,VOLUME #a1 ,P>T #d1 ,*APT] #ae 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,MURRAY ,BOOK*9 

,TEXT 3 

,P,>,T ,I,V4 ,! ,F,R,5,* ,R,E,V,O,L,U,T,I,O,N 

,*APT] #a#e4 ,! ,ANCI5 ,REGIME 

,IF ! ,AM]ICAN ,REVOLUTION HAS BE5 TOO (T5 SE5 AS M]ELY A G5TEEL DISAGREEM5T OV] COLONIAL 9DEP5D5CE1 ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION ( #a#g#h#i-#i#e HAS BE5 WIDELY SE5 AS ! CLASSICAL REVOLUTION P> EXCELL5CE4 ,?IS 9T]PRETATION BECAME SO DEEPLY +RA9$ 9 REVOLUTION>Y SOCIAL ?\<T DUR+ ! N9ETE5? C5TURY ?AT IT IMM5SELY 9FLU5C$ ! BEHAVIOR ( REVOLUTION>Y LEAD]S !REAFT]1 SO ?AT ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION BECAME A K9D ( TEMPLATE = REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5TS 9 ! C5TURY & A HALF ?AT FOLL[$4 ,REVOLUTION>Y LEAD]S ( ALL K9DS EXPECT$ ! C\RSE ( EV5TS TO DUPLICATE ?OSE ( ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 & !Y DREW UPON ITS HI/ORY = AN UND]/&+ ( ! 0/AGES0 !IR REVOLUTIONS W\LD FOLL[4 ,BY /UDY+ ! ,JACOB9S1 !IR ASSUM$ PROTOTYPES1 !Y LE>N$ :AT SOCIAL /RATA !Y C\LD EXPECT TO TRU/ OR MI/RU/1 & :AT ALLIANCES !Y C\LD EXPECT TO MAKE & BREAK4 ,!Y =MULAT$ /RATEGIES1 ANALYZ$ ! RELATION%IP ( =CES ?AT EXI/$ 9 REVOLUTION>Y SITUATIONS1 & DIAGNOS$ ! \TCOME ( REVOLUTION>Y CRISES G5]ALLY ALONG L9ES ?AT MODEL$ ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION4 

,SU* 9T]PRETATIONS ( ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION W]E (T5 BAS$ ON MY?OLOGY & W]E EV5 OBFUSCATORY1 AS ,M>X SAW 9 ! #a#h#dS4 ,9 HIS CAU/IC OP5+ TO ,! ,EI<TE5? ,BRUMAIRE ( ,L\IS ,BONAP>TE1 HE MOCK$ ! #ahdh REVOLUTION>IES' PROCLIVITIES = DRAW+ P>ALLELS ) ! EV5TS ( #a#g#h#i-#i#e3 0,HEGEL REM>KS SOME:]E ?AT ALL FACTS & P]SONAGES ( GREAT IMPORTANCE 9 WORLD HI/ORY OCCUR1 AS IT W]E1 TWICE4 ,HE =GOT TO ADD3 ! FIR/ TIME AS TRAG$Y1 ! SECOND AS F>CE4 ,CAUSSIDI@&RE = ,DANTON1 ,L\IS ,BLANC = ,ROBESPI]RE1 ! ,MONTAGUE ( #ahdh TO #ahea = ! ,MONTAGUE ( #agic TO #a#g#i#e1 ! ,NEPHEW = ! ,UNCLE4 ,& ! SAME C>ICATURE OCCURS 9 ! CIRCUM/ANCES ATT5D+ ! SECOND $ITION ( ! EI<TE5? ,BRUMAIRE0 .<#b#c.> 7#a#h ,BRUMAIRE BE+ ! DATE 9 ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION>Y CAL5D> ON :I* ,NAPOLEON ,BONAP>TE TOOK P[]74 

,NEV]!LESS1 ! IMAGE ( ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION EX]CIS$ AN IMM5SELY P[]FUL 9FLU5CE ON ! ,RUSSIAN ,REVOLUTION ( #a#i#a#g-#b#a4 ,BOL%EVIKS1 ,M5%EVIKS1 ,LEFT ,SOCIAL ,REVOLUTION>IES1 & EV5 MANY AN>*I/S PRECONCEIV$ 

!IR REVOLUTION & =MULAT$ !IR /RATEGIES L>GELY 9 T]MS ( ! ,FR5*4 ,TO ,M>XIAN REVOLUTION>IES1 EV]Y REVOLUTION--,FR5* & ,RUSSIAN ALIKE--UNFOLD$ 9 /AGES1 ACCORD+ TO 09N] LAWS0 ( DEVELOPM5T1 AS ,TROTSKY WAS TO WRITE 9 ! PREFACE TO HIS ,! ,HI/ORY ( ! ,RUSSIAN ,REVOLUTION4 0,! MASSES GO 9TO A REVOLUTION NOT ) A PREP>$ PLAN ( SOCIAL RECON/RUCTION10 HE OBS]V$1 

BUT ) A %>P FEEL+ ?AT !Y CANNOT 5DURE ! OLD REGIME4 ,ONLY ! GUID+ LAY]S ( A CLASS HAVE A POLITICAL PROGRAM1 & EV5 ?IS /ILL REQUIRES ! TE/ ( EV5TS1 & ! APPROVAL ( ! MASSES4 ,! FUNDAM5TAL POLITICAL PROCESS ( ! REVOLUTION ?US CONSI/S 9 ! GRADUAL COMPREH5SION BY A CLASS ( ! PROBLEMS >IS+ FROM ! SOCIAL CRISIS--! ACTIVE ORI5TATION ( ! MASSES BY A ME?OD ( SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATIONS4 ,! DIFF]5T /AGES ( A REVOLUTION>Y PROCESS1 C]TIFI$ BY A *ANGE ( P>TIES 9 :I* ! MORE EXTREME ALWAYS SUP]S$ES ! LESS1 EXPRESS ! GR[+ PRESSURE TO ! LEFT ( ! MASSES--SO LONG AS ! SW+ ( ! MOVEM5T DOES NOT RUN 9TO OBJECTIVE OB/ACLES4.<#b#c#a.> 

,PRUD5TLY1 ,TROTSKY NOT$ ?AT 0SU*1 AT LEA/1 IS ! G5]AL \TL9E ( ! OLD REVOLUTION40 

,9 FACT1 NOT ONLY ,TROTSKY BUT ,L59 & REVOLUTION>IES ( ! #a#i#cS REG>D$ ?IS /AGES !ORY ( REVOLUTION ALMO/ FATALI/ICALLY AS A HI/ORICAL LAW4 ,!Y SAW ! OV]?R[ ( CZ>ISM AS P>ALLEL TO ! CREATION ( ! ,NATIONAL ,ASSEMBLY 9 ,FRANCE1 :ILE ,TROTSKY HIMSELF VIEW$ ! RISE ( ! %ORT-LIV$ ,/AL9-,Z9OVIEV-,KAM5EV 0TROIKA0 9 #aibd AS A REPLICATION ( ! ,DIRECTORY & ,!RMIDOR ( ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION4 ,DISA/R\SLY1 HE REG>D$ ,/AL9 M]ELY AS A ,BONAP>TI/ RA!R ?AN AS ! BRUTAL TOTALIT>IAN ?AT HE TURN$ \T TO BE1 & ! MILD ,NIKOLAI ,BUKH>9 AS A SPOKESMAN = A CAPITALI/ RE/ORATION4 ,?AT HE TOTALLY FAIL$ TO SEE HIS SITUATION ACCURATELY /EMS 9 NO SMALL P>T FROM HIS PROCLIVITY & ?AT ( O!R REVOLUTION>IES = A C5TURY & A HALF TO VIEW ALL MAJOR REVOLUTIONS 9 T]MS ( ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION4 

,A ,B,\,R,G,E,O,I,S ,R,E,V,O,L,U,T,I,O,N8 

,9 P>TICUL>1 MO/ ,M>XI/ 9T]PRETATIONS W]E NOTABLE = !IR ATTEMPTS TO D5Y ANY IMPORTANCE TO ! IDEOLOGICAL CONT5T ( ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION & SEE IT ALMO/ EXCLUSIVELY AS A CLA% ( ECONOMIC 9T]E/S--BETWE5 AN EM]G+1 9DE$ VIBRANT1 HI<LY SELF-CONSCI\S B\RGEOISIE & A DECL9+1 9DE$ MORIBUND FEUDAL SY/EM4 ,! REVOLUTION WAS SE5 AS A P>ADIGMATIC 0B\RGEOIS REVOLUTION0 9 :I* ! RIS+ MIDDLE CLASSES SUPPOS$LY CAME TO SU* A HI< /AGE ( HI/ORICAL DEVELOPM5T ?AT !Y CONSCI\SLY1 EV5 C\RAGE\SLY & 9SI<TFULLY1 OV]?REW ! RE/RICTIONS ( FEUDAL SOCIETY ?AT W]E IMP$+ ! ADVANCE ( !IR COMM]CE & MANUFACTURES4 ,?US1 ACCORD+ TO ,JEAN ,JAURES1 ! ,FR5* SOCIALI/ LEAD]3 0,! B\RGEOISIE IS NOT M]ELY A =CE ( PRUD5CE & ECONOMY2 IT IS A BOLD & CONQU]+ =CE ?AT HAS ALREADY 9 P>T REVOLUTIONIZ$ ! SY/EM ( PRODUCTION & EX*ANGE & IS AB\T TO REVOLUTIONIZE ! POLITICAL SY/EM40.<#b#c#b.> ,ALB]T ,SOB\L W5T SO F> AS TO CALL ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION 0! DEF9ITIVE MODEL ( ALL B\RGEOIS REVOLUTIONS4444 ,EV]YONE KN[S ?AT ! B\RGEOISIE L$ ! ,REVOLUTION40.<#b#c#c.> 

