,VOLUME #a1 ,P>T #c1 ,*APT] #ad 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,MURRAY ,BOOK*9 

,TEXT 3 

,*APT] #a#d4 ,%AYS'S ,REBELLION & ! ,CON/ITUTION ( #a<i 

,EV5 AFT] 9DEP5D5CE WAS A*IEV$1 PROM95T ,:IGS & RADICAL PATRIOTS CONT9U$ !IR BATTLE OV] :AT K9D ( REPUBLIC ! /ATES %\LD E/ABLI%4 ,MO/ ( ! MOD]ATE ,:IGS FAVOR$ A /RONG1 UNIT>Y1 C5TRALIZ$ REPUBLIC AFT] ! W> WAS OV]4 ,TO ! CAMP ( ,JOHN ,ADAMS1 ,JAMES ,WILSON1 & ,G\V]NEUR ,MORRIS W]E N[ ADD$ ,ALEX&] ,HAMILTON1 ,JAMES ,MADISON1 & ,JOHN ,JAY1 AS WELL AS MANY LESS] FIGURES4 ,SOME ( !SE M51 TO BE SURE1 W]E MORE C5TRALI/IC 9 !IR VIEWS3 ,HAMILTON & ,MORRIS1 9 FACT1 W\LD NOT HAVE BE5 AV]SE TO A CON/ITUTIONAL MON>*Y1 :]EAS ,ADAMS & ,MADISON M]ELY WANT$ AN OLIG>*ICAL REPUBLIC 9 :I* MA9LY M5 ( 0WEAL? & TAL5TS0 W\LD HOLD P[]--9 %ORT1 A REPUBLIC ?AT CONTA9$ *ECKS AGA9/ 0MOB RULE40 ,MANY PATRIOTS1 ON ! O!R H&1 FAVOR$ A QUASI-CONF$]AL REPUBLIC3 ,RI*>D ,H5RY ,LEE1 ,JOHN ,RUTL$GE1 ,*RI/OPH] ,GADSD51 ,?OMAS ,JEFF]SON1 ,PATRICK ,H5RY1 & ,SAMUEL ,ADAMS S\<T TO DEVOLVE REAL P[] ON TO ! /ATE GOV]NM5TS OR1 MORE PRECISELY1 ! /ATE LEGISLATURES4 

,NONE ( !SE P>TIES1 H[EV]1 FAVOR$ BUILD+ ! NEW REPUBLIC UPON ! 9/ITUTIONAL MA*9]Y ( ! ,REVOLUTION1 NOTABLY ! T[N MEET+S1 POPUL> ASSEMBLIES1 CONV5TIONS1 & ! F>-FLUNG COMMITTEE SY/EM4 ,/ILL LESS DID !Y WI% TO E/ABLI% A 0REVOLUTION 9 P]MAN5CE10 ) HI<] LEVELS ( AU?ORITY :OSE P[]S DIM9I%$ AS !IR SCOPE WID5$ & W]E FULLY ACC\NTABLE TO ! LOCAL COMMUNITIES1 9 :I* REAL P[] REPOS$4 ,FEW EV5 HELD ! WORD DEMOCRACY 9 HI< E/EEM1 AL?\< IT WAS TO 5T] 9TO COMMON USE AS TIME PASS$ BY4 ,! COMMITTEE SY/EM DISB&$ AS QUICKLY AS POSSIBLE ONCE ! /ATE GOV]NM5TS W]E 9 PLACE1 SOMETIMES EV5 BE=E HO/ILITIES CAME TO AN 5D4 ,9 ,P5NSYLVANIA1 ! RULE ( ! BACKWOODS F>M]S :O HAD UNSEAT$ ! ,QUAK] E/ABLI%M5T CAME TO AN 5D :5 ! RADICAL ,CON/ITUTION ( #aggf WAS REPLAC$ ) A BICAM]AL & GUB]NATORIAL /RUCTURE ?AT RE/OR$ ! PRIVILEGES ( ! ,PHILADELPHIA ELITE 9 #a#g#i4 ,AT ! SAME TIME1 /ATE GOV]NM5TS MADE RESOLUTE & L>GELY SUCCESSFUL EF=TS TO REPLACE ! T[N MEET+S & POPUL> ASSEMBLIES ) A SY/EM ( MAYORS & CITY C\NCILS4 ,ANY MAN1 WROTE ,GADSD51 0:ATEV] /ATION HIS C\NTRY MAY HAVE PUT HIM 9 DUR+ ! W>10 %\LD FALL 0*E]FULLY 9TO ! RANKS AGA9100SACRIFIC+ ALL444 RES5TM5TS & PRIVATE FEEL+S1 TO ! GOOD ( ! ,/ATE10 :OSE LEGISLATURES & GOV]NORS W]E TO BE 0UNTRAMMEL$0 BY CITIZ5S4.<#b#f.> ,*>LE/ON WAS DULY 9CORPORAT$ 9 #a#g#h#c1 FOLL[$ BY ,NEW ,HAV5 & T[NS 9 ,NEW ,J]SEY & ,VIRG9IA1 MANY ( :I* HAD E/ABLI%$ T[N-MEET+ =MS ( POLITICAL MANAGEM5T4 ,! TIDE ( CIVIC 9CORPORATION1 H[EV]1 WAS HALT$ 9 MU* ( ,NEW ,5GL&1 :]E ,SAM ,ADAMS & HIS SUPPORT]S ADAMANTLY RESCU$ ! ,BO/ON ,T[N ,MEET+ FROM :AT !Y REG>D$ AS ! 5CROA*M5T ( TYRANNY4 ,! CONFLICT OV] MUNICIPAL SELFGOV]NM5T WAS ESS5TIALLY A DUEL BETWE5 ! WEAL?Y & ! RELATIVELY POOR3 9 NE>LY ALL CASES ! COMM]CIAL & PATRICIAN /RATA ( ! POPULATION FURI\SLY OPPOS$ CIVIC DEMOCRACY1 :ILE LESS =TUNATE >TISANS1 LABOR]S1 RADICAL 9TELLECTUALS1 & F>M]S FIRMLY SUPPORT$ IT4 

