,*APT] #a 
,?REE ,WAYS ( ,TALK+ ,AB\T ,VALUE 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,DAVID ,GRAEB] 

,TEXT 3 

,*APT] #a -- ,?REE ,WAYS ( ,TALK+ AB\T ,VALUE 

  

,IF ONE READS A LOT ( AN?ROPOLOGY1 IT IS H>D TO ESCAPE ! IMPRESSION ?AT !ORIES ( VALUE >E ALL ! RAGE ( LATE4 ,ONE C]TA9LY SEES REF]5CES TO 0VALUE0 & 0!ORIES ( VALUE0 ALL ! TIME--USUALLY ?R[N \T 9 SU* 

A WAY AS TO SUGGE/ !RE IS A VA/ & PROBABLY V]Y COMPLICAT$ LIT]ATURE LY+ BEH9D !M4.<#a.> ,IF ONE TRIES TO TRACK ?IS LIT]ATURE D[N1 H[EV]1 ONE QUICKLY RUNS 9TO PROBLEMS4 ,9 FACT IT IS EXTREMELY DIFFICULT TO F9D A SY/EMATIC 0!ORY ( VALUE0 ANY:]E 9 ! REC5T LIT]ATURE2 & IT USUALLY TURNS \T TO BE V]Y DIFFICULT TO FIGURE \T :AT BODY ( !ORY1 IF ANY1 ?AT ANY P>TICUL> AU?OR :O USES ! T]M 0VALUE0 IS DRAW+ ON4 ,SOMETIMES1 ONE SUSPECTS IT IS ?IS V]Y AMBIGUITY ?AT MAKES ! T]M SO ATTRACTIVE4 

,:AT ,I'D LIKE TO DO 9 ?IS *APT] IS (F] SOME SUGGE/IONS AS TO H[ ?IS SITUATION CAME AB\T4 ,I ?9K IT HAS SOME?+ TO DO ) ! FACT ?AT AN?ROPOLOGY HAS BE5 CAU<T 9 A K9D ( !ORETICAL LIMBO4 ,! GREAT !ORETICAL DILEMMAS ( TW5TY YE>S AGO OR SO HAVE NEV] REALLY BE5 RESOLV$2 IT'S MORE LIKE !Y W]E %RUGG$ (F4 ,!RE IS A G5]AL FEEL+ ?AT A !ORY ( VALUE W\LD HAVE BE5 JU/ ! ?+ TO RESOLVE MO/ ( ?OSE DILEMMAS1 BUT SU* A !ORY NEV] REALLY MAT]IALIZ$2 H5CE1 P]HAPS1 ! HABIT ( SO MANY S*OL>S ACT+ AS IF ONE ACTUALLY DID EXI/4 

,IT WILL BECOME EASI] TO SEE :Y A !ORY ( VALUE %\LD HAVE SEEM$ TO HOLD SU* PROMISE IF ONE LOOKS AT ! WAY ! WORD 0VALUE0 HAS BE5 US$ 9 SOCIAL !ORY 9 ! PA/4 ,!RE >E1 ONE MI<T SAY1 ?REE L>GE /REAMS ( ?\<T ?AT CONV]GE 9 ! PRES5T T]M4 ,!SE >E3  

0VALUES0 9 ! SOCIOLOGICAL S5SE3 CONCEPTIONS ( :AT IS ULTIMATELY GOOD1 PROP]1 OR DESIRABLE 9 HUMAN LIFE  

0VALUE0 9 ! ECONOMIC S5SE3 ! DEGREE TO :I* OBJECTS >E DESIR$1 P>TICUL>LY1 AS MEASUR$ BY H[ MU* O!RS >E WILL+ TO GIVE UP TO GET !M  

0VALUE0 9 ! L+UI/IC S5SE1 :I* GOES BACK TO ! /RUCTURAL L+UI/ICS ( ,F]D9& DE ,SAUSSURE 7#a#i#f#f71 & MI<T BE MO/ SIMPLY GLOSS$ AS 0MEAN+FUL DIFF]5CE0  
  

,:5 AN?ROPOLOGI/S N[ADAYS SPEAK ( 0VALUE0--P>TICUL>LY1 :5 !Y REF] TO 0VALUE0 9 ! S+UL> :5 ONE WRIT+ TW5TY YE>S AGO W\LD HAVE SPOK5 ( 0VALUES0 9 ! PLURAL--!Y >E AT ! V]Y LEA/ IMPLY+ ?AT ! FACT ?AT ALL !SE ?+S %\LD BE CALL$ BY ! SAME WORD IS NO CO9CID5CE4 ,?AT ULTIMATELY1 !SE >E ALL REFRACTIONS ( ! SAME ?+4 ,BUT IF ONE REFLECTS ON IT AT ALL1 ?IS IS A V]Y *ALL5G+ NOTION4 ,IT W\LD MEAN1 = 9/ANCE1 ?AT :5 WE TALK AB\T ! 0MEAN+0 ( A WORD1 & :5 WE TALK AB\T ! 0MEAN+ ( LIFE10 WE >E NOT TALK+ AB\T UTT]LY DIFF]5T ?+S4 ,& ?AT BO? HAVE SOME?+ 9 COMMON ) ! SALE-PRICE ( A REFRIG]ATOR4 ,N[1 PUTT+ ?+S ?IS WAY RAISES OBVI\S OBJECTIONS4 ,A SKEPTIC MI<T REPLY3 IT MAY WELL BE ?AT ALL !SE CONCEPTS DO HAVE SOME?+ 9 COMMON1 BUT IF SO1 ?AT 0SOME?+0 W\LD HAVE TO BE SO UTT]LY AB/RACT & VAGUE ?AT PO9T+ IT \T IS SIMPLY MEAN+LESS4 ,9 :I* CASE ! AMBIGUITY REALLY IS ! PO9T4 ,BUT ,I DON'T ?9K ?IS IS SO4 ,9 FACT1 IF ONE LOOKS BACK OV] ! HI/ORY ( AN?ROPOLOGICAL ?\<T ON EA* ( ! ?REE SORTS ( VALUE M5TION$ ABOVE ONE F9DS ?AT 9 ALMO/ EV]Y CASE1 S*OL>S TRY+ TO COME UP ) A COH]5T !ORY ( ANY ONE ( !M HAVE 5D$ UP FALL+ 9TO T]RIBLE PROBLEMS = LACK ( SUFFICI5T CONSID]ATION ( ! O!R ONES4 

,LET ME GIVE A BRIEF SKET* ( !SE HI/ORIES1 ONE AT A TIME3 

,I3 ,CLYDE ,KLUCKHOHN'S VALUE PROJECT 

  

,! !ORETICAL ANALYSIS ( 0VALUES0 OR 0SY/EMS ( VALUES0 IS L>GELY CONF9$ TO PHILOSOPHY 7:]E IT IS CALL$ 0AXIOLOGY07 & SOCIOLOGY 7:]E IT IS :AT ONE IS FREE FROM :5 ONE IS 0VALUE-FREE407 ,IT IS NOT AS IF AN?ROPOLOGI/S HAV5'T ALWAYS US$ ! T]M4 ,ONE CAN PICK UP A WORK ( AN?ROPOLOGY FROM ALMO/ ANY P]IOD &1 IF ONE FLIPS ?R\< LONG 5\<1 BE ALMO/ C]TA9 TO F9D AT LEA/ ONE OR TWO CASUAL REF]5CES TO 0VALUES40 ,BUT AN?ROPOLOGI/S R>ELY MADE MU* ( AN EF=T TO DEF9E IT1 LET ALONE TO MAKE ! ANALYSIS ( VALUES A P>T ( AN?ROPOLOGICAL !ORY4 ,! ONE GREAT EXCEPTION WAS DUR+ ! LATE #a#i#dS & E>LY '#eS1 :5 ,CLYDE ,KLUCKHOHN & A TEAM ( ALLI$ S*OL>S AT ,H>V>D EMB>K$ ON A MAJOR EF=T TO PLACE ! ISSUE ( VALUES AT ! C5T] ( AN?ROPOLOGY4 ,KLUCKHOHN'S PROJECT1 9 FACT1 WAS TO R$EF9E AN?ROPOLOGY ITSELF AS ! COMP>ATIVE /UDY ( VALUES4 

,N[ADAYS1 ! PROJECT IS MA9LY REMEMB]$ BECAUSE IT MANAG$ TO F9D ITS WAY 9TO ,TALCOTT ,P>SON'S ,G5]AL ,!ORY ( ,ACTION 7,P>SONS & ,%ILS #a#i#e#a71 MEANT AS A K9D ( 5T5TE CORDIALE BETWE5 SOCIOLOGY1 AN?ROPOLOGY1 & PSY*OLOGY1 :I* DIVID$ UP ! /UDY ( HUMAN BEHAVIOR BETWE5 !M4 ,PSY*OLOGI/S W]E TO 9VE/IGATE ! /RUCTURE ( ! 9DIVIDUAL P]SONALITY1 SOCIOLOGI/S /UDI$ SOCIAL RELATIONS1 & AN?ROPOLOGI/S W]E TO DEAL ) ! WAY BO? W]E M$IAT$ BY CULTURE1 :I* COMES D[N L>GELY TO H[ VALUES BECOME ESCONC$ 9 SYMBOLS & MEAN+S4 ,KLUCKHOHN'S MA9 AN?ROPOLOGICAL WORK HAD BE5 AMONG ! ,NAVAHO1 BUT HE CONCEIV$ ! NOTION ( DO+ A COMP>ATIVE /UDY ( VALUES ?AT FOCUS$ ON ! C\NTY ( ,RIMROCK1 ,NEW ,MEXICO 7#a#i#e#aB1 #a#i#e#f2 ,VOGT & ,ALB]T #a#i#f#f71 :I* WAS DIVID$ BETWE5 FIVE DIFF]5T COMMUNITIES3 ,NAVAHO1 ,ZUNI1 ,MORMON1 ,TEXAN1 & ,MEXICAN-,AM]ICAN4 ,ITS EXI/5CE1 ,KLUCKHOHN ?\<T1 PROVID$ AS CLOSE AS ONE C\LD GET 9 AN?ROPOLOGY TO A CONTROLL$ EXP]IM5T3 A *ANCE TO SEE H[ FIVE GR\PS ( PEOPLE ) PR(\NDLY DIFF]5T SY/EMS ( VALUE ADAPT$ TO ! SAME 5VIRONM5T4 ,HE S5T (F FIVE /UD5TS1 ONE TO /UDY EA* 7& 9 FACT QUITE A NUMB] ( ! NEXT G5]ATION ( ,AM]ICAN AN?ROPOLOGI/S W]E 9VOLV$ 9 ! ,RIMROCK /UDY AT ONE TIME OR ANO!R71 :ILE HE REMA9$ BEH9D AT ,H>V>D1 LEAD+ A SEM9> ON VALUES & WORK+ \T A SUCCESSION ( WORK+ PAP]S ?AT AIM$ TO DEF9E ! T]MS ( ANALYSIS4 

,SO :AT1 PRECISELY1 >E VALUES8 ,KLUCKHOHN KEPT REF9+ HIS DEF9ITIONS4 ,! C5TRAL ASSUMPTION ?\< WAS ?AT VALUES >E 0CONCEPTIONS ( ! DESIRABLE0--CONCEPTIONS :I* PLAY SOME SORT ( ROLE 9 9FLU5C+ ! *OICES PEOPLE MAKE BETWE5 DIFF]5T POSSIBLE C\RSES ( ACTION 7#a#i#e#aA3#c#i#e74 ,! KEY T]M H]E IS 0DESIRABLE40 ,! DESIRABLE REF]S NOT SIMPLY TO :AT PEOPLE ACTUALLY WANT--9 PRACTICE1 PEOPLE WANT ALL SORTS ( ?+S4 ,VALUES >E IDEAS AB\T :AT !Y \<T TO WANT4 ,!Y >E ! CRIT]IA BY :I* PEOPLE JUDGE :I* DESIRES !Y CONSID] LEGITIMATE & WOR?:ILE & :I* !Y DO NOT4 ,VALUES1 !N1 >E IDEAS IF NOT NECESS>ILY AB\T ! MEAN+ ( LIFE1 !N AT LEA/ AB\T :AT ONE C\LD JU/IFIABLY WANT FROM IT4 ,! PROBLEM ?\< COMES ) ! SECOND HALF ( ! DEF9ITION3 ,KLUCKHOHN ALSO 9SI/$ ?AT !SE W]E NOT JU/ AB/RACT PHILOSOPHIES ( LIFE BUT IDEAS ?AT HAD DIRECT EFFECTS ON PEOPLE'S ACTUAL BEHAVIOR4 ,! PROBLEM WAS TO DET]M9E H[4 

,( C\RSE :5 ONE SPEAKS ( VALUES 9 ! TRADITIONAL S5SE1 ?IS IS NOT SO DIFFICULT4 ,BY ?IS ,I MEAN1 9 ! S5SE 9 :I* ONE MI<T SAY ?AT ! ,NAVAHO COMMUNITY 9 ,RIMROCK PLACES A HI< VALUE ON SOME?+ IT CALLS 0H>MONY10 OR ! ,TEXAN1 ON SOME?+ IT CALLS 0SUCCESS40 ,NORMALLY 0VALUE ANALYSIS10 SU* AS IT IS1 CONSI/S ( ID5TIFY+ SU* T]MS & 9T]PRET+ !M1 FIGUR+ \T PRECISELY :AT 0H>MONY0 OR 0SUCCESS0 MEANS TO ! PEOPLE 9 QUE/ION1 & PLAC+ !SE DEF9ITIONS 9 A L>G] CULTURAL CONTEXT4 ,! PROBLEM ?\< IS ?AT SU* T]MS T5D TO BE HI<LY IDIOSYNCRATIC4 ,KLUCKHOHN WAS 9T]E/$ 9 ! SY/EMATIC COMP>ISON ( VALUES4 