,9DE$1 IT IS NOT ONLY ,M>XI/S :O 9T]PRET ! ,REVOLUTION 9 ?IS MANN]3 OR?ODOX 9T]PRETATIONS 9 ! TW5TIE? C5TURY HAVE SE5 ,FR5* REVOLUTION>Y DEVELOPM5TS 9 T]MS ( NAK$ B\RGEOIS CLASS 9T]E/ & ! ASC5T ( CAPITALISM 9 ,FRANCE1 & !RE CAN BE NO D\BT1 9 RETROSPECT1 ?AT ! ,FR5* B\RGEOISIE 9 LAT] YE>S W]E ! PR9CIPAL B5EFICI>IES ( ! ,REVOLUTION1 ! CLASS ?AT GA9$ MO/ FROM ITS \TCOME4 ,BUT BY NO MEANS IS IT CLE> ?AT ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION ITSELF WAS 0B\RGEOIS0 IF BY A 0B\RGEOIS0 WE MEAN A MOD]N 09DU/RIAL CAPITALI/40 ,! TWO WORDS1 IT %\LD BE EMPHASIZ$1 >E NOT SYNONYM\S4 ,BE=E ! ADV5T ( 9DU/RIAL CAPITALISM1 ! 0B\RGEOISIE0 CONSI/$ ( URBAN DWELL]S OR BUR<]S1 9CLUD+ MANY >TISANS1 M]*ANTS :O TRANSPORT$ & SOLD GOODS TO F>AWAY PLACES1 & A GREAT V>IETY ( PR(ESSIONALS4 ,SOME BUR<]S HAD HUMBLE MAT]IAL /ATUS1 :ILE O!RS 5JOY$ CONSID]ABLE WEAL?4 ,G5]ALLY1 DEEP-SEAT$ CULTURAL ATTITUDES 9H]IT$ FROM ANTIQUITY ATTRIBUT$ AN 9F]IOR /ATUS TO M5 :O PR(IT$ FROM TRADE OR WORK$ AT M5IAL TASKS1 SO ?AT ! MORE SUCCESSFUL COMM]CIAL /RATA ( ! PA/ T5D$ TO 9VE/ !IR WEAL? 9 L&$ PROP]TY & LIVE AS R5TI]S OR IDLE G5TRY4 ,ALMO/ CONSI/5TLY1 !IR IDEALS REMA9$ ?OSE ( TITL$ NOBILITY1 [N]S ( RURAL E/ATES & L&$ PROP]TY1 ) :OSE FAMILIES !Y TRI$ TO 9T]M>RY2 9DE$1 ,FR5* F9ANCI]S & TRADESM5 ASPIR$ TO L& [N]%IP & TITLES WELL 9TO ! N9ETE5? C5TURY2 ?AT IS TO SAY1 LONG AFT] !Y PRESUMABLY 0L$0 OR 0MADE0 ! GREAT ,REVOLUTION4 

,MOREOV]1 AL?\< 9DU/RIAL CAPITALISM ULTIMATELY B5EFIT$ FROM ! DIM9UTION ( PRIVILEGE DUR+ ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 SO TOO DID O!R /RATA 9 ,FR5* SOCIETY1 NOTABLY ?AT DI/9CTLY NONCAPITALI/ CLASS1 ! PEASANTRY4 ,NO LESS ?AN ! EM]G+ 9DU/RIAL 5TREPR5EURS ( ! LATE EI<TE5? C5TURY1 ! SMALL FOOD CULTIVATORS ( ! C\NTRYSIDE W]E AMONG ! B5EFICI>IES ( ! SWEEP+ DEMOLITION ( FEUDAL OR QUASI-FEUDAL MANORIAL HOLD+S & PRIVILEGES4 ,IT TOOK ,FRANCE WELL 9TO ! N9ETE5? C5TURY TO %IFT FROM A PUTT+-\T OR COTTAGE SY/EM ( MANUFACTUR+ TO A FACTORY SY/EM1 LONG AFT] ! ME*ANIZ$ PRODUCTION ( COTTON GOODS WAS BURGEON+ 9 ,5GL&4 ,9 ,5GL&1 AGRICULTURE1 MORE ?AN ANY O!R BRAN* ( ! ECONOMY1 TOOK GIANT /RIDES T[>D CAPITALI/IC & RATIONALIZ$ =MS ( PRODUCTION DUR+ ! SEV5TE5? & EI<TE5? C5TURIES1 BUT 9 ,FRANCE RURAL SOCIETY REMA9$ L>GELY PEASANT & DOME/IC 9 NATURE ?R\<\T ! N9ETE5? C5TURY & WELL 9TO ! TW5TIE?4 ,ACCORD+ TO AVAILABLE ECONOMIC 9DICES1 ,FRANCE LAGG$ BEH9D ,5GL& 9 NE>LY EV]Y SPH]E ( ! ECONOMY1 EXCEPT = ! CRAFT+ & PRODUCTION ( LUXURY ITEMS4 

,TO ATTRIBUTE DET]M9+ ECONOMIC FACTORS TO A COMPLEX CULTURAL SY/EM & ASSUME ?AT !Y =M ! BASE ( ! CULTURE'S 0SUP]/RUCTURE0--?AT IS1 ! MO/ DECISIVE FACTORS 9 EXPLA9+ SOCIAL DEVELOPM5TS--IS TO R$UCE HUMAN SOCIAL ACTIVITY & CREATIVITY TO A SIMPLI/IC 9T]PLAY ( ME*ANI/IC ACTIONS & REACTIONS4 ,9DE$1 ! K9D ( IMAGE ?AT PEOPLE LIV+ 9 A C]TA9 TIME & PLACE HAVE ( !IR SOCIETY HAS AN IMPORTANCE ?AT %\LD NOT BE M9IMIZ$2 ESPECIALLY 9 P]IODS ( REVOLUTION>Y *ANGE1 :AT PEOPLE ?9K AB\T !IR ASPIRATIONS & GOALS PR(\NDLY AFFECTS ! V]Y ECONOMIC =CES ?AT SUPPOS$LY UNIQUELY MOTIVATE !M4 ,M>X'S FAM\S REM>K TO ! CONTR>Y NOT)/&+1 WE W\LD BE WISE TO JUDGE A MAN BY 0:AT HE ?9KS ( HIMSELF10.<#b#c#d.> = HIS VIEW PR(\NDLY AFFECTS HIS BEHAVIOR1 &1 BY ! SAME TOK51 WE W\LD BE WISE TO JUDGE 0A P]IOD ( TRANS=MATION BY ITS [N CONSCI\SNESS0--= ?\<T & CONSCI\SNESS1 :E!R ( A MAN OR ( A P]IOD1 PR(\NDLY %APE :AT PEOPLE DO & H[ SOCIETIES DEVELOP4 ,! CRITICAL CONSCI\SNESS ?AT ! ,FR5* ,5LI<T5M5T CREAT$ F$ DIRECTLY 9TO ! ,REVOLUTION ITSELF1 :ILE ! EGALIT>IAN BELIEFS G5]AT$ DUR+ ! ,REVOLUTION ACTUALLY DID MU* TO 9HIBIT ! EM]G5CE ( MOD]N CAPITALISM 9 ,FRANCE4 ,:5 EMIGRES RETURN$ TO ,FRANCE AFT] ! EXECUTION ( ! ,ROBESPI]RI/S1 !Y F\ND A NATION SUB/ANTIALLY DIFF]5T FROM ! ONE !Y HAD LEFT UPON ! COLLAPSE ( ! ANCI5 REGIME1 ONE ?AT NOT ONLY LOOK$ DIFF]5T BUT ?\<T V]Y DIFF]5TLY--& CRITICALLY--AB\T RANK1 PRIVILEGE1 AU?ORITY1 RELIGION1 & P]SONAL VALUES4 

,! ,E,V,O,L,U,T,I,O,N ,( #a<i ,F,R,A,N,C,E 

,ON ! EVE ( ! ,REVOLUTION1 ,FRANCE WAS A *AOTIC1 (T5 DIZZY+ COLLAGE ( ADM9I/RATIVE & RELIGI\S JURISDICTIONS1 TRADITIONS 9H]IT$ FROM C5TURIES PA/1 5ORM\S DISP>ITIES 9 PRIVILEGE1 & CULTURAL >*AISMS4 ,DUR+ ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 ! ,ROMAN ,CA?OLIC ,*UR* DIVID$ ,FRANCE 9TO EI<TE5 >*EPISCOPAL PROV9CES & #ace DIOCESES1 MANY ( :I* REFLECT$ DIVISIONS DAT+ BACK TO ! ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE4 ,:AT WAS !N ,FRANCE CONSI/$ ( DISP>ATE FEUDAL B>ONIES & DU*IES1 MANY ( :I* W]E NOT /RICTLY ,GALLIC 9 ORIG9 & NE>LY ALL ( :I* W]E HEIR TO UNIQUE CU/OMS1 SY/EMS ( PRIVILEGE1 & CULTURAL DIFF]5CES4 ,SO FRACTUR$ WAS FEUDAL SOCIETY 9TO SMALL SOV]EIGNTIES ?AT = A LONG TIME ! K+ EX]CIS$ VIRTUALLY NO CONTROL OV] ! C\NTRY4 ,SL[LY1 OV] ! C5TURIES1 ,FR5* K+S PIEC$ ! C\NTRY TOGE!R ?R\< 9CESSANT W>S1 DYNA/IC M>RIAGE ALLIANCES1 & DIPLOMACY4 ,AS !Y ADD$ NEW T]RITORIES TO ! DOMA91 !Y (T5 DID LITTLE TO ALT] ! 9/ITUTIONS ?AT CAME ) ACQUIR$ L&S2 RA!R1 !Y MODIFI$ OR ADAPT$ !M TO ! GR[+ K+DOM1 SO ?AT PROV9CIAL C5T]S REMA9$ CULTURALLY DI/9CT1 ) AUTONOM\S FEUDAL MUNICIPALITIES1 & LAWS & CU/OMS V]Y MU* AS !Y HAD BE5 = C5TURIES4 

,9 ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY1 ,RI*ELIEU & ,MAZ>91 TWO /RONG-WILL$ C>D9ALS COMMITT$ TO UNIFY+ & C5TRALIZ+ ,FRANCE UND] A P[]FUL ,CR[N1 PAT*$ TOGE!R AN ABSOLUTE MON>*Y = !IR SOV]EIGNS1 ,L\IS ,X,I,I,I & ,X,I,V RESPECTIVELY4 ,UPON ! OLD PROV9CES1 ,RI*ELIEU SUP]IMPOS$ A NEW SET ( ADM9I/RATIVE UNITS KN[N AS G9IRALITIS1 APPO9T+ ROYAL (FICIALS CALL$ 9T5DANTS :OSE MA9 FUNCTION WAS TO SUP]VISE ! BEHAVIOR ( ! PROV9CIAL >I/OCRACY4 ,F9ALLY1 BETWE5 #afdh & #a#f#e#c1 ! CONFLICT BETWE5 ! MON>*Y & >I/OCRACY CAME TO A HEAD :5 ! NOBILITY1 IRATE OV] ! RE/RICTIONS IMPOS$ BY ! C>D9ALS1 DIRECTLY *ALL5G$ ! GR[+ ROYAL AU?ORITY 9 AN >M$ UPRIS+1 ! ,FRONDE1 :I* 5D$ 9 ABJECT FAILURE & HUMILIATION = ! NOBILITY4 ,!REAFT]1 ! Y\NG ,L\IS ,X,I,V %REWDLY E/ABLI%$ HIS C\RT AT ,V]SAILLES1 SOME FIFTE5 MILES AWAY FROM ,P>IS1 L>GELY TO COLLECT & KEEP AN EYE ON HIS ONCE-UNRULY NOBLES1 S$UC+ !M ) ! PLEASURES ( A LANGUIDLY IDLE LIFE1 /RAITJACKET+ !M ) AN ELABORATE >I/OCRATIC ETIQUETTE1 & TRA9+ !IR *ILDR5 TO BECOME EFFETE & OB$I5T C\RTI]S4 ,TO 9DUCE !M TO REMA9 AT ,V]SAILLES1 HE 5D[$ ! NOBLES :O W]E 0PRES5T$0 TO C\RT ) B5EFITS1 P5SIONS1 & S9ECURES ?AT TURN$ !M 9TO H>MLESS & DEP5D5T P>ASITES4 