,9 ,MASSA*USETTS1 DESPITE ! P]SI/5CE ( ! T[N MEET+S1 ! NEW /ATE CON/ITUTION--FRAM$ PRIM>ILY BY ,JOHN ,ADAMS1 N[ A CONS]VATIVE LAWY]1 & ,JAMES ,B[DO91 A H>D-FI/$ BUS9ESSMAN--RAIS$ PROP]TY QUALIFICATIONS = VOT+ BY #e P]C5T & REQUIR$ SIZABLE E/ATES = HOLD+ S5ATORIAL1 REPRES5TATIVE1 & GUB]NATORIAL (FICES4 ,?IS CON/ITUTION1 LIKE SO MANY O!RS1 CLE>LY REFLECT$ ! 9T]E/S ( ! M]*ANTS1 LAWY]S1 & WELL-TO-DO4 ,AS ,SAMUEL ,ELIOT ,MORISON OBS]VES10,! .<,MASSA*USETTS7 ,CON/ITUTION ( #a< WAS A LAWY]S' & M]*ANTS' CON/ITUTION1 DIRECT$ T[>D SOME?+ LIKE QU>T]DECK EFFICI5CY 9 GOV]NM5T1 & ! PROTECTION ( PROP]TY AGA9/ DEMOCRATIC PIRATES40.<#b#g.> ,ON ?IS SCORE1 ,MASSA*USETTS SUFF]$ SETBACKS AFT] ! ,REVOLUTION ?AT W]E NOT TO BE UNDONE = YE>S TO COME4 

,>,T,I,C,L,E,S ,( ,C,O,N,F,$,],A,T,I,O,N 

,AT ! NATIONAL LEVEL1 H[EV]1 IT WAS ! CONF$]ALI/S :O SEEM$ TO PREVAIL OV] ! C5TRALI/S 9 ! #a#g#hS4 ,[+ TO !IR YE>S ( /RUGGLE AGA9/ ! >BITR>Y P[] ( ! ,CR[N1 ,AM]ICANS HAD BECOME ACUTELY MI/RU/FUL ( ANY C5TRAL AU?ORITY1 :I* !Y /ILL ID5TIFI$ ) A S+LE EXECUTIVE4 ,! ,>TICLES ( ,CONF$]ATION1 DRAWN UP 9 ! HEAT ( ! REVOLUTION>Y CONFLICT & RATIFI$ 9 #a<a AS ! CON/ITUTIONAL DOCUM5T = 9T]/ATE COOP]ATION1 CREAT$ ONLY A LOOSE ALLIANCE BETWE5 ! /ATES1 GIV+ RISE1 9 EFFECT1 TO ?IRTE5 NEW & 9DEP5D5T REPUBLICS4 