,9 ORD] TO COMP>E SU* CONCEPTS1 ,KLUCKHOHN & HIS DISCIPLES 5D$ UP HAV+ TO CREATE A SECOND1 LESS AB/RACT LEVEL ( :AT HE CALL$ 0VALUE ORI5TATIONS40 ,!SE W]E 0ASSUMPTIONS AB\T ! 5DS & PURPOSES ( HUMAN EXI/5CE10 ! NATURE ( KN[L$GE1 0:AT HUMAN BE+S HAVE A RI<T TO EXPECT FROM EA* O!R & ! GODS1 AB\T :AT CON/ITUTES FULFILLM5T & FRU/RATION0 7,KLUCKHOHN #a#i#d#i3#c#e#h-#e#i74 ,9 O!R WORDS1 VALUE ORI5TATIONS MIX$ IDEAS ( ! DESIRABLE ) ASSUMPTIONS AB\T ! NATURE ( ! WORLD 9 :I* ONE HAD TO ACT4 ,! NEXT /EP WAS TO E/ABLI% A BASIC LI/ ( EXI/5TIAL QUE/IONS1 ?AT PRESUMABLY EV]Y CULTURE HAD TO ANSW] 9 SOME WAY3 >E HUMAN BE+S GOOD OR EVIL8 ,%\LD !IR RELATIONS ) NATURE BE BAS$ ON H>MONY1 MA/]Y1 OR SUBJUGATION8 ,%\LD ONE'S ULTIMATE LOYALTIES BE TO ONESELF1 TO A L>G] GR\P1 OR TO O!R 9DIVIDUALS8 ,KLUCKHOHN DID COME UP ) SU* A LI/2 BUT HE & HIS /UD5TS F\ND IT V]Y DIFFICULT TO MOVE FROM ?IS SUP]-REF9$ LEVEL TO ! MORE MUNDANE DETAILS ( :Y PEOPLE PREF] TO GR[ POTATOES RA!R ?AN RICE OR PREF] TO M>RY !IR CROSS-C\S9S--! SORT ( EV]YDAY MATT]S ) :I* AN?ROPOLOGI/S NORMALLY CONC]N !MSELVES4 

,AT ?IS PO9T ! /ORY TAKES ON SOME?+ ( ! COLOR ( TRAG$Y4 ,ALMO/ EV]YONE 9VOLV$ FELT ?AT ! ,RIMROCK /UDY WAS A FAILURE2 9 WRIT+ UP !IR CONCLUSIONS1 ! FIELDWORK]S F\ND IT ALMO/ IMPOSSIBLE TO DEVELOP COMMON T]MS4 ,EV5 :ILE ,KLUCKHOHN'S DISCIPLES--NOTABLY PHILOSOPH] ,$I? ,ALB]T--W]E CONT9U+ TO P\R \T ESSAYS GU%+ ) SCI5TIFIC CONFID5CE 9 ! LATE '#eS & E>LY '#fS1 ,KLUCKHOHN HIMSELF SEEMS TO HAVE SP5T ! LA/ YE>S ( HIS LIFE PLAGU$ BY A S5SE ( FRU/RATION1 AN 9ABILITY TO F9D ! BREAK?R\< ?AT W\LD MAKE A REAL1 SY/EMATIC COMP>ATIVE /UDY ( VALUES POSSIBLE--OR ANYWAY1 TO RELATE IT PROP]LY TO ACTION 7,ALB]T #a#i#e#f1 #a#i#f#h1 ,KLUCKHOHN #a#i#e#aA1 #a#i#f#a1 ,F4 ,KLUCKHOHN & ,/RODTBECK #a#i#f#a74 ,IT WAS ALL ! MORE FRU/RAT+ BECAUSE ,KLUCKHOHN SAW HIS PROJECT 9 MANY WAYS A LA/-DIT* EF=T TO RESCUE ,AM]ICAN AN?ROPOLOGY FROM :AT ALMO/ EV]YONE P]CEIV$ AS ! !ORETICAL DOLDRUMS4 ,:]E ,BRITI% AN?ROPOLOGI/S HAD ALWAYS CONCEIV$ !IR DISCIPL9E AS A BRAN* ( SOCIOLOGY1 ! ,NOR? ,AM]ICAN S*OOL F\ND$ BY ,FRANZ ,BOAS HAD DRAWN ON ,G]MAN CULTURE !ORY TO COMP>E SOCIETIES NOT PRIM>ILY AS WAYS ( ORGANIZ+ RELATIONS BETWE5 PEOPLE BUT EQUALLY1 AS /RUCTURES ( ?\<T & FEEL+4 ,! ASSUMPTION WAS ALWAYS ?AT !RE WAS1 AT ! CORE ( A CULTURE1 C]TA9 KEY PATT]NS OR SYMBOLS OR !MES ?AT HELD EV]Y?+ TOGE!R & ?AT C\LDN'T BE R$UC$ TO PURE 9DIVIDUAL PSY*OLOGY2 ! PROBLEM1 TO DEF9E PRECISELY :AT ?IS WAS & H[ ONE C\LD GET AT IT4 ,ONE IS LEFT ) A /RANGE1 RA!R CONTRADICTORY PICTURE1 S9CE ?IS WAS ALSO ! TIME :5 ,BOASIAN AN?ROPOLOGY WAS AT ! HEI<T ( ITS POPUL> 9FLU5CE & ACADEMIC AU?ORITY1 FLU% ) ,COLD ,W> MONEY1 AT A TIME :5 !IR BOOKS W]E (T5 READ BY ORD9>Y ,AM]ICANS1 BUT AT ! SAME TIME1 WAS BURD5$ ) A GR[+ FEEL+ ( 9TELLECTUAL BANKRUPTCY4 ,KLUCKHOHN'S EF=T TO REFRAME AN?ROPOLOGY AS ! /UDY ( VALUES C\LD BE SE5 AS A LA/-DIT* EF=T TO SALVAGE ! ,BOASIAN PROJECT2 IT IS N[ADAYS SE5 AS YET ANO!R DEAD 5D4 ,! CONS5SUS ( ?OSE :O EV5 BO!R TO TALK AB\T ! EPISODE 7,$MONSON #a#i#g#c1 ,DUMONT #a#i#h#b71 ?\<1 IS ?AT !RE WAS NO?+ 9H]5TLY WRONG ) ! PROJECT ITSELF3 RA!R1 IT FAIL$ = ! LACK ( AN ADEQUATE !ORY ( /RUCTURE4 ,KLUCKHOHN WANT$ TO COMP>E SY/EMS ( IDEAS1 BUT HE HAD NO !ORETICAL MODEL ( H[ IDEAS FITT$ TOGE!R AS SY/EMS4 ,9 HIS LA/ FEW YE>S HE BECAME 9CREAS+LY 9T]E/$ 9 ! IDEA ( BORR[+ MODELS FROM L+UI/ICS1 BUT ! TOOLS !N AVAILABLE W]E SIMPLY NOT UP TO ! *ALL5GE4 ,HIS CRITICS SEEM TO IMPLY ?AT IF HE OR HIS PROJECT HAD LA/$ A FEW MORE YE>S1 UNTIL /RUCTURALI/ MODELS BUR/ ON ! SC5E 9 ! LATE '#fS1 EV]Y?+ MI<T HAVE BE5 DIFF]5T4 

,BE ?IS AS IT MAY1 ! PROJECT HAD NO 9TELLECTUAL SUCCESSORS4 ,?IS IS NOT TO SAY1 ( C\RSE1 ?AT AN?ROPOLOGI/S NO LONG] TALK AB\T 0VALUES40 ,SOME REGIONAL SUBDISCIPL9ES >E V]ITABLY OBSESS$ ) P>TICUL> VALUES 7ESPECIALLY ?OSE DEAL+ ) REGIONS )\T TOO MU* ELABORATE SOCIAL /RUCTURE1 SU* AS CLANS OR L9EAGE SY/EMS73 MO/ NOTORI\SLY ! AN?ROPOLOGY ( ! ,M$IT]RANEAN1 :I* HAS BE5 = MO/ ( ITS HI/ORY FOCUS$ ON 0HONOR40 ,BUT !RE HAS BE5 NEXT TO NO?+ ON 0VALUES0 9 G5]AL4 ,?IS IS TRUE EV5 ( S*OL>S WORK+ 9 ,KLUCKHOHN'S [N 9TELLECTUAL TRADITION4 ,SOME ( ! MO/ 9FLU5TIAL ,AM]ICAN CULTURAL !ORI/S ( ! '#fS & '#gS--,I AM ?9K+ H]E ESPECIALLY ( ,CLIF=D ,GE]TZ & ,DAVID ,S*NEID]--W]E 9 MANY WAYS CONT9U+ 9 IT1 BUT !Y MOV$ 9 V]Y DIFF]5T DIRECTIONS4 

,9 A WAY ?IS IS RA!R TOO BAD4 ,= ALL ITS /]ILITY 9 PRACTICE1 !RE IS SOME?+ APPEAL+ AB\T ,KLUCKHOHN'S KEY IDEA3 ?AT :AT MAKES CULTURES DIFF]5T IS NOT SIMPLY :AT !Y BELIEVE ! WORLD TO LIKE1 BUT :AT !Y FEEL ONE CAN JU/IFIABLY DEM& FROM IT4 ,?AT AN?ROPOLOGY1 9 O!R WORDS1 %\LD BE ! COMP>ATIVE /UDY ( PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHIES ( LIFE4 ,ACTUALLY ! CLOSE/ P>ALLEL TO IT 9 ! SOCIAL SCI5CES WAS PROBABLY ,MAX ,WEB]'S COMP>ATIVE /UDY ( WORLD RELIGIONS1 :I* ALSO WAS CONC]N$ ) DEL9EAT+ A LIMIT$ NUMB] ( POSSIBLE WAYS = ?9K+ AB\T ! MEAN+ ( HUMAN EXI/5CE & !N TRY+ TO UND]/& ! IMPLICATIONS = SOCIAL ACTION ( EA*4 ,IT'S POSSIBLE ?AT HIS WORK MAY EV5 BE DUE = SOME?+ ( A REVIVAL3 !RE HAVE BE5 SOME REC5T EF=TS1 = EXAMPLE BY ,*>LES ,NUCKOLLS 7#a#i#i#i71 TO 9TEGRATE SU* VALUE ANALYSIS ) PSY*OLOGICAL APPROA*ES 9 AN?ROPOLOGY4 ,BUT = PRES5T PURPOSES1 ! IMPORTANT ?+ IS ?AT ! FIR/ GREAT EF=T TO COME UP ) AN AN?ROPOLOGICAL !ORY ( VALUES RAN MO/ DEF9ITIVELY AGR\ND2 & ?AT AN?ROPOLOGICAL CONC]NS ) SU* ISSUES />T$ DEVELOP+1 9 ! '#fS1 9 TWO OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS3 ONE ?AT LOOK$ TO ECONOMICS1 ! O!R1 TO L+UI/ICS4 

,I,I3 ! MAXIMIZ+ 9DIVIDUAL 

  

,PRACTICALLY FROM ! BEG9N+S ( MOD]N AN?ROPOLOGY1 !RE HAVE BE5 EF=TS TO APPLY ! TOOLS ( MICROECONOMICS TO ! /UDY ( NON-,WE/]N SOCIETIES4 ,!RE >E SEV]AL REASONS IT SEEM$ AN OBVI\S ?+ TO DO4 ,FIR/1 BECAUSE 7AP>T FROM L+UI/ICS7 ECONOMICS HAS ALWAYS BE5 ! SOCIAL SCI5CE ?AT C\LD MAKE ! MO/ PLAUSIBLE CLAIM ?AT :AT IT WAS DO+ WAS ANY?+ LIKE A NATURAL SCI5CE2 IT HAS LONG HAD ! ADDITIONAL ADVANTAGE ( BE+ SE5 AS ! V]Y MODEL ( 0H>D0 SCI5CE BY ! SORT ( PEOPLE :O DI/RIBUTE GRANTS 7PEOPLE :O !MSELVES USUALLY HAVE SOME ECONOMIC TRA9+74 ,IT ALSO HAS ! ADVANTAGE ( JO9+ AN EXTREMELY SIMPLE MODEL ( HUMAN NATURE ) EXTREMELY COMPLICAT$ MA!MATICAL =MULAS ?AT NON-SPECIALI/S CAN R>ELY UND]/&1 MU* LESS CRITICIZE4 ,ITS PREMISES >E /RAI<T=W>D 5\<4 ,SOCIETY IS MADE UP ( 9DIVIDUALS4 ,ANY 9DIVIDUAL IS ASSUM$ TO HAVE A FAIRLY CLE> IDEA :AT HE OR %E WANTS \T ( LIFE1 & TO BE TRY+ TO GET AS MU* ( IT AS POSSIBLE = ! LEA/ AM\NT ( SACRIFICE & EF=T4 7,?IS IS CALL$ ! 0M9I_/MAX0 APPROA*4 ,PEOPLE WANT TO M9IMIZE !IR \TPUT & MAXIMIZE !IR YIELDS47 ,:AT WE CALL 0SOCIETY0--AT LEA/1 IF ONE CONTROLS = A LITTLE CULTURAL 09T]F]5CE0--IS SIMPLY ! \TCOME ( ALL ?IS SELF-9T]E/$ ACTIVITY4 

,BRONISLAW ,MAL9[SKI WAS ALREADY COMPLA9+ AB\T ?IS SORT ( ?+ 9 #a#i#b#b1 9 :AT IS >GUABLY ! FIR/ BOOK-L5G? WORK ( ECONOMIC AN?ROPOLOGY3 ,>GONAUTS ( ! ,WE/]N ,PACIFIC4 ,SU* A !ORY W\LD DO NO?+1 HE SAID1 TO EXPLA9 ECONOMIC BEHAVIOR 9 ! ,TROBRI& ,ISL&S3  
  

