACITY = PRODUCTIVE ACTION4 ,SO EV5 H]E1 !RE IS A SORT ( M9IMAL HI]>*Y ( SPH]ES4 ,PRODUC+ FOOD IS NOT SIMPLY A VALUE 9 ITSELF4 ,! MO/ PRE/IGI\S ACT 9 ,BA9+ SOCIETY IS GIV+ FOOD1 OR O!R CONSUMABLES4 ,TO BE A P>5T1 = EXAMPLE1 IS NOT CONSID]$ SO MU* A MATT] ( PROCREATION BUT ( PROVID+ *ILDR5 ) FOOD 7,FAJANS #a#i#i#cB1 #a#i#i#g3#g#e-#g#h1 #h#h-#a7 AN ATTITUDE RE9=C$ BY ! V]Y WIDESPREAD HABIT ( FO/]+1 :I* 5SURES ?AT ALMO/ EV]Y H\SEHOLD :]E FOOD IS COOK$ HAS AT LEA/ ONE *ILD TO FE$ 9 IT4 

,FOOD-GIV+ TAKES A MORE COMMUNAL =M AS WELL4 ,:ILE ! ,BA9+ LACK ELABORATE1 C]EMONIAL =MS ( EX*ANGE LIKE MOKA1 PEOPLE >E 9 ! CON/ANT HABIT ( EX*ANG+ FOOD1 BETEL NUT1 & ! LIKE ON A LESS =MAL BASIS4 ,IF TWO M5 MEET EA* O!R ON ! ROAD1 = EXAMPLE1 !Y WILL ALMO/ 9V>IABLY BO? (F] EA* O!R BETEL NUT TO *EW1 EA* !N TAK+ SOME ( ! O!RS'4 ,FAMILIES (T5 EX*ANGE FOOD1 H]E TOO ALMO/ ALWAYS 9 EGALIT>IAN SAME-=-SAME TRANSACTIONS2 = EXAMPLE1 TWO NEI<BORS WILL EX*ANGE EQUAL AM\NTS ( T>O ) :I* TO PREP>E !IR D9N]4 ,H5CE1 :ILE GIV+ FOOD TO *ILDR5 IS SE5 AS 'REPRODUCTIVE1' 9 ! S5SE ( PRODUC+ PRODUCTION1 ! APP>5TLY PO9TLESS HABIT ( CONT9UALLY EX*ANG+ FOOD IS A MATT] ( ! CONT9UAL PRODUCTION ( SOCIETY4 ,9 ! ABS5CE ( 5DUR+ 9/ITUTIONAL /RUCTURES :I* CAN BE SE5 AS EXI/+ AP>T FROM 9DIVIDUAL HUMAN ACTION1 0SOCIETY0 ITSELF HAS BE RE-CREAT$ BY 9DIVIDUALS ON A DAY TO DAY BASIS4 ,YET ?AT SOCIETY HAS TO BE RE-CREAT$1 AS IT IS ! BASIS = ! EXI/5CE ( ANY SORTS ( VALUES AT ALL4 

,EV5 9 ?IS REM>KABLY M9IMAL1 /RIPP$-D[N V]SION1 !N1 ONE F9DS ONE KEY DI/9CTION ?AT ALWAYS SEEMS TO RECUR2 :AT 9 DIALECTICAL T]MS IS USUALLY REF]R$ TO AS ! DI/9CTION BETWE5 0PRODUCTION0 & 0REALIZATION40 ,PRODUCTIVE LABOR CREATES VALUE MA9LY 9 POT5TIA4 ,?IS IS BECAUSE VALUE IS 9H]5TLY CONTRA/IVE2 ?US IT CAN ONLY BE MADE 9TO A REALITY 70REALIZ$07 9 A RELATIVELY PUBLIC CONTEXT1 AS P>T ( SOME L>G] SOCIAL :OLE4 ,AMONG ! ,BA9+1 PRODUC+ FOOD ?R\< ! LABOR ( G>D5+ IS SE5 AS ! ORIG9 ( VALUE1 BUT ?AT VALUE IS ONLY 0REALIZ$0 :5 ONE GIVES SOME ( ?AT FOOD TO SOMEONE ELSE4 ,H5CE ! MO/ TRULY PRE/IGI\S ACT IS BE+ A GOOD PROVID] TO *ILDR51 !REBY TURN+ !M 9TO SOCIAL BE+S2 BUT ?IS 9 TURN REQUIRES ! EXI/5CE ( SOCIETY4 ,AFT] ALL1 )\T SOCIETY1 ! SOCIALIZATION ( *ILDR5 W\LD NOT BE PRE/IGI\S2 JU/ AS )\T ! CONT9UAL SOCIALIZATION ( *ILDR5 AS NEW PRODUC]S1 SOCIETY ITSELF W\LD NOT CONT9UE TO EXI/4 

! ,KAYAPO3 ! DOME/IC CYCLE & VILLAGE /RUCTURE 

  

,! ,BA9+ W]E1 AS ,I SAID1 A USEFUL PLACE TO />T BECAUSE !Y LACK MO/ ( ! 9/ITUTIONS WE NORMALLY ASSOCIAT$ ) 0SOCIAL /RUCTURE40 ,?IS IS NOT SO ( ! ,KAYAPO ( ,BRAZIL1 ! OBJECT ( ,TURN]'S [N RESE>*ES = ! LA/ ?IRTY YE>S4 ,! ,KAYAPO >E ONE ( ! ,GE_/,BORORO SOCIETIES ( ,C5TRAL ,BRAZIL1 :O1 :5 !Y FIR/ BECAME KN[N TO \TSID]S 9 MID-C5TURY1 W]E CONSID]$ REM>KABLE = COMB9+ :AT SEEM$ LIKE AN EXTREMELY SIMPLE TE*NOLOGY ) AN ALMO/ BEWILD]+LY COMPLICAT$ SOCIAL SY/EM4 ,!IR GREAT CIRCUL> VILLAGES (T5 CONSI/$ ( SEV]AL HUNDR$ H\SES1 ALL >RANG$ >\ND A C5TRAL PLAZA1 NORMALLY REPLETE ) COLLECTIVE M5'S H\SES & O!R COMMUNAL BUILD+S4 ,:ILE ! COMMUNAL /RUCTURES TOOK DIFF]5T =MS 9 DIFF]5T ,C5TRAL ,BRAZILIAN SOCIETIES1 !RE WAS 9V>IABLY SOME =M ( DUAL ORGANIZATION3 ! VILLAGE WAS DIVID$ 9TO TWO SIDES ( ! VILLAGE 7MO/ (T5 EXOGAM\S71 !RE W]E TWO M5'S H\SES1 ID5TICAL 9 ALL RESPECTS1 EXCEPT ?AT ONE WAS ALWAYS = SOME REASON CONSID]$ SUP]IOR4 ,! LIFE-CYCLE WAS DIVID$ 9TO ELABORATE SY/EMS ( 9ITIATION GRADES C>RI$ \T 9 ! VILLAGE C5T]4 

,9 ANY /RUCTURAL ANALYSIS--& ?IS 9CLUDES ANY ANALYSIS ( SOCIAL /RUCTURE--! KEY QUE/ION IS H[ TO ID5TIFY ONE'S UNITS ( ANALYSIS4 ,H]E ,TURN] AGA9 HE>K5S BACK TO ! DIALECTICAL TRADITION1.<#f#g.> 9 :I* ! BASIC PR9CIPLE IS ?AT ! MO/ ELEM5T>Y UNIT ( ANY SY/EM IS ! SMALLE/ ONE ?AT /ILL CONTA9S )9 IT ALL ! BASIC RELATIONS :I* CON/ITUTE ! :OLE4 ,LET ME EXPLA9 :AT ,I MEAN BY ?IS4 ,TAKE ! EXAMPLE ( A K9%IP SY/EM1 ( ! SORT NORMALLY /UDI$ BY AN?ROPOLOGI/S4 ,! M9IMAL UNIT W\LD CLE>LY HAVE TO BE A DOME/IC UNIT ( SOME SORT--A FAMILY OR H\SEHOLD4.<#f#h.> ,FAMILIES ( C\RSE CAN TAKE A WIDE V>IETY ( =MS 9 DIFF]5T SOCIETIES1 BUT :E!R ONE IS TALK+ AB\T A SUBURBAN FAMILY 9 ,CLEVEL&1 AN ,IROQUOIS LON<\SE1 OR A ,NAY> MATRIL9EAL /IRP1 !RE >E C]TA9 ?+S ONE CAN ALWAYS EXPECT4 ,ONE CAN ALWAYS C\NT ON !RE BE+ A RECOGNIZ$ MODEL ( :AT A PROP]LY CON/ITUT$ H\SEHOLD %\LD LOOK LIKE4 ,& ?AT PROP]LY CON/ITUT$ H\SEHOLD WILL ALWAYS CONTA9 )9 ITSELF ALL ( ?OSE RELATION%IPS 7MO!R-DAU<T]1 HUSB&-WIFE1 BRO!R-BRO!R1 MO!R'S BRO!RDAU<T]'S HUSB&1 :ATEV] !SE MAY BE7 ?AT >E REWORK$ TO CREATE ! L>G] SY/EM ( :I* IT =MS A P>T4 ,! L>G] SY/EMS >E JU/ BAS$ ON EXTRAPOLAT+ C]TA9 ( !SE RELATIONS & PR9CIPLES ON A GR&] SCALE4 ,A SY/EM ( PATRIL9EAL CLANS1 = EXAMPLE1 IS BAS$ ON TAK+ JU/ ONE ( ?OSE CRITICAL RELATIONS 7BETWE5 FA!RS & SONS7 & MAK+ IT A UNIV]SAL PR9CIPLE ?AT CAN !N BECOME ! BASIS = ORGANIZATIONS ?AT NOT ONLY REGULATE RELATIONS BETWE5 FAMILIES1 BUT ABOVE ALL 7BY CONTROL ( BRIDEWEAL?1 E/ABLI%M5T ( RULES ( EXOGAMY1 & SO =?7 REGULATE ! CONT9UAL PROCESS ?R\< :I* NEW FAMILIES =M & OLD ONES DISSOLVE4 

,?IS IS REALLY ! SAME SORT ( RELATION ( MUTUAL DEP5D5CE BETWE5 LEVELS ?AT ONE F9DS 9 ! ,PIAGETIAN NOTION ( /RUCTURE3 ! HI<]1 5COMPASS+ LEVEL IS 5TIRELY PRESUPPOS$ BY ! L[]2 YET AT ! SAME TIME1 ! L[] ONE IS NOT VIABLE )\T IT--S9CE REAL H\SEHOLDS >E 9 CON/ANT FLUX1 5DLESSLY GR[+1 DECL9+1 & DIVID+ UP TO CREATE NEW FAMILIES1 & IT IS ! BROAD] SY/EM ?AT REGULATES ! PROCESS4 ,& H]E AGA9 ONE CAN1 9 PR9CIPLE AT LEA/1 CONT9UALLY G5]ATE HI<] LEVELS4 