,9 ?IS S5SE1 ! ,>TICLES CREAT$ A DEC5TRALIZ$ NATIONAL POLITY1 ALBEIT BY NO MEANS A DEMOCRACY BAS$ ON LOCAL BODIES & 5TITIES4 ,! SECOND >TICLE DECL>$ QUITE BLUNTLY1 0,EA* /ATE RETA9S ITS SOV]EIGNTY1 FRE$OM & 9DEP5D5CE1 & EV]Y P[]1 JURISDICTION1 & RI<T1 :I* IS NOT BY ?IS ,CONF$]ATION EXPRESSLY DELEGAT$ TO ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES 9 ,CONGRESS ASSEMBL$40 ,ITS CONF$]ATION CONGRESS HAD NOT ONLY LEGISLATIVE P[] BUT EXECUTIVE P[] AS WELL1 & ITS DELEGATES W]E 0ANNUALLY APPO9T$ 9 SU* MANN] AS ! LEGISLATURE ( EA* /ATE %ALL DIRECT444 ) A P[] RES]V$ TO EA* /ATE TO RECALL ITS DELEGATES1 OR ANY ( !M1 AT ANY TIME )9 ! YE>1 & TO S5D O!RS 9 !IR /EAD = ! REMA9D] ( ! YE>0 7,>TICLE #e74 ,EA* /ATE1 REG>DLESS ( SIZE1 HAD AT LEA/ TWO MEMB]S1 & 0NO P]SON %ALL BE CAPABLE ( BE+ A DELEGATE = MORE ?AN ?REE YE>S 9 ANY T]M ( SIX YE>S0 7,>TICLE #e74 ,! GOV]NM5T'S 0EXECUTIVE10 :I* MET ONLY BETWE5 SESSIONS ( ! ,CONGRESS1 CONSI/$ NOT ( AN 9DIVIDUAL PRESID5T BUT ( A ,COMMITTEE ( ! ,/ATES1 9 :I* EA* /ATE HAD ONE VOTE1 IRRESPECTIVE ( ITS SIZE OR POPULATION 7,>TICLE #i74 

,! ,CONF$]ATION 0C5TRAL GOV]NM5T0 WAS DEP5D5T UPON ! /ATE LEGISLATURES = ALMO/ EV]Y RES\RCE & AU?ORITY4 ,9 ?IS RESPECT1 ! NEW ,UNIT$ ,/ATES WAS NOT A TYPICAL NATION-/ATE4 ,EXPRESSLY =BIDD5 TO MA9TA9 A PR(ESSIONAL >MY1 ,CONGRESS RELI$ 5TIRELY UPON ! /ATES TO PROVIDE IT ) MILIT>Y =CES AS NE$ >OSE1 0= ! COMMON DEF5SE OR G5]AL WELF>E40 ,IT C\LD NOT CALL = A MOBILIZATION ( ! MILITIA & NAVAL =CES 0UNLESS N9E /ATES ASS5T TO ! SAME40 ,NOR C\LD ! ,CONGRESS LEVY TAXES OR COLLECT CU/OMS DUTIES UNLESS EV]Y /ATE AGRE$ TO IT 9 A UNANIM\S VOTE1 & !RE=E IT WAS 5TIRELY BEHOLD5 TO ! /ATE LEGISLATURES = F9ANCIAL RES\RCES4 ,IF A /ATE WAS DEL9QU5T 9 FULFILL+ A CONGRESSIONAL REQUE/ = REV5UE OR MILIT>Y =CES-- AS EV]Y /ATE WAS1 9 FACT--,CONGRESS C\LD NOT PUNI% IT4 ,NOR C\LD IT BORR[ FUNDS4 ,AL?\< IT C\LD ISSUE CURR5CY1 ! NATIONAL GOV]NM5T HAD NO CONTROL OV] CURR5CY & BANK+ 9 G5]AL S9CE ! /ATES C\LD ALSO ISSUE CURR5CY1 AS SEV5 ( !M ACTUALLY DID4 ,IT HAD NO P[] TO CONCLUDE COMM]CIAL TREATIES OR 9T]V5E 9 ANY DOME/IC AFFAIRS ( A /ATE1 EV5 9 ! FACE ( AN IMP5D+ CIVIL W>2 0NOR %ALL A QUE/ION ( ANY O!R PO9T444 BE DET]M9$1 UNLESS BY ! VOTES ( A MAJORITY ( ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES 9 ,CONGRESS ASSEMBL$40.<#b#h.> ,ONCE ! CONFLICT ) ,BRITA9 WAS WON1 ! /ATES W]E LESS 9CL9$ TO GRANT REQUE/S ?AT ! ,CONGRESS MADE & W]E 9CREAS+LY 9DIFF]5T TO ! ALLIANCE AS SU*1 REG>D+ !MSELVES AS SOV]EIGN REPUBLICS4 ,:ILE ! ,CONGRESS HAD RESPONSIBILITY = PAY+ (F ! 5ORM\S DEBT ?AT ! =M] COLONIES HAD 9CURR$ DUR+ !IR /RUGGLE1 ! /ATES W]E PREP>$ TO ALLOCATE IT ONLY V]Y MEAG] RES\RCES4 