,ANO!R NOTION :I* MU/ BE EXPLOD$1 ONCE & = EV]1 IS ?AT ( ! ,PRIMITIVE ,ECONOMIC ,MAN ( SOME CURR5T ECONOMIC TEXTBOOKS444 PROMPT$ 9 ALL HIS ACTIONS BY A RATIONALI/IC CONCEPTION ( SELF-9T]E/1 & A*IEV+ HIS AIMS DIRECTLY & ) ! M9IMUM ( EF=T4 ,EV5 ONE WELL E/ABLI%$ 9/ANCE %\LD %[ H[ PREPO/]\S IS ?IS ASSUMPTION4 ,! PRIMITIVE ,TROBRI&] FURNI%ES US ) SU* AN 9/ANCE1 CONTRADICT+ ?IS FALLACI\S !ORY4 ,9 ! FIR/ PLACE1 AS WE HAVE SE51 WORK IS NOT C>RI$ \T ON ! PR9CIPLE ( ! LEA/ EF=T4 ,ON ! CONTR>Y1 MU* TIME & 5]GY IS SP5T ON :OLLY UNNECESS>Y EF=T1 ?AT IS1 FROM A UTILIT>IAN PO9T ( VIEW4 7,MAL9[SKI #a#i#b#b3#f7  
  

,MAL9[SKI TAKES UP ! EXAMPLE ( ! ATTITUDE ,TROBRI& M5 HAVE T[>D !IR YAM G>D5S3 ! 5DLESS 5]GIES !Y P\R 9TO VY+ TO MAKE !IR G>D5 ! MO/ TIDY & ATTRACTIVE 7EF=T ?AT IS 9 /RICTLY 0ECONOMIC0 T]MS 5TIRELY USELESS74 ,! :OLE PO9T ( G>D5+ WAS TO %[ (F H[ MU* EF=T A MAN C\LD S9K 9TO IT2 AS A RESULT1 HALF ! YIELDS 5D$ UP ROTT+ = LACK ( ANYONE TO EAT !M4 ,:AT'S MORE1 ?OSE ?AT W]E EAT5 W]E NOT EAT5 BY ! G>D5] HIMSELF3  
  

,! MO/ IMPORTANT PO9T AB\T ?IS IS1 H[EV]1 ?AT ALL1 OR ALMO/ ALL ! FRUITS ( HIS WORK1 & C]TA9LY ANY SURPLUS :I* HE CAN A*IEVE BY EXTRA EF=T1 GOES NOT TO ! MAN HIMSELF1 BUT TO HIS RELATIVES-9-LAW4 ,)\T 5T]+ 9TO DETAILS444 IT MAY BE SAID ?AT AB\T ?REE QU>T]S ( A MAN'S CROPS GO P>TLY AS TRIBUTE TO ! *IEF1 P>TLY AS HIS DUE TO HIS SI/]'S 7OR MO!R'S7 HUSB& & FAMILY 7,MAL9[SKI #a#i#b#b3#f-#f#a74  
  

,9 O!R WORDS1 RA!R ?AN 0ECONOMIZ+0 !IR EF=TS1 ,TROBRI& M5 >E ACTIVELY TRY+ TO P]=M UNNECESS>Y LABOR2 !N !Y GIVE ! PRODUCTS AWAY TO !IR SI/]'S FAMILIES4 ,!RE'S NOT EV5 ANY DIRECT RECIPROCITY 9VOLV$1 S9CE ! MAN'S [N FAMILY IS F$ NOT BY HIS SI/]'S FAMILY BUT ! BRO!RS ( HIS [N WIFE4 

,SU* EXAMPLES C\LD BE MULTIPLI$ 5DLESSLY1 &1 9 ! E>LY DAYS ( AN?ROPOLOGY1 !Y W]E4 ,IT DIDN'T MAKE MU* DIFF]5CE4 ,EV]Y DECADE OR SO HAS SE5 AT LEA/ ONE NEW ATTEMPT TO PUT ! MAXIMIZ+ 9DIVIDUAL BACK 9TO AN?ROPOLOGICAL !ORY1 EV5 IF ECONOMIC !ORY ITSELF USUALLY 5DS UP HAV+ TO B5D ITSELF 9TO RIBBONS 9 ORD] TO DO SO4 

,9 FACT1 ! EF=T TO RECONCILE ! TWO DISCIPL9ES IS 9 MANY WAYS 9H]5TLY CONTRADICTORY4 ,?IS IS BECAUSE ECONOMICS & AN?ROPOLOGY W]E CREAT$ ) ALMO/ 5TIRELY OPPOSITE PURPOSES 9 M9D4 ,ECONOMICS IS ALL AB\T PR$ICTION4 ,IT CAME 9TO EXI/5CE & CONT9UES TO BE MA9TA9$ ) ALL SORTS ( LAVI% FUND+1 BECAUSE PEOPLE ) MONEY WANT TO KN[ :AT O!R PEOPLE ) MONEY >E LIKELY TO DO4 ,AS A RESULT1 IT IS ALSO A DISCIPL9E ?AT1 MORE ?AN ANY O!R1 T5DS TO P>TICIPATE 9 ! WORLD IT DESCRIBES4 ,?AT IS TO SAY1 ECONOMIC SCI5CE IS MA9LY CONC]N$ ) ! BEHAVIOR ( PEOPLE :O HAVE SOME FAMILI>ITY ) ECONOMICS--EI!R ONES :O HAVE /UDI$ IT OR AT ! V]Y LEA/ >E ACT+ )9 9/ITUTIONS ?AT HAVE BE5 5TIRELY %AP$ BY IT4 ,ECONOMICS1 AS A DISCIPL9E1 HAS ALMO/ ALWAYS PLAY$ A ROLE 9 DEF9+ ! SITUATIONS IT DESCRIBES4.<#b.> ,NOR DO ECONOMI/S HAVE A PROBLEM ) ?IS2 !Y SEEM TO FEEL IT IS QUITE AS IT %\LD BE4 ,AN?ROPOLOGY WAS FROM ! BEG9N+ 5TIRELY DIFF]5T4 ,IT HAS ALWAYS BE5 MO/ 9T]E/$ 9 ! ACTION ( ?OSE PEOPLE :O >E LEA/ 9FLU5C$ BY ! PRACTICAL OR !ORETICAL WORLD 9 :I* ! ANALY/ MOVES & OP]ATES4 ,?IS WAS ESPECIALLY TRUE 9 ! DAYS :5 AN?ROPOLOGI/S SAW !MSELVES AS /UDY+ SAVAGES2 BUT TO ?IS DAY AN?ROPOLOGI/S HAVE REMA9$ MO/ 9T]E/$ 9 ! PEOPLE :OSE UND]/&+ ( ! WORLD1 & :OSE 9T]E/S & AMBITIONS1 >E MO/ DIFF]5T ?AN !IR [N4 ,AS A RESULT1 IT IS G5]ALLY C>RI$ \T COMPLETELY )\T A ?\<T TO FUR!R+ ?OSE 9T]E/S & AMBITIONS4 ,:5 ,MAL9[SKI WAS TRY+ TO FIGURE \T :AT ,TROBRI& G>D5]S W]E TRY+ TO ACCOMPLI% 9 ACT+ AS !Y DID1 IT ALMO/ C]TA9LY NEV] EV5 OCCURR$ TO HIM ?AT :ATEV] ?AT WAS1 READ+ HIS BOOK MI<T MAKE !M BETT] ABLE TO ACCOMPLI% IT4 ,9 FACT1 :5 AN AN?ROPOLOGI/ DISCOV]S ?AT ANYONE IS US+ AN?ROPOLOGICAL TEXTS 9 ?IS WAY--SAY1 AS A GUIDE = H[ TO P]=M !IR [N RITUALS--!Y >E USUALLY QUITE DI/URB$4 

,ECONOMICS1 !N1 IS AB\T PR$ICT+ 9DIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR2 AN?ROPOLOGY1 AB\T UND]/&+ COLLECTIVE DIFF]5CES4  

 ,AS A RESULT1 EF=TS TO BR+ MAXIMIZ+ MODELS 9TO AN?ROPOLOGY ALWAYS 5D UP /UMBL+ 9TO ! SAME SORT ( 9CR$IBLY COMPLICAT$ DEAD 5DS4 ,! CLASSIC CASE /UDIES ( ECONOMIC AN?ROPOLOGY1 = 9/ANCE--,FRANZ ,BOAS' REPORTS ON ! ,KWAKIUTL POTLAT* 7#a#h#i#g1 ETC47 OR ,MAL9[SKI'S ON ,TROBRI& KULA EX*ANGE 7#a#i#b#b7--CONC]N$ SY/EMS ( EX*ANGE ?AT SEEM$ TO WORK ON PR9CIPLES UTT]LY DIFF]5T FROM ! OBS]V]S' [N3 ONES 9 :I* ! MO/ IMPORTANT FIGURES SEEM$ TO BE NOT SO MU* TRY+ TO ACCUMULATE WEAL? AS VY+ TO SEE :O C\LD GIVE ! MO/ AWAY4 ,9 #a#i#b#e1 ,M>CEL ,MAUSS CO9$ ! PHRASE 0GIFT ECONOMIES0 TO DESCRIBE !M4  

 ,ACTUALLY1 ! EXI/5CE ( GIFTS--EV5 9 ,WE/]N SOCIETIES--HAS ALWAYS BE5 SOME?+ ( A PROBLEM = ECONOMI/S4 ,TRY+ TO ACC\NT = !M ALWAYS LEADS TO SOME V>IATION ( ! SAME1 RA!R SILLY1 CIRCUL> >GUM5TS4 

,Q3 ,IF PEOPLE ONLY ACT TO MAXIMIZE !IR GA9S 9 SOME WAY OR ANO!R1 !N H[ DO Y\ EXPLA9 PEOPLE :O GIVE ?+S AWAY = NO?+8 

,A3 ,!Y >E TRY+ TO MAXIMIZE !IR SOCIAL /&+1 OR ! HONOR1 OR PRE/IGE ?AT ACCRUES TO !M BY DO+ SO4  

 ,Q3 ,!N :AT AB\T PEOPLE :O GIVE ANONYM\S GIFTS8  

 ,A3 ,WELL1 !Y'RE TRY+ TO MAXIMIZE ! S5SE ( SELF-WOR?1 OR ! GOOD FEEL+ !Y GET FROM DO+ IT4 

,& SO ON4 ,IF Y\ >E SUFFICI5TLY DET]M9$1 Y\ CAN ALWAYS ID5TIFY SOME?+ ?AT PEOPLE >E TRY+ TO MAXIMIZE4 ,BUT IF ALL MAXIMIZ+ MODELS >E REALLY >GU+ IS ?AT 0PEOPLE WILL ALWAYS SEEK TO MAXIMIZE SOME?+10 !N !Y OBVI\SLY CAN'T PR$ICT ANY?+1 :I* MEANS EMPLOY+ !M CAN H>DLY BE SAID TO MAKE AN?ROPOLOGY MORE SCI5TIFIC4 ,ALL !Y REALLY ADD TO ANALYSIS IS A SET ( ASSUMPTIONS AB\T HUMAN NATURE4 ,! ASSUMPTION1 MO/ ( ALL1 ?AT NO ONE EV] DOES ANY?+ PRIM>ILY \T ( CONC]N = O!RS2 ?AT :ATEV] ONE DOES1 ONE IS ONLY TRY+ TO GET SOME?+ \T ( IT = ONESELF4 ,9 COMMON ,5GLI%1 !RE IS A WORD = ?IS ATTITUDE4 ,IT'S CALL$ 0CYNICISM40 ,MO/ ( US TRY TO AVOID PEOPLE :O TAKE IT TOO MU* TO HE>T4 ,9 ECONOMICS1 APP>5TLY1 !Y CALL IT 0SCI5CE40.<#c.> 

,/ILL1 ALL !SE DEAD 5DS DID PRODUCE ONE 9T]E/+ SIDE EFFECT4 ,9 ORD] TO C>RY \T SU* AN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS1 ONE ALMO/ ALWAYS 5DS UP HAV+ TO MAP \T A S]IES ( 0VALUES0 ( SOME?+ LIKE ! TRADITIONAL SOCIOLOGICAL S5SE--P[]1 PRE/IGE1 MORAL PURITY1 ETC41--& TO DEF9E !M AS BE+ ON SOME LEVEL FUNDAM5TALLY SIMIL> TO ECONOMIC ONES4 ,?IS MEANS ?AT ECONOMIC AN?ROPOLOGI/S DO HAVE TO TALK AB\T VALUES4 ,BUT IT ALSO MEANS !Y HAVE TO TALK AB\T !M 9 A RA!R PECULI> WAY4 ,:5 ONE SAYS ?AT A P]SON IS *OOS+ BETWE5 HAV+ MORE MONEY1 MORE POSSESSIONS1 OR MORE PRE/IGE1 :AT ONE IS REALLY DO+ IS TAK+ AN AB/RACTION 70PRE/IGE07 & REIFY+ IT1 TREAT+ IT AS AN OBJECT NOT FUNDAM5TALLY DIFF]5T 9 K9D FROM J>S ( SPA<ETTI SAUCE OR +OTS ( PIG IRON4 ,?IS IS A PECULI> OP]ATION1 BECAUSE 9 FACT PRE/IGE IS NOT AN OBJECT ?AT ONE CAN DISPOSE ( AS ONE WILL1 OR EV51 REALLY1 CONSUME2 IT IS RA!R AN ATTITUDE ?AT EXI/S 9 ! M9DS ( O!R PEOPLE4.<#d.> ,IT CAN EXI/ ONLY )9 A WEB ( SOCIAL RELATIONS4 ,( C\RSE1 ONE MI<T >GUE ?AT PROP]TY IS A SOCIAL RELATION AS WELL1 REIFI$ 9 EXACTLY ! SAME WAY3 :5 ONE BUYS A C> ONE IS NOT REALLY PUR*AS+ ! RI<T TO USE IT SO MU* AS ! RI<T TO PREV5T O!RS FROM US+ IT--OR1 TO BE EV5 MORE PRECISE1 ONE IS PUR*AS+ !IR RECOGNITION ?AT ONE HAS A RI<T TO DO SO4 ,BUT S9CE IT IS SO DIFFUSE A SOCIAL RELATION--A CONTRACT1 9 EFFECT1 BETWE5 ! [N] & EV]YONE ELSE 9 ! 5TIRE WORLD--IT IS EASY TO ?9K ( IT AS A ?+4 ,9 O!R WORDS1 ! WAY ECONOMI/S TALK AB\T 0GOODS & S]VICES0 ALREADY 9VOLVES R$UC+ :AT >E REALLY SOCIAL RELATIONS TO OBJECTS2 AN ECONOMI/IC.<#e.> APPROA* TO VALUES EXT5DS ! SAME PROCESS EV5 FUR!R1 TO JU/ AB\T EV]Y?+4 