,9 ! CASE ( ! ,KAYAPO 7,TURN] #a#i#g#iB1 #a#i#h1 #a#i#h#d1 #a#i#h#eA1 #a#i#h#g71 ! DOME/IC UNIT IS AN UXORILOCAL EXT5D$ FAMILY1 USUALLY ?REE G5]ATIONS 9 DEP?4 ,9 A PROP]LY CON/ITUT$ VILLAGE1 !RE C\LD BE HUNDR$S ( !SE1 9 H\SES >RANG$ 9 A VA/ CIRCLE1 ALL OP5+ ON A C5TRAL VILLAGE PLAZA ?AT IS CONSID]$ ! QU9TESS5TIAL SOCIAL SPACE4 ,! M5'S & WOM5'S SOCIETIES ?AT DOM9ATE ! LIFE ( ! PLAZA >E DIVID$ 9TO MOIETIES1 ?\< 9 ! ,KAYAPO CASE !SE >E NOT EXOGAM\S4 ,RA!R1 A BOY NE$S MEMB]S ( ! OPPOSITE MOIETY TO PROVIDE ! UNRELAT$ 0SUB/ITUTE P>5TS0 7KRABDJUO7 :O WILL 9ITIATE HIM 9TO PUBLIC LIFE BY SPONSOR+ HIS 5TRY 9TO ! M5'S SOCIETY4 ,BOYS >E REMOV$ FROM !IR NATAL FAMILIES TO LIVE 9 ! ,M5'S ,H\SE DORMITORY AT AB\T ! AGE ( EI<T1 9ITIAT$ TO ! NEXT GRADE AT AB\T F\RTE51 & !N1 ON ! BIR? ( !IR FIR/ *ILD1 MOVE 9TO !IR WIVES' H\SEHOLDS4 ,!Y DO SO AS V]Y MU* JUNIOR P>TN]S3 A HUSB& IS AT FIR/ EXPECT$ TO BE HI<LY SUBS]VI5T TO HIS WIFE'S P>5TS 7!RE >E ALL SORTS ( RITUALIZ$ GE/URES ( DEF]5CE & NE>-AVOIDANCE71 DUR+ ! P]IOD :5 HE & HIS WIFE >E RAIS+ !IR [N *ILDR54 ,AT ! SAME TIME !Y GRADUALLY MOVE UPW>D 9 ! COLLECTIVE ORGANIZATIONS ( ! VILLAGE C5T] ACCORD+ TO ! PO9T !Y HAVE REA*$ 9 !IR [N DOME/IC CYCLE 7AGE GRADES 9CLUDE 0FA!RS ( ONE *ILD10 0FA!RS ( MANY *ILDR510 ETC474 ,!RE IS A P>ALLEL /RUCTURE = GIRLS3 GIRLS TOO >E 9ITIAT$ 9TO A S]IES ( AGE GRADES BY 0SUB/ITUTE P>5TS02 H[EV]1 !Y >E NEV] DETA*$ FROM !IR NATAL FAMILIES 9 NE>LY SO RADICAL A WAY1 >E NEV] DORM$ 9 ! VILLAGE C5T]1 &1 :ILE AS ELD]S !Y CAN A*IEVE A DOM9ANT POSITION ALONGSIDE !IR HUSB&S )9 !IR [N EXT5D$ FAMILIES1 NEV] TAKE ON A DOM9ANT ROLE 9 ! PLAZA'S POLITICAL LIFE4 

,9 :AT WAY1 !N1 >E !SE COMMUNAL 9/ITUTIONS CON/RUCT$ \T ( RELATIONS ?AT EXI/ )9 ! DOME/IC UNIT8 ,TURN] >GUES ?AT RELATIONS )9 ! FAMILY FALL 9TO TWO BROAD GR\PS4 ,! FIR/1 & MO/ IMPORTANT1 >E ! V]Y HI]>*ICAL SORTS ( RELATION ?AT EXI/ BETWE5 P>5TS & *ILDR51 & 9-M>RY+ HUSB&S & !IR WIVES' P>5TS 9 P>TICUL>4 ,ALL !SE RELATIONS >E M>K$ BY SIMIL> =MS ( DEF]5CE3 ! SUBORD9ATE P>TY IS 0A%AM$0 9 ! PRES5CE ( ! DOM9ANT ONE1 IS OBLIG$ TO REFRA9 FROM ANY EXPRESSION OR (T5 EV5 REF]5CE TO APPETITES = FOOD OR SEX1 ! DOM9ANT P>TY CAN EXPRESS SU* APPETITES FREELY AS WELL AS G5]ALLY TELL+ ! O!R :AT DO TO4 ,! SECOND SET >E ! MORE SOLID>Y1 COM=TABLE RELATIONS ( ALLIANCE ?AT EXI/ BETWE51 = EXAMPLE1 GR&P>5TS & GR&*ILDR51 BOYS ) !IR MO!RS' BRO!RS1 OR GIRLS ) !IR FA!RS' SI/]S4 

,EA* ( !SE 0COMPLEM5T>Y AXES ( ! /RUCTURE ( ! FAMILY0 IS ! BASIS ( RECRUITM5T = ONE ( ! TWO SETS ( COMMUNAL ORGANIZATIONS ?AT DOM9ATE ! VILLAGE C5T]4 ,! FIR/ >E ! SETS ( M5'S & WOM5'S SOCIETIES ,I HAVE ALREADY P>TLY DESCRIB$3 SOCIETIES :I* >E !MSELVES EXTREMELY HI]>*ICAL1 AS WELL BE+ 9 PR9CIPLE DIVID$ 9TO TWO RANK$ MOIETIES4 ,ONE MI<T CALL ?IS ! POLITICAL SY/EM4 ,! SECOND IS ! FRAMEWORK ( ,KAYAPO C]EMONIAL ORGANIZATION 7#a#i#h#g3#b#e-#b#h71 :I* TEMPOR>ILY M]GES ALL SU* DIVISIONS TOGE!R 9 COLLECTIVE DANCES & 9ITIATIONS1 :I* CULM9ATE 9 ! GIV+ ( 0BEAUTIFUL NAMES0 TO C]TA9 PRIVILEG$ *ILDR51 USUALLY ACCOMPANI$ BY C]TA9 PIECES ( HEIRLOOM JEWELRY CALL$ NEKRET*1 ! ONLY REAL PHYSICAL TOK5S ( WEAL? ?AT EXI/ 9 TRADITIONAL ,KAYAPO SOCIETY4 ,H5CE ! TWO 0COMPLEM5T>Y AXES ( ! /RUCTURE ( ! FAMILY0 BECOME ! 0COMPLEM5T>Y AXES ( ! /RUCTURE ( SOCIETY0 AS WELL4 ,:AT'S MORE1 IT IS 9DE$ ?R\< !SE L>G]1 5COMPASS+ 9/ITUTIONS ?AT ! M9IMAL UNITS >E REPRODUC$3 REGULAT+ ! DISP]SAL ( ! *ILDR5 ( OLD FAMILIES & ! CREATION ( NEW ONES 9 M>RIAGE4 ,! COMMUNAL 9/ITUTIONS1 9 ,TURN]'S T]MS1 0EMBODY0 C]TA9 ASPECTS ( ! M9IMAL UNITS AT ! SAME TIME AS !Y ALSO S]VE AS ! NECESS>Y MEANS = ?OSE UNITS' CONT9UAL REPRODUCTION4 

,! CRUCIAL ?+ H]E IS ?AT !SE TWO 0AXES0 ALSO CORRESPOND TO ! TWO KEY VALUES ( ,KAYAPO SOCIETY4 ,TURN] REF]S TO !M AS 0DOM9ANCE0 & 0BEAUTY0 ,! FIR/ IS NOT ACTUALLY NAM$ 9 ,KAYAPO1 BUT IT'S EXEMPLIFI$ 9 ! SORT ( AU?ORITY EX]T$ BY A FA!R-9-LAW OV] HIS DEF]5TIAL SONS-9LAW1 AS WELL AS ?AT SAME SORT ( AU?ORITY WRIT L>GE )9 ! AGE-GRAD$ 9/ITUTIONS ( ! VILLAGE C5T]4 ,! ,KAYAPO NOTION ( 0BEAUTY10 ON ! O!R H&1 IMPLIES 0P]FECTION1 COMPLETION1 & F9ESSE02.<#f#i.> IT IS EV9C$ MO/ ( ALL 9 ! H>MONY ( GR& C]EMONIAL ?AT UNITES AN 5TIRE ,KAYAPO COMMUNITY1 ( :I* ! GIV+ ( 0BEAUTIFUL NAMES0 IS P]HAPS ! EXEMPL>Y =M4 ,9 ! COMMUNAL SPH]E1 !SE TWO >E COMB9$ 9 C]TA9 =MS ( PUBLIC P]=MANCE4 ,!SE >E1 9 ASC5D+ ORD] ( PRE/IGE1 A K9D ( M\RNFUL KE5+ P]=M$ BY ELD] WOM5 AT PUBLIC EV5TS1 ! =MAL ORATORY ) :I* S5IOR M5 H>ANGUE ! COMMUNITY ON MATT]S ( COLLECTIVE IMPORT1 & MO/ ALL1 A =M ( ORATORICAL *ANT+1 CALL$ B51 :OSE USE IS LIMIT$ TO *IEFS4.<#g.> ,!SE REPRES5T ! P9NACLES ( SOCIAL VALUE 9 ,KAYAPO SOCIETY BECAUSE !Y >E SE5 AS COMB9+ COMPLETELY UN9HIBIT$ SELF-EXPRESSION 7I4E41 A COMPLETE LACK ( DEF]5CE1 H5CE1 UNTRAMMEL$ DOM9ANCE7 ) ! CONSUMMATE MA/]Y & FULLNESS ( /YLE ?AT IS ! EPITOME ( 0BEAUTY40 

,N[1 ALL ?IS MI<T SEEM A F> CRY FROM ! ANALYSIS ( FACTORY PRODUCTION 9 ,M>X'S ,CAPITAL4 ,BUT ,TURN] >GUES 7#a#i#h#d7 ?AT ONE CAN1 9 FACT1 C>RY \T A SIMIL> VALUE ANALYSIS BECAUSE !RE IS1 9DE$1 A CULTURAL SY/EM BY :I* PRODUCTIVE LABOR IS DIVID$ UP ACCORD+ TO /&>DIZ$ UNITS ( TIME4 ,?IS IS ! DOME/IC CYCLE4 ,ONE SU* CYCLE SUFFICES TO TURN *ILDR5 9TO M>RIAGEABLE ADULTS 7I4E41 TO PRODUCE LABOR P[]1 ! CAPACITY TO REPRODUCE ! FAMILY71 A SECOND1 TO TURN ! =M] SUBORD9AT$ C\PLE 9TO ! DOM9ANT HEADS ( !IR [N EXT5D$ FAMILY4 ,! CRITICAL ?+1 H[EV]1 IS ?AT 9 ?AT SECOND CYCLE1 ! ACTUAL LABOR ( SOCIALIZATION IS NO LONG] C>RI$ \T BY ! C\PLE !MSELVES4 ,9/EAD1 IT IS !IR DAU<T]S' & DAU<T]S' HUSB&S' WORK ?AT EFFECTIVELY PROPELS !M =W>D 9TO !IR NEW /ATUS4.<#g#a.> ,H5CE1 !IR LABOR PRODUCES1 9 EFFECT1 A SURPLUS4 ,! SURPLUS1 H[EV]1 IS NOT APPROPRIAT$ ON ! DOME/IC LEVEL--OR1 BETT] TO SAY1 NOT PRIM>ILY SO--BUT ON ! LEVEL ( ! SOCIETY AS A :OLE4 ,A MALE ELD]1 = 9/ANCE1 CAN BEHAVE 9 A DOM9ANT FA%ION 9 HIS [N H\SEHOLD2 BUT EV5 IF HE HAS NO DAU<T]S ( HIS [N & H5CE CAN NEV] BECOME ! HEAD ( AN EXT5D$ FAMILY H\SEHOLD1 ! COLLECTIVE LABORS ( ! Y\NG] G5]ATION NONE!LESS PROPEL HIM ?R\< ! AGE GRADES TO ! PO9T :]E HE CAN TAKE ON ! ROLE ( AN ELD] 9 PUBLIC LIFE1 & ACC$E TO ! MO/ EM95T TOK5S ( VALUE 9 ,KAYAPO SOCIETY4 

,VALUE1 !N1 IS REALIZ$ MA9LY 9 ! PUBLIC1 COMMUNAL SPH]E1 9 ! =MS ( CONCRETE CIRCULAT+ M$IA ( VALUE--9 P>T1 ! C]EMONIAL VALUABLES & ROLES M5TION$ ABOVE BUT MA9LY 9 ! =MS ( ACCESS TO ! MO/ PRE/IGI\S =MS ( V]BAL P]=MANCE 9 PUBLIC 7RITUAL & ESPECIALLY POLITICAL7 LIFE3 KE5+1 =MAL ORATORY1 *IEFLY *ANT+4 ,!SE LATT] =MS >E REFRACTIONS ( ! MO/ BASIC =MS ( VALUE CREAT$ 9 ! DOME/IC SPH]E1 AT ! SAME TIME AS !Y >E REALIZ$ L>GELY )9 9/ITUTIONS ?AT >E MODEL$ ON ! KEY RELATIONS ?R\< :I* ?OSE =MS ( VALUE >E CREAT$4 ,!Y >E ALSO REALIZ$ 9 A DI/9CTLY UNEQUAL FA%ION2 & ?AT 9EQUALITY IS A DIRECT RESULT ( ! EFFECTIVE APPROPRIATION BY SOME ( ! PRODUCTS ( O!RS' LABOR4 