,ABOVE ALL1 TO AVOID FUTURE ,FRONDES1 ,L\IS ,X,I,V REMOV$ ! NOBLES AS MU* AS HE C\LD FROM ! SUB/ANTIVE TASKS ( (FICEHOLD+ & POLICYMAK+1 RESPONSIBILITIES ?AT ! MON>* GAVE TO AN 9CREAS+ NUMB] ( S]VILE COMMON]S1 OP5+ A GAP BETWE5 ! TRADITIONAL NOBILITY ( ! SWORD 7NOBLESSE DE ,I'IPIE7 & ! NEW1 L>GELY BUREAUCRATIC NOBILITY ( ! ROBE 7NOBLESSE DE LA ROBE74 ,! LATT]1 MANY ( :OM HAD PUR*AS$ !IR TITLES1 DEP5D$ HEAVILY UPON ! K+'S FAVOR & GOODWILL1 :ILE ! SALE ( TITLES1 9 TURN1 BECAME A SIZABLE S\RCE ( 9COME = ! ,CR[N4 ,TAK5 TOGE!R1 ! K+ MANAG$ TO 9CREASE ITS REV5UES1 GA9 A TRU/WOR?Y BUREAUCRACY1 & DIVIDE ! ELITE CLASSES !MSELVES1 PLAY+ ! NOBILITY ( ! SWORD AGA9/ ! NOBILITY ( ! ROBE4 ,DESPITE ! GR[+ *AGR9 ?AT ! OLD NOBLES FELT T[>D !IR NEW C\NT]P>TS1 ! K+ CONT9U$ TO ALL[ COMMON]S TO BUY UP KEY POSITIONS AS 9T5DANTS & MEMB]S ( ! C\RTS ( APPEAL1 OR P>LEM5TS1 AS WELL AS ! ROYAL BUREAUCRACY4 ,9 ! 5D1 !Y =M$ MU* ( ! ADM9I/RATION ( ! C\NTRY4 ,9CREAS+LY1 NOBLES ( ! ROBE1 :OSE POSITIONS W]E HELD = LIFE & W]E H]$IT>Y1 BECAME POLITICALLY MORE P[]FUL AS A /RATUM ?AN ! NOBILITY ( ! SWORD4 

,! MON>*S :O FOLL[$ ! ,L\IS ,X,I,V W]E MADE ( /UFF LESS /]N4 ,! LANGUID ,L\IS ,X,V & ,L\IS ,X,V,I LACK$ ,L\IS ,X,I,V'S CAPACITY TO KEEP ! NOBILITY C[$1 SO ?AT ! TRADITIONAL NOBLES1 ALWAYS M9DFUL ( !IR =M] P[]S1 BEGAN TO 5CROA* ON ! MON>*Y'S P[]S4 ,IF ,L\IS ,X,I,V MI/RU/$ HIS NOBILITY1 %REWDLY TRY+ TO R5D] !M DEP5D5T UPON HIM1 HIS SUCCESSORS LIV$ 9 ! V]Y BOSOM ( !IR C\RTI]S4 ,IF ! S>DONIC ,L\IS ,X,V WAS AN 9DOL5T C>ICATURE ( HIS ASS]TIVE PR$ECESSOR1 ,L\IS ,X,V,I WAS A VAPOR\S %AD[ ( BO?3 DULL1 AWKW>D1 & UTT]LY 9DECISIVE1 BEHAV+ MU* AS ?\< ! CR[N HAD BE5 ?RU/ UPON HIM UNAW>ES4 ,NOR W]E !SE ATTRIBUTES LO/ UPON HIS C\RTI]S1 :O SOON CONCLUD$ ?AT HE WAS A DULL BUFFOON1 A VIEW %>$ BY HIS [N WIFE1 ! FRIVOL\S ,AU/RIAN PR9CESS ,M>IE ,ANTO9ETTE4 

,DEEPLY DISCONT5T$ BY !IR P[]LESSNESS1 ! NOBLES ( ! #a#g#hS N[ S\<T TO RECLAIM AT LEA/ SOME ( !IR LO/ P[] & /EADILY BEGAN TO FILT] BACK 9TO GOV]NM5TAL POSITIONS4 ,9 #a<a !Y SUCCE$$ 9 GETT+ AN ORD9ANCE 9/ITUT$ ?AT REQUIR$ ALL COMMISSION$ (FIC]S 9 ! MILIT>Y TO PROVE ?AT !IR FAMILIES HAD BE5 9 ! NOBILITY = F\R G5]ATIONS4 ,BY #a<i ALL ! BI%OPS 9 ,FRANCE HAIL$ FROM NOBLE FAMILIES & NOBLES OCCUPI$ ALL BUT ONE ( ,L\IS ,X,V,I'S M9I/]IAL PO/S1 AS WELL AS *OICE POSITIONS 9 ! MILIT>Y & ! ,*UR*4 ,) ! 9CREAS+ RETURN ( ! OLD >I/OCRACY TO POLITICAL 9FLU5CE1 AMBITI\S NOBLES ULTIMATELY RECLAIM$ A CONSID]ABLE DEGREE ( ! 9DEP5D5CE ?AT ,L\IS ,X,I,V HAD SUCCESSFULLY QUA%$4 

,AT ! SAME TIME1 ! NOBLES ( ! ROBE1 AL?\< WELL 5TR5*$ 9 KEY 9/ITUTIONS SU* AS ! P>LEM5TS1 W]E 9CREAS+LY BLOCK$ FROM 9FLU5C+ GOV]NM5TAL POLICY4 ,AS ,NORMAN ,HAMPSON OBS]VES1 

,! EXCLUSIV5ESS ( ! >I/OCRACY N[ DEPRIV$ ! NEWLY 5NOBL$ ( SOME ( ! MO/ IMPORTANT PRACTICAL ADVANTAGES ?AT !IR /ATUS HAD =M]LY CONF]R$ & CONSEQU5TLY CREAT$ A %>P DIVISION ( 9T]E/ BETWE5 ! OLD NOBLESSE & ! UPP] MIDDLE CLASS & ANOBLIS .<5NOBL$.> :I* ACC5TUAT$ ! DIV]G5CE BETWE5 SOCIAL HI]>*Y & ! ECONOMIC /RUCTURE ( ! C\NTRY4.<#b#c#e.> 

,S,O,C,I,A,L ,& ,P,O,L,I,T,I,C,A,L ,C,O,N,D,I,T,I,O,N,S 

,NEV]!LESS1 9 ! #a#g#hS ! ,FR5* MON>*Y WAS /ILL HI<LY C5TRALIZ$4 ,ROYAL AU?ORITY WAS PREEM95T 9 DET]M9+ ECONOMIC1 RELIGI\S1 & =EIGN POLICY = ! MORE ?AN TW5TY-FIVE MILLION PEOPLE LIV+ 9 SOME #b#g#g1 SQU>E MILES OV] :OM ,L\IS ,X,V,I RUL$4 ,BUT DESPITE ! EF=TS ( ! TWO E>LI] C>D9ALS TO C5TRALIZE ! /ATE 9 ! ,CR[N'S H&S1 ,FRANCE /ILL REMA9$ A PAT*WORK ( DIFF]5T SOV]EIGNTIES /EEP$ 9 ADM9I/RATIVE *AOS4 ,9 CONTRA/ TO ! ,AM]ICAN COLONIES1 :I* W]E /RUCTUR$ >\ND GOV]NORS1 LEGISLATURES1 & ,5GLI% LAW1 ! DISP>ATE FEUDAL B>ONIES & DU*IES ?AT MADE UP ,FRANCE /ILL LAID CLAIM TO SPECIAL CU/OMS1 TRADITIONS1 & PRIVILEGES4 ,! 9T5DANTS HAD NEV] BE5 ABLE TO BREAK D[N LOCAL PRIVILEGE 9 PLACES SU* AS ,BRITTANY1 :]E ! LOCAL PROV9CIAL ASSEMBLIES REMA9$ P[]FUL 5\< TO ?W>T RE=MS FROM ,P>IS4 ,AVIGNON1 ! SEAT ( A ,FR5* POPE DUR+ ! GREAT S*ISM C5TURIES E>LI]1 WAS /ILL [N$ BY ! POPE 9 ,ROME1 :ILE ,ALSACE CONTA9$ POCKETS ?AT W]E NOM9ALLY UND] ! RULE ( ,G]MAN PR9CES & ! CITY-/ATE ( ,MULH\SE4 

,PROV9CIAL LEGAL SY/EMS V>I$ 5ORM\SLY4 ,SOME >EAS FOLL[$ ,ROMAN LEGAL CODES1 :ILE O!RS ADH]$ TO CU/OM>Y LAW4 ,9 NOR!RN ,FRANCE1 :]E CU/OM>Y LAW WAS PREVAL5T1 PROV9CES1 PR9CIPALITIES1 & CITIES W]E GOV]N$ ACCORD+ TO SIXTY-FIVE G5]AL CU/OMS & ?REE HUNDR$ LOCAL ONES1 ) ! RESULT ?AT IMPORTANT DIFF]5CES EXI/$ ) RESPECT TO M>RIAGE1 9H]ITANCE1 & ! [N]%IP ( PROP]TY4 ,! ?IRTE5 P>LEM5TS1 OR HI< C\RTS ( APPEAL1 W]E ANCI5T 9/ITUTIONS ?AT HAD JURISDICTION 9 V>I\S BAILLIAGES1 SDND*AUSDES1 & O!R DI/RICTS ( SU* DIV]SE SIZE ?AT ! JURISDICTION ( ! P>LEM5T ( ,P>IS ALONE--! MO/ P[]FUL ( ALL-- COV]$ A FULL ?IRD ( ! K+DOM1 :ILE ?AT ( ,PAU 9 ! S\? WAS M9USCULE BY COMP>ISON4 

,FROM ONE PROV9CE OR REGION TO ANO!R1 ONE C\LD HE> ,G]MAN1 ,ITALIAN1 ,BRETON1 ,BASQUE1 ,PROV5 #i AL1 & EV5 ,5GLI% SPOK51 NOT TO M5TION AN EXTRAORD9>Y V>IETY ( ,FR5* DIALECTS ?AT W\LD HAVE BE5 VIRTUALLY 9COMPREH5SIBLE TO A ,P>ISIAN4 ,SY/EMS ( WEI<TS & MEASURES DIFF]$ CONSID]ABLY FROM PLACE TO PLACE4 ,TAXATION V>I$ WIDELY1 ) ! HEAVIE/ TAX BURD5 G5]ALLY FALL+ ON ! NOR!RN PROV9CES4 ,9 ! K+DOM AT L>GE1 9 SOME PLACES ! PR9CIPAL & MO/ OPPRESSIVE DIRECT TAX1 ! FAILLE1 C\LD BE LEVI$ ON P]SONAL 9COME1 :ILE 9 O!RS IT WAS LEVI$ ON L& [N]%IP4 ,NOBLES & CL]GY W]E EXEMPT FROM ?IS ON]\S TAX1 :I* WAS IMPOS$ OV]:ELM+LY ON ! PEASANTRY1 :ILE ! NOTORI\S SALT TAX1 ! GABELLE1 V>I$ FROM >EA TO >EA ACCORD+ TO A SCALE ( SUE DIFF]5T RATES4 ,9T]NAL CU/OMS B>RI]S CRISSCROSS$ ! 5TIRE K+DOM ) BEWILD]+ FREQU5CY BAS$ ON UNPR$ICTABLE RATES4 ,CU/OMS DUTIES C\LD BE COLLECT$ AT T[N GATES1 RIV] CROSS+S1 & PROV9CIAL B\ND>IES1 SO ?AT GOODS %IPP$ FROM ! ,FRAN*E,COMTE D[N ! ,SAONE & ,RHDNE RIV]S TO ! ,M$IT]RANEAN MI<T 9CUR ?IRTY-SIX DI/9CT PUBLIC & PRIVATE IMPO/S ALONG ! WAY4 