,BUT ON :AT BASIS8 ,9 REALITY1 ! ONLY ?+ SPA<ETTI SAUCE & PRE/IGE HAVE 9 COMMON IS ! FACT ?AT SOME PEOPLE WANT !M4 ,:AT ECONOMIC !ORY ULTIMATELY TRIES TO DO IS TO EXPLA9 ALL HUMAN BEHAVIOR--ALL HUMAN BEHAVIOR IT CONSID]S WOR? EXPLA9+1 ANYWAY--ON ! BASIS ( A C]TA9 NOTION ( DESIRE1 :I* !N 9 TURN IS PREMIS$ ON A C]TA9 NOTION ( PLEASURE4 ,PEOPLE TRY TO OBTA9 ?+S BECAUSE ?OSE ?+S WILL MAKE !M HAPPY OR GRATIFY !M 9 SOME WAY 7OR AT LEA/ BECAUSE !Y ?9K !Y WILL74 ,*OCOLATE *EESECAKE PROMISES PLEASURE1 BUT SO DOES ! KN[L$GE ?AT O!RS DO NOT CONSID] Y\ OBESE2 RATIONAL ACTORS REGUL>LY WEI< ONE AGA9/ ! O!R4 ,IT IS ?IS PROMISE ( PLEASURE ECONOMI/S CALL 0VALUE40 

,9 ! 5D1 MO/ ECONOMIC !ORY RELIES ON TRY+ TO MAKE ANY?+ ?AT SMACKS ( 0SOCIETY0 DISAPPE>4 ,BUT EV5 IF ONE DOES MANAGE TO R$UCE EV]Y SOCIAL RELATION TO ?+1 SO ?AT ONE IS LEFT ) ! EMPIRICI/'S DREAM1 A WORD CONSI/+ ( NO?+ BUT 9DIVIDUALS & OBJECTS1 ONE IS /ILL LEFT TO PUZZLE OV] :Y 9DIVIDUALS FEEL SOME OBJECTS WILL AF=D !M MORE PLEASURE ?AN O!RS4 ,!RE IS ONLY SO F> ONE CAN GO BY APPEAL+ TO PHYSIOLOGICAL NE$S4.<#f.> ,9 ! 5D1 FAC$ ) EXPLA9+ :Y 9 SOME P>TS ( ! WORLD MO/ PEOPLE >E 9DIFF]5T TO ! PLEASURES ( *OCOLATE *EESECAKE BUT EXCIT$ BY ?OSE ( SALT$ PRUNE DR9KS1 OR :Y 9 O!RS OBESITY IS CONSID]$ ATTRACTIVE1 ECONOMI/S1 H[EV] BEGRUDG+LY1 USUALLY ADMIT !Y DO HAVE TO BR+ SOME NOTION LIKE SOCIETY OR CULTURE BACK 94 

,IT WAS JU/ !SE K9D ( ISSUES ?AT LAY BEH9D ! ,=MALI/-,SUB/ANTIVI/ DEBATE ?AT PREOCCUPI$ ECONOMIC AN?ROPOLOGY 9 ! #a#i#fS 7,POLANYI #a#i#e#g1 #a#i#e#i1 #a#i#f#h2 ,DALTON #a#i#f#a1 ,BURL+ #a#i#f#b1 ,COOK #a#i#f#f1 ETC474 ,N[ADAYS1 MO/ CONSID] ?IS DEBATE TO HAVE BE5 RA!R PO9TLESS--& 9DE$1 ! !ORETICAL BASIS ( BO? POSITIONS HAS BE5 L>GELY DISCR$IT$--BUT ! BASIC ISSUES HAVE NEV]1 REALLY1 BE5 RESOLV$4 ,LET ME PROVIDE A RAPID SUMM>Y4 

,! T]MS 0=MALISM0 & 0SUB/ANTIVISM0 W]E ACTUALLY BO? 9V5T$ BY ,HUNG>IAN ECONOMI/ ,K>L ,POLANYI4 ,POLANYI'S MO/ FAM\S WORK1 ,! ,GREAT ,TRANS=MATION1 WAS AN ACC\NT ( ! HI/ORICAL ORIG9S1 9 EI<TE5? & N9ETE5? C5TURY ,5GL&1 ( :AT WE N[ REF] TO AS 0! M>KET40 ,9 ?IS C5TURY1 ! M>KET HAS COME TO BE SE5 AS PRACTICALLY A NATURAL PH5OM5ON--A DIRECT EMANATION ( :AT ,ADAM ,SMI? ONCE CALL$ 0MAN'S NATURAL PROP5SITY TO TRUCK1 B>T] & EX*ANGE ONE ?+ = ANO!R40 ,ACTUALLY1 ?IS ATTITUDE FOLL[S LOGICALLY FROM ! SAME 7CYNICAL7 !ORY ( HUMAN NATURE ?AT LIES BEH9D ECONOMIC !ORY4 ,! BASIC REASON+-- R>ELY EXPLICITLY /AT$--RUNS SOME?+ LIKE ?IS4 ,HUMAN BE+S >E DRIV5 BY DESIRES2 !SE DESIRES >E UNLIMIT$4 ,HUMAN BE+S >E ALSO RATIONAL1 9S(> AS !Y WILL ALWAYS T5D TO CALCULATE ! MO/ EFFICI5T WAY ( GETT+ :AT !Y WANT4 ,H5CE1 IF !Y >E LEFT TO !IR [N DEVICES1 SOME?+ LIKE A 0FREE M>KET0 WILL 9EVITABLY DEVELOP4 ,( C\RSE1 = #i#i.0 ( HUMAN HI/ORY1 NONE EV] DID1 BUT ?AT'S JU/ BECAUSE ( ! 9T]F]5CE ( ONE OR ANO!R /ATE OR FEUDAL ELITE4 ,FEUDAL RELATIONS1 :I* >E BAS$ ON =CE1 >E BASICALLY 9IMICAL TO M>KET RELATIONS1 :I* >E BAS$ ON FRE$OM2 !RE=E1 ONCE FEUDALISM BEGAN TO DISSOLVE1 ! M>KET 9EVITABLY EM]G$ TO TAKE ITS PLACE4.<#g.> 

,! BEAUTY ( ,POLANYI'S BOOK IS ?AT IT DEMON/RATES JU/ H[ COMPLETELY WRONG ?AT COMMON WISDOM IS4 ,9 FACT1 ! /ATE & ITS CO]CIVE P[]S HAD EV]Y?+ TO DO ) ! CREATION ( :AT WE N[ KN[ AS 0! M>KET0--BAS$ AS IT IS ON 9/ITUTIONS SU* AS PRIVATE PROP]TY1 NATIONAL CURR5CIES1 LEGAL CONTRACTS1 CR$IT M>KETS4 ,ALL HAD TO BE CREAT$ & MA9TA9$ BY GOV]NM5T POLICY4 ,! M>KET WAS A CREATION ( GOV]NM5T & HAS ALWAYS REMA9$ SO4 ,IF ONE REALLY REFLECTS ON ! ASSUMPTIONS ECONOMI/S MAKE AB\T HUMAN BEHAVIOR1 IT ONLY MAKES S5SE ?AT IT %\LD BE SO3 ! PR9CIPLE ( MAXIMIZATION AFT] ALL ASSUMES ?AT PEOPLE WILL NORMALLY TRY TO EXTRACT AS MU* AS POSSIBLE FROM :OEV] !Y >E DEAL+ )1 TAK+ NO CONSID]ATION :ATEV] ( ?AT O!R P]SON'S 9T]E/S--BUT AT ! SAME TIME ?AT !Y WILL NEV] UND] ANY CIRCUM/ANCES RESORT TO ANY ( ! MO/ OBVI\S WAYS ( EXTRACT+ WEAL? FROM ?OSE T[>DS :OSE FATE ONE IS 9DIFF]5T1 SU* AS TAK+ IT BY =CE4 0,M>KET BEHAVIOR0 W\LD BE IMPOSSIBLE )\T POLICE4 

,POLANYI GOES ON TO DESCRIBE H[1 ALMO/ AS SOON AS !SE 9/ITUTIONS W]E CREAT$1 M5 LIKE ,SMI?1 ,MAL?US1 & ,RIC>DO APPE>$1 ALL DRAW+ ANALOGIES FROM NATURE TO >GUE ?AT !SE NEW =MS ( BEHAVIOR FOLL[$ 9EVITABLE1 UNIV]SAL LAWS4 ,IT IS ! /UDY ( !SE LAWS ?AT ,POLANYI REF]S TO AS ECONOMIC 0=MALISM40 ,POLANYI IS P]FECTLY WILL+ TO ADMIT ?AT =MAL ME?ODS >E APPROPRIATE = UND]/&+ H[ PEOPLE WILL BEHAVE )9 SU* A M>KET4 ,BUT 9 MO/ SOCIETIES1 SU* 9/ITUTIONS DID NOT EXI/2 ONE SIMPLY CANNOT TALK AB\T AN 0ECONOMY0 AT ALL1 9 ! S5SE ( AN AUTONOM\S SPH]E ( BEHAVIOR ?AT OP]ATES ACCORD+ TO ITS [N 9T]NAL LOGIC4 ,RA!R1 ONE HAS TO TAKE :AT HE CALLS A 0SUB/ANTIVE0 APPROA* & EXAM9E ! ACTUAL PROCESS ?R\< :I* ! SOCIETY PROVIDES ITSELF ) FOOD1 %ELT]1 & O!R MAT]IAL GOODS1 BE>+ 9 M9D ?AT ?IS PROCESS IS 5TIRELY EMB$D$ 9 SOCIETY & NOT A SPH]E ( ACTIVITY ?AT CAN BE DI/+UI%$ FROM1 SAY1 POLITICS1 K9%IP1 OR RELIGION4 

,! ,SUB/ANTIVI/ S*OOL ( ECONOMIC AN?ROPOLOGY 7ITS *IEF EXPON5T WAS ,POLANYI'S /UD5T1 ,GEORGE ,DALTON7 WAS ?US BASICALLY EMPIRICAL4 ,ONE TAKES A GIV5 SOCIETY1 LOOKS AT H[ ?+S >E DI/RIBUT$1 & TRIES TO UND]/& ! PR9CIPLES4 ,! MA9 RESULT WAS A LI/ ( NEW =MS ( EX*ANGE & DI/RIBUTION1 ALL ( :I* DID NOT SEEM TO OP]ATE ON PR9CIPLES ( ECONOMIC MAXIMIZATION1 TO ADD TO ! GIFT ECONOMIES ) :I* AN?ROPOLOGI/S W]E ALREADY FAMILI>4 ,!SE 9CLUD$ ! NOTION ( R$I/RIBUTIVE ECONOMIES1 ! PH5OM5A ( PORTS ( TRADE 7NEUTRAL 5CLAVES 9 :I* M]*ANTS ( DIFF]5T C\NTRIES C\LD DO BUS9ESS ACCORD+ TO PRE-E/ABLI%$ EX*ANGE RATES3 .<,POLANYI1 ,>5SB]G & ,PE>SON #a#i#e#g.>71 ! NOTION ( SPH]ES ( EX*ANGE 7,FIR? #a#i#e#i1 ,BOHANNON #a#i#e#e1 #a#i#e#i2 ,BOHANNON & ,BOHANNON #a#i#f#h71 & ,M>%ALL ,SAHL9S' SPH]ES ( SOCIABILITY 7,SAHL9S #a#i#g#b74 

,ALL ?IS WAS A DEF9ITE CONTRIBUTION TO HUMAN KN[L$GE4 ,! PROBLEM WAS ! OV]ALL !ORETICAL >MATURE4 ,IT IS ONE ?+ TO SAY 0SOCIETIES0 HAVE DIFF]5T WAYS ( DI/RIBUT+ GOODS4 ,IT IS ANO!R TO EXPLA9 :AT P>TICUL> MEMB]S ( ! SOCIETY 9 QUE/ION ?9K !Y'RE DO+ :5 !Y GIVE GIFTS1 OR DEM& BRIDEWEAL?1 OR EX*ANGE SAFFRON = IVORY 9 A PORT ( TRADE4 ,?IS IS PRECISELY :AT !IR OPPON5TS W]E QUICK TO PO9T \T4 ,BECAUSE ALMO/ IMM$IATELY1 ! ,SUB/ANTIVI/ *ALL5GE WAS MET BY A C\NT]-(F5SIVE BY SELFPROCLAIM$ ,=MALI/S 7= EXAMPLE1 ,BURL+ #a#i#f#b1 ,COOK #a#i#f#f74 ,=MALI/S CLAIM$ ?AT ,POLANYI HAD MISUND]/OOD :AT ECONOMICS WAS ACTUALLY AB\T4 ,IT DID NOT DEP5D ON ! PRES5CE OR ABS5CE ( SOME?+ CALL$ 0! ECONOMY40 ,ECONOMICS WAS CONC]N$ ) A C]TA9 TYPE ( HUMAN BEHAVIOR CALL$ 0ECONOMIZ+40 ,PEOPLE ECONOMIZE :5 !Y MAKE *OICES BETWE5 DIFF]5T USES = SC>CE RES\RCES 9 AN ATTEMPT TO M9IMIZE !IR \TPUTS & MAXIMIZE REW>DS4 7,YES1 !Y SAID1 ?IS DID 9VOLVE SOME A PRIORI ASSUMPTIONS AB\T HUMAN NATURE1 BUT EV]YONE HAS TO WORK FROM SOME ASSUMPTIONS3 ! ULTIMATE TE/ IS :E!R ! RESULT+ !ORIES PRODUCE RESULTS47 ,! PO9T ( SOCIAL SCI5CE IS NOT COMP>+ DIFF]5T =MS ( SOCIAL SY/EM BUT UND]/&+ :AT MOTIVATES HUMAN BE+S TO ACT ! WAY !Y DO4 