,! OV]ALL PICTURE H]E IS NOT ALL ?AT 5TIRELY DIFF]5T ?AN ! SORT ( ?+ PROPOS$ BY ,DUMONT & HIS DISCIPLES4 ,WE HAVE ! SAME HI]>*ICAL >RANGEM5T ( SPH]ES1 ! SAME PAIR$ SET ( KEY VALUES1 ONE PRIM>ILY CONC]N$ ) 9DIVIDUAL ASS]TION1 ! O!R1 MORE 5COMPASS+LY SOCIAL 7SO P[] & PURITY 9 ,DUMONT'S ,H9DUISM1 HONOR & B>AKA AMONG ,JAM\S' ,B]B]S1 & SO =?47 ,! SAME CAN BE SAID ( ,F]D ,MY]S' ANALYSIS ( ! VALUES ( 0RELAT$NESS0 & 0DIFF]5TIATION0 AMONG ! ,P9TUPI 7#a#i#h#f71 :I* IS 9SPIR$ MA9LY BY ,TURN]1 BUT DRAWS ON C]TA9 ,DUMONTIAN !MES AS WELL4 ,! MO/ OBVI\S DIFF]5CES BETWE5 ,TURN] & ,DUMONT ?\< >E ! 9F9ITELY MORE SOPHI/ICAT$ !ORETICAL APP>ATUS ,TURN] PROVIDES1 & ! FACT ?AT1 COM+ \T ( ! ,M>XIAN RA!R ?AN ,DURKHEIMIAN TRADITION1 ,TURN] DOES NOT ASSUME ?AT ALI5ATION & HI]>*Y >E SIMPLY NATURAL & 9EVITABLE FEATURES ( HUMAN LIFE4 

TOK5S ( VALUE 

  

,N[1 TREAT+ A =M ( *IEFLY *ANT+ AS A 0M$IUM ( VALUE0 MI<T SEEM TO BE /RET*+ ! ANALOGY ) ,M>X BEYOND ALL REASON4 ,:AT DOES A G5RE ( PUBLIC P]=MANCE REALLY HAVE 9 COMMON ) A DOLL> BILL8 ,IF ONE EXAM9ES ! MATT] MORE CLOSELY1 ONE F9DS !Y HAVE QUITE A NUMB] ( ?+S 9 COMMON4 ,H]E IS A LI/ ( ! MO/ IMPORTANT QUALITIES %>$ BY ALL SU* 0CONCRETE M$IA ( CIRCULATION0 9 ,TURN]'S T]MS3  

!Y >E MEASURES ( VALUE1 AS !Y S]VE TO M>K A CONTRA/ BETWE5 GREAT] OR LESS] DEGREES ( DOM9ANCE1 BEAUTY1 HONOR1 PRE/IGE1 OR :ATEV] ! P>TICUL> VALU$ QUALITY MAY BE4 ,?IS MEASUREM5T CAN TAKE ANY ( ?REE POSSIBLE =MS3  

PRES5CE_/ABS5CE4 ,EV5 IF ONE IS DEAL+ ) UNIQUE & 9COMM5SURABLE VALUES1 !RE IS /ILL ! DIFF]5CE BETWE5 HAV+ !M 7OR O!RWISE BE+ ID5TIFI$ ) !M7 & NOT4 ,KAYAPO 0BEAUTIFUL NAMES0 & !IR ASSOCIAT$ REGALIA1 = EXAMPLE1 >E NOT RANK$--EA* IS A VALUE ONLY UNTO ITSELF--BUT EV]Y NAME-GIV+ C]EMONY IS ORGANIZ$ >\ND ! DI/9CTION BETWE5 0?OSE ) WEAL?10 :O HAVE !M1 0?OSE ) NO?+10 :O DO NOT--EV5 IF ALL O!R SOCIAL DI/9CTIONS >E EFFECTIVELY DISSOLV$ 7,TURN] #a#i#h#g3#b#h74.<#g#b.>  

RANK+1 AS ) ,GREGORY'S HI]>*Y ( TYPES ( GIFT4 ,KAYAPO P]=MANCE G5RES >E RANK$ AS WELL3 M5'S ORATORY IS ORD9>ILY SE5 AS SUP]IOR TO WOM5'S KE5+2 *IEFLY *ANT+1 AS SUP]IOR TO BO?4  

PROPORTIONALITY1 AS ) MONEY4  

 ,9 ANY ( !SE :AT IS ULTIMATELY BE+ MEASUR$ IS ! IMPORTANCE ( ! CREATIVE 5]GIES 79 ! ,KAYAPO CASE1 ABOVE ALL ?OSE SP5T 9 ! CREATION ( FULLY SOCIALIZ$ HUMAN BE+S7 REQUIR$ TO PRODUCE !M  
  
  

!Y >E M$IA ( VALUE1 AS !Y >E ! CONCRETE1 MAT]IAL MEANS BY :I* ?AT VALUE IS REALIZ$4 ,9 O!R WORDS1 IT IS NOT 5\< = TOK5S ( VALUE TO PROVIDE A WAY ( CONTRA/+ LEVELS ( VALUE2 !RE HAVE TO BE MAT]IAL OBJECTS1 OR MAT]IAL P]=MANCES1 :I* EI!R BR+ ?OSE VALUES 9TO BE+ 9 A WAY ?AT !Y >E--AT LEA/ POT5TIALLY--P]CEPTIBLE TO A L>G] AUDI5CE 7?IS AUDI5CE1 FROM ! ACTOR'S PO9T ( VIEW1 MORE OR LESS CON/ITUTES 0SOCIETY071 OR >E TRANSLATABLE 9TO ?+S ?AT DO4  

F9ALLY1 !SE TOK5S ALMO/ 9EVITABLY COME TO SE5 AS 5DS 9 !MSELVES4 ,ACTUAL PEOPLE T5D TO SEE !SE MAT]IAL TOK5S NOT AS 0TOOLS0 ?R\< :I* VALUE CAN BE MEASUR$ OR M$IAT$1 BUT AS EMBODIM5TS ( VALUE 9 !MSELVES2 EV51 9 CLASSIC FETI%I/IC FA%ION1 AS ! ORIG9S ( ?OSE V]Y VALUES 7,TURN] #a#i#g#iC3#c#a-#c#d74  
  

,! LA/ PO9T IS CRUCIAL1 BECAUSE ?IS IS :AT F9ALLY PO9TS ! WAY T[>DS RECONCIL+ SOCIAL /RUCTURE & 9DIVIDUAL DESIRE1 :I* IS PRECISELY :AT A VALUE !ORY WAS SUPPOS$ TO DO4 

,MO/ ,KAYAPO1 DO1 UND\BT$LY1 FEEL ?AT IT IS RI<T !IR [N SOCIETY %\LD CONT9UE TO EXI/2 9 ?IS !Y >E LIKE MO/ PEOPLE4 ,BUT 9 ! ABS5CE ( GREAT CATA/ROPHES1 ! QUE/ION ( ! CONT9U$ EXI/5CE ( ONE'S SOCIETY IS NOT SOME?+ TO :I* MANY GIVE A LOT ( ?\<T4 ,REPRODUC+ SOCIETY IS NOT1 NORMALLY1 SE5 AS AN 5D 9 ITSELF4.<#g#c.> ,RA!R1 MO/ PEOPLE PURSUE SOCIAL VALUES 9 MORE OR LESS CONCRETE =M3 IF !Y >E ,KAYAPO1 !Y WORK !IR WAY T[>DS SOCIALLY DOM9ANT POSITIONS 9 ! C5TRAL1 COMMUNAL 9/ITUTIONS 7IF ONLY SO ?AT !Y WILL BE 9 A POSITION TO EXPRESS !MSELVES FREELY & NOT TO HAVE TO LIVE 9 CON/ANT CON/RA9T & EMB>RASSM5T71 !Y HOPE TO BE ABLE TO PLAY AN IMPORTANT P>T 9 ! P]=MANCE A TRULY BEAUTIFUL COLLECTIVE RITUAL1 TO GIVE A 0BEAUTIFUL NAME0 TO !IR BRO!R'S DAU<T]1 TO BE ! SORT ( P]SON O!RS LI/5 TO AS A VOICE ( MORAL AU?ORITY1 TO 5SURE ONE'S *ILDR5 MI<T SOM$AY BE4 ,ONE IS TEMPT$ TO SAY ?AT 0SOCIETY0 IS CREAT$ AS A SIDE EFFECT ( SU* PURSUITS ( VALUE4 ,BUT EV5 ?IS W\LD NOT BE QUITE RI<T1 BECAUSE ?AT W\LD REIFY SOCIETY4 ,REALLY1 SOCIETY IS NOT A ?+ AT ALL3 IT IS ! TOTAL PROCESS ?R\< :I* ALL ?IS ACTIVITY IS COORD9AT$1.<#g#d.> & VALUE1 9 TURN1 ! WAY ?AT ACTORS SEE !IR [N ACTIVITY AS MEAN+FUL AS P>T ( IT4 ,DO+ SO ALWAYS1 NECESS>ILY1 9VOLVES SOME SORT ( PUBLIC RECOGNITION & COMP>ISON4 ,?IS IS :Y ECONOMIC MODELS1 :I* SEE ?OSE ACTIONS AS AIM$ PRIM>ILY AT 9DIVIDUAL GRATIFICATION1 FALL SO OBVI\SLY %ORT3 !Y FAIL TO SEE ?AT 9 ANY SOCIETY--EV5 )9 A M>KET SY/EM--SOLIT>Y PLEASURES >E RELATIVELY FEW4 ,! MO/ IMPORTANT 5DS >E ONES ?AT CAN ONLY BE REALIZ$ 9 ! EYES ( SOME COLLECTIVE AUDI5CE4 ,9 FACT1 ONE MI<T GO SO F> AS TO SAY ?AT :ILE FROM AN ANALYTICAL P]SPECTIVE 0SOCIETY0 IS A NOTORI\SLY FLUID1 OP5-5D$ SET ( PROCESSES1 FROM ! P]SPECTIVE ( ! ACTORS1 IT IS MU* MORE EASILY DEF9$3 0SOCIETY0 SIMPLY CONSI/S ( ?AT POT5TIAL AUDI5CE1 ( EV]YONE :OSE OP9ION ( Y\ MATT]S 9 SOME WAY1 AS OPPOS$ TO ?OSE 7SAY1 A ,*9ESE M]*ANT1 TO A N9ETE5? C5TURY ,G]MAN PEASANT F>M]1 OR VICE V]SA1 OR MO/ AN?ROPOLOGI/S TO ! JANITORS :O CLEAN !IR BUILD+S1 OR VICE V]SA7 :OSE OP9ION ( Y\1 Y\ W\LD NEV] ?9K AB\T AT ALL4 ,BUT 7& ?IS IS :AT ,I ?9K ,/RA!RN1 = EXAMPLE1 DOES NOT TAKE FULLY 9TO ACC\NT7 VALUE IS NOT CREAT$ 9 ?AT PUBLIC RECOGNITION4 ,RA!R1 :AT IS BE+ RECOGNIZ$ IS SOME?+ ?AT WAS1 9 A S5SE1 ALREADY !RE4 