,ON ! EVE ( ! ,REVOLUTION1 ,FRANCE WAS OV]:ELM+LY AN AGRICULTURAL C\NTRY1 AL?\<1 CONTR>Y TO POPUL> NOTIONS1 ITS FEUDAL /RUCTURE WAS DECAY+ RAPIDLY4 ,S]FDOM HAD DISAPPE>$ ALMO/ 5TIRELY2 UNLIKE 9 ,C5TRAL & ,EA/]N ,EUROPE1 :]E ! MANORIAL SY/EM /ILL PREVAIL$1 ONLY AB\T #a#d1 S]FS /ILL EXI/$4 ,A GREAT MANY ( ! PEASANTS1 :O PROBABLY =M$ NE>LY #g P]C5T ( ! POPULATION AS A :OLE1 [N$ A MODE/ PLOT ( L& ) A COTTAGE & G>D51 BUT AN ACREAGE ?AT WAS SELDOM L>GE 5\< TO SUPPORT !IR FAMILIES YE>-R\ND4 0,ALL PEASANT H\SEHOLDS10 OBS]VES ,R,M4 ,JONES1 0%>$ ONE OV]RID+ AMBITION3 TO ASSEMBLE1 BY 9H]ITANCE1 BY M>RIAGE1 BY PUR*ASE OR BY R5T+1 A HOLD+ :I* W\LD 5ABLE !M TO LIVE DEC5TLY40.<#b#c#f.> 

,TRADITIONALLY1 ! PEASANTS LIV$ 9 VILLAGES ?AT HELD /RONG COLLECTIVI/ FEEL+S1 SO ?AT 7! EXI/5CE ( SMALL 9DIVIDUAL PLOTS NOT)/&+7 9DIVIDUAL [N]%IP ( ! L& WAS G5]ALLY CIRCUMSCRIB$ 9 ONE WAY OR ANO!R4 ,COMMUNITIES PROHIBIT$ FIELDS FROM BE+ F5C$ (F & REQUIR$ ?AT CROPS BE ROTAT$ 9 V>I\S WAYS4 ,H>VE/S W]E (T5 CONSID]$ TO BE COMMUNITY PROP]TY1 & PEASANTS %>$ ! RI<T TO GA!R ! /UBBLE ?AT REMA9$ AFT]W>DS4 ,OP5 FIELDS W]E SET ASIDE = COMMUNAL GRAZ+ 9 PA/URES1 TOGE!R ) =E/$ >EAS ?AT W]E SET ASIDE = COMMUNAL GLEAN+ ( WOOD4 ,!SE COMMON RI<TS W]E ABSOLUTELY ESS5TIAL TO ! PEASANTS' DAY-TO-DAY SURVIVAL4 ,UND]SCOR+ ! IMPORTANCE ( ! G5]AL CONCEPTION ( ! VILLAGE AS A COLLECTIVE 5TITY1 ! MO/ IMPORTANT ROYAL TAX1 ! FAILLE1 WAS IMPOS$ ON A COMMUNITY AS A :OLE1 :I* ALL RESID5TS W]E OBLIG$ TO PAY AS A S+LE UNIT4 

,FROM A TE*NICAL /&PO9T1 MO/ ( ,FR5* AGRICULTURE SEEMS TO HAVE BE5 SMALL-SCALE1 ) PEASANT FAMILIES WORK+ !IR [N PLOTS US+ SIMPLE EQUIPM5T1 BUT H]E TOO WE F9D NOTABLE EXCEPTIONS4 ,9 ! NOR? & NOR!A/1 = EXAMPLE1 ! GR&E CULTURE 7TO USE ! T]M ( ! ,PHYSIOCRAT ,FRANCOIS ,QUESNAY7 WAS /RUCTUR$ >\ND ! 9T5SIVE CULTIVATION ( C]EALS1 (T5 9 L>GE-SCALE HOLD+S1 & EV5 9 !SE >EAS1 :]E AGRICULTURE WAS SO UNLIKE ! SMALL-SCALE =MS ( CULTIVATION PRACTIC$ 9 O!R P>TS ( ,FRANCE1 ! FIELDS W]E (T5 CULTIVAT$ 0BY T5ANTS ON BEHALF ( ABS5TEE L&LORDS10 ,JONES TELLS US 9 HIS AU?ORITATIVE WORK ON ! PEASANTRY DUR+ ! REVOLUTION>Y P]IOD4 0,[N] EXPLOITATION WAS RE/RA9$ & %>E CROPP+ VIRTUALLY NON-EXI/5T40.<#b#c#g.> ,9 FACT1 9 M>K$ CONTRA/ TO ! 9NOVATIVE TR5DS ( ! ,5GLI%1 :O PA/UR$ & CULTIVAT$ ON AN 9CREAS+LY L>GE SCALE1 ! ,FR5* GRA9 CULTIVATORS ( ! NOR? US$ V]Y TRADITIONAL ME?ODS SU* AS A ?REE-YE>-CYCLE ROTATION ( CROPS4 ,! L&S ( ! PETITE CULTURE1 ( C\RSE1 W]E F>M$ BY SMALL PEASANT PROPRIETORS & %>ECROPP]S1 G5]ALLY PRODUC+ RYE OR MAIZE1 RA!R ?AN :EAT1 AS !IR BASIC C]EAL CROP4 

,AL?\< ! PEASANTRY HAD /RONG COMMUNITY S5TIM5TS1 AS A CLASS !Y W]E ANY?+ BUT MONOLI?IC2 9DE$1 LIKE ! RE/ ( ,FR5* SOCIETY1 !Y W]E DIVID$ 9TO SEV]AL V]Y DI/9CT /RATA4 ,AT ! APEX ( ! PEASANT SOCIAL HI]>*Y /OOD ! GROS F]MI]S OR GREAT F>M]S :O1 :ILE RELATIVELY R>E1 EXI/$ MA9LY 9 ! RI* >EAS TO ! NOR? & EA/ ( ,P>IS1 :]E L>GE-SCALE F>M+ WAS MORE COMMON ?AN ELSE:]E4 ,SIGNIFICANTLY1 !Y [N$ F]TILE GRA9-RAIS+ L&S & PRACTIC$ AGRICULTURE ?AT WAS HI<LY PR(ITABLE & VIRTUALLY CAPITALI/IC4 ,SOME W]E PRIVATE PROPRIETORS :O HIR$ RURAL LABOR TO CULTIVATE M>KETABLE GRA9S1 :ILE O!RS W]E LONG-E/ABLI%$ T5ANTS :O WORK$ ! L&S ( L>GE NOBLE & ECCLESIA/ICAL E/ATES4 ,BEL[ !M W]E ! LAB\REURS1 :O ALSO [N$ !IR [N DRAFT ANIMALS1 PL[S1 SMALL] FREEHOLDS1 & DWELL+S1 & :O CULTIVAT$ >EAS ?AT W]E L>GE & WELL-BALANC$ 5\< TO SUPPORT !IR FAMILIES COM=TABLY ?R\<\T ! 5TIRE YE>1 EV5 TO ACCUMULATE A GRA9 SURPLUS = DIFFICULT TIMES4 

,BUT BY F> ! L>GE/ GR\P ( PEASANT L&[N]S W]E ?OSE KN[N AS H>ICOTI]S 9 S\!RN ,PIC>DY & BY SEV]AL O!R NAMES ELSE:]E4 ,!SE PEASANTS [N$ SOME DOME/IC ANIMALS1 BASIC IMPLEM5TS1 & A FEW FREEHOLD PLOTS1 BUT NO PL[S OR DRAFT ANIMALS4 ,! SUBSI/5CE !Y D]IV$ RANG$ FROM ! MOD]ATE TO ! PREC>I\S1 & 9 ADDITION TO CULTIVAT+ !IR SMALL PLOT1 !Y W]E OBLIG$ TO R5T L& 9 A LEASEHOLD OR WORK AS DAY LABOR]S = MORE AFFLU5T1 (T5 SEIGNEURIAL L&LORDS = P>T ( ! YE>4 ,9 RETURN = !IR LABOR & HALF ( ! CROP !Y PRODUC$1 ! SEIGNEUR W\LD PROVIDE !M ) F>M EQUIPM5T & ANIMALS4 ,F9ALLY1 AT ! BASE ( ! PEASANT HI]>*Y W]E ?OSE :O [N$ LITTLE OR NO L& AT ALL1 ! DI/9CTLY POOR DAY-LABOR]S1 OR J\RNALI]S1 & L& WORK]S1 OR TRAVAILLEURS DE T]N4 ,NUMB]+ AB\T #ba P]C5T ( ! RURAL POPULATION1 !Y W]E FREQU5TLY UNEMPLOY$ & TRAVEL$ >\ND LOOK+ = %ORT-T]M WORK4 

,NUM]ICALLY1 !SE PEASANT /RATA V>I$ FROM PLACE TO PLACE )9 ,FRANCE4 ,! WELL-TO-DO GROSF]MI]S W]E AT BE/ ONLY A V]Y SMALL M9ORITY4 ,EV5 ON ! RELATIVELY PROSP]\S ,PIC>DY PLA91 A SMALL VILLAGE ( SEV]AL HUNDR$ H\SEHOLDS MI<T CONTA9 ONLY TWO GROS F]MI]S1 FIVE OR SIX LAB\REURS1 TW5TY H>ICOTI]S1 & TW5TY TO FIFTY DAY-LABOR]S4 ,9 O!R >EAS1 ! MAJORITY ( ! PEASANTS W]E LABOREURS & H>ICOTI]S 1 & 9 /ILL O!R >EAS1 L&LESS PEASANTS =M$ A SUB/ANTIAL P>T ( ! COMMUNITY1 WORK+ AS DAY-LABOR]S & P>TTIME >TISANS4 ,MO/ ,FR5* PEASANTS1 DESPITE !IR [N]%IP ( SOME L&1 W]E V]Y IMPOV]I%$1 & !IR DAY-TO-DAY EXI/5CE WAS MIS]ABLE & EXTREMELY PREC>I\S4 