,H]E !Y DID HAVE A PO9T4 ,= ! MO/ P>T1 ,SUB/ANTIVI/S DIDN'T TRY TO EXPLA9 ANY?+2 !Y JU/ CREAT$ TAXONOMIES4 ,9S(> AS !Y DID 9VOKE A L>G] !ORY1 IT WAS G5]ALLY SOME V>IANT ON ,DURKHEIMIAN FUNCTIONALISM4 ,:]E ECONOMI/S SAW ! %APE ( SOCIETY L>GELY AS ! \TCOME ( 9DIVIDUAL DECISIONS1 ,FUNCTIONALI/S REPRES5T$ SOCIETY AS AN ACTIVE =CE 9 ITS [N RI<T--EV51 AS SOME?+ CLOSE TO A CONSCI\S1 PURPOSIVE AG5T1 ?\< ITS ONLY PURPOSE SEEMS TO BE A SORT ( ANIMALI/IC SELF-PRES]VATION4 ,= A ,DURKHEIMIAN1 ECONOMIC 9/ITUTIONS CAN BE SE5 AS A MEANS ( SOCIAL 9TEGRATION--ONE ( ! WAYS SOCIETY CREATES A NETWORK ( MORAL TIES BETWE5 :AT W\LD O!RWISE BE A *AOTIC MASS ( 9DIVIDUALS--OR1 IF NOT ?AT1 !N AT LEA/ ! MEANS BY :I* 0SOCIETY0 ALLOCATES RES\RCES4 ,! OBVI\S QUE/ION IS H[ 0SOCIETY0 MOTIVATES PEOPLE TO DO ?IS4 ,)\T SOME !ORY ( MOTIVATION1 ONE IS LEFT ) A PICTURE ( AUTOMATONS M9DLESSLY FOLL[+ :ATEV] RULES SOCIETY LAYS D[N = !M1 :I* AT ! V]Y LEA/ MAKES IT DIFFICULT TO UND]/& H[ SOCIETY C\LD EV] *ANGE4 

,( C\RSE1 ! ,=MALI/S1 AS ,I HAVE ALREADY NOT$1 C\LD NOT DO MU* BETT]4 ,!Y W]E WORK+ ) TOOLS ORIG9ALLY DESIGN$ TO PR$ICT 9DIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR 9 A M>KET SETT+2 BY TWI/+ !M >\ND1 !Y C\LD SOMETIMES PR$ICT ! BEHAVIOR ( 9DIVIDUALS 9 O!R CULTURES BUT NOT ! VALUES ?AT MOTIVAT$ !M1 OR1 = ?AT MATT]1 ! %APE ( SOCIETY AS A :OLE4 ,AT !IR MO/ AMBITI\S1 A ,=MALI/ MI<T TRY TO DEMON/RATE H[1 IF ONE />TS ) A COLLECTION ( PEOPLE LIV+ 91 SAY1 ,BALU*I/AN1 & A SCATT]%OT COLLECTION ( 0VALUES0 7FOOD1 SEX1 PRE/IGE1 NOT BE+ TORTUR$ 9 HELL = ALL ET]NITY1 ETC417 ONE C\LD !N %[ H[ ! EXI/+ %APE ( ,BALU*I SOCIETY EM]G$ AS ! RESULT ( ! /RATEGIES PEOPLE ADOPT$ TO SECURE !M4 ,?IS IS PRETTY MU* :AT ,FR$]ICK ,B>? PROPOS$ AN?ROPOLOGI/S %\LD DO1 CALL+ HIS APPROA* ,TRANSACTIONALISM 7#a#i#f#f2 CF4 ,KAPF]] #a#i#g#f74 ,TRANSACTIONALISM WAS PROBABLY ! MO/ AMBITI\S ATTEMPT TO APPLY ! PR9CIPLES ( =MAL ECONOMICS TO AN?ROPOLOGY1 & IT CAUS$ SOME?+ ( A /IR 9 ! LATE #a#i#fS4 ,! OBVI\S QUE/ION ?\<1 WAS--EV5 IF IT WAS POSSIBLE TO CREATE A MODEL ?AT W\LD ?US G5]ATE ! 5TIRE ,BALU*I L9EAGE SY/EM OR ! /RUCTURE ( A ,WE/ ,AFRICAN K+DOM FROM ! RI<T COLLECTION ( VALUES--:AT W\LD BE ! PO9T8 ,:AT W\LD ONE !N KN[ ?AT ONE HAD NOT KN[N BE=E ONE />T$8 ,! RESULT W\LD NOT EV5 BE AN HI/ORICAL RECON/RUCTION1 BUT A PURELY LOGICAL MODEL ?AT NE$ HAVE NO?+ TO DO ) ! ACTUAL HI/ORICAL ORIG9S ( ! SOCIETIES 9 QUE/ION4 

,MO/ AN?ROPOLOGI/S N[ADAYS W\LD WOND] :AT ! PO9T IS 9 EV5 GO+ 9TO ALL ?IS2 ! ,SUB/ANTIVI/-,=MALI/ DEBATE IS CONSID]$ DEF9ITIVELY PASSE4 ,BUT !RE IS A PO9T4 ,IT SEEMS TO ME ?AT !SE BASIC ISSUES HAVE NEV] BE5 RESOLV$4 ,?OSE :O />T BY LOOK+ AT SOCIETY AS A :OLE >E LEFT1 LIKE ! ,SUB/ANTIVI/S1 TRY+ TO EXPLA9 H[ PEOPLE >E MOTIVAT$ TO REPRODUCE SOCIETY2 ?OSE :O />T BY LOOK+ AT 9DIVIDUAL DESIRES 5D UP1 LIKE ! ,=MALI/S1 UNABLE TO EXPLA9 :Y PEOPLE *OSE TO MAXIMIZE SOME ?+S & NOT O!RS 7OR O!RWISE TO ACC\NT = QE/IONS ( MEAN+74 ,9 FACT1 ?\< S*OL>S HAVE DRIFT$ (F TO O!R CONC]NS1 ! SAME PROBLEMS KEEP REEM]G+4 ,AS WE %ALL SEE1 A LOT ( :AT PASSES = ! NEWE/ & MO/ REFRE%+ PO//RUCTURAL !ORY N[ADAYS IS L>GELY W>M$-OV] ,TRANSACTIONALISM1 M9US ! FANCY ECONOMIC =MULAS1 ) SOME EV5 FANCI] L+UI/IC =MULAS PA/$ ON 9/EAD4 

,I,I,I3 ,/RUCTURALISM & L+UI/IC VALUE 

  

,L+UI/S HAVE LONG BE5 9 ! HABIT ( SPEAK+ ( ! MEAN+ ( A WORD AS ITS 0VALUE40 ,FROM QUITE E>LY 9 ! HI/ORY ( AN?ROPOLOGY1 !RE HAVE BE5 EF=TS CONNECT ?IS USAGE TO O!R SORTS ( VALUE4 ,ONE ( ! MO/ 9T]E/+ CAN BE F\ND 9 ,EVANS-,PRIT*>D'S ,! ,NU] 7#a#i#d3#a#c#e-#c#h73 A DISCUSSION ( ! 0VALUE0 ( ! WORD CI5G1 OR 0HOME40 ,= A ,NU]1 ,EVANS,PRIT*>D NOTES1 ! 0VALUE0 ( ?IS WORD V>IES ) CONTEXT2 A SPEAK] CAN USE IT TO REF] TO ONE'S H\SE1 ONE'S VILLAGE1 ONE'S T]RITORY1 EV5 7:5 SPEAK+ TO A =EIGN]7 ,NU]L& AS A :OLE4 ,BUT IT IS MORE ?AN A WORD2 ! NOTION ( 0HOME10 ON ANY ( !SE LEVELS1 ALSO C>RIES A C]TA9 EMOTIONAL LOAD4 ,IT IMPLIES A S5SE ( LOYALTY1 & ?AT CAN TRANSLATE 9TO POLITICAL ACTION4 ,HOME IS ! PLACE ONE DEF5DS AGA9/ \TSID]S4 ,SO WE >E TALK+ AB\T VALUE 9 ! SOCIOLOGICAL1 0VALUES0 S5SE AS WELL4 0,VALUES10 ,EVANS-,PRIT*>D SAYS1 0>E EMBODI$ 9 WORDS ?R\< :I* !Y 9FLU5CE BEHAVIOR0 7#a#c#e74 ,OR1 ALT]NATIVELY1 ! NOTION ( 0HOME10 :5 IT S]VES TO DET]M9E :O ONE CONSID]S A FRI5D1 & :O AN 5EMY1 9 ! CASE ( POT5TIAL BLOOD-FEUDS1 0BECOMES A POLITICAL VALUE0 AS WELL4 ,NOTE H]E H[ 0VALUE0 SLIPS BACK & FROM 0MEAN+0 TO SOME?+ MORE LIKE 0IMPORTANCE03 ONE'S HOME IS ESS5TIAL TO ONE'S S5SE ( ONESELF1 ONE'S ALLEGIANCES1 :AT ONE C>ES AB\T MO/ 9 LIFE4 

,?IS WAS A FASC9AT+ />T1 BUT IT NEV] REALLY W5T ANY:]E4 ,:5 A CONTEMPOR>Y AN?ROPOLOGI/ SPEAKS ( ! VALUE ( WORDS1 9/EAD1 !Y >E ALMO/ 9V>IABLY REF]R+ BACK TO ! IDEAS ( ,F]D9& DE ,SAUSSURE1 F\ND] ( MOD]N1 /RUCTURAL L+UI/ICS4 

,9 HIS ,C\RSE ( ,G5]AL ,L+UI/ICS 7#a#i#a#f .<#a#i#f#f.>71 ,SAUSSURE >GU$ ?AT ONE C\LD 9DE$ SPEAK ( ANY WORD AS HAV+ A VALUE1 BUT ?AT ?IS VALUE WAS ESS5TIALLY 0NEGATIVE40 ,BY ?IS HE MEANT ?AT WORDS TAKE ON MEAN+ ONLY BY CONTRA/ ) O!R WORDS 9 ! SAME LANGUAGE4 ,TAKE = EXAMPLE ! WORD 0R$40 ,ONE CANNOT DEF9E ITS MEAN+1 OR 0VALUE10 9 ANY GIV5 LANGUAGE1 )\T KN[+ ALL ! O!R COLOR T]MS 9 ! SAME LANGUAGE2 ?AT IS1 )\T KN[+ ALL ! COLORS ?AT IT IS NOT4 ,WE MI<T TRANSLATE A WORD 9 SOME ,AFRICAN LANGUAGE AS 0R$10 BUT ITS MEAN+ 7OR VALUE7 W\LD NOT BE ! SAME AS ! ,5GLI% 0R$0 IF1 SAY1 ?AT O!R LANGUAGE DOES NOT HAVE A WORD = 0BR[N40 ,PEOPLE 9 ?AT LANGUAGE MI<T !N BE 9 ! HABIT ( REF]R+ TO TREES AS R$4 ,! MO/ PRECISE DEF9ITION ( ! ,5GLI% 0R$10 !N1 W\LD BE3 ! COLOR ?AT IS NOT BLUE1 NOT YELL[1 NOT BR[N1 ETC4 ,IT FOLL[S !N ?AT 9 ORD] TO UND]/& ! 0VALUE0 ( ANY ONE COLOR T]M ONE MU/ ALSO KN[ ?OSE ( ALL ! O!RS 9 ?AT LANGUAGE3 ! MEAN+ ( A T]M IS ITS PLACE 9 ! TOTAL SY/EM4.<#h.> ,SAUSSURE'S >GUM5TS ( C\RSE HAD AN 5ORM\S IMPACT ON AN?ROPOLOGY1 & W]E ! MO/ IMPORTANT 9FLU5CE ON ! RISE ( ,/RUCTURALISM--:I* TOOK (F FROM ,SAUSSURE'S SUGGE/ION ?AT ALL SY/EMS ( MEAN+ >E ORGANIZ$ ON ! SAME PR9CIPLES AS A LANGUAGE1 SO ?AT TE*NICALLY1 L+UI/ICS %\LD BE CONSID]$ JU/ ONE SUB-FIELD ( AN 7AS YET NON-EXI/5T7 MA/] DISCIPL9E ?AT HE DUBB$ SEMIOLOGY1 ! SCI5CE ( MEAN+4.<#i.> 