,ALL ?IS ,I ?9K HAS A DEF9ITE BE>+ ON ! QUE/ION ( EXPLOITATION4 ,LET ME RETURN = A MOM5T TO ,M\NT ,HAG5 & ! >GUM5T AB\T ,MELPA PIG EX*ANGE4 ,! READ] WILL RECALL ,JOSEPHIDES >GU$ ?AT BEH9D ! DRAMATIC1 PUBLIC GE/URES ( GIFT-GIV+ BETWE5 M5 LIE HIDD5 A :OLE HI/ORY ( LESS DRAMATIC1 MORE REPETITIVE DAILY ACTIONS1 L>GELY C>RI$ \T BY WOM51 BY :I* ! PIGS >E PRODUC$4 ,MOKA C]EMONIES MAKE IT SEEM AS IF ! PIGS' VALUE IS PRODUC$ BY EX*ANGE4 ,9 DO+ SO1 IT DISGUISES ITS REAL ORIG9S 9 WOM5'S LABOR4 ,/RA!RN OBJECTS ?AT SU* A NOTION PRESUMES A C]TA9 ATTITUDE T[>DS PROP]TY1 & ! IDEA ?AT C>RY+ \T PRODUCTIVE LABOR %\LD GIVE ONE C]TA9 RI<TS TO ! OBJECT PRODUC$1 ?AT ,HAG5]S JU/ DON'T HAVE4 ,H5CE IT W\LD NEV] OCCUR TO !M !Y >E BE+ EXPLOIT$4 ,BUT 9 FACT1 :5 ,MELPA WOM5 FE$ !IR PIGS1 !Y >E NOT SIMPLY FATT5+ ANIMALS4 ,!Y >E NOT EV5 SIMPLY1 AS ,/RA!RN W\LD HAVE IT1 REPRODUC+ ! RELATION%IP !Y HAVE ) !IR HUSB&S4 ,!Y >E ALSO CONTRIBUT+ TO REPRODUC+ A C]TA9 K9D ( SOCIAL ORD]3 ONE ORGANIZ$1 = EXAMPLE1 >\ND A DI/9CTION BETWE5 ! DOME/IC SPH]E1 9 :I* PIGS >E RAIS$1 & ! PUBLIC ONE1 9 :I* !Y >E EX*ANG$2 ONE ?AT C>RIES ) IT DEF9ITIONS ( :AT A MAN IS1 :AT A WOMAN IS1 :AT A FAMILY IS1 :AT A MALE REPUTATION IS1 & :Y IT IS ?AT ! GIFT ( A PIG %\LD BE ! MO/ EFFECTIVE MEANS BY :I* ! LATT] CAN BE CREAT$4 ,?IS SOCIAL ORD] IS NOT SOME AB/RACT SET ( CATEGORIES ?AT EXI/S PRIOR TO ACTION4 ,ACTIONS >E :AT IT IS1 :AT IT PRIM>ILY CONSI/S (4 ,IT IS A PROCESS ( CON/ANT CREATION4 ,9 ?IS S5SE1 IT IS NOT JU/ ! PIGS BUT ! MALE PUBLIC SPH]E ITSELF :I* IS CON/RUCT$ 9 L>GE P>T BY FEMALE LABOR1 EV5 IF IT IS ALSO ONE FROM :I* WOM5 >E L>GELY EXCLUD$4.<#g#e.> 

,FROM ?IS P]SPECTIVE ONE CAN 9DE$ TALK AB\T EXPLOITATION4 ,/RA!RN = EXAMPLE PO9TS \T ?AT IF ONE CLAIMS ?AT ,MELPA WOM5 >E BE+ EXPLOIT$ BECAUSE M5 CONTROL ! PIGS !Y HAVE HELP$ PRODUCE1 Y\ W\LD HAVE TO CONCLUDE ?AT M5 >E BE+ EXPLOIT$ TOO1 BECAUSE WOM5 CONTROL ! CROPS ?AT M5 HAVE CONTRIBUT$ TO PRODUC+4 ,?IS SORT ( LOGIC IS 9EVITABLE1 REALLY1 IF ONE ?9KS ( VALUE ONLY 9 T]MS ( P>TICUL> OBJECTS & P>TICUL> TRANSACTIONS1 REFUS+ TO CONSID] ANY SORT ( L>G] SOCIAL :OLE 9 :I* ! PRODUCTION ( BO? PIGS & CROPS TAKE ON VALUE 9 RELATION TO ONE ANO!R4 ,N[1 !RE >E GOOD REASONS :Y ,/RA!RN WANTS TO AVOID TALK+ AB\T 0SOCIETY40 ,FIR/ ( ALL1 LIKE MO/ CURR5T !ORI/S %E WANTS TO EMPHASIZE ! DEGREE TO :I* :AT WE >E US$ TO CALL+ 0SOCIETIES0 >E NOT B\ND$ :OLES1 BUT OP5-5D$ NETWORKS4 ,SECOND1 ! CONCEPT IS ALI5 TO ! ,MELPA !MSELVES4 ,BUT BY DO+ SO 5DS UP P>ADOXICALLY DEPRIV+ H] ,HAG5]S ( ALMO/ ALL SOCIAL CREATIVITY4 ,A CON/RUCTIVI/ APPROA*--SU* AS ,I HAVE BE5 TRY+ TO DEVELOP--MI<T HELP OV]COME SOME ( !SE DILEMMAS4 ,SU* AN APPROA* ASSUMES !RE DOES HAVE TO BE SOME K9D ( :OLE2.<#g#f.> BUT IT IS ALMO/ ALWAYS GO+ TO BE A %IFT+1 PROVISIONAL ONE1 BECAUSE IT IS ALWAYS 9 ! PROCESS ( CON/RUCTION BY ACTORS PURSU+ =MS ( VALUE--IF ONLY BECAUSE ?OSE =MS ( VALUE CAN ONLY BE REALIZ$ ON SOME SORT ( L>G] /AGE4 ,IF = ! ACTOR1 0SOCIETY0 IS SIMPLY ! AUDI5CE ONE W\LD LIKE TO IMPRESS1 = ! ANALY/1 IT IS ALL ?OSE ACTIONS ?AT HAVE GONE 9TO MAK+ IT POSSIBLE = ?AT ACTOR TO MAKE ?AT IMPRESSION ?AT HAVE ?US1 9 EFFECT1 PRODUC$ ! VALUE REALIZ$ 9 ?IS WAY4 

VALUE & VALUES1 FETI%ISM 

  

,AT ?IS PO9T ON CAN RETURN TO ! QUE/ION ( VALUE V]SUS VALUES2 ?AT IS1 ECONOMIC PRICE-ME*ANISMS V]SUS ! K9D ( 0CONCEPTIONS ( ! DESIRABLE0 DESCRIB$ BY ,KLUCKHOHN3 HONOR1 PURITY1 BEAUTY1 & ! LIKE4 ,I'VE ALREADY NOT$ ?AT ! LATT] T5D TO TAKE ON IMPORTANCE EI!R 9 SOCIETIES )\T A COMM]CIAL M>KET 7E4G41 ! ,KAYAPO7 OR1 AS 9 \RS1 9 ?OSE CONTEXTS 7*UR*1 HOME1 MUSEUM1 ETC47 RELATIVELY 9SULAT$ FROM IT4 ,ACCORD+ TO ,TURN] 7#a#i#h#d3#e#f-#e#h71 BO? REALLY >E REFRACTIONS ( ! SAME ?+2 TO UND]/& ! DIFF]5CES1 ONE HAS FIR/ ( ALL TO CONSID] :AT !Y >E BE+ REFRACT$ ?R\<4 ,?AT IS1 ONE HAS TO CONSID] ! NATURE ( ! M$IA ?R\< :I* SOCIAL VALUE IS REALIZ$4 ,! KEY QUE/ION IS ! DEGREE TO :I* VALUE CAN1 AS IT W]E1 BE 0/OR$40 ,H]E MONEY REPRES5TS ONE LOGICAL EXTREME4 ,MONEY IS A DURABLE PHYSICAL OBJECT ?AT CAN BE /OR$1 MOV$ AB\T1 KEPT ON RES]VE1 TAK5 FROM ONE CONTEXT TO ANO!R4.<#g#g.> ,AT ! O!R EXTREME1 ONE HAS P]=MANCES LIKE *IEFLY *ANT+1 ! DEF]5TIAL BEHAVIOR ( SUBORD9ATES1 & SO ON4 ,A P]=MANCE IS OBVI\SLY NOT SOME?+ ?AT CAN BE /OR$ & 0CONSUM$0 LAT] ON4 ,H5CE1 AS HE PUTS IT1 !RE CAN BE NO DI/9CTION H]E BETWE5 ! SPH]ES ( CIRCULATION1 & REALIZATION4 ,BO? HAVE TO HAPP5 9 ! SAME PLACE4 

,H]E IT MI<T HELP TO GO BACK TO ,M>X1 :O 9V5T$ !SE P>TICUL> T]MS4 ,9 A CAPITALI/ SY/EM1 ! TYPICAL PRODUCT IS MADE 9 A FACTORY & PASSES FROM :OLESAL] TO RETAIL]1 BE=E F9ALLY BE+ B\<T BY A CONSUM] & TAK5 HOME TO BE CONSUM$4 ,9 ,M>X'S T]MS IT PASSES FROM ! SPH]E ( PRODUCTION1 TO ?AT ( CIRCULATION1 TO ?AT ( REALIZATION3 ! LATT] BY PROVID+ ! CONSUM] SOME PLEASURE1 FULFILL+ SOME PURPOSE1 OR ADD+ TO HIS OR H] PRE/IGE4 ,9 A SOCIETY LIKE ! ,KAYAPO1 H[EV]1 ! SPH]ES ( CIRCULATION & REALIZATION CO9CIDE4 ,SOCIAL VALUE MAY BE MA9LY PRODUC$ 9 ! DOME/IC SPH]E1 BUT IT IS REALIZ$ BY BECOM+ ABSORB$ 9TO P]SONAL ID5TITIES 9 ! PUBLIC1 COMMUNAL SPH]E1 ACCESSIBLE TO EV]YONE4 

,M>X1 ( C\RSE1 WAS WRIT+ MA9LY AB\T POLITICAL ECONOMY & WAS NOT ESPECIALLY CONC]N$ ) :AT W5T ON 9 ! DOME/IC SPH]E4 ,BUT ,I ?9K IF ONE EXP&S HIS IDEAS JU/ A LITTLE1 TO 9CLUDE ! ISSUE ( SOCIAL PRODUCTION 7! PRODUCTION ( PEOPLE1 & ( SOCIAL RELATIONS \TSIDE ! WORKPLACE71 ONE MI<T COME UP ) ! =MULATION SE5 9 ,FIGURE #c4#b4 

,9 A CAPITALI/ SY/EM1 !N1 !RE >E TWO SETS ( M9IMAL UNITS--FACTORIES 7OR MORE REALI/ICALLY1 WORKPLACES71 & H\SEHOLDS--) ! M>KET M$IAT+ RELATIONS BETWE5 ! TWO4.<#g#h.> ,ONE PRIM>ILY CONC]NS ITSELF ) ! CREATION ( COMMODITIES2 ! O!R1 ) ! CREATION 7C>E & FE$+1 SOCIALIZATION1 P]SONAL DEVELOPM5T1 ETC47 ( HUMAN BE+S4 ,NEI!R C\LD EXI/ )\T ! O!R4 ,BUT ! M>KET ?AT CONNECTS !M ALSO ACTS AS A VA/ =CE ( SOCIAL AMNESIA3 ! ANONYMITY ( ECONOMIC TRANSACTIONS 5SURES ?AT ) REG>D TO SPECIFIC PRODUCTS1 EA* SPH]E REMA9S EFFECTIVELY 9VISIBLE TO ! O!R4 ,! RESULT IS A D\BLE PROCESS ( FETI%IZATION4 ,FROM ! P]SPECTIVE ( ?OSE GO+ AB\T !IR BUS9ESS 9 ! DOME/IC SPH]E1 US+ COMMODITIES1 ! HI/ORY ( H[ !SE COMMODITIES W]E PRODUC$ IS EFFECTIVELY 9VISIBLE4 ,!RE=E1 OBJECTS--AS ,M>X SO FAM\SLY OBS]V$--APPE> TO TAKE ON SUBJECTIVE QUALITIES4 ,P]HAPS 9 P>T1 TOO1 BECAUSE !Y >E ALSO TURN$ !RE TO ! FA%ION+ ( PEOPLE4 ,MO/ COMMODITIES--AS CRITICS ( ,M>X SO (T5 PO9T \T 5D UP M>K+ DIFF]5T SORTS ( ID5TITY1 & ?IS IS ! ULTIMATE SOCIAL 0REALIZATION0 ( !IR VALUE 9 ! T]MS \TL9$ ABOVE4 ,ALL ( ?IS C\LD SIMPLY BE CONSID]$ P>T ( ! OV]ALL PROCESS ( 0SOCIAL PRODUCTION03 =M+ PEOPLE BO? 9 !IR CAPACITIES1 &1 MORE PUBLICLY1 9 T]MS ( !IR ID5TITIES1 ( :AT SORTS ( P]SON !Y >E TAK5 TO BE4 ,BUT ,I W\LD ADD3 FROM ! P]SPECTIVE ( ! WORKPLACE1 EV]Y?+ IS REV]S$4 ,H]E1 IT IS ! CREATIVE 5]GIES ?AT W5T 9TO PRODUC+ LABOR P[] 7ACTUAL HUMAN BE+S CAPABLE ( DO+ :ATEV] IT IS ! BOSS WANTS !M TO DO7 ?AT BECOMES 9VISIBLE4 ,H5CE1 9/EAD ( ?+S TAK+ ON HUMAN QUALITIES1 REAL HUMAN BE+S 5D UP TAK+ ON ! QUALITIES ( ?+S4 ,?US WE HAVE ! 0REIFICATION0 ?AT ,GREGORY TALKS AB\T1 HUMAN BE+S OR HUMAN P[]S R$UC$ TO COMMODITIES ?AT CAN BE B\<T & SOLD1 & H5CE PUT TO USE 9 CREAT+ NEW COMMODITIES4 