,9 COMP>ISON ) A S]F1 :O WAS TI$ TO ! L&1 ! PEASANT HAD A MU* LOOS] BOND ) HIS SEIGNEUR4 ,HE C\LD NOT BE SOLD TOGE!R ) ! L&2 NOR WAS HE LEGALLY TI$ TO IT4 ,BUT HE WAS NEV]!LESS OBLIGAT$ TO PAY FEUDAL DUES & OBLIGATIONS LEFT OV] FROM ! PA/4 ,!SE W]E DELIV]$ OV] TO ! SEIGNEUR EI!R 9 K9D1 AS 9 GRA91 OR 9 MONEY 7 C5S 71 (T5 9 EXORBITANT AM\NTS4 ,PEASANTS W]E ALSO BURD5$ BY A WIDE >RAY ( O!R SEIGNEURIAL RI<TS4 ,LORDS HAD ! RI<T TO HUNT ON ! L&S !Y TILL$1 !REBY TRAMPL+ ! PEASANTS' CROPS1 :I* 9FURIAT$ !IR UND]L+S2 !Y 5JOY$ MONOPOLI/IC PRIVILEGES 7BATTALIAS7 OV] LOCAL CORN MILLS1 W9E PRESSES1 & OV5S1 EV5 OBLIG+ ! PEASANT TO USE !M 9/EAD ( LESS EXP5SIVE ONES ?AT MI<T BE AVAILABLE4 ,PEASANTS W]E EXPECT$ TO GIVE CORVIE LABOR1 OR ROAD WORK1 TO ! NOBLES1 :O C\LD COMPEL !M TO FE$ !IR SEIGNEURIAL PIGEONS1 A PRIVILEGE ?AT WAS AS DEBAS+ AS IT WAS FRIVOL\S4 ,9DE$1 ! SEIGNEUR HAD ! RI<T TO DEM& ?AT PEASANTS P]=M A WIDE V>IETY ( P]SONAL S]VICES--SOMETIMES NUMB]+ 9 ! HUNDR$S--= RESID5TS ( ! MANOR H\SE4 ,TO 5=CE !SE PRIVILEGES1 ! SEIGNEURS C\LD AVAIL !MSELVES NOT ONLY ( /ATE C\RTS BUT ( !IR [N SEIGNEURIAL C\RTS--& 9 ! PROCESS LEVY FEES ON ! PEASANTS ?AT PROVID$ !M ) FUR!R 9COME4 ,F9ALLY1 9ASMU* AS ! TAILLE WAS IMPOS$ EXCLUSIVELY ON ! PEASANTRY1 IT & ! O!R LEVIES ! PEASANT HAD TO PAY MADE = A HI<LY OPPRESSIVE & BITT]LY HAT$ BURD54 ,AS ,C4 ,B4 ,A4 ,BEHR5S OBS]VES 9 HIS WORK ON ! ANCI5 REGIME3 0,! ROYAL TAXES HUNG LIKE A MILL/ONE R\ND ! PEASANT'S NECK40.<#b#c#h.> ,?US1 ! C\NTRYSIDE SEE!D ) HATR$ )9 & BETWE5 ! SOCIAL HI]>*Y1 &1 9 V>I\S WAYS1 DIVID$ ! L&-HUNGRY PEASANTRY & ! OPPRESSIVE1 VISIBLY P>ASITIC NOBILITY4 ,CONT9UALLY V]G+ ON CIVIL W>1 ! POT5TIAL CONFLICT WAS N\RI%$ BY MEMORIES ( PA/ JACQU]IES & P]PETUAT$ BY CONT9UAL RIOTS4 

,TAXES ON ! NOBILITY V>I$ ) ! /ATUS ( ! 9DIVIDUAL NOBLE 9VOLV$1 BUT ! NOBILITY AS A :OLE WAS EXEMPT FROM PAY+ ! ON]\S FAILLE4 ,9DE$1 5ORM\S EXTREMES ( WEAL? & POV]TY EXI/$ AMONG ! NOBLES ( PR]EVOLUTION>Y ,FRANCE4 ,9 ! C\NTRYSIDE ! GREAT] P>T ( ! 9COME ( ! L&$ NOBILITY WAS D]IV$ FROM FEUDAL DUES1 BUT 9 REALITY !SE W]E NOT SUB/ANTIAL3 !Y PROVID$ LITTLE MORE ?AN AN E/IMAT$ ANNUAL TOTAL ( A HUNDR$ MILLION LIVRES = ! 5TIRE ,FR5* NOBILITY4 ,?US1 9 TIMES ( RIS+ PRICES1 ! PROV9CIAL NOBLES TRI$ TO SQUEEZE EV] MORE FEUDAL DUES FROM ! PEASANTS1 ) EV] GREAT] RU?LESSNESS1 LE/ !Y BE BR\<T TO RU9--& EVOK$ A SE>+ HATR$ FROM AMONG ! PEASANTS !MSELVES4 

,! POOR] ! NOBLE1 ! MORE URG5T WAS HIS NE$ TO EXPLOIT ! PEASANT2 & !RE W]E MANY RELATIVELY POOR NOBLES 9 EI<TE5?-C5TURY ,FRANCE4 ,AS A RESULT ( ! FEUDAL RI<T ( PRIMOG5ITURE1 ! ELDE/ SON ( A NOBLE FAMILY 9H]IT$ MO/ ( ! PATRIMONIAL L&S1 ) ! CONSEQU5CE1 AS ,ALB]T ,MA?IEZ PO9TS \T1 ?AT ! Y\NG] SONS W]E LEFT ) SMALL] & SMALL] PORTIONS ON :I* TO LIVE4 ,! ANTAGONISM BETWE5 ! WELL-TO-DO & POOR] NOBLES 9CREAS$ ! F>!R D[N ! SOCIAL SCALE ONE W5T4 

,R$UC$ TO /RAIT5$ CIRCUM/ANCES1 !Y .<! Y\NG] SONS.> SOLD !IR RI<TS ( JU/ICE1 !IR R5TS 9 MONEY & 9 K9D1 & !IR L&1 9 ORD] TO LIVE2 BUT !Y DID NOT DREAM ( WORK+1 = !Y DID NOT WANT TO LOSE CA/E 7DTROG]74 ,A :OLE CLASS ( IMPOV]I%$ NOBLES SPRANG UP1 V]Y NUM]\S 9 C]TA9 PROV9CES 444 :]E !Y VEGETAT$ GLOOMILY 9 !IR MODE/ MANOR-H\SES4 ,DETE/+ ! HI<] NOBILITY1 :O MONOPOLIZ$ C\RT APPO9TM5TS1 & DESPIS+ & 5VY+ ! MIDDLE CLASSES 9 ! T[NS1 :O W]E GR[+ RI* BY TRADE & 9DU/RY1 !Y /UBBORNLY DEF5D$ !IR LA/ RI<TS ( IMMUNITY FROM TAXATION AGA9/ ! 5CROA*M5TS ( ! K+'S AG5TS2 & !IR >ROGANCE 9CREAS$ 9 PROPORTION TO !IR POV]TY & IMPOT5CE4.<#b#c#i.> 

,! C\RT NOBLES1 NOTABLY ?OSE :O /AY$ AT ,V]SAILLES AS C\RTI]S1 DRA9$ ! RES\RCES ( ! C\NTRY 9 !IR UNREL5T+ PURSUIT ( PLEASURE & /ATUS4 ,AS MU* AS ONE QU>T] ( ! C\NTRY'S NATIONAL BUDGET WAS DIV]T$ = ! USE ( ! GREAT NOBLES1 :O W]E PAID LAVI%LY 9 9COME1 P5SIONS1 & S9ECURES4 ,NOBLES :O BECAME BI%OPS & O!R CL]GYM5 C\LD DIP FREELY 9TO ! ,*UR*'S IMM5SE TREASURY4 ,AL?\< ?IS PR(LIGATE NOBILITY1 9CLUD+ NOT ONLY B>ONS BUT DUKES1 M>QUIS1 & EV5 PR9CES ( ! BLOOD1 RAN UP DEBTS 9 ! MILLIONS1 !Y W]E SOMETIMES PAID (F BY SIZABLE GRANTS FROM ! SOV]EIGN1 :O SAW HIS HI<] NOBLES AS SUPPORT]S ( ! REGIME4 

,BY F> ! MO/ MASSIVE BLOCK ( ECONOMIC WEAL? WAS POSSESS$ BY ! BLOAT$ ,CA?OLIC ,*UR*1 :I* [N$ AB\T A T5? ( ,FRANCE'S L& & 9 !ORY COLLECT$ A T5? ( ! 9COME ( RURAL FOLK AS A TI! TO SUPPORT LOCAL PRIE/S4 ,! REV5UES ?AT ! ,*UR* 5JOY$ >E E/IMAT$ TO HAVE AM\NT$ TO A QU>T] ( A BILLION LIVRES YE>LY4 ,) ITS 5ORM\S WEAL?1 ! ,*UR* SUPPORT$ #a#c1 CL]ICS1 HALF ( !M 9 REGUL> ORD]S & HALF DI/RIBUT$ OV] ITS ECCLESIA/ICAL HI]>*Y4 ,AT ITS APEX1 ! CL]ICAL HI]>*Y P]=M$ VIRTUALLY NO RELIGI\S DUTIES :ATEV]1 & AT ITS BASE IT CONSI/$ ( GROSSLY OV]WORK$ C\NTRY CURB :O SUBSI/$ ON PITIFUL 9COMES4 ,ACTUALLY1 ONLY A ?9 SOCIAL L9E SEP>AT$ HI< ,*UR* (FICIALS FROM ! NOBILITY1 S9CE ! GREAT RELIGI\S *APT]S ) !IR EXT5SIVE L&HOLD+S RECRUIT$ !IR CANONS FROM NOBLE FAMILIES2 9DE$1 NOBLE SONS BECAME BI%OPS AT ! AGE ( TWELVE OR ?IRTE5 & W]E ! RECIPI5TS ( 5ORM\S 9COMES4 ,9 #a#g#h#i1 ALL #adc BI%OPS 9 ,FRANCE W]E RECRUIT$ FROM NOBLE FAMILIES &1 F> FROM LIV+ 9 !IR DIOCESES & ATT5D+ TO ! S\LS ( !IR P>I%ION]S1 IDL$ AWAY !IR DAYS AT C\RT4 ,YET ?IS SWOLL5 & WEAL?Y ECCLESIA/ICAL E/ABLI%M5T WAS COMPLETELY UN5CUMB]$ BY TAXATION4 ,AT MO/1 ! ,*UR* VOLUNT>ILY PROVID$ A F9ANCIAL BALM TO ! /ATE BY GRANT+ A DONATION ( APPROXIMATELY SATE5 MILLION LIVRES ANNUALLY1 :I*1 9S(> AS IT WAS A 0GIFT10 C\LD BE )HELD AT WILL1 !REBY EX]T+ A /RONG F9ANCIAL 9FLU5CE ON ! ,CR[N'S POLICIES4 