,AS !SE EXAMPLES SUGGE/1 ,SAUSSURE'S APPROA* WAS MORE AB\T VOCABUL>Y ?AN GRAMM>1 MORE AB\T N\NS & ADJECTIVES ?AN V]BS4 ,IT WAS CONC]N$ ) ! OBJECTS ( HUMAN ACTION MORE ?AN ) ! ACTIONS !MSELVES4 ,NOT SURPRIS+1 !N1 ?AT ?OSE :O TRI$ TO FOLL[ ,SAUSSURE'S LEAD & ACTUALLY CREATE ?IS NON-EXI/5T SCI5CE T5D$ TO BE MO/ SUCCESSFUL :5 EXPLOR+ ! MEAN+ ( PHYSICAL OBJECTS 7,B>!S #a#i#f#g2 ,BAUDRILL>D #a#i#f#h2 ,SAHL9S #a#i#g#f74 ,OBJECTS >E DEF9$ BY ! MEAN+FUL DI/9CTIONS ONE CAN MAKE BETWE5 !M4 ,TO UND]/& ! MEAN+ 7VALUE7 ( AN OBJECT1 !N1 ONE MU/ UND]/& ITS PLACE 9 A L>G] SY/EM4 ,JU/ AS ! VALUE ( 0R$0 IS DET]M9$ NEGATIVELY1 BY ALL ! O!R COLORS IT IS NOT1 IF ONE W]E TO ANALYZE ! MEAN+ (1 SAY1 A TURTL5ECK WORN UND]NEA? ONE'S JACKET1 ONE MU/ EXAM9E ! FULL SET ( O!R ?+S ONE P]SON MI<T BE WE>+3 ?AT IS1 WE>+ A TURTL5ECK MEANS ?AT ONE IS NOT WE>+ A %IRT & TIE B5EA? ONE'S JACKET1 BUT ?AT NEI!R IS ONE WE>+ A ,T%IRT1 OR NO?+ AT ALL4 ,AGA91 ! MEAN+ ( ONE ELEM5T MAKES S5SE ONLY 9 T]MS ( ITS CONTRA/ ) O!R POSSIBLE ELEM5TS )9 ! SAME SY/EM4 ,?IS IS A CRUCIAL CONSID]ATION1 BECAUSE IT MEANS NO?+ CAN BE ANALYZ$ 9 ISOLATION4 ,9 ORD] TO UND]/& ANY ONE OBJECT1 ONE MU/ FIR/ ID5TIFY SOME K9D ( TOTAL SY/EM4 ,?IS BECAME ! TRADEM>K ( ,/RUCTURALISM3 ! PO9T ( ANALYSIS WAS ALWAYS TO DISCOV] ! HIDD5 CODE1 OR SYMBOLIC SY/EM1 :I* 7LANGUAGE-LIKE7 TI$ EV]Y?+ TOGE!R4 

,ALMO/ 9EVITABLY1 ?\<1 ! QUE/ION BECAME H[ TO CONNECT ?IS SORT ( VALUE TO VALUE 9 EI!R ( ! O!R TWO S5SES4 ,9 ! E>LY DAYS1 :5 ,/RUCTURALISM WAS A NEW IDEA ?AT SEEM$ TO (F] RESOLUTIONS = ALMO/ ANY \T/&+ PROBLEM 9 SOCIAL !ORY1 IT SEEM$ SELF-EVID5T ?AT IT %\LD BE POSSIBLE TO DO SO4 ,H5CE ,M>%ALL ,SAHL9S 7=M] ,SUB/ANTIVI/1 NEWF\ND ,/RUCTURALI/7 CONCLUD$ HIS FAM\S ANALYSIS ( ! ,WE/]N CLO?+ SY/EM 9 ,CULTURE & ,PRACTICAL ,REASON 7#a#i#g#f7 BY SUGGE/+ ?AT ONE C\LD ONLY UND]/& ECONOMIC VALUE1 TOO1 AS ! PRODUCT ( MEAN+FUL DI/9CTIONS4 ,TO UND]/& :Y PEOPLE WANT TO BUY ?+S1 HE SAID1 WE HAVE TO UND]/& ! PLACE ?AT ?+ HAS 9 A L>G] CODE ( MEAN+4 

,PRODUCTION = GA9 IS ! PRODUCTION ( A SYMBOLICALLY SIGNIFICANT DIFF]5CE2 9 ! CASE ( ! CONSUM] M>KET1 IT IS ! PRODUCTION ( AN APPROPRIATE SOCIAL DI/9CTION BY WAY ( CONCRETE CONTRA/ 9 ! OBJECT4 ,! PO9T IS IMPLICIT 9 ! APP>5T AMBIGUITY ( ! T]M 0VALUE10 :I* MAY REF] TO ! PRICE ( SOME?+ OR ! MEAN+ ( SOME?+ 7AS ! DIFF]5TIAL CONCEPT ( A WORD71 OR 9 G5]AL TO ?AT :I* PEOPLE HOLD 0DE>10 EI!R MORALLY OR MONET>ILY4 ,AN?ROPOLOGI/S1 9CID5TALLY1 >E QUITE FAMILI> ) ?IS AMBIGUITY1 IF NOT ALWAYS 5TIRELY CONSCI\S ( IT1 S9CE MANY ADOPT IT TO ILLU/RATE ! UNIV]SALITY ( RATIONAL ECONOMIC BEHAVIOR--EV5 :]E M>KET EX*ANGE IS SPECIFICALLY ABS5T4 ,! PEOPLE >E NEV]!LESS ECONOMIZ+ !IR RES\RCES3 IT'S JU/ ?AT !Y >E 9T]E/$ 9 0VALUES0 O!R ?AN ! MAT]IAL--BRO!RHOOD = EXAMPLE 7#a#i#g#f3#b#a#c-#a#d74 

,SO1 VALUE 9 EA* S5SE IS ULTIMATELY ! SAME1 JU/ AS ! ,=MALI/S W]E (T5 =C$ TO ADMIT4 ,?+S >E MEAN+FUL BECAUSE !Y >E IMPORTANT4 ,?+S >E IMPORTANT BECAUSE !Y >E MEAN+FUL4 

,SAHL9S GOES ON TO OBS]VE ?AT ,SAUSSURE HIMSELF MADE A SIMIL> ANALOGY1 & SUGGE/S ! PASSAGE 9 :I* HE DOES SO %\LD BE ! BASIS = ANY FUTURE ECONOMIC AN?ROPOLOGY4 ,TO UND]/& ! VALUE ( A FIVE-FRANC PIECE1 ,SAUSSURE HAD WRITT51 ONE MU/ BE ABLE TO UND]/& 7A7 SOME?+ DIFF]5T ) :I* IT CAN BE 0EX*ANG$10 I4E41 A LOAF ( BREAD1 & 7B7 SOME?+ SIMIL> TO :I* IT CAN BE 0COMP>$10 I4E41 A ONE FRANC PIECE1 OR O!R D5OM9ATIONS ( MONEY4 

,9 ! SAME WAY A WORD CAN BE EX*ANG$ = SOME?+ DISSIMIL>1 AN IDEA2 BESIDES1 IT CAN BE COMP>$ ) SOME?+ ( ! SAME NATURE1 ANO!R WORD4 ,ITS VALUE IS !RE=E NOT FIX$ SO LONG AS ONE SIMPLY /ATES ?AT IT CAN BE 0EX*ANG$0 = A GIV5 CONCEPT1 I4E41 ?AT IT HAS ?IS OR ?AT SIGNIFICATION3 ONE MU/ ALSO COMP>E IT TO SIMIL> VALUES1 ) O!R WORDS ?AT /& 9 OPPOSITION TO IT 7,SAUSSURE 9 ,SAHL9S #a#i#g#f3 #b#a#d-#b#a#e74 

,P]HAPS ! BE/ ONE CAN SAY AB\T ?IS PASSAGE IS ?AT 9 ! FLU% ( 5?USIASM ?AT (T5 FOLL[S ! DISCOV]Y ( P[]FUL NEW TE*NIQUES = UND]/&+ REALITY--SU* AS ,/RUCTURALISM WAS 9 ! '#fS & '#gS--!RE IS GOOD REASON TO PUT COMMON S5SE ON HOLD & SEE H[ F> !SE TE*NIQUES CAN TAKE Y\4 ,/ILL1 ?IS SEEMS TO BE ! PO9T AT :I* !Y REA*$ !IR LIMITS4 ,I MEAN1 REALLY3 :AT DOES IT MEAN TO SAY ?AT :5 Y\ USE A WORD1 Y\ >E 0EX*ANG+0 IT = A CONCEPT8 ,9 :AT WAY DOES ?IS REALLY RESEMBLE PAY+ A %OPKEEP] = A LOAF ( BREAD8 ,MO/ ( ALL1 :AT SORT ( 0COMP>ISON0 >E WE REALLY TALK+ AB\T H]E8 ,AFT] ALL1 :5 ONE OBS]VES ?AT A LOAF ( BREAD CO/S FIVE FRANCS1 & A /EAK-FRITES CO/S TW5TY1 ONE IS NOT SIMPLY OBS]V+ ?AT ! BREAD & /EAK-FRITES >E DIFF]5T4 ,ONE IS MORE LIKELY TO BE EMPHASIZ+ ! FACT ?AT ONE IS WOR? MORE4 ,?IS IS :Y ONE CAN SAY AN ELEM5T ( EVALUATION IS 9VOLV$4 ,?IS IS ALSO PRECISELY :AT MAKES MONEY UNIQUE--?AT IT CAN 9DICATE EXACTLY H[ MU* MORE ONE IS WOR? ?AN ! O!R.<#a.>--& PRECISELY :AT ,SAUSSUREAN MODELS CANNOT ACC\NT =4 ,! LATT] PROVIDES A WAY TO UND]/& H[ ! WORLD IS DIVID$ UP1 H[ OBJECTS >E GR\P$ 9TO CATEGORIES BAS$ ON !IR DIFF]5CES ) O!R SORTS ( OBJECT--& ,SAHL9S IS ( C\RSE RI<T :5 HE SAYS ?AT 9 A CONSUM] SOCIETY1 M>KET+ IS (T5 A MATT] ( CREAT+ SYMBOLIC DI/9CTIONS BETWE5 PRODUCTS ?AT >E O!RWISE VIRTUALLY ID5TICAL1 LIKE TWO DIFF]5T BR&S ( CORN FLAKE OR DET]G5T--BUT ?IS 9 ITSELF DOES NOT EXPLA9 :Y PEOPLE >E WILL+ TO SP5D MONEY ON !M4 ,PEOPLE DO NOT BUY ?+S SIMPLY BECAUSE !Y RECOGNIZE !M AS BE+ DIFF]5T ?AN O!R ?+S 9 SOME WAY4 ,EV5 IF !Y DID1 ?IS W\LD DO NO?+ TO EXPLA9 :Y !Y >E WILL+ TO SP5D MORE ON C]TA9 ?+S ?AN O!RS4 

,ON ,/RUCTURALISM1 ! RESULTS >E BY N[ MORE OR LESS 94 ,! G5]AL CONS5SUS IS ?AT ITS GREATE/ WEAK PO9T IS EVALUATION4 ,MANY HAVE PO9T$ \T = EXAMPLE ?AT ,/RUCTURALI/ LIT]>Y CRITICS HAVE (T5 PROVID$ BRILLIANT ANALYZES ( ! =MAL PR9CIPLES UND]LY+ A NOVEL OR A POEM1 DISCOV]+ ALL SORTS ( HIDD5 PATT]NS ( MEAN+1 BUT ?AT !Y PROVID$ NO 9SI<T AT ALL 9TO :E!R ! NOVEL OR POEM 9 QUE/ION WAS ANY GOOD4 ,SIMIL>LY1 ,/RUCTURALI/ APPROA*ES 9 AN?ROPOLOGY--AS EXEMPLIFI$ 9 ! WORKS ( ,CLAUDE ,LEVI-,/RAUSS 7#a#i#d#i1 #a#i#e#h1 #a#i#f#b1 #a#i#f#f7--T5D TO FOCUS ON H[ MEMB]S ( DIFF]5T CULTURES UND]/& ! NATURE ( ! UNIV]SE1 & = ?IS !Y CAN BE REM>KABLY REVEAL+2 BUT ! MOM5T ONE TRIES TO UND]/& H[1 SAY1 ONE ?+ IS SE5 AS BETT]--PREF]ABLE1 MORE DESIRABLE1 MORE VALUABLE--?AN ANO!R1 PROBLEMS IMM$IATELY EM]GE4 ,AS A RESULT1 ! GREAT DILEMMA ( ,/RUCTURALISM HAS BE5 H[ TO MOVE ON FROM UND]/&+ PEOPLE'S PASSIVE CONTEMPLATION ( ! WORLD 7,GE]TZ'S 0C]EBRAL SAVAGE071 TO !IR ACTIVE P>TICIPATION 9 IT4.<#a#a.> 

,ACTUALLY1 NO ONE HAS DONE MORE ?AN ,M>%ALL ,SAHL9S T[>D ?9K+ A WAY \T ( ?IS BOX1 (T5 ) SPECTACUL> RESULTS 7,SAHL9S #a#i#h#a1 #a#i#h#e1 #a#i#h#h1 #a#i#i#a74 ,SO P]HAPS ,I AM NOT BE+ ESPECIALLY FAIR TO HIM 9 S+L+ \T ?IS ONE1 V]Y E>LY1 TEXT4 ,BUT IT'S ALSO TRUE ?AT S9CE1 HE HAS T5D$ TO AB&ON TALK ( VALUE 5TIRELY4 ,! ONLY AU?OR :O HAS MADE A CONSI/5T EF=T TO DEVELOP A !ORY ( VALUE ALONG ,/RUCTURALI/ L9ES IS ,L\IS ,DUMONT 7#a#i#f#f1 #a#i#g#a1 #a#i#h#b1 #a#i#h#f74 ,HIS WORK ?US DES]VES MORE DETAIL$ CONSID]ATION4 

,DUMONT IS ( C\RSE BE/ KN[N = HAV+ BE5 ALMO/ S+LE-H&$LY RESPONSIBLE = POPUL>IZ+ ! CONCEPT ( 0HI]>*Y0 9 ! SOCIAL SCI5CES4 ,HIS NOTION ( VALUE1 9 FACT1 EM]GES DIRECTLY \T ( HIS CONCEPT ( HI]>*Y4 