,9 A TRADITIONAL SOCIETY1 ( C\RSE1 !RE IS ONLY ONE SET ( M9IMAL UNITS BECAUSE ! PRODUCTION ( BO? PEOPLE & ?+S IS C5T]$ ON ! H\SEHOLD4 ,/ILL1 EV5 9 AN EXTREMELY SIMPLE CASE LIKE ! ,BA9+1 !RE IS /ILL SOME K9D ( L>G] SPH]E 9 :I* VALUES CAN BE SAID TO CIRCULATE & BE REALIZ$4 ,/ILL1 9 ! ,BA9+ CASE1 PROBABLY [+ TO ! V]Y M9IMAL NATURE ( ! HI]>*Y1 !RE IS LITTLE ?AT C\LD JU/IFIABLY BE CALL$ FETI%ISM OR EXPLOITATION4 

,! ,BA9+1 H[EV]1 >E UNUSUAL4 ,9 MO/ SOCIETIES3  
  

,! VALUES :I* ! MEMB]S ( SOCIETY /RUGGLE TO ATTA9 & ACCUMULATE 9 !IR EV]YDAY LIVES >E ULTIMATELY A SYMBOLIC EXPRESSION ( ! CONCRETE REALIZATION1 9 !IR [N SOCIAL SY/EM1 ( !IR CAPACITY TO PRODUCE ! MAT]IAL & SOCIAL :]E)AL ( !IR [N LIVES1 TO COORD9ATE !SE PRODUCTIVE ACTIVITIES 9 SU* A WAY ?AT !Y =M 9T]DEP5D5T SY/EMS & ?US ACQUIRE DET]M9ATE VALUES & MEAN+S1 & F9ALLY TO REPRODUCE ! =MS ( ?IS COORD9ATION4 ,AL?\< PEOPLE CREAT$ VALUES & MEAN+S ?R\< ! =MS ( ORGANIZ$ 9T]DEP5D5CE !Y ASSUME TO FACILITATE !IR [N PRODUCTIVE ACTIVITY1 !Y REMA9 UNAW>E ?AT !Y DO SO4 7,TURN] #a#i#g#iC3#c#d-#c#e7  
  

,JU/ AS HI<]-LEVEL PROCESSES1 OP]AT+ ON ?AT 0PROXIMAL LEVEL0 ?AT T5DS TO ELUDE 9DIVIDUAL CONSCI\SNESS1 T5D TO BE SE5 AS EXI/+ \TSIDE ( HUMAN CREATIVITY1 AS SOME?+ TRANSC5D5T & IMMUTABLE1 SO !SE TOK5S ( VALUE ALSO T5D TO BECOME FETI%IZ$4 ,PEOPLE T5D TO SEE !M AS ! ORIG9 ( ! VALUES !Y EMBODY & CONVEY4 ,JU/ AS VALUE SEEMS TO COME FROM MONEY1 SO FAME & GLORY SEEMS TO EM]GE FROM ! >M%ELLS & NECKLACES EX*ANG$ BETWE5 KULA P>TN]S1 HONOR & NOBILITY FROM POSSESSION ( COATS ( >MS & FAMILY HEIRLOOMS1 K+%IP FROM ! POSSESSION ( A /OOL1 ANCE/RAL WISDOM FROM ! =MS ( ANCE/RAL RHETORIC1 *IEFLY AU?ORITY FROM A *IEF 'S AU?ORITATIVE SPEE*4 

,OR1 ( C\RSE1 0A NAME0 FROM A ,MELPA PIG--OR1 TO BE MORE PRECISE1 FROM ! ACT ( GIV+ ONE4 ,BECAUSE 9 FACT1 ACTIONS CAN BE FETI%IZ$ TOO4 ,9 AN ESSAY CALL$ 0,EX*ANG+ ,PRODUCTS1 ,PRODUC+ ,EX*ANGE0 7#a#i#i#c71 ,JANE ,FAJANS >GUES ?AT ?IS IS PRECISELY :AT HAPP5S 9 DRAMATIC ACTS ( EX*ANGE LIKE MOKA4 ,LIKE ,BLO* & ,JOSEPHIDES1 %E SUGGE/S ?AT AN?ROPOLOGI/S-- P>TICUL>LY ?OSE WORK+ 9 ! ,MAUSSIAN TRADITION--(T5 FALL 9TO ! SAME TRAP4 ,! WAY \T1 %E SUGGE/S1 IS TO MAKE A CONSI/5T DI/9CTION BETWE5 EX*ANGE & CIRCULATION4 ,EX*ANGE OCCURS :5 PROP]TY ( SOME SORT PASSES FROM ONE P]SON TO ANO!R2 CIRCULATION OCCURS :5 VALUES OR VALU$ QUALITIES >E TRANSF]R$4 ,)9 A COMM]CIAL M>KET1 ( C\RSE1 !SE USUALLY COME D[N TO PRETTY MU* ! SAME ?+4 ,9 O!R CONTEXTS !Y DO NOT4 ,9 SOME1 AS WE'VE SE51 VALUES CIRCULATE L>GELY ?R\< MODES ( P]=MANCE4 ,KN[L$GE1 RUMORS1 & REPUTATIONS CIRCULATE AS WELL2 H5CE1 AS ,FAJANS NOTES1 ONE MI<T 9 SOME PLACES BE ABLE TO REALIZE ! VALUE ( AN HEIRLOOM %ELL ONLY BY GIV+ IT AWAY2 9 O!RS1 BY DISPLAY+ IT 9 A PUBLIC RITUAL2 9 YET O!RS1 BY HID+ IT SOME:]E 7BUT MAK+ SURE O!RS KN[ ?AT Y\ HAVE DONE ?IS74 ,9 EI!R CASE1 VALUES CIRCULATE4 ,EX*ANGE1 !N1 IS JU/ ONE ( MANY POSSIBLE =MS CIRCULATION MI<T TAKE4 

,!RE >E A NUMB] ( REASONS :Y SU* ACTIONS1 OR OBJECTS1 >E SO (T5 FETI%IZ$1 & TREAT$ AS ! S\RCES ( VALUE RA!R ?AN SIMPLY ! M$IA ?R\< :I* VALUE CIRCULATES4 ,ONE IS BECAUSE IT IS (T5 NOT 5TIRELY UNTRUE4 ,EX*ANGE1 OR *IEFLY P]=MANCE1 IS A =M ( CREATIVE ACTION & DOES1 9DE$1 PLAY A C]TA9 ROLE 9 PRODUC+ !SE VALUES--IT'S JU/ NOT NE>LY SO GREAT A ONE AS IS NORMALLY ATTRIBUT$ TO !M4.<#g#i.> ,ANO!R EV5 MORE IMPORTANT REASON1 ,FAJANS >GUES1 IS BECAUSE BO? 7ACTIONS & OBJECTS7 (T5 HAVE A T5D5CY TO BECOME MODELS1 REPRES5TATIONS 9 M9IATURE1 ( ! BROAD] =MS ( CREATIVE ACTION :OSE VALUE !Y ULTIMATELY REPRES5T4 ,IF ONE EXAM9ES ! SYMBOLIC ORGANIZATION ( A MOKA C]EMONY1 OR EV51 ?AT ( ROYAL REGALIA OR KULA VALUABLES OR ,H9DU TEMPLES1 ONE USUALLY F9DS ?AT !Y >E 9 !IR [N WAY MICROCOSMS ( ! TOTAL SY/EM ( PRODUCTION ( :I* !Y >E A P>T1 & ?AT !Y 5CODE A !ORY ( CREATIVITY ?AT IS IMPLICIT ON ! EV]YDAY LEVEL AS WELL1 BUT IS R>ELY QUITE BR\<T 9TO ! OP5 7CF4 ,TURN] #a#i#g#g3#e#i-#f74 

,IT'S NOT H>D TO SEE H[ ?IS MI<T BE4 ,A GREAT DEAL ( AN?ROPOLOGICAL ANALYSIS CONSI/S ( UNE>?+ JU/ !SE SORT ( CONNECTIONS3 = 9/ANCE1 F9D+ ! SAME SYMBOLIC PATT]NS 9 ! EV]YDAY HABITS ( DOME/IC LIFE & ! DESIGN ( ,GO?IC CA!DRALS 7,B\RDIEU #a#i#g#i74 ,?IS IS REALLY JU/ ANO!R WAY ( RE=MULAT+ ! SAME OBS]VATION1 BUT H]E EMPHASIZ+ ! IMPORTANCE ( CREATIVITY4 ,I'VE ALREADY UND]L9$ ?AT EV5 ! MO/ WORKADAY1 LEA/ DRAMATIC =MS ( SOCIAL ACTION 7T5D+ PIGS & :ATNOT7 >E ALSO =MS ( SYMBOLIC PRODUCTION3 !Y PLAY ! MA9 ROLE 9 REPRODUC+ PEOPLE'S MO/ BASIC DEF9ITIONS ( :AT HUMANS >E1 ! DIFF]5CE BETWE5 M5 & WOM51 & SO ON4 ,I HAVE ALSO EMPHASIZ$ ?AT ?IS OV]ALL PROCESS IS ALWAYS SOME?+ ?AT T5DS SOME:AT TO ESCAPE ! ACTORS4 ,9S(> AS !SE FETI%IZ$ OBJECTS REALLY DO EMBODY TOTAL SY/EMS ( MEAN+1 !Y REPRES5T ONES ?AT >E 9 FACT PRODUC$ L>GELY (F/AGE4 

,IT MI<T BE USEFUL H]E TO RETURN TO ,NANCY ,MUNN'S NOTION ( VALUE TEMPLATES4 ,9 ,GAWA1 ! MO/ ELEM5T>Y CULTURAL DEF9ITIONS ( VALUE >E REPRODUC$ EV]Y TIME ONE GIVES A GUE/1 OR A *ILD1 FOOD4 ,IMPLICIT 9 EV5 SU* A SIMPLE GE/URE LIES A :OLE COSMOLOGY1 A :OLE SET ( DI/9CTIONS BETWE5 ! HEAV9ESS ( G>D5+ & G>D5 PRODUCTS 7[N$ BY WOM571 & ! LI<TNESS & BEAUTY ( %ELLS & O!R CIRCULAT+ VALUABLES 7:I* REPRODUCE ! FAME ( M571 ONE ?AT IS1 9 PRACTICE1 REPRODUC$ PRECISELY ?R\< SU* GE/URES1 :I* >E ! MO/ BASIC MEANS = CONV]T+ ! ONE 9TO ! O!R4 ,?IS SAME /RUCTURE ( MEAN+ IS REPRODUC$ ON EV]-HI<] LEVELS ( :AT ,MUNN CALLS 09T]SUBJECTIVE SPACE-TIME02 ?AT IS1 NEW LEVELS ?AT >E CREAT$ BY MORE DRAMATIC & MORE BROADLY RECOGNIZ$ =MS ( ACTION4 ,IT IS ESPECIALLY 9 ! MO/ SPECTACUL> ( !SE3 9 ! CREATION ( ELABORATELY DECORAT$ CANOES = KULA EXP$ITIONS1 ! PRES5TATION ( FAM\S HEIRLOOM NECKLACES1 OR1 = ?AT MATT]1 9 ! V]Y DESIGN ( ! CANOES & NECKLACES !MSELVES--?AT SOME?+ LIKE A MODEL ( ! :OLE PROCESS IS PRES5T$ TO ! ACTORS 9 SOME?+ LIKE S*EMATIC =M4 