,EV5 GREAT] WAS ! POLITICAL P[] ( ! ,*UR*1 :I*1 ?R\< ITS NETWORK ( C\NTRY CURB 1 GUID$ ! S\LS ( ! PEASANTRY1 $UCAT$ MU* ( ! LIT]ATE PUBLIC 9 ITS S*OOLS1 & US$ ITS PULPITS AS A MEANS = 9FLU5C+ RURAL POLITICS & PROVID+ A MESSAGE ( RESIGNATION & SUBMISSION TO AU?ORITY4 ,! ,*UR*1 TO BE SURE1 WAS A S\RCE ( SOCIAL ASSI/ANCE TO ! POOR1 & CONTROLL$ HOSPITALS AS WELL AS 5JOY+ A MONOPOLY OV] ! REGI/RATION ( BIR?S1 DEA?S1 & M>RIAGES4 ,ITS AU?ORITY OV] ! M9DS & HE>TS ( ! MORE BACKW>D RURAL MASSES 9 ,FRANCE WAS 5ORM\S4 ,ROOT$ 9 TIME-HONOR$ M$IEVAL CU/OM1 IT HAD ITS [N JUDICIAL SY/EM1 & ITS BI%OPS HELD VA/ P[] 9 ! CIVIL ADM9I/RATION4 ,YET 9 ! 5D1 ITS P[] ULTIMATELY RE/$ ON ! MON>*Y--A DEP5D5CY ( :I* IT WAS RUDELY REM9D$ 9 #a#g#f#d1 :5 ! ,CR[N SUPPRESS$ ! ,JESUITS 9 ! C\NTRY4 

,! ,C,U,L,T,U,R,E ,( ,C,O,N,S,U,M,P,T,I,O,N ,& ,/,A,T,U,S 

,! C\RT NOBILITY SP5T ! 9COME IT RECEIV$ FROM ! ,CR[N ) LAVI% PR(LIGACY4 ,9 ,V]SAILLES & ,P>IS NOBLE EXP5DITURES ON SUMPTU\S G>M5TS1 C>RIAGES1 FURNI%+S1 >T WORKS1 JEWELRY1 BANQUETS1 BALLS1 & S]VANTS LIT]ALLY SU/A9$ 5TIRE 9DU/RIES & PROVID$ 9NUM]ABLE 9DIVIDUAL LIVELIHOODS1 FROM CLO?I]S & JEWEL]S TO WIG-MAK]S & COSMETICIANS4 ,! IMPORTANCE ( /ATUS 9 ! >I/OCRATIC HI]>*Y IS DIFFICULT TO OV]E/IMATE3 ONE'S POSITION 9 LIFE WAS SCRUPUL\SLY CALCULAT$ ACCORD+ TO ! DEGREE1 IF ANY1 TO :I* ONE'S FAMILY'S L9EAGE WAS RELAT$ TO ! ROYAL DYNA/Y4 ,NOT SURPRIS+LY1 EA* NOBLE DISDA9$ ?OSE ON ! SOCIAL RANKS BEL[1 RESULT+ 9 :AT ONE HI/ORIAN HAS CALL$ A 0CASCADE ( CONTEMPT40.<#b#d.> ,ONE ( ! MO/ P>ASITIC SOCIAL HI]>*IES 9 HI/ORY1 ! ,FR5* NOBILITY FOCUS$ OV]:ELM+LY ON CONSUMPTION RA!R ?AN PRODUCTION4 ,9DE$1 IT CULTIVAT$ A DEBILITAT+ NATIONAL CULTURE BAS$ ON IDL5ESS & CONSPICU\S CONSUMPTION1 :I* EXT5D$ 9TO ALL ! WELL-TO-DO SECTORS ( ,FR5* SOCIETY1 9CLUD+ ! MIDDLE CLASSES1 & GAVE RISE TO APPETITES ?AT W]E1 9 FACT1 ANTI!TICAL TO ! P>SIMONY NE$$ TO CREATE CAPITAL = MODEM 9DU/RY & MASS PRODUCTION4 

,CAPITALI/S !RE SURELY W]E 9 PR]EVOLUTION>Y ,FRANCE3 BANK]S1 M]*ANTS 5GAG$ 9 L>GE-SCALE TRADE1 DEAL]S 9 SILK & O!R EXOTICA ?AT MADE ! NATION A C5T] ( GOOD LIV+ = ! RI*1 MANUFACTUR]S ( FABRICS1 SPECULATORS :O AMASS$ VA/ =TUNES 9 L& DEAL+S & COMM]CE1 & G5TEEL RETAIL]S :O P&]$ TO ! :IMS ( ! NOBILITY4 ,BEL[ !M 9 ! URBAN SOCIAL HI]>*Y W]E LESS] M]*ANTS & SMALL-SCALE MANUFACTUR]S2 & /ILL L[] W]E SUCCESSFUL >TISANS & RETAIL]S4 ,BUT !SE CAPITALI/S1 IF SU* ALL ( !M C\LD BE CALL$1 W]E M>K$ BY V]Y >*AIC FEATURES4 ,9 CONTRA/ TO ! ?RIFTY PURITANICAL CAPITALI/S ( ,5GL&1 :O MADE MONEY TO 9VE/ IT 9TO !IR 5T]PRISES 9 ORD] TO MAKE /ILL MORE MONEY1 ,FR5* F9ANCI]S1 MANUFACTUR]S1 & M]*ANTS LIV$ 9 P]PETUAL 5VY ( ! NOBILITY & S\<T ABOVE ALL TO ATTA9 NOBLE POSITIONS ( !IR [N1 AS WE HAVE SE54 ,?IS IS NOT TO CLAIM ?AT ,FRANCE LACK$ ?RIFTY CAPITALI/S 9 ALL FIELDS ( 5DEAVOR1 = :OM WEAL? \TWEI<$ SOCIAL POSITION2 BUT !IR 9FLU5CE ON ! *>ACT] ( ! B\RGEOISIE LAY 9 ! FUTURE--9DE$1 WELL 9TO ! N9ETE5? C5TURY4 ,9 ! EI<TE5? C5TURY1 RI* CAPITALI/S NORMALLY ABSORB$ ! VALUES ( ! >I/OCRACY1 AS HAD SO MANY CAPITALI/S 9 ANCI5T & M$IEVAL TIMES4 ,NO LESS ?AN ! NOBILITY1 !Y VIEW$ TRADE AS M5IAL & ITS REW>DS M]ELY AS A MEANS TO A GREAT] 5D1 ?AT ( HI<] SOCIAL /ATUS4 ,AS A RESULT1 A GREAT PROPORTION ( CAPITAL FL[$ 9TO L& & ! PUR*ASE ( TITLES AT ! EXP5SE ( 9DU/RIAL DEVELOPM5T4 ,A S+LE /ATI/IC REVEALS ! DIFF]5CE 9 ECONOMIC VALUES ?AT DI/+UI%$ ,FRANCE & ,5GL&3 9 #a<i ,BRITI% COAL PRODUCTION WAS TW5TY TIMES ?AT ( ,FRANCE1 DESPITE ! MU* HI<] ,FR5* POPULATION4 

,?IS >*AIC VALORIZATION ( /ATUS OV] WEAL?1 ( L& OV] PRODUCTION1 & ( IDL5ESS OV] WORK WAS P>TICUL>LY IRONIC 9 VIEW ( ,FRANCE'S EM95T POSITION 9 ! ,EUROPEAN ECONOMY4 ,ITS =EIGN TRADE WAS SECOND ONLY TO ?AT ( ,GREAT ,BRITA91 & IT L$ EV]Y ,CONT95TAL C\NTRY 9 \TPUT4 ,BUT ,5GL& WAS MORE OP5 TO 9NOVATION1 BO? SOCIAL & TE*NICAL1 [+ TO ITS ESS5TIALLY ,PROTE/ANT CULTURE & ITS BETT]-BALANC$1 FAIRLY MODEM /ATE MA*9]Y1 :I* WAS RELATIVELY FREE ( ! SOCIAL >*AISMS ?AT BURD5$ ,FR5* SOCIETY4 ,9 SEV5TE5?- & EI<TE5?-C5TURY ,BRITA91 ! IDLE R5TI] WAY ( LIFE ?AT /ILL *>ACT]IZ$ SO MU* ( ! ,FR5* NOBILITY HAD GIV5 WAY TO AN ACTIVI/ & 9NOVATIVE L&$ NOBILITY4 ,ONLY TOO AW>E ( !IR COMMON] ORIG9S DUR+ ! ,W>S ( ! ,ROSES A FEW C5TURIES E>LI]1 ! ,5GLI% NOBILITY M+L$ MORE FAMILI>LY & COM=TABLY ) ! MIDDLE CLASS4 ,MOREOV]1 TOGE!R ) ! COMM]CIAL CLASSES ( ! REALM1 ! ,5GLI% NOBILITY PRODUC$ AN AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION ( !IR [N1 NOT ONLY BY E/ABLI%+ %EEP RUNS & 5CLOS+ L& ?AT LEFT BEH9D 0DES]T$ VILLAGES10 BUT ALSO BY DRA9+ ! F5L&S1 RATIONALIZ+ CROP CULTIVATION1 & CON/RUCT+ NEW ROADS & CANALS4 ,NO LESS ?AN ! ME*ANICAL DEVICES ?AT GAVE RISE TO MASS MANUFACTURE1 !SE MEASURES PAV$ ! WAY = ! ,9DU/RIAL ,REVOLUTION & ! EM]G5CE ( MOD]N CAPITALISM4 

,! ,FR5* NOBILITY ( ! SWORD1 BY CONTRA/1 W]E OV]LY PREOCCUPI$ ) FLAUNT+ !IR /ATUS1 (T5 CLAIM+ !IR ANCE/RY 9 ! ,FRANKI% CONQU]ORS ( ,GAUL 7= :I* ,VOLTAIRE SUBJECT$ !M TO MU* BUFFOON]Y71 & EXHIBIT+ HAU<TY CONTEMPT = TRADESM51 :O SUPPLI$ !M ) GOODS1 & ! P>V5U NOBILITY ( ! ROBE1 :O LIV$ 9 5VY ( ! PRIVILEGES & SOCIAL RECOGNITION 5JOY$ BY ! BLOOD$ >I/OCRATS4 ,:]EAS ! P[] ( ! EI<TE5?-C5TURY ,5GLI% MON>*Y WAS WAN+ AS A RESULT ( P>LIAM5T>Y SOV]EIGNTY1 9 ,FRANCE ! MON>*Y WAS /ILL ! GREATE/ P[] 9 ! L&1 H[EV] MIS]ABLY & IRRESOLUTELY ,L\IS ,X,V & ,L\IS ,X,V,I EX]CIS$ ?AT P[]4 ,:]EAS ,5GLI% CAPITAL 9CREAS+LY FL[$ 9TO 9DU/RY1 ESPECIALLY 9TO COTTON MANUFACTURES--:I* PIONE]$ ! 9DU/RIALIZATION ( ! C\NTRY-- ,FR5* CAPITAL FL[$ 9TO L& & TITLES AS ! MO/ TANGIBLE S\RCES & EVID5CE ( SOCIAL /ATUS4 