,CLASSICAL ,/RUCTURALISM1 ACCORD+ TO ,DUMONT1 WAS DEVELOP$ AS A TE*NIQUE MEANT TO ANALYZE ! =MAL ORGANIZATION ( IDEAS1 NOT VALUES4 ,C>RY+ \T A /RUCTURAL ANALYSIS MEANS1 FIR/1 ID5TIFY+ C]TA9 KEY CONCEPTUAL OPPOSITIONS--RAW_/COOK$1 PURE_/IMPURE1 MASCUL9E_/FEM99E1 CONSANGU9ITY_/AFF9ITY1 ETC4--& !N MAPP+ \T H[ !SE RELATE TO ONE ANO!R1 SAY1 )9 9 A S]IES ( MY?S OR RITUALS1 OR P]HAPS AN 5TIRE SOCIAL SY/EM4 ,:AT MO/ ,/RUCTURALI/S FAIL TO REALIZE1 ,DUMONT ADDS1 IS ?AT !SE IDEAS >E ALSO 0VALUES40 ,?IS IS BECAUSE ) ANY SU* PAIR ( T]MS1 ONE WILL BE CONSID]$ SUP]IOR4 ,?IS SUP]IOR T]M ALWAYS 05COMPASSES0 ! 9F]IOR ONE4 ,! NOTION ( 5COMPASSM5T IS 9 TURN ! KEY TO ,DUMONT'S NOTION ( HI]>*Y4 ,ONE ( HIS FAVORITE ILLU/RATIONS IS ! OPPOSITION ( RI<T & LEFT4 ,AN?ROPOLOGI/S HAV+ LONG NOT$ A T5D5CY1 :I* APP>5TLY OCCURS 9 ! VA/ MAJORITY ( ! WORLD'S CULTURES1 = ! RI<T H& TO BE TREAT$ AS SOMEH[ MORALLY SUP]IOR TO ! LEFT 7,H]TZ #a#i#g1 ,NE$HAM #a#i#g#c74 ,9 (F]+ A H&%AKE1 ,DUMONT NOTES1 ONE MU/ NORMALLY EXT5D ONE H& OR ! O!R4 ,! RI<T H& PUT =W>D ?US1 9 EFFECT1 REPRES5TS ONE'S P]SON AS A :OLE--9CLUD+ ! LEFT H& ?AT IS NOT EXT5D$ 7,DUMONT #a#i#h#c1 SEE ,T*]KEZ(F #a#i#h#c47 ,H5CE1 AT LEA/ 9 ?AT CONTEXT1 ! RI<T H& 05COMPASSES0 OR 09CLUDES0 ! LEFT1 :I* IS ALSO ITS OPPOSITE4 7,?IS IS :AT HE CALLS 05COMPASS+ ! CONTR>Y407 ,?IS PR9CIPLE ( HI]>*Y1 HE >GUES1 APPLIES TO ALL SIGNIFICANT B9>Y OPPOSITIONS--9 FACT ,DUMONT REJECTS ! IDEA ?AT TWO SU* T]MS C\LD EV] BE CONSID]$ EQUAL1 OR ?AT !RE MI<T BE ANY O!R PR9CIPLE ( RANK+1 :I* AS ONE MI<T SUSPECT HAS CREAT$ A C]TA9 AM\NT ( CONTROV]SY1 S9CE IT PRETTY OBVI\SLY ISN'T TRUE4.<#a#b.> 

,SO3 MEAN+ >ISES FROM MAK+ CONCEPTUAL DI/9CTIONS4 ,CONCEPTUAL DI/9CTIONS ALWAYS CONTA9 AN ELEM5T ( VALUE1 S9CE !Y >E RANK$4.<#a#c.> ,EV5 MORE IMPORTANT1 ! SOCIAL CONTEXTS 9 :I* !SE DI/9CTIONS >E PUT 9TO PRACTICE >E ALSO RANK$4 ,SOCIETIES >E DIVID$ 9TO A S]IES ( DOMA9S OR LEVELS1 & HI<] ONES 5COMPASS L[] ONES--!Y >E MORE UNIV]SAL & ?US HAVE MORE VALUE4 ,9 ANY SOCIETY1 = 9/ANCE1 DOME/IC AFFAIRS1 :I* RELATE TO ! 9T]E/S ( A SMALL GR\P ( PEOPLE1 WILL BE CONSID]$ SUBORD9ATE TO POLITICAL AFFAIRS1 :I* REPRES5T ! CONC]NS ( A L>G]1 MORE 9CLUSIVE COMMUNITY2 & LIKELY AS NOT ?AT POLITICAL SPH]E WILL ITSELF BE CONSID]$ SUBORD9ATE TO ! RELIGI\S OR COSMOLOGICAL ONE1 :]E PRIE/S OR !IR EQUIVAL5TS REPRES5T ! CONC]NS ( HUMANITY AS A :OLE BE=E ! P[]S ?AT CONTROL ! UNIV]SE4.<#a#d.> ,P]HAPS ! MO/ 9NOVATIVE ASPECT ( ,DUMONT'S !ORY IS ! WAY ?AT ! RELATIONS BETWE5 DIFF]5T CONCEPTUAL T]MS CAN BE 9V]T$ ON DIFF]5T LEVELS4 ,S9CE ,DUMONT DEVELOP$ HIS MODEL 9 AN ANALYSIS ( ! ,9DIAN CA/E SY/EM1 ?IS MI<T MAKE A GOOD ILLU/RATION4 ,ON ! RELIGI\S LEVEL1 :]E ,BRAHMANS REPRES5T HUMANITY AS A :OLE BE=E ! GODS1 ! OP]ATIVE PR9CIPLE IS PURITY4 ,ALL CA/ES >E RANK$ ACCORD+ TO !IR PURITY1 & BY ?IS /&>D ,BRAHMANS \TRANK EV5 K+S4 ,9 ! SUBORD9ATE1 POLITICAL SPH]E 9 :I* HUMANS RELATE ONLY TO O!R HUMANS1 P[] IS ! DOM9ANT VALUE1 & 9 ?AT CONTEXT1 K+S >E SUP]IOR TO ,BRAHMANS1 :O MU/ DO AS !Y SAY4 ,NONE!LESS ,BRAHMANS >E ULTIMATELY SUP]IOR1 BECAUSE ! SPH]E 9 :I* !Y >E SUP]IOR IS ! MO/ 5COMPASS+4.<#a#e.> 

,NONE ( ?IS1 ( C\RSE1 APPLIES TO CONTEMPOR>Y ,WE/]N SOCIETY1 BUT ACCORD+ TO ,DUMONT1 ! LA/ ?REE HUNDR$ YE>S OR SO ( ,EUROPEAN HI/ORY HAVE BE5 SOME?+ ( AN AB]RATION4 ,O!R SOCIETIES 70ONE IS ALMO/ TEMPT$ TO SAY1 'NORMAL ONES'07 >E 0HOLI/IC10 HOLI/IC SOCIETIES >E ALWAYS HI]>*ICAL1 RANK$ 9 A S]IES ( MORE & MORE 9CLUSIVE DOMA9S4 ,\R SOCIETY IS ! GREAT EXCEPTION BECAUSE = US1 ! SUPREME VALUE IS ! 9DIVIDUAL3 EA* P]SON BE+ ASSUM$ TO HAVE A UNIQUE 9DIVIDUALITY1 :I* GOES BACK TO ! NOTION ( AN IMMORTAL S\L1 :I* >E BY DEF9ITION 9COMP>ABLE4 ,EA* 9DIVIDUAL IS A VALUE UNTO !MSELVES1 & NONE CAN BE TREAT$ AS 9TR9SICALLY SUP]IOR TO ANY O!R4 ,9 MO/ ( HIS MORE REC5T WORK 9 FACT 7,DUMONT #a#i#g#a1 #a#i#g#g1 #a#i#h#f7 ,DUMONT HAS BE5 EFFECTIVELY EXP&+ ON ,POLANYI'S >GUM5TS 9 ,! ,GREAT ,TRANS=MATION1 >GU+ ?AT IT WAS PRECISELY ?IS PR9CIPLE ( 9DIVIDUALISM ?AT MADE POSSIBLE ! EM]G5CE ( 0! ECONOMY40 

,ONE C\LD GO FUR!R4 ,9 ,FRANCE1 !RE IS BY N[ A ,DUMONTIAN S*OOL ( AN?ROPOLOGY1 L>GELY MADE UP ( HIS DEVOT$ /UD5TS1 & ITS APPROA* TO TRADITIONAL1 NON-,WE/]N SOCIETIES 7NORMAL1 HI]>*ICAL ONES ?AT IS7 IS 9 MANY ASPECTS A NEW =M ( ,SUB/ANTIVISM4 ,IF ANY?+1 IT IS MORE RADICAL ?AN ! ORIG9AL 9 ITS UNCOMPROMIS+ REJECTION ( ANY?+ ?AT SMACKS ( ME?ODOLOGICAL 9DIVIDUALISM4.<#a#f.> ,! MA9 DIFF]5CE IS ?AT IT HAS TOSS$ \T ! FUNCTIONALI/ ASSUMPTION ?AT ECONOMIC 9/ITUTIONS ACT TO 9TEGRATE SOCIETY1 & PUT 9 ITS PLACE ! ,SAUSSUREAN NOTION ?AT Y\ HAVE UND]/& A TOTAL SY/EM ( MEAN+ 9 ORD] = ANY P>TICUL> P>T ( IT TO MAKE S5SE4 ,EI!R WAY1 IT MEANS ?AT ! FIR/ /EP 9 ANALYSIS IS TO ID5TIFY SOME TOTALITY4 ,! ,DUMONTIANS CALL !IR PROJECT ONE ( 0COMP>+ :OLES10 BY :I* !Y MEAN NOT SO MU* SYMBOLIC SY/EMS AS SOCIETIES TAK5 AS TOTALITIES /RUCTUR$ >\ND C]TA9 KEY VALUES4 7,OR1 AS ,DUMONT PUTS IT1 0IDEAS-VALUES407 

,NOTE H[ EV5 9 ,DUMONT'S ORIG9AL ANALYSIS ( ,9DIA1 ! USE ( ! T]M VALUE COV]S QUITE A RANGE4 ,PURITY1 = EXAMPLE1 IS CLE>LY A VALUE ( ! 0CULTURAL VALUES0 V>IETY ) :I* ,KLUCKHOHN CONC]N$ HIMSELF1 A CONCEPTION ( :AT PEOPLE %\LD WANT TO BE LIKE2 P[]1 ON ! O!R H&1 SEEMS MORE LIKE ONE ( ! VALUES ,=MALI/S CAME UP ) :5 TRY+ TO ACC\NT = :AT PEOPLE ACTUALLY SEEM TO WANT1 EV5 IF !Y DON'T NECESS>ILY ADMIT TO IT4.<#a#g.> ,! CLAIM IS ?AT BO? >E ULTIMATELY 0IDEAS-VALUES0 ?AT CAN BE ANALYZ$ 9 ,SAUSSUREAN T]MS1 AS P>T ( AN OV]ALL SY/EM ( MEAN+4 

,! BE/ ILLU/RATION ( H[ ALL ?IS WORKS ITSELF \T 9 PRACTICE CAN BE F\ND 9 A BOOK CALL$ ,( ,RELATIONS & ! ,DEAD 7#a#i#i#d71 CO-WRITT5 BY F\R ( ,DUMONT'S /UD5TS3 ,DANIEL DE ,COPPET1 :O WORK$ AMONG ! ',>U',>U 9 ! ,SOLOMON ,ISL&S 7#a#i#f#i1 #a#i#g1 #a#i#h#b1 #a#i#h#e1 #a#i#i#b71 ,CECILE ,B>RAUD 9 ! ,MOLUCCAN VILLAGE ( ,TANEB>-,EVAV 7#a#i#g#i71 ,&RE ,ITEANU AMONG ! ,OROKAIVA ( ,PAPUA ,NEW ,GU9EA 7#a#i#h#cA1 #a#i#h#cB1 #a#i#i71 & ,ROB]T ,JAM\S AMONG ! ,B]B]S ( ! ,MOROCCAN ,RIF4 ,! IDEA ( ! BOOK IS TO COMP>E EA* SOCIETY AS A TOTAL SY/EM4 

,9 EV]Y CASE1 ! SOCIETIES TURN \T TO BE /RUCTUR$ >\ND TWO OR ?REE KEY VALUES4 ,! HI<E/ IS ! ONE ?AT DEF9ES ITS MEMB]S' PLACE 9 ! COSMOS AS A :OLE4 ,SO AMONG ,JAM\S' ,B]B]S1 :ILE IMPORTANT M5 SP5D MU* ( !IR TIME DEF5D+ & 9CREAS+ !IR HONOR ?R\< V>I\S =MS ( AGGRESSIVE EX*ANGE1 RANG+ FROM DRAMATIC GIFT-GIV+ TO ! EX*ANGE ( VIOL5CE 9 BLOOD-FEUDS1 HONOR IS NOT ! HI<E/ VALUE4 ,! HI<E/ IS B>AKA1 :I* CAN R\<LY BE TRANSLAT$ DIV9E GRACE & IS IMMAN5T 9 ! HOLY M5 :O RESOLVE FEUDS & G5]ALLY M$IATE HUMAN RELATIONS ) ,GOD4 ,9 ,B>RAUD'S ,MOLUCCAN VILLAGE1 LIFE IS TAK5 UP 9 A S]IES ( M>ITAL EX*ANGES1 BUT ?IS TAKES PLACE ON :AT IS ULTIMATELY A L[] LEVEL ( VALUE CALL$ H>ATUT--R\<LY1 ISL& SOCIETY 9 RELATION TO ITS [N DIV9E ANCE/ORS--:ILE ! MO/ IMPORTANT LEVEL IS ?AT ( LOR1 OR 0LAW10 9 :I* ! SOCIETY ( BO? LIV+ & DEAD IS B\ND TO O!R SOCIETIES4 ,! TWO ,MELANESIAN CASES >E EV5 MORE COMPLICAT$1 S9CE ! VALUES >E NOT NAM$--! AU?ORS MAKE ! 9T]E/+ 7& PR(\NDLY /RUCTURALI/7 SUGGE/ION ?AT KEY VALUES RECEIVE NAMES ONLY :5 A SOCIETY IS AW>E ?AT O!R SOCIETIES ) DIFF]5T VALUES EXI/4 ,:5 IT DOES NOT1 MEMB]S ( ?AT SOCIETY WILL NOT DI/+UI% ! NATURE ( !IR SOCIAL ORD] FROM ! NATURE ( ! COSMOS AS A :OLE1 & ! VALUES >E SE5 AS 9H]+ 9 ! V]Y FABRIC ( REALITY4 ,AMONG ! ',>U',>U1 = EXAMPLE1 ! ?REE KEY VALUES >E EMBODI$ 9 ?REE BASIC CON/ITU5TS ( EV]Y HUMAN BE+3 BODY1 BREA?1 & ANCE/RAL 0IMAGE0 7! LA/ IS ! ONLY ELEM5T TO SURVIVE A P]SON'S DEA?74 ,!SE 9 TURN CORRESPOND TO ! ?REE MO/ IMPORTANT OBJECTS ( EX*ANGE3 T>O1 PORK1 & %ELL MONEY4 ,ACCORD+ TO ,DE ,COPPET1 ',>U',>U RITUAL LIFE IS L>GELY MADE UP ( AN 9TRICATE WEB ( EX*ANGES1 9 :I* T>O1 PORK1 & %ELL MONEY *ANGE H&S AS A WAY ( BUILD+ UP & BREAK+ D[N HUMAN P]SONAE1 CREAT+ NEW ONES ) M>RIAGES OR DISSOLV+ !M 9 FUN]ALS1 &1 ON ! HI<E/ LEVEL1 REPRODUC+ ! RELATIONS BETWE5 HUMAN BE+S & !IR ANCE/ORS4 