,! SAME C\LD BE SAID = ! ,KAYAPO4 ,! VALUES ( DOM9ANCE & BEAUTY >E CREAT$1 9 !IR SIMPLE/ =MS1 9 ! PETTIE/ DETAILS ( EV]YDAY LIFE1 P>TICUL>LY 9 ! FAMILY3 = 9/ANCE1 9 ! DEF]5TIAL ATTITUDES *ILDR5 %\LD TAKE T[>DS !IR P>5TS1 OR ! FAMILI> EASE !Y CAN ADOPT ) C]TA9 O!R RELATIVES4 ,BUT ALSO 9 MORE OBVI\SLY CREATIVE =MS3 ,KAYAPO WOM51 = EXAMPLE1 SP5D A GREAT ( !IR TIME PA9T+ ! BODIES ( !IR *ILDR51 AS WELL AS EA* O!R4 ,AS !Y DO SO1 ACCORD+ TO ,TURN]'S ESSAY 0,! ,SOCIAL ,SK90 7#a#i#h71 !Y >E 5DLESSLY RE-5COD+ AN IMPLICIT MODEL ( ! HUMAN BODY & SOCIETY1 ( ! TRANS=MATION ( 9N] 0LIBID9AL0 P[]S 9TO VISIBLE SOCIAL =MS4 ,AS 9 ! ,GAWAN CASE1 ONE CAN SAY ?IS IS ITSELF A K9D ( !ORY ( SOCIAL CREATIVITY1 BUT ONLY SO LONG AS ONE ALWAYS BE>S 9 M9D ?AT !RE IS NO WAY TO SEP>ATE SU* A 0!ORY0 FROM PRACTICE2 WE >E NOT DEAL+ ) PREEXI/+ CODES OR PR9CIPLES TO :I* PEOPLE !N FEEL !Y MU/ CON=M1 BUT RA!R A PROP]TY ( ! /RUCTURE ( ! ACTIONS !MSELVES4 ,9 ! ,KAYAPO CASE TOO1 ( C\RSE1 !SE ELEM5T>Y S*EMATA >E 5DLESSLY REPRODUC$ ON ! MORE 5COMPASS+ LEVELS ( SOCIAL ACTION 7M5'S H\SE POLITICS1 ! RITUAL CL[N+ ( NAME-GIV+ C]EMONIES1 OR = ?AT MATT] 9 ! /RUCTURE ( ,KAYAPO MY?S1 ETC472 ?IS IS ! REASON :Y ! PASS+ ( ! HEIRLOOM ORNAM5TS ?AT ACCOMPANY 0BEAUTIFUL NAMES0 CAN SEEM SO SIGNIFICANT1 OR *IEFLY *ANT+ SO P[]FULLY EXPRESSIVE1 TO BEG9 )4 

,I HAVE E>LI] SUGGE/$ ?AT A MAT]IALI/ ANALYSIS NE$ NOT BE F\ND$ ON SOME NOTION ( DET]M9ATION1 BUT RA!R1 ON NEV] ALL[+ ONESELF TO =GET ?AT HUMAN ACTION1 OR EV5 HUMAN ?\<T1 CAN ONLY TAKE PLACE ?R\< SOME K9D ( MAT]IAL M$IUM & !RE=E CAN'T BE UND]/OOD )\T TAK+ ! QUALITIES ( ?AT M$IUM 9TO ACC\NT4 ,H5CE ! IMPORTANCE 9 ,TURN]'S ANALYSIS ( ! NOTION ( MAT]IAL M$IA ( CIRCULATION4 ,! M$IA HAVE QUALITIES 9 & ( !MSELVES4 ,= ALL ! 7(T5 QUITE LEGITIMATE7 CRITICISMS ( ,JACK ,GOODY'S DI*OTOMIES BETWE5 ORALITY & LIT]ACY1 = EXAMPLE1 IT IS SIMPLY OBVI\S ?AT TE*NOLOGIES ( WRIT+ ALL[ = POSSIBILITIES ?AT DO NOT EXI/ 9 SPEE* 7& EQUALLY1 VICE V]SA74 ,IF ONE MEMORIALIZES ! PA/ BY ! P]=MANCE ( RITUAL DRAMAS1 ?AT PA/ WILL NEV] LOOK QUITE ! SAME AS ONE MEMORIALIZ$ BY ! PRES]VATION ( ANCI5T BUILD+S1 :I* WILL NOT BE ! SAME AS ONE MEMORIALIZ$ BY1 SAY1 ! P]IODIC RECON/RUCTION ( ANCI5T BUILD+S1 LET ALONE ONE KEPT ALIVE L>GELY ?R\< ! P]=MANCES ( SPIRIT M$IUMS4 ,IT IS A FAIRLY SIMPLE PO9T4 ,IT %\LD BE OBVI\S1 P]HAPS4 ,BUT IT'S A PO9T ?AT ?OSE :OSE !ORY SETS \T ) SOME ,P>M5IDEAN NOTION ( CODE 7?AT IS1 MO/ !ORETICALLY 9CL9$ AN?ROPOLOGI/S7 (T5 T5D TO =GET4 

NOTE ONE3 NEGATIVE VALUE 

  

,BE=E DISCUSS+ SOME ( POLITICAL IMPLICATIONS ( ?IS K9D ( VALUE !ORY1 ALL[ ME TWO QUASIDIGRESSIONS4 

,! LA/ TWO *APT]S ( ,NANCY ,MUNN'S ,! ,FAME ( ,GAWA >E D$ICAT$ TO A DETAIL$ ANALYSIS ( ,GAWAN CONCEPTIONS ( 0NEGATIVE VALUE10 AS EXEMPLIFI$ 9 ! WAY S5IOR M5 TALK AB\T ! ?REAT POS$ TO !IR COMMUNITIES BY WIT*CRAFT4 ,GAWANS' CONCEPTIONS ( WIT*CRAFT =M AN ALMO/ EXACT PHOTO-NEGATIVE V]SION ( ! CREATION ( POSITIVE VALUE ?R\< EX*ANGE3 :]E ONE 9VOLVES GR[+ & !N GIV+ AWAY FOOD SO AS TO CREATE L9KS ?AT WILL EV5TUALLY MAKE IT POSSIBLE TO SPREAD ONE'S FAME 9 ALL DIRECTIONS1 WIT*ES >E CREATURES DRIV5 BY AN 9SATIABLE APPETITE1 SUCK+ ! LIFE-=CE FROM ALL ?OSE >\ND !M1 BUT ALL 9 UTT] SECRECY4 

,COMBAT+ ! ?REAT ( SU* EVIL 9 TURN REQUIRES A COMMUNAL CONS5SUS3 AT PUBLIC EV5TS1 S5IOR M5 >E ALWAYS 9VEI<+ AGA9/ WIT*CRAFT & US+ !IR RHETORICAL P[]S TO CONV9CE POT5TIAL WIT*ES TO DESI/ FROM !IR EVIL PLANS4 ,GAWA IS1 AS ,MUNN EMPHASIZES1 BO? A HI<LY EGALIT>IAN & A HI<LY 9DIVIDUALI/IC SOCIETY1 & ! TWO PR9CIPLES >E NECESS>ILY SOME:AT 9 CONTRADICTION4 ,! PURSUIT ( FAME ITSELF T5DS TO SUBV]T EQUALITY4 ,AS A RESULT1 ONE ( ! PR9CIPLE WAYS 9 :I* A NOTION ( COMMUNAL VALUE EM]GES1 9 ,GAWA1 IS ?R\< ! NEGATION ( A NEGATION4 ,WIT*ES1 MOTIVAT$ BY 5VY1 ATTACK ?OSE :O HAVE BE5 TOO SUCCESSFUL 9 RIS+ ABOVE !IR FELL[S2 9 ONE S5SE1 !Y REPRES5T ! EGALIT>IAN E?OS ( ! COMMUNITY1 9 ANO!R1 ABSOLUTE SELFI% 9DIVIDUALISM & H5CE1 ABSOLUTE EVIL4 ,COMMUNAL VALUE1 :AT ,GAWANS CALL ! 0FAME ( ,GAWA10 IS SE5 AS DIRECTLY TI$ TO ! ABILITY ( ITS S5IOR M5 TO SUPPRESS ?IS DE/RUCTIVE HYP]9DIVIDUALISM & ?US CREATE A SITUATION :]E EV]YONE IS FREE TO 5T] 9TO EX*ANGE RELATIONS1 5GAGE 9 KULA1 & ?US1 SPREAD !IR [N 9DIVIDUAL NAMES 9 ALL DIRECTIONS4 

,TURN] HIMSELF NEV] TAKES UP ! NOTION ( NEGATIVE VALUE2 NEI!R DOES ,FAJANS2 BUT ?IS PROBABLY HAS SOME?+ TO DO ) ! NATURE ( ! ,KAYAPO & ,BA9+ SOCIETIES4 ,C]TA9LY1 ! BROAD] PROCESS ,MUNN DESCRIBES CAN BE DOCUM5T$ 9 MANY O!R PLACES4 ,MAURICE ,BLO* 7#a#i#h#b7 HAS NOT$ ?AT 9 RITUAL1 PROBABLY ! MO/ COMMON WAY ( REPRES5T+ A SOCIAL VALUE IS BY ! V]Y DRAMATIC & TANGIBLE REPRES5TATION ( ITS OPPOSITE3 IMAGES ( MORAL EVIL1 ( LOSS OR DECAY1 *AOS & DISORD] & SO ON4 ,WIT*CRAFT IS1 AT LEA/ 9 MO/ TIMES & PLACES1 ANO!R WAY ( DO+ ! SAME ?+4 ,IT AFFIRMS C]TA9 MORAL VALUES ?R\< A REPRES5TATION ( UTT] IMMORALITY4 ,& AS AU?ORS SU* AS ,MONICA ,WILSON HAVE %[N 7#a#i#g71 !SE IMAGES V>Y A GREAT DEAL BETWE5 SOCIETIES1 9 WAYS ?AT HAVE MU* TO DO ) DIFF]5CES 9 !IR OV]ALL SOCIAL /RUCTURE4 

,! OV]ALL PROCESS ,MUNN DESCRIBES IS QUITE SIMIL> TO :AT ,I 5C\NT]$ 9 ,MADAGASC> 7,GRAEB] #a#i#i#e73 H]E TOO1 ! S5SE ( COMMUNAL SOLID>ITY WAS L>GELY CONCEIV$ 9 EF=TS TO REPRESS WIT*CRAFT1 A WIT*CRAFT ?AT WAS1 H[EV]1 SE5 AS A P]V]SE V]SION ( ! V]Y EGALIT>IAN IDEALS ?AT W]E ! BASIS ( ?AT SAME COMMUNITY4 ,IT C\LD BE ?AT ?IS WILL ALWAYS BE ONE ( ! MO/ SALI5T WAYS 9 :I* VALUE MANIFE/S ITSELF :]E ONE HAS A SIMIL> COMB9ATION ( EGALIT>IANISM & 9DIVIDUALISM4.<#h.> ,SU* QUE/IONS C\LD WELL BE> FUTURE RESE>*4 

NOTE TWO3 DIRECT V]SUS 9DIRECT APPROPRIATION 

  

,! READ] MI<T WELL BE WOND]+ :E!R !RE'S ANY WAY TO SQU>E ALL ( ?IS ) MORE CONV5TIONAL ,M>XI/ AN?ROPOLOGY1 :AT ,I'VE CALL$ ! 0MODE ( PRODUCTION0 APPROA* 7E4G41 ,MEILLAISS\X #a#i#h#a2 ,GODELI] #a#i#g#g74 ,!RE MI<T NOT SEEM TO BE A LOT ( COMMON GR\ND4 ,= ! ,MO,P APPROA*1 AS DEVELOP$ BY ,AL?USS]1 EV]Y?+ TURNS ON ! APPROPRIATION ( SOME K9D ( A MAT]IAL SURPLUS4 ,ANY MODE ( PRODUCTION IS BAS$ ON ! RELATION ( TWO CLASSES3 ONE ( PRIM>Y PRODUC]S1 ! O!R1 :I* SUPPORTS ITSELF AT LEA/ 9 P>T BY APPROPRIAT+ SOME PORTION ! PRODUCT ( ! FIR/4 ,:AT MAKES ,MO,PS DIFF]5T IS H[ ?IS EXTRACTION TAKES PLACE3 ,?IS IS :AT MAKES ! RELATION BETWE5 MA/] & SLAVE DIFF]5T FROM ?AT BETWE5 FEUDAL LORD & MANORIAL S]F1 OR ?AT BETWE5 CAPITALI/ EMPLOY] & PROLET>IAN LABOR]4 

,S9CE SU* EXTRACTION MU/ ALWAYS1 9 ! 5D1 BE BACK$ UP BY ! ?REAT ( =CE1 ?IS IS ESS5TIALLY A !ORY ( ! /ATE4 ,H5CE1 AS ,I'VE NOT$1 AN?ROPOLOGI/S HAVE HAD A V]Y DIFFICULT TIME TRY+ TO APPLY ?IS MODEL TO SOCIETIES )\T ONE4 ,H]E ,TURN]'S APPROA* MI<T SEEM ! P]FECT COMPLIM5T4 ,IT WAS CREAT$ 9 ORD] TO UND]/& ! WORK+S ( EXPLOITATION )9 /ATELESS SOCIETIES2 &1 9DE$1 IT'S NOT 5TIRELY CLE> :AT A ,TURN]IAN !ORY ( ! /ATE W\LD BE LIKE4 