,! ,FR5* NOBILITY1 9 TURN1 W\LD HAVE F\ND IT DIFFICULT TO BECOME CAPITALI/ HAD !Y EV5 WANT$ TO4 ,!Y W]E LEGALLY DEB>R$ FROM 5T]+ 9TO ALL BUT A FEW 9DU/RIES1 SU* AS OV]SEAS TRADE & GLASSMAK+4 ,MOREOV]1 :]EAS AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES HAD BE5 EXT5SIVELY RATIONALIZ$ 9 ,5GL&1 9 ,FRANCE ?IS PROCESS CAME V]Y SL[LY & 9 PIECEMEAL FA%ION4 ,FR5* AGRICULTURAL WEAL? CONT9U$ TO D]IVE MORE FROM ! 9T5SIVE EXPLOITATION ( LABOR ?AN FROM TE*NICAL & SCI5TIFIC IMPROVEM5TS4 ,A ,FR5* PEASANT :O LO/ HIS L& TO A B\RGEOIS KNEW ?AT HE WAS DISPLAC$ PRIM>ILY BECAUSE HIS R5TS HAD GONE UP1 NOT BECAUSE ANY /RIK+ TE*NOLOGICAL 9NOVATION REMOV$ HIM FROM FOOD CULTIVATION4 ,9 O!R RESPECTS HIS WAY ( LIFE1 H[EV] IMPOV]I%$ IT MI<T BECOME1 REMA9$ UN*ANG$2 ! VILLAGE /ILL RETA9$ MO/ ( ! OLD CU/OMS ?AT HAD BE5 WORK$ 9TO ! ,FR5* RURAL TRADITION = C\NTLESS G5]ATIONS1 ) V]Y FEW *ANGES 9 TRADITIONAL ME?ODS ( PRODUCTION & 9 SOCIAL /ATUS1 ) ITS MANY RE/RICTIONS AS WELL AS PRIVILEGES4 

,9 ! LATT] HALF ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY1 SOME ,FR5* (FICIALS & PROV9CIAL NOBLES1 9FLU5C$ BY ! ECONOMIC ?9K+ ( ! ,PHYSIOCRATS1 TRI$ TO EMULATE !IR ,BRITI% C\NT]P>TS BY RE=M+ OLD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES4 ,!Y 9T5SIFI$ CROP PRODUCTION & TRI$ TO UND]TAKE F>M+ ON A L>G] SCALE BY 5L>G+ !IR L&HOLD+S4 ,AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES W]E =M$ ?R\<\T ,FRANCE TO TEA* & 5C\RAGE NEW1 SCI5TIFIC ME?ODS ( FOOD CULTIVATION1 & ROYAL $ICTS W]E ANN\NC$ ?AT P]MITT$ ! 5CLOSURE ( COMMON L&S4 ,9DE$1 SOME SEIGNEURS IMPUD5TLY CLAIM$ ?AT1 ACCORD+ TO FEUDAL LAW1 ! COMMON L&S W]E ACTUALLY !IR [N PROP]TY--CLAIMS ?AT RECEIV$ OP5 SUPPORT FROM ! MON>*Y4 ,AS ,MA?IEZ OBS]VES3 

,!IR SEIGNORIAL C\RTS444 BECAME HAT$ 9/RUM5TS ( EXTORTION 9 ! H&S ( !IR UND]PAID JUDGES4 ,!Y US$ !M 9 P>TICUL> AS A MEANS ( GA9+ POSSESSION ( ! COMMON L&S.-,! POOR MAN'S GOAT1 DEPRIV$ ( ITS COMMON RI<TS1 C\LD NO LONG] PICK UP EV5 A SCANTY SUBSI/5CE1 & ! COMPLA9TS ( ! POOR BECAME MORE & MORE ACRIMONI\S4.<#b#d#a.> 

,NOR W]E SU* PRACTICES CONF9$ EXCLUSIVELY TO ! L&$ NOBILITY4 ,CAPITALI/ F>M]S1 USUALLY L>GE L&[N]S :O R5T$ \T L& TO 9DIVIDUAL PEASANT H\SEHOLDS1 WORK$ H& 9 GLOVE ) ! NOBILITY TO EAT /EADILY 9TO ! VILLAGE'S COMMON L&S4 ,ONCE SU* L&S W]E 5CLOS$1 ! NEW AGRICULTURALI/S C\LD ABOLI% PEASANTS' TRADITIONAL GRAZ+ RI<TS 9 COMMON PA/URES & DIVIDE UP ! COMMON L&S = !IR [N USE1 :ILE RAIS+ ! R5TS ( !IR T5ANTS & R$UC+ !M TO DE/ITUTE RURAL LABOR]S4 ,ALL ( !SE PRACTICES >\S$ VEHEM5T PEASANT OPPOSITION & RURAL UNRE/4 ,9DE$1 0DUR+ ! REVOLUTION10 OBS]VES ,P4 ,M4 ,JONES1 0! DEF5SE ( COMMON RI<TS BECAME A KEY ISSUE1 P]HAPS ! KEY ISSUE1 9 ! POLITICAL PROGRAM ( ! POOR PEASANTRY40.<#b#d#b.> 

,BUT BY NO MEANS W]E ! NOBLES ! SOLE ACQUISITORS ( L&HOLD+S4 ,AS ,ALFR$ ,COBBAN1 9 HIS PA?BREAK+ WORK1 HAS C>EFULLY %[N1 RURAL & URBAN CAPITALI/S PLAY$ A MAJOR ROLE 9 ! PROCESS4 ,AS 9DEBT$ NOBLES =FEIT$ L&S FROM !IR GREAT E/ATES1 !Y W]E GRE$ILY B\<T UP BY A NEW BRE$ ( AGRICULTURAL B\RGEOIS1 :O PUR*AS$ NOT ONLY SEIGNEURIAL L&S BUT EV5 SEIGNEURIAL RI<TS1 :I* W]E M]*&IS$ LIKE SO MANY ALI5ABLE COMMODITIES4 0,BY ! EI<TE5? C5TURY 444 9 ,WALLOON ,FL&]S SEIGNORIAL RI<TS W]E AS ACTIVE A M>KET AS L&10 ,COBBAN OBS]VES4 0,( C\RSE1 SOME ( ! PUR*AS]S !MSELVES BECAME NOBLES 9 !IR TURN2 BUT BY #a<i ! TI]S ETAT .<,?IRD ,E/ATE.> 9CLUD$ MANY [N]S ( SEIGNORIAL RI<TS40 ,:5 PEASANTS TRI$ TO D5Y !SE CLAIMS1 !IR CASE WAS TAK5 TO ! LOCAL P>LEM]TT1 :I* MORE (T5 ?AN NOT SID$ ) ! L&[N]S4 

,F9ALLY1 SOME NOBLES EMPLOY$ SPECIALI/S 9 FEUDAL LAW TO DEVISE NOVEL1 SELFS]V+ 9T]PRETATIONS ( SEIGNEURIAL RI<TS1 SU* AS ! RI<T TO GRAZE CATTLE & %EEP ON COMMON L&S1 OR TO LEASE COMMON L&S1 CLAIM$ BY PEASANT VILLAGES1 TO COMM]CIAL /OCKBRE$]S4 ,/ILL O!R LORDS F>M$ \T !IR SEIGNEURIAL RI<TS TO 9DIVIDUALS OR COMPANIES1 :I* COLLECT$ ON !M RU?LESSLY AS SO MU* PR(ITABLE RAW MAT]IAL4 ,BY DEM&+ ?AT ! PEASANT PAY EV] MORE C5S1 !Y DREW HIM 9TO A CA% NEXUS ON A SCALE ?AT HIS FEUDAL ANCE/ORS HAD NEV] EXP]I5C$2 9DE$1 ! SEIGNEURIAL AG5TS :O COLLECT$ FEUDAL DUES1 AS ,COBBAN OBS]VES1 0ESPECIALLY :5 !Y W]E PAID ON A COMMISSION BASIS1 HAD AN 9T]E/ 9 SCREW+ UP ! SEIGNORIAL DUES TO ! HI<E/ PIT*40 ,AS 5T]PRIS+ NONNOBLES & NOBLES ALIKE US$ L&S & SEIGNEURIAL RI<TS TO 9T5SIFY ?IS GRIM & DEHUMANIZ+ DEVELOPM5T1 ! EXPLOITATION ( ! PEASANT1 LIKE AGRICULTURE ITSELF1 WAS BECOM+ 9CREAS+LY RATIONALIZ$1 ALBEIT /ILL BY ! USE ( MANY >*AIC TE*NIQUES BAS$ ON TIME-HONOR$ TRADITIONS4 ,! 9T5DANT ( ,DIJON1 = EXAMPLE1 NOT$ 9 #agea ?AT URBAN ELITES W]E R$UC+ ! PEASANTS TO ! /ATUS ( M]E DAY-LABOR]S4.<#b#d#c.> ,NOT SURPRIS+LY1 ! ,FR5* PEASANTRY1 DESPITE ITS V>I$ 9T]NAL DIFF]5CES1 CAME TO DETE/ ! SEIGNEURS1 SO ?AT1 BY #a<h & #a#g#h#i1 ! C\NTRYSIDE WAS ON ! PO9T ( A NEW JACQU]IE4 

,?IS CAPITALI/IC (F5SIVE1 IF SU* IT CAN BE CALL$1 9TO ! C\NTRYSIDE /&S AT ODDS ) ACCEPT$ IMAGES ( ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION AS 0B\RGEOIS0 9 NATURE4 0,!RE IS AT LEA/ SOME EXCUSE = BELIEV+ ?AT ! .<PEASANT.> REVOLUTION 9 ! ,FR5* C\NTRYSIDE WAS NOT AGA9/ FEUDALISM10 OBS]VES ,COBBAN1 0BUT AGA9/ A GR[+ COMM]CIALIZATION2 & ?AT IT WAS NOT A 'B\RGEOIS' MOVEM5T BUT ON ! CONTR>Y WAS DIRECT$ P>TLY AGA9/ ! P5ETRATION ( URBAN F9ANCIAL 9T]E/S 9TO ! C\NTRYSIDE40.<#b#d#d.> 