,H[EV] ADAMANTLY ! ,>TICLES ( ,CONF$]ATION PRES]V$ /ATE P[]S AGA9/ C5TRAL AU?ORITY1 H[EV]1 ?IS SY/EM WAS NOT DEC5TRALIZ$ TO ! PO9T :]E P[] RE/$ 9 T[NS & C\NTIES4 ,S9CE ! ,>TICLES DEVOLV$ LEGAL P[] UPON ! /ATE LEGISLATURES1 POLITICAL AU?ORITY WAS DEF9$ MORE BY ! /ATE CON/ITUTIONS ?AN BY ! ,>TICLES !MSELVES4 ,9 ! S\!RN /ATES & EV5 9 ,MASSA*USETTS1 !IR CON/ITUTIONS W]E EXPRESSLY OLIG>*ICAL1 & ! LEGISLATURE USUALLY ELECT$ ! GOV]NOR 7:O C\LD NOT VETO LEGISLATIVE ACTS7 & EX]CIS$ COMPLETE CONTROL OV] ! C\RTS1 :OSE RUL+S W]E ESS5TIALLY SUBORD9AT$ TO ! LEGISLATURE4 ,AL?\< ! GOV]NOR C\LD APPO9T JUDGES1 HE ESS5TIALLY REMA9$ UND] ! LEGISLATURE'S CONTROL4 

,/ILL1 OLIG>*ICAL T5D5CIES (T5 9T]TW9$ ) REPUBLICAN ONES4 ,C\NT]VAIL+ ! P[] ( /ATE LEGISLATURES WAS ! CONSID]ABLE P[] 5JOY$ BY ! CITIZ5RY4 ,ELECTIONS W]E ANNUAL AFFAIRS1 & VOT]S CONSI/$ MA9LY ( 9DEP5D5T YEOM5 F>M]S1 MO/ ( :OM 5JOY$ A WIDELY EXT5D$ FRAN*ISE4 ,9 ,P5NSYLVANIA1 ,NOR? ,C>OL9A1 & ,NEW ,HAMP%IRE PROP]TY AS A QUALIFICATION = VOT+1 SACROSANCT DUR+ COLONIAL TIMES1 WAS REPLAC$ BY ! M]E FACT ( TAX PAYM5TS4 ,TYPICALLY1 ! ,NEW ,5GL& /ATES HAD A V]Y BROADLY BAS$ ELECTORATE2 AS E>LY AS #a#g#g#g1 ,V]MONT PLAC$ NO PROP]TY OR TAX QUALIFICATIONS ON ! MALE FRAN*ISE1 & IT WAS FOLL[$ %ORTLY AFT]W>DS BY ,P5NSYLVANIA & ,RHODE ,ISL&1 :I* MADE IT POSSIBLE = SU* RELATIVELY BROAD ELECTORATES TO *ANGE LEGISLATURES V]Y EASILY IF !Y SO *OSE4 

,AL?\< 0F>M]S BY NO MEANS VOT$ AGA9/ ! ,AM]ICAN >I/OCRACY1 = MANY ( !M W]E EQUALLY CONS]VATIVE ON MANY ISSUES10 AS ,M]RILL ,J5S5 OBS]VES1 /ILL1 0:]E AGR>IAN 9T]E/S W]E 9VOLV$ 9 SU* MATT]S AS LOCAL SELF-GOV]NM5T1 PAP] MONEY1 & DEBT COLLECTION POLICIES1 !Y C\LD & DID \TVOTE ! M9ORITY0--?AT IS1 ! M]*ANTS1 F9ANCI]S1 & TRADESM5 9 ! L>GE CITIES4 

,& 9 SU* CASES1 !RE WAS NO C5TRAL GOV]NM5T TO :I* A H>D-PRESS$ M9ORITY C\LD APPEAL = HELP2 ! GOV]NORS HAD NO VETO2 ! C\RTS W]E WEAK4 ,?US ! ,AM]ICAN ,REVOLUTION MADE POSSIBLE ! DEMOCRATIZATION ( ,AM]ICAN SOCIETY BY ! DE/RUCTION ( ! CO]CIVE AU?ORITY ( ,GREAT ,BRITA9 & ! E/ABLI%M5T ( ACTUAL LOCAL SELF-GOV]NM5T )9 ! SEP>ATE /ATES UND] ! ,>TICLES ( ,CONF$]ATION4.<#b#i.> 