,C\LD ! TWO !N BE 9TEGRAT$ 9 SOME WAY8 ,QUITE POSSIBLY4 ,AFT] ALL1 ONE CAN H>DLY D5Y ?AT :]E ONE F9DS A /ATE1 ONE DOES ALSO T5D TO F9D A MAT]IAL SURPLUS1 & A CLASS ( PEOPLE :O SOMEH[ CONTRIVE TO GET !IR H&S ON MO/ ( IT1 & ?AT ?IS IS 9DE$ ULTIMATELY BACK$ UP BY ! ?REAT ( =CE4 ,H5CE1 ONE MI<T SUGGE/ ?AT !RE >E TWO DIFF]5T WAYS 9 :I* A SURPLUS CAN BE APPROPRIAT$3 EI!R DIRECTLY1 9 MAT]IAL =M1 OR 9DIRECTLY1 9 ! =M ( VALUE4 ,9 ?IS S5SE1 ! =MS ( EXPLOITATION ?AT EXI/ )9 SOCIETIES LIKE ! ,KAYAPO1 ORGANIZ$ >\ND K9%IP1 RESEMBLE CAPITALI/ ONES MU* MORE ?AN !Y DO ! K9DS ( DIRECT1 TANGIBLE1 IMM$IATE =MS ( EXPLOITATION--DRIV+ *A9$ SLAVES 9TO ! FIELDS1 COLLECT+ QUIT-R5T1 HAV+ ONE'S FLUNKIES %[ UP >\ND H>VE/ TIME TO APPROPRIATE HALF A PEASANT'S :EAT CROP--TYPICAL ( PRECAPITALI/ /ATES4 

,?IS1 9 TURN1 HAS RAMIFICATIONS = ANY !ORY ( IDEOLOGY4 ,9 ?IS *APT] ( C\RSE ,I'VE BE5 EMPHASIZ+ ! NOTION ( P>TIAL P]SPECTIVES1 ( MI/AK+ ONE'S P>TICUL> PO9T ( VIEW )9 A COMPLEX SOCIAL REALITY = ! NATURE ( REALITY ITSELF1 :I* TYPICALLY GIVES RISE TO ALL SORTS ( FETI%I/IC DI/ORTIONS4 ,CONV5TIONAL ,M>XI/ ANALYSIS HAS T5D$ TO FAVOR A MU* SIMPL] NOTION ( MAT]IAL BASE & IDEOLOGICAL SUP]/RUCTURE1 ! LATT] CONSI/+ ( 9/ITUTIONS SU* AS *UR* & LAW1 :I* MA9LY S]VE TO VALIDATE ! 9T]E/S ( ! RUL+ CLASS3 PRIE/S TO EXPLA9 TO SLAVES :Y !Y %\LD 5DURE !IR LOT1 JURI/S TO TELL PEASANTS ?AT !IR RELATIONS ) !IR L&LORDS >E BAS$ ON JU/ICE4 ,! PROBLEM ) !SE ME?ODS ( IDEOLOGICAL CONTROL1 H[EV]1 AS AU?ORS LIKE ,JAMES ,SCOTT HAVE EXT5SIVELY DOCUM5T$ 7#a#i#i7 IS ?AT !Y DON'T USUALLY WORK V]Y WELL4 ,! JU/IFICATIONS >E R>ELY TAK5 V]Y S]I\SLY BY ! PEOPLE :OSE GOODS >E BE+ EXPROPRIAT$1 OR1 = ?AT MATT]1 ! RUL+ CLASSES !MSELVES4 ,SU* REGIMES REALLY >E BAS$ PRIM>ILY ON =CE4 ,?IS DOES NOT APPE> TO BE NE>LY SO MU* ! CASE EI!R = ! =MS ( HI]>*Y ?AT EXI/ 9 /ATELESS SOCIETIES1.<#h#a.> DOME/IC 9EQUALITIES ?AT EXI/ )9 /ATE SOCIETIES1 OR EV5 = CAPITALISM ITSELF1 :I* 7AT LEA/ :5 IT DOES NOT 5TIRELY IMPOV]I% OR BRUTALIZE ITS PROLET>IAT7 T5DS TO BE F> MORE EFFECTIVE AT ! IDEOLOGICAL GAME ?AN ALMO/ ANY PREVI\SLY KN[N =M ( EXPLOITATION4 ,9 FACT1 9S(> AS /ATE /RUCTURES DO SUCCE$ 9 LEGITIMIZ+ !MSELVES1 IT'S ALMO/ ALWAYS BY SUCCESSFULLY APPEAL+ TO ! VALUES :I* EXI/ 9 ! DOME/IC SPH]E1 :I* >E1 ( C\RSE1 ROOT$ 9 ?OSE MU* MORE FUNDAM5TAL =MS ( 9EQUALITY1 & MU* MORE EFFECTIVE =MS ( IDEOLOGICAL DI/ORTION--MO/ OBVI\SLY1 G5D]4 

CONCLUSION3 A ?\S& TOTALITIES 

  

,! READ] MI<T F9D ALL ?IS TALK ( TOTALITIES A BIT ODD4 ,! *APT] BEGAN BY 5DORS+ A G5]AL MOVEM5T AWAY FROM CLAIMS TO ABSOLUTE OR TOTAL TRU?1 AN ACCEPTANCE ?AT HUMAN KN[L$GE IS ALWAYS GO+ TO BE 9COMPLETE4 ,IT W9DS UP BY SAY+ ?AT ONE CANNOT HAVE ANY MEAN+FUL APPROA* TO VALUE )\T SOME NOTION ( TOTALITY4 ,! CON/ANT REF]5CE TO TOTALITY 9 ,TURN]'S WORKS WILL C]TA9LY SEEM A BIT UNSETTL+ TO ! MOD]N READ]2 IT FLIES 9 ! FACE ( MO/ CONTEMPOR>Y !ORY1 :I* HAS BE5 DIRECT$ AT DECON/RUCT+ ANY?+ RESEMBL+ A CLOS$ SY/EM4 ,I MU/ ADMIT ,I'M NOT 5TIRELY COM=TABLE ) IT MYSELF4 ,BUT IT IS AN ISSUE ?AT OP5S UP ON ALL ! MO/ IMPORTANT QUE/IONS AB\T FRE$OM1 POLITICS1 & MEAN+1 & !RE=E IT SEEMS TO ME ?AT ! BE/ WAY TO 5D ?IS RA!R LONG & COMPLICAT$ *APT] W\LD BE TO TAKE IT UP4 

,FIR/ ( ALL1 !RE IS A DIFF]5CE BETWE5 TOTALITIES ! ANALY/ IS CLAIM+ EXI/ 9 SOME K9D ( EMPIRICAL S5SE--I4E41 A PRI/9E TEXT1 A CLE>LY B\ND$ 0SOCIETY10 A MY?OLOGICAL 0SY/EM0--& TOTALITIES ?AT EXI/ 9 ! ACTORS' IMAG9ATIONS4 ,SOCIAL SCI5CE HAS LONG S9CE REALIZ$ ?AT ! =M] DO NOT REALLY EXI/1 AT LEA/ NOT 9 ANY PRI/9E =M2 ANY CLOS$ SY/EM IS JU/ A CON/RUCT1 & NOT NECESS>ILY A V]Y USEFUL ONE2 NO?+ 9 REAL LIFE IS REALLY SO CUT & DRI$4 ,SOCIAL PROCESSES >E COMPLEX & OV]LAPP+ 9 AN 5DLESS V>IETY ( WAYS4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 IF !RE'S ONE ?+ ?AT ALMO/ ALL ! CLASSIC TRADITIONS ( ! /UDY ( MEAN+ AGREE ON--DIALECTICAL1 H]M5EUTIC1 & /RUCTURALI/ ALIKE--IT IS ?AT = HUMAN BE+S1 MEAN+ IS A MATT] ( COMP>ISON4 ,P>TS TAKE ON MEAN+ 9 RELATION TO EA* O!R1 & ?AT PROCESS ALWAYS 9VOLVES REF]5CE TO SOME SORT ( :OLE3 :E!R IT BE A MATT] ( WORDS 9 A LANGUAGE1 EPISODES 9 A /ORY1 OR 0GOODS & S]VICES0 ON ! M>KET4 ,SO TOO = VALUE4 ,! REALIZATION ( VALUE IS ALWAYS1 NECESS>ILY1 A PROCESS ( COMP>ISON2 = ?IS REASON IT ALWAYS1 NECESS>ILY1 IMPLIES AN AT LEA/ IMAG9$ AUDI5CE4 ,AS ,I'VE ALREADY SUGGE/$1 = ! ACTOR1 ?AT'S ALL ?AT 0SOCIETY0 USUALLY IS4 

,TURN]'S PO9T1 H[EV]1 IS ?AT :ILE SU* A TOTALITY DOES NE$ TO EXI/ 9 ACTORS' IMAG9ATIONS1 ?IS DOESN'T MEAN ?AT ANY?+ ?AT C\LD BE DESCRIB$ AS A TOTALITY NECESS>ILY EXI/S ON ! GR\ND4 ,IT MI<T4 ,BUT IT MI<T NOT4 ,?IS IS A MATT] = EMPIRICAL OBS]VATION 7AS IS ! QUE/ION ( ! LEVEL ON :I* ! TOTALITY EXI/S3 A SOCIETY1 A COMMUNITY1 A S+LE RITUAL EV5T1 ETC47 ,H]E ! 9SPIRATION SEEMS TO BE 9 P>T 9 ! WORK ( ,MIKHAIL ,BAKHT91 :O MADE A DI/9CTION BETWE5 ! IDEAL CLOSURE ( 0*RONOTOPES0--LITTLE UNIV]SES ( TIME & SPACE CON/RUCT$ 9 ! IMAG9ATION--& AN 9F9ITELY COMPLEX REALITY 9 :I* MEAN+ IS 9 FACT E/ABLI%$ ?R\< OP5-5D$ DIALOGUE4 

,! IDEAL PICTURE A SOCIETY HAS ( ITSELF1 !N1 ALMO/ NEV] CORRESPONDS ) H[ ?AT SOCIETY ACTUALLY WORKS4 ,! ,KAYAPO VILLAGES DISCUSS$ ABOVE ACTUALLY PROVIDE A DRAMATIC CASE 9 PO9T4 ,TURN] G5]ALLY DESCRIBES ,KAYAPO VILLAGES AS IF !Y W]E ORGANIZ$ 9TO TWO OPPOS$ MOIETIES2 ?IS IS BECAUSE ?AT'S H[ ,KAYAPO ALWAYS DESCRIBE !M4 ,9 REALITY1 H[EV]1 NO ,KAYAPO VILLAGE HAS CONTA9$ TWO MOIETIES S9CE #a#i#c#f4 ,9 EV]Y CASE1 9T]NAL RIVALRIES & DISS5SION HAVE LONG S9CE CAUS$ SU* VILLAGES TO SPLIT 9 TWO4 ,TURN] CONCLUDES ?IS IS DUE TO AN IMBALANCE ( VALUES3 :ILE IDEALLY1 DOM9ANCE & BEAUTY %\LD =M A COMPLEM5T>Y SET1 9 REALITY1 DOM9ANCE IS BY F> ! MORE P[]FUL ( ! TWO4 ,! MOIETY /RUCTURE IS 9 FACT SUPPOS$ TO REPRES5T ! HI<E/ SYN!SIS ( !SE TWO COMPLEM5T>Y PR9CIPLES3 :ILE ONE MOIETY IS CONSID]$ 0HI<]0 ?AN ! O!R1 !Y >E 9 EV]Y O!R S5SE COMPLETELY ID5TICAL1 & ! ULTIMATE H>MONY ( A ,KAYAPO VILLAGE IS SE5 TO LIE 9 ITS 9HABITANTS' ABILITY TO COOP]ATE 9 0BEAUTIFUL NAM+0 C]EMONIES & O!R COLLECTIVE RITES ?AT TRANSC5D PEOPLE'S P>TICUL> ALLEGIANCES TO CREATE A TRANSC5D5T S5SE ( UNITY4 ,9 REALITY1 H[EV]1 ! LURE ( BEAUTY IS NEV] QUITE 5\<4 ,P]SONAL RIVALRIES BETWE5 IMPORTANT POLITICAL ACTORS ALWAYS G5]ATE RIFTS1 T5SIONS RISE1 & F9ALLY1 ONE HALF 5DS UP BREAK+ (F TO F\ND ITS [N1 RIVAL COMMUNITY1 NORMALLY ) NO LOVE LO/ BETWE5 ! TWO 7,TURN] #a#i#h#g74 