,9 SOCIETIES SU* AS !SE1 ! AU?ORS >GUE1 IT IS UTT]LY ABSURD TO TALK AB\T 9DIVIDUALS MAXIMIZ+ GOODS4 ,!RE >E NO 9DIVIDUALS4 ,ANY P]SON IS HIMSELF MADE UP ( ! V]Y /UFF HE EX*ANGES1 :I* >E 9 TURN ! BASIC CON/ITU5TS ( ! UNIV]SE4 

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

,MORE ?AN ANY O!R APPROA*1 ! ,DUMONTIANS PROVIDE ! PROMISE ( A GR& SYN!SIS ( !ORIES ( VALUE--9 !IR CASE1 ?R\< A SORT ( SUP]*>G$ ,SUB/ANTIVISM4 ,! QUE/ION3 AT :AT CO/8 ,9 ORD] TO DO SO1 !Y HAVE HAD TO MAKE A /RICT DIVISION BETWE5 0MOD]N0 SOCIETIES1 9 :I* PEOPLE >E 9DIVIDUALS & SEEK ECONOMIC VALUES1 & 0HOLI/IC0 ONES1 9 :I* !Y DO NOT4 ,H5CE !RE IS A FUNDAM5TAL BREAK BETWE5 ! SORT ( SOCIETY 9 :I* MO/ AN?ROPOLOGI/S LIVE & ! SORT !Y /UDY4 ,SECOND1 !Y RE9TRODUCE ALL ! NOTORI\S PROBLEMS ( FUNCTIONALISM4 ,= EXAMPLE1 TO SPEAK ( SOCIETIES AS 0:OLES0 DOES SEEM TO IMPLY !RE >E CLE> BORD]S BETWE5 !M1 & !Y EXI/ 9 RELATIVE ISOLATION4.<#a#h.> ,EXAM9+ HI/ORY %[S ?IS IS V]Y R>ELY ! CASE4 ,EV5 MORE1 IT BECOMES ALMO/ IMPOSSIBLE TO SEE H[ !SE SOCIETIES CAN EV] *ANGE4 ,9 FACT1 ONE ( ,DUMONT'S MO/ NOTORI\S >GUM5TS IS ?AT ! ,9DIAN CA/E SY/EM CANNOT1 BY DEF9ITION1 *ANGE4 ,ITS /RUCTURE IS FIX$2 !RE=E1 IT CAN EI!R CONT9UE1 OR IT CAN COLLAPSE & BE REPLAC$ BY AN 5TIRELY DIFF]5T SY/EM3 LIKE A *AIR EAT5 AWAY BY T]MITES1 IT WILL MA9TA9 ! SAME =M UNTIL IT FALLS AP>T 7#a#i#g3#b#a#i74 ,!SE >E ! MA9 REASONS :Y AN?ROPOLOGI/S REJECT$ FUNCTIONALISM TO BEG9 )4 

CONCLUSIONS 

  

,AT ?IS PO9T1 ! READ] %\LD AT LEA/ HAVE SOME IDEA ( ! HI/ORY ! T]M 0VALUE0 EVOKES4 ,IT IS A T]M ?AT SUGGE/S ! POSSIBILITY ( RESOLV+ ONGO+ !ORETICAL DILEMMAS2 P>TICUL>LY ( OV]COM+ ! DIFF]5CE BETWE5 :AT ONE MI<T CALL TOP-D[N & BOTTOM-UP P]SPECTIVES3 BETWE5 !ORIES ?AT />T FROM A C]TA9 NOTION ( SOCIAL /RUCTURE1 OR SOCIAL ORD]1 OR SOME O!R TOTALIZ+ NOTION1 & !ORIES ?AT />T FROM 9DIVIDUAL MOTIVATION4 ,RECONCIL+ ! TWO HAS BE5 A P]5NIAL PROBLEM = SOCIAL !ORY4 

,( C\RSE1 !RE >E ?OSE :O W\LD QUE/ION :E!R !RE'S MU* ( A PO9T 9 GR& !ORY TO BEG9 )4 ,SOME SC(F AT ! V]Y NOTION1 >GU+ ?AT ALL AN?ROPOLOGY REALLY HAS TO (F] TO ! WORLD IS E?NOGRAPHY1 ! DESCRIPTION ( O!R SOCIETIES & O!R WAYS ( LIFE4 ,!RE IS NO D\BT ?AT ?IS IS A V]Y IMPORTANT P>T ( :AT WE DO3 KEEP+ A RECORD1 ONE MI<T SAY1 ( CULTURAL & SOCIAL DIFF]5CES1 A COMP5DIUM ( :AT BE+ HUMAN HAS MEANT1 9 DIFF]5T TIMES & PLACES 7& H5CE1 P]HAPS ( HUMAN POSSIBILITIES74 ,IT IS H>D TO D5Y ?AT IF ANYONE IS READ+ \R BOOKS1 SAY1 TWO HUNDR$ YE>S FROM N[1 ?IS IS :AT !Y'RE MO/ LIKELY TO BE LOOK+ =4 ,! CONV5TIONAL REPLY IS ?AT EV]Y E?NOGRAPHY ALWAYS IMPLIES A !ORY4 ,S9CE EV5 ! MO/ APP>5TLY BL& & FACTUAL DESCRIPTIONS TURN \T TO BE BAS$ ON ALL SORTS ( A PRIORI ASSUMPTIONS AB\T :AT IS IMPORTANT & RELEVANT1 & !SE1 ON :AT HUMAN BE+S1 OR HUMAN SOCIETY1 >E FUNDAM5TALLY AB\T1 ! REAL *OICE !N IS BETWE5 ?9K+ AB\T SU* QUE/IONS EXPLICITLY1 OR LEAV+ !M IMPLICIT--9 :I* CASE1 ONE WILL 9EVITABLY 5D UP DRAW+ ON ONE'S [N CULTURE'S UN/AT$ FOLK BELIEFS4 ,! USUAL RESULT IS ONE OR ANO!R SORT ( ECONOMISM4 ,& ! MORE ONE DEALS ) HUMAN MOTIVATIONS1 ! MORE ( A PROBLEM ?IS BECOMES4 ,A MORE REC5T V>IANT ( ?IS ATTITUDE1 ?AT IT'S ! 0GR&0 P>T ( 0GR& !ORY0 ?AT'S OBJECTIONABLE1 HAS--AS WE'LL SEE 9 ! NEXT *APT]--RESULT$ 9 MU* ! SAME PROBLEMS4 

,ECONOMICS1 ( C\RSE1 HAS A V]Y CLE> NOTION ( :AT IT IS TRY+ TO DO1 & ( :AT CON/ITUTES A SUCCESSFUL ANALYSIS 7DOES IT OR DOES IT NOT PR$ICT :AT HAPP5S874 ,ONE WAY TO LOOK AT ! HI/ORY ( AN?ROPOLOGICAL !ORY IS TO ASK ! SAME QUE/ION4 ,:AT IS IT AN?ROPOLOGI/S 9 ANY GIV5 P]IOD W]E TRY+ TO FIGURE \T8 ,! DISCIPL9E HAS CLE>LY GONE ?R\< /AGES 9 ?IS REG>D4 ,AT ALL /AGES ONE GA!R$ DATA4 ,BUT = A N9ETE5? C5TURY EVOLUTIONI/1 = 9/ANCE1 ! PO9T ( GA!R+ ! DATA AB\T A P>TICUL> SOCIETY WAS TO DET]M9E :]E IT /&S 9 A GR& HI/ORICAL S]IES1 & TO DISCOV] H[ ITS EXI/5CE MI<T REVEAL SOME?+ AB\T ! UNIV]SAL HI/ORY ( MANK9D4 ,= A FUNCTIONALI/1 IT WAS A MATT] ( %[+ H[ A GIV5 PRACTICE OR 9/ITUTION CONTRIBUT$ TO SOCIAL /ABILITY 7:I* DID C>RY ) IT ! TACIT BUT R>ELY /AT$ ASSUMPTION ?AT )\T SU* 9/ITUTIONS SOCIETY W\LD COLLAPSE 9TO SOME K9D ( ,HOBBESIAN *AOS74 ,= A /RUCTURALI/1 ! PO9T ( ANALYSIS WAS TO %[ H[ SOCIAL =MS W]E MADE UP ( SYMBOLIC ELEM5TS ?AT HANG TOGE!R AS A TOTAL SY/EM ( MEAN+4 ,= ALL1 H[EV]1 ! ULTIMATE PO9T WAS ! SAME3 TO DEL9EATE SOME K9D ( LOGICALLY COH]5T SY/EM1 :I* MEANT MOV+ AWAY FROM 9DIVIDUAL ACTION--&1 9 DO+ SO1 LEFT ! EMPTY SPACE 9TO :I* ECONOMI/IC !ORIES W]E ALWAYS TRY+ TO CRAWL4 

,BY ! E>LY '#hS1 !RE WAS A G5]AL CONS5SUS ?AT ?IS WAS ! GREAT PROBLEM ( ! DAY3 H[ TO COME UP ) A 0DYNAMIC0 !ORY ( /RUCTURALISM1 ONE ?AT C\LD ACC\NT = ! VAG>IES ( HUMAN ACTION1 CREATIVITY1 & *ANGE4 ,! WAY IT WAS USUALLY PHRAS$ WAS AS A MATT] ( MOV+ FROM LANGUE TO P>OLE1 FROM LANGUAGE 70! CODE0 ( MEAN+1 H[EV] CONCEIV$7 TO SPEE*4 ,IT WAS AT ?IS PO9T ?AT VALUE REALLY CAME TO ! =EFRONT ( 9TELLECTUAL DEBATE4 ,= REASONS ?AT %\LD BE OBVI\S BY N[1 A !ORY ( VALUE SEEM$ TO BE JU/ :AT WAS NE$$ TO BRIDGE ! GAP3 TO BR+ TOGE!R SOCIETY & HUMAN PURPOSES1 TO MOVE FROM MEAN+ TO DESIRE4 

,IT IS 9T]E/+ ?AT 9 !SE >GUM5TS1 VIRTUALLY NO ONE M5TION$ ! LEGACY ( ,KLUCKHOHN4 ,HIS WORK WAS CONSID]$ DEF9ITIVELY \TDAT$4 ,IF ANY?+1 ?IS %[S ! EXT5T TO :I* /RUCTURALISM REALLY HAS COME TO SET ! T]MS ( DEBATE4 ,H[EV] PRIMITIVE ! MODELS ,KLUCKHOHN ACTUALLY PRODUC$1 HE DID AT LEA/ OP5 UP ! POSSIBILITY ( LOOK+ AT CULTURES AS NOT JU/ DIFF]5T WAYS ( P]CEIV+ ! WORLD1 BUT AS DIFF]5T WAYS ( IMAG9+ :AT LIFE \<T TO BE LIKE--AS MORAL PROJECTS1 ONE MI<T SAY4 ,?IS WAS SO F> FROM ! APPROA*ES MO/ !ORI/S W]E />T+ FROM ?AT IT SEEM$ UTT]LY IRRELEVANT4 

,ANYWAY1 ALL ?IS P]HAPS PROVIDES AN EXPLANATION = BO? ! CONT9U$ POPUL>ITY ( ! T]M 0VALUE10 & ! LACK ( A CONCRETE !ORY BEH9D IT4 ,AN?ROPOLOGY DIDN'T REALLY RESOLVE ! DILEMMAS ( ! E>LY '#hS4 ,= ! MO/ P>T1 IT JU/ SKIPP$ OV] !M4 ,! DISCIPL9E MOV$ ON TO O!R ISSUES3 CONC]N+ ! POLITICS ( E?NOGRAPHIC FIELDWORK1 MEMORY1 ! BODY1 TRANSNATIONALISM1 & SO =?4 ,/RUCTURALISM FAD$ \T ( PROM95CE1 !N GRADUALLY CAME TO SEEM RIDICUL\S2 !ORIES ?AT CONC5TRAT$ ON P[] 7,F\CAULT7 OR PRACTICE 7,B\RDIEU7 L>GELY REPLAC$ IT2 !RE WAS 7& IS7 A G5]AL FEEL+ ?AT ! DEBATE WAS OV]4 ,H5CE1 ! T5D5CY TO ACT AS IF SU* A !ORY DOES1 9 FACT1 EXI/4 

,AS WE WILL SEE 9 ! NEXT *APT]1 ?\<1 MO/ ( ! NEW !ORIES ?AT SEEM TO HAVE MADE ! OLD >GUM5TS IRRELEVANT >E1 AT LEA/ 9 MANY ( !IR ASPECTS1 LITTLE MORE ?AN RETOOL$ V]SIONS ( ! SAME OLD ?+4 ,NOR DO ,I ?9K ?AT IGNOR+ ! PROBLEM IS NECESS>ILY ! BE/ WAY TO MAKE IT GO AWAY4 

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