,N,E,W,B,U,R,< 

,! CONS]VATIVE ,:IGS F\ND ! POLITY CREAT$ BY ! ,>TICLES ( ,CONF$]ATION :OLLY UNACCEPTABLE1 & ! OLD UNABAT$ FE>S ( 0MOB RULE0 AMONG ! COMM]CIAL CLASSES & !IR SPOKESM5 RESURFAC$ ) P>TICUL> ACUT5ESS AFT] ! W>4 ,ONCE ! FI<T+ ESS5TIALLY CAME TO AN 5D 9 #a#g#h#a1 ELITI/ REACTION>IES SU* AS ,ALEX&] ,HAMILTON & ,G\V]NEUR ,MORRIS W]E RESOLV$ TO UNDO ! NEWLY A*IEV$ REPUBLIC BY E/ABLI%+ A MON>*Y OR1 FAIL+ ?AT1 BY PLAC+ ! /ATES UND] MILIT>Y RULE4 

,TO ?IS 5D1 !Y TRI$ TO EXPLOIT WIDESPREAD DISAFFECTION 9 ! >MY4 ,DESPITE ! ,CONT95TAL ,>MY'S DEF9ITIVE VICTORY AT ,YORKT[N 9 #a#g#h#a1 ! SOLDI]S HAD RECEIV$ LITTLE OR NO?+ 9 ! WAY ( PAY = F\R OR EV5 SIX YE>S4 ,WA%+TON PLEAD$ ) ! ,CONF$]ATION ,CONGRESS = MONEY TO PAY HIS TROOPS !IR WAGES & TO GIVE !M ! P5SIONS ?AT !Y HAD BE5 PROMIS$ DUR+ ! FI<T+4 ,BUT NO FUNDS W]E =?COM+4 ,UNPAID1 P5URI\S1 & UNC]TA9 ( !IR FUTURE1 ! NEGLECT$ SOLDI]S FELT UNAPPRECIAT$ BY ! PEOPLE :OSE LIB]TY !Y HAD SACRIFIC$ SO MU* TO DEF5D4 

,AFT] ,YORKT[N ! AGGRIEV$ >MY1 TOGE!R ) A MILITANT GR\P ( (FIC]S1 HAD COLLECT$ >\ND >MY HEADQU>T]S AT ,NEWBUR<1 ,NEW ,YORK4 ,9/EAD ( RETURN+ HOME TO ,M\NT ,V]NON1 ,WA%+TON REMA9$ ) HIS TROOPS & TRI$ TO EASE !IR SEMIMUT9\S /ATE ( M9D4 ,AL?\< HE DISPAT*$ A COMMITTEE ( (FIC]S TO ,PHILADELPHIA TO EXPRESS ! SOLDI]S' DISILLUSIONM5T TO ,CONGRESS & AGA9 DEM& ?AT IT FULFILL ITS F9ANCIAL COMMITM5TS TO !M1 ! BANKRUPT ,CONGRESS C\LD DO NO?+4 ,9DE$1 JU/ AFT] ! COMMITTEE >RIV$1 A BILL ?AT W\LD HAVE ALL[$ IT TO COLLECT ITS [N TAXES WAS DEFEAT$ :5 TWO /ATES VOT$ AGA9/ IT4 

,:ILE !Y W]E 9 ,PHILADELPHIA1 ! (FIC]S ON ! COMMITTEE CONF]R$ ) ! F9ANCI]S ,G\V]NEUR & ,ROB]T ,MORRIS1 :O W]E 9T]E/$ 9 GETT+ ,CONGRESS TO MAKE GOOD ON ! DEBT C]TIFICATES ?AT !Y HELD4 ,AFT] EXPLOR+ !IR COMMON GR\ND1 ! (FIC]S & F9ANCI]S AGRE$ ?AT ! >MY %\LD NOT DISB& UNTIL IT HAD BE5 PAID1 & IF IT W]E NOT PAID1 ! (FIC]S %\LD USE ! MILIT>Y TO E/ABLI% A /RONG C5TRAL GOV]NM5T1 :I* C\LD MEET ITS DEM&S--&1 NE$LESS TO EMPHASIZE1 ?OSE ( ! GOV]NM5T'S CR$ITORS4 ,= ! >MY (FIC]S1 ! SUCCESS ( ?IS PLAN DEP5D$ UPON ! COOP]ATION ( ,G5]AL ,WA%+