,/ILL1 ! IMPORTANT ?+ IS NOT JU/ TO ASK :Y ,KAYAPO VILLAGES LACK MOIETIES1 BUT ALSO :Y1 SIXTY YE>S LAT]1 :5 ,KAYAPO DESCRIBE H[ A COMMUNITY IS ORGANIZ$1 !Y 9V>IABLY DESCRIBE ONE ?AT DOES NOT LACK !M4 ,DUAL-MOIETY COMMUNITIES DO CONT9UE TO EXI/1 BUT ONLY 9 IMAG9ATION4 ,AS A RESULT1 !Y REPRES5T A P]MAN5T POSSIBILITY3 A VISION ( :AT ,KAYAPO SOCIETY REALLY %\LD BE LIKE1 & POSSIBLY /ILL MI<T BE LIKE4 ,POLITICAL PROJECTS ( REUNIT+ SEP>AT$ MOIETIES >E OCCASIONALLY DISCUSS$1 ?\< UNTIL N[ !Y ALWAYS SEEM TO 5D UP BE+ OV]RUL$ BY ! DANG]S ( HAV+ TOO MANY PEOPLE ) HI/ORICAL GRUDGES LIV+ 9 ! SAME COMMUNITY 7,TURN] #a#i#g#iB3#b#a74 ,/ILL1 !RE'S NO REASON TO ASSUME !Y WILL ALWAYS BE4 

,= ,M>X1 ( C\RSE1 IT IS \R IMAG9ATIONS ?AT MAKE US HUMAN4 ,H5CE PRODUCTION & REVOLUTION >E = HIM ! TWO QU9TESS5TIALLY HUMAN ACTS4 ,IMAG9ATION IMPLIES ! POSSIBILITY ( DO+ ?+S DIFF]5TLY2 H5CE :5 ONE LOOKS AT ! EXI/+ WORLD IMAG9ATIVELY1 ONE IS NECESS>ILY LOOK+ AT IT CRITICALLY2 :5 ONE TRIES TO BR+ AN IMAG9$ SOCIETY 9TO BE+1 ONE IS 5GAG+ 9 REVOLUTION4 ,( C\RSE1 MO/ HI/ORICAL *ANGE IS NOT NE>LY SO SELF-CONSCI\S3 IT IS ! FACT ?AT PEOPLE >E NOT1 = ! MO/ P>T1 SELF-CONSCI\SLY TRY+ TO REPRODUCE !IR [N SOCIETIES BUT SIMPLY PURSU+ VALUE ?AT MAKES IT SO EASY = !M TO 5D UP TRANS=M+ ?OSE SAME SOCIETIES AS A RESULT4 ,9 TIMES ( CRISIS1 ?\<1 ?IS CAN *ANGE3 A SOCIAL ORD] CAN BE SE5 PRIM>ILY AS AN >5A 9 :I* C]TA9 TYPES ( VALUE CAN BE PRODUC$ & REALIZ$2 !Y CAN BE DEF5D$ ON ?AT BASIS 7IMAG9E ANY ( ! SOCIETIES DISCUSS$ 9 ?IS *APT] BE+ =CIBLY 9CORPORAT$ 9TO A MOD]N /ATE71 OR1 ALT]NATELY1 !Y CAN BE *ALL5G$ BY ?OSE :O ?9K !SE >E NOT ! SORTS ( VALUE !Y W\LD MO/ LIKE TO PURSUE4 ,9 ANY REAL SOCIAL SITUATION1 !RE >E LIKELY TO BE ANY NUMB] ( SU* IMAG9>Y TOTALITIES AT PLAY1 ORGANIZ$ >\ND DIFF]5T CONCEPTIONS ( VALUE4 ,!Y MAY BE FRAGM5T>Y1 EPHEM]AL1 OR !Y CAN JU/ EXI/ AS DREAMY PROJECTS OR HALF-REALIZ$ ONES DEFIANTLY PROCLAIM$ BY CULTI/S OR REVOLUTION>IES4 ,H[ !Y KNIT TOGE!R--OR DON'T--SIMPLY CANNOT BE PR$ICT$ 9 ADVANCE4 ,! ONE ?+ ONE CAN BE SURE IS ?AT !Y WILL NEV] KNIT TOGE!R P]FECTLY4 

,WE >E BACK1 !N1 TO A 0POLITICS ( VALUE02 BUT ONE V]Y DIFF]5T FROM ,APPADURAI'S NEOLIB]AL V]SION4 ,! ULTIMATE /AKES ( POLITICS1 ACCORD+ TO ,TURN]1 IS NOT EV5 ! /RUGGLE TO APPROPRIATE VALUE2 IT IS ! /RUGGLE TO E/ABLI% :AT VALUE IS 7,TURN] #a#i#g#h2 #a#i#g#iC2 SEE ,MY]S & ,BR5NEIS #a#i#i#a3#d-#e74 ,SIMIL>LY1 ! ULTIMATE FRE$OM IS NOT ! FRE$OM TO CREATE OR ACCUMULATE VALUE1 BUT ! FRE$OM TO DECIDE 7COLLECTIVELY OR 9DIVIDUALLY7 :AT IT IS ?AT MAKES LIFE WOR? LIV+4 ,9 ! 5D1 !N1 POLITICS IS AB\T ! MEAN+ ( LIFE4 ,ANY SU* PROJECT ( CON/RUCT+ MEAN+S NECESS>ILY 9VOLVES IMAG9+ TOTALITIES 7S9CE ?IS IS ! /UFF ( MEAN+71 EV5 IF NO SU* PROJECT CAN EV] BE COMPLETELY TRANSLAT$ 9TO REALITY--REALITY BE+1 BY DEF9ITION1 ?AT :I* IS ALWAYS MORE COMPLICAT$ ?AN ANY CON/RUCTION WE CAN PUT ON IT4 

,!ORIES DO HAVE POLITICAL IMPLICATIONS4 ,?IS IS AS MU* TRUE ( ?OSE !ORI/S :O %UN ANY NOTION ( TOTALITIES AS ?OSE :O EMBRACE !M3 IF !RE IS ANY DIFF]5CE1 IT'S ?AT ! LATT] FEEL OBLIG$ TO MAKE !IR POLITICAL POSITIONS EXPLICIT4 ,SO WE HAVE1 ON ! ONE H&1 ,L\IS ,DUMONT'S 0HOLISM10 ) ITS SELF-CONSCI\SLY CONS]VATIVE POLITICS1.<#h#b.> & ON ! O!R1 ,T]RY ,TURN]'S EQUALLY SELF-CONSCI\S LIB]T>IAN ,M>XISM4 ,NOT ?AT ! WORK ( ?OSE :O REJECT TOTALITIES ON PR9CIPLE LACK SU* POLITICAL IMPLICATIONS1 IT SEEMS TO ME2 IT'S JU/ ?AT !Y R>ELY WORK !M \T TO !IR LOGICAL CONCLUSIONS4 ,!SE POLITICAL IMPLICATIONS BECOME MO/ PA9FULLY OBVI\S :5 ONE COMES TO ?OSE :O >GUE NOT SIMPLY ?AT TOTALIZ+ !ORIES >E DANG]\S 7:I* IS ( C\RSE TRUE 5\<7 BUT ?AT WE HAVE ALREADY 5T]$ 9TO SOME GIDDY NEW 0PO/MOD]N0 AGE 9 :I* NO UNIV]SAL /&>DS ( EVALUATION ANY LONG] EXI/3 ?AT EV]Y?+ IS 5DLESS TRANS=MATION1 FRAGM5TATION ( PREVI\S SOLID>ITIES1 & 9COMM5SURABLE ACTS ( CREATIVE SELF-FA%ION+4 ,?IS WAS A V]Y POPUL> POSITION AMONG RADICAL ACADEMICS 9 ! #a#i#hS & '#iS2 9 C]TA9 CIRCLES IT /ILL REMA9S SO4 ,BUT AS ,I REM>K$ 9 ! 9TRODUCTION1 BY N[1 AT LEA/1 IT IS APP>5T TO MO/ PEOPLE ?AT :5 ! #a#i#hS & '#iS >E REMEMB]$1 IT WILL NOT BE AS ! DAWN+ ( A NEW ,PO/MOD]N ,AGE 79DE$1 MANY >E ALREADY BEG9N+ TO F9D ! T]M A BIT EMB>RASS+1 NOT TO M5TION !IR PREVI\S APOCALYPTIC DECL>ATIONS AB\T ITS SIGNIFICANCE71 BUT RA!R AS ! ]A ( ! TRIUMPH ( ! ,WORLD ,M>KET--ONE 9 :I* ! MO/ GIGANTIC1 TOTALIZ+1 & ALL-5COMPASS+LY UNIV]SAL SY/EM ( EVALUATION KN[N TO HUMAN HI/ORY CAME TO BE IMPOS$ ON ALMO/ EV]Y?+4 ,IF NO?+ ELSE IT MAKES IT EASI] TO UND]/& :Y ECONOMICS WAS ONE ( ! FEW ?+S AB\T :I* MO/ PO/MOD]N !ORI/S HAD ALMO/ NO?+ TO SAY4 ,:I* IS 9 TURN :AT MAKES AU?ORS LIKE ,APPADURAI1 :O DO ADDRESS ECONOMICS1 SO IMPORTANT3 ! NEOLIB]AL ASSUMPTIONS >E ALL !RE1 PLA9 TO SEE4 ,BEH9D ! IMAG]Y ( MO/ PO/MOD]NISM IS REALLY NO?+ BUT ! IDEOLOGY ( ! M>KET3 NOT EV5 ! REALITY ( ! M>KET1 S9CE ACTUALLY EXI/+ M>KETS >E ALWAYS REGULAT$ 9 ! 9T]E/S ( ! P[]FUL1 BUT ! WAY M>KET IDEOLOGI/S W\LD LIKE US TO IMAG9E ! M>KETPLACE %\LD WORK4 

,ALL ?IS IS NOT M]ELY MEANT TO POKE FUN AT SOME SELF-PROCLAIM$ ACADEMIC RADICALS BUT TO MAKE A BROAD] PO9T4 ,ANY NOTION ( FRE$OM1 :E!R IT'S ! MORE 9DIVIDUALI/IC VISION ( CREATIVE CONSUMPTION1 OR ! NOTION ( FREE CULTURAL CREATIVITY & DEC5T]+ 7,TURN] #a#i#i#f7 ,I HAVE BE5 TRY+ TO DEVELOP H]E1 DEM&S BO? RESI/ANCE AGA9/ ! IMPOSITION ( ANY TOTALIZ+ VIEW ( :AT SOCIETY OR VALUE MU/ BE LIKE1 BUT ALSO RECOGNITION ?AT SOME K9D ( REGULAT+ ME*ANISM WILL HAVE TO EXI/1 & !RE=E1 CALLS = S]I\S ?\<T AB\T :AT SORT WILL BE/ 5SURE PEOPLE >E1 9 FACT1 FREE TO CONCEIVE ( VALUE 9 :ATEV] =M !Y WI%4 ,IF ONE DOES NOT1 AT LEA/ 9 ! PRES5T DAY & AGE1 ONE IS SIMPLY GO+ TO 5D UP REPRODUC+ ! LOGIC ( ! M>KET )\T ACKN[L$G+ IT4 ,& IF WE >E GO+ TO TRY TO ?9K S]I\SLY AB\T ALT]NATIVES TO ! V]SION ( 0FRE$OM0 CURR5TLY BE+ PRES5T$ TO US--ONE 9 :I* NATION-/ATES S]VE PRIM>ILY AS PROTECTORS ( CORPORATE PROP]TY1 UNELECT$ 9T]NATIONAL 9/ITUTIONS REGULATE AN O!RWISE UNBRIDL$ 0FREE M>KET0 MA9LY TO PROTECT ! 9T]E/S ( F9ANCI]S1 & P]SONAL FRE$OM BECOMES LIMIT$ TO P]SONAL CONSUMPTION *OICES--WE HAD BE/ /OP ?9K+ ?AT !SE MATT]S >E GO+ TO TAKE C>E ( !MSELVES & />T ?9K+ ( :AT A MORE VIABLE & HOPEFULLY1 LESS CO]CIVE REGULAT+ ME*ANISM MI<T ACTUALLY BE LIKE4 

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