,! ,N,O,N,A,G,R,I,C,U,L,T,U,R,A,L ,E,C,O,N,O,M,Y 

,AS TO ! NONAGRICULTURAL ECONOMY 9 LATE-EI<TE5?-C5TURY ,FR5* T[NS1 ITS /RUCTURE WAS V]Y MIX$1 AS WAS V]Y MU* ! CASE 9 ,WE/]N ,EUROPE = C5TURIES4 ,T[N SOCIETY1 LIKE ?AT ( ! C\NTRYSIDE1 WAS M>K$ BY PRON\NC$ SOCIAL /RATIFICATIONS1 ) CONSID]ABLE DIFF]5CES 9 WEAL?1 $UCATION1 & LIFEWAYS4 ,! GREATE/ =TUNES W]E MADE BY F9ANCI]S4 ,CONTRACT+ ) ! ,CR[N TO COLLECT ITS TAXES1 !SE COLLECTORS EV5TUALLY TRANS=M$ !MSELVES 9TO CR$ITORS ( ! GOV]NM5T AS ! NATIONAL DEBT /EADILY EXP&$4 ,T[NS ALSO 9CLUD$ BUS9ESSM51 ESPECIALLY 9 ! PORT CITIES1 :O W]E 9T5SELY HO/ILE TO ! NOBILITY4 ,!IR CAUSES1 AS ,HAMPSON OBS]VES1 0W]E SOCIAL RA!R ?AN ECONOMIC4 ,IT WAS NOT ?AT ! MIDDLE CLASS C\LD NOT EXP& & PROSP]1 BUT ?AT IT WAS 9CREAS+LY EXCLUD$ FROM ! SOCIAL /ATUS & PRIVILEGE ?AT PROSP]ITY HAD PREVI\SLY BE5 ABLE TO BUY MORE EASILY40.<#b#d#e.> 

,UNLIKE T[NS 9 ,5GL&1 ,FR5* T[NS & CITIES W]E H>DLY C5T]S ( A 0RIS+0 B\RGEOIS ECONOMY4 ,A P[]FUL GUILD SY/EM /ILL HELD A TI<T GRIP ON MANY URBAN 9DU/RIES1 & MO/ WORK+ PEOPLE W]E J\RNEYM5 EMPLOY$ 9 SMALL %OPS BY MA/] CRAFTSM54 ,FE>+ = !IR /ATUS & !IR LIVELIHOOD1 !Y VIGOR\SLY OPPOS$ ANY 0FREE TRADE0 MEASURES ?AT W\LD HAVE ALL[$ RURAL MANUFACTUR]S TO SELL COMPET+ PRODUCTS 9 !IR [N M>KETS4 ,SO /RONGLY DID ! GUILDS DEF5D TRADITIONAL FAMILY MONOPOLIES OV] V>I\S TRADES ?AT !Y EV5 PREV5T$ MANY J\RNEYM5 FROM BECOM+ MA/] CRAFTSM51 SWELL+ ! NUMB] ( URBAN J\RNEYM5 :O C\LD NEV] HOPE TO RISE ABOVE ! /ATUS ( HIR$ LABOR]S4 ,/ILL1 AS ,HAMPSON PO9TS \T1 0! MOD]N DIVISION BETWE5 CAPITAL & LABOR WAS NOT YET CLE>LY M>K$ & ! DI/9CTION BETWE5 >I/OCRACY & 'PEOPLE' WAS NOT ! SAME ?+ AS ! DIVISION BETWE5 'G5TLEM5' & 'L[] CLASSES4'0.<#b#d#f.> 

,ONLY A LIMIT$ NUMB] ( AU!NTIC FACTORIES EXI/$ 9 ,FRANCE1 & ! FEW ?AT W]E ME*ANIZ$ W]E LOCAT$ 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE TO MAKE USE ( WAT] P[]4 ,DESPITE ITS WIDELY T\T$ ROLE 9 PRODUC+ ! ,9DU/RIAL ,REVOLUTION1 WELL 9TO ! N9ETE5? C5TURY ! /EAM 5G9E DEVELOP$ BY ,JAMES ,WATT WAS US$ MA9LY TO PUMP WAT] FROM M9ES4 ,IT WAS TOO BULKY TO BE EMPLOY$ BY MO/ FACTORIES1 EXCEPT A FEW WOOL- & MUSL9-PROCESS+ PLANTS1 & ! NEW ,5GLI% SP9N+ J5NIES & WEAV+ MA*9ES HAD YET TO REA* ,FRANCE 9 ANY SIZABLE NUMB]S4 ,ACCORD+LY1 ,FR5* 9DU/RY REMA9$ OV]:ELM+LY >TISANAL1 DESPITE ! 9TRODUCTION ( NEW MA*9ES4 

,YET A GR[+ CORPS ( M]*ANT-MANUFACTUR]S TRI$ TO EVADE GUILD RE/RICTIONS BY BR++ !IR COTTON & WOOL 9TO ! C\NTRYSIDE1 :]E PEASANT >TISANS SPUN & WOVE ! RAW PRODUCE 9TO CLO? ON LOOMS [N$ BY ! MANUFACTUR]S4 ,!SE 0FACTORS10 AS ! COTTAGE 9DU/RY M]*ANTS W]E CALL$ 9 ,5GL&1 C\LD EASILY \TSELL GUILD >TISANS4 ,AT ,LYON1 :]E ! GUILD SY/EM HAD ESS5TIALLY COLLAPS$1 A FEW HUNDR$ RI* M]*ANTS CONTROLL$ ! GREAT SILK 9DU/RY ( ! CITY & ITS 5VIRONS1 :I* PROVID$ EMPLOYM5T TO AS MANY AS SIXTY-FIVE ?\S& WORK]S4 ,YET ?IS 9DU/RY TOO WAS PRIM>ILY >TISANAL4 ,SILK WAS PRODUC$ EI!R 9 SMALL %OPS OR 9 FAMILY COTTAGES LOCAT$ )9 A SIXTY-MILE RADIUS FROM ! C5T] ( ! CITY4 ,?US1 FACTORIES W]E F> FROM COMMON 9 ,FRANCE BE=E ! ,REVOLUTION2 MO/ WORK WAS DONE ON A SMALL CRAFTLIKE SCALE1 EV5 :]E WORK]S W]E ASSEMBL$ 9 L>GE NUMB]S 9 A SOCALL$ 09DU/RIAL0 >EA4 

,LA/LY1 ! CITIES ALSO CONTA9$ MANY M5 ( HI<LY UNC]TA9 OCCUPATIONS :O DEP5D$ UPON DAY-TO-DAY E>N+S1 AS WELL AS A HO/ ( S]VANTS1 SMALL RETAIL]S1 SU* AS GROC]S & CAFE-[N]S1 & TRANSPORT WORK]S FROM :>FSM5 TO WAT] C>RI]S4 ,BEGG>S AB\ND$ EV]Y:]E1 ROAM+ ON C\NTRY ROADS & FILL+ CITY /REETS4 ,! CRAZY QUILT ( PR]EVOLUTION>Y LAWS PROVID$ A LIVELIHOOD = A HO/ ( LAWY]S1 :O NOT ONLY PLEAD$ CRIM9AL CASES BUT1 9 F> GREAT] NUMB]S1 DREW UP CONTRACTS1 MORTGAG$ L&S1 & VALIDAT$ OR *ALL5G$ PEASANT & FEUDAL RI<TS4 ,IT WAS !Y :O LOOK$ ?R\< ! OLD FEUDAL DE$S ?AT /ILL CON/ITUT$ ! BASIS = WEAL?1 & !Y :O C\LD BE> TE/IMONY TO ! BURD5S ?AT *OK$ ! LIFE \T ( A POT5TIALLY PROSP]\S C\NTRY4 ,9DE$1 DESPITE ! FACT ?AT !IR V]Y LIVELIHOOD DEP5D$ ON ! SKE9 ( LEGAL >*AISMS1 ! MO/ E>NE/ ( !M BEGAN TO OPPOSE FEUDAL SY/EMS ( L& T5URE & PRIVILEGE1 9 EFFECT CON/ITUT+ ! PRACTICAL M5 ( ! ,5LI<T5M5T--M5 ( ACTION :O1 IDEALI/ICALLY OR DEMAGOGICALLY AS ! CASE MAY BE1 TRI$ TO GIVE REALITY TO ! IDEAS ADVANC$ BY ! ,FR5* PHILOSOPHES4 ,AS WE %ALL SEE1 !Y BECAME ! ,REVOLUTION'S MO/ \T/&+ POLITICAL LEAD]S & CON/ITUTION-MAK]S4 

,ANY ATTEMPT TO F9D A %>$ B\RGEOIS 9T]E/ 9 ! MANY CROSS-CURR5TS ?AT M>K$ ,FR5* SOCIAL LIFE COLLAPSES 9 ! WIDELY DISP>ATE DIFF]5CES ?AT PITT$ ONE /RATUM ( SOCIETY AGA9/ ANO!R1 FROM ! BASE ( SOCIETY TO ITS APEX4 ,9DE$1 :5 ! EM95T HI/ORIAN ( ! ,REVOLUTION ,GEORGES ,LEFEBVRE TRI$ TO DEF9E ! EI<TE5?-C5TURY ,FR5* B\RGEOIS1 HE WAS OBLIG$ TO DIVIDE !M 9TO FIVE CATEGORIES--EA* ( :I*1 9 FACT1 /OOD V]Y MU* AT ODDS ) ! O!RS4 0,B\RGEOIS0 L&$ PROPRIETORS :O US$ FEUDAL RI<TS TO !IR ADVANTAGE W\LD HAVE HAD V]Y LITTLE 9 COMMON ) ! 0B\RGEOIS0 LAWY]S :O =M$ SU* A SUB/ANTIAL P>T ( ! ,?IRD ,E/ATE 9 #a#g#h#i4 ,NOR W\LD !Y HAVE MU* 9 COMMON ) ! COMM]CIAL 0B\RGEOISIE10 = :OM ! MULTITUDE ( TOLLS W]E ON]\S TO TRADE4 0,B\RGEOIS0 (FICEHOLD]S 9 ! ROYAL ADM9I/RATION W\LD HAVE REG>D$ ! 0B\RGEOIS0 LAWY]S--IF B\RGEOIS !Y CAN BE CALL$ AT ALL--AS ! BANE ( !IR EXI/5CE1 & RALLI$ MORE TO ! MON>*Y1 TO :I* !Y [$ !IR /ATUS1 ?AN TO !IR 0REVOLUTION>Y0 CLASS COMPATRIOTS4 ,MORE FUNDAM5TALLY1 A 0B\RGEOIS0 :O WAS 5NOBL$ ?\<T OR TRI$ TO ?9K LIKE A NOBLE & WAS V]Y LIKELY TO CONCEAL HIS [N PA/ 9 COMM]CE4 ,TO SPEAK ( ?IS MELANGE AS A UNIFI$ B\RGEOISIE1 /ILL LESS ONE ) A PR(\ND AW>5ESS ( A DI/9CTIVE SOCIAL ROLE CLE>LY DIRECT$ T[>D ATTA9+ CLASS OBJECTIVES1 IS V]Y SIMPLI/IC4.<#b#d#g.> 

,! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION OCCURR$ NOT BECAUSE ( A RESOLUTE B\RGEOIS LEAD]%IP BUT (T5 9 SPITE (--& AGA9/--! CAPITALISM ?AT WAS SL[LY EM]G+ 9 WE/]N SOCIETY AS A :OLE4 ,?AT ! ,REVOLUTION WAS CLE>LY DIRECT$ ALSO AGA9/ ! >I/OCRACY IS UND5IABLE1 BUT IT CAN BE CALL$ B\RGEOIS ONLY BY READ+ ! HI/ORY ( \R TIME 9TO ! PA/ AS ! PR$E/9$ \TCOME ( :AT WAS AN AMBIGU\S SOCIAL DEVELOPM5T4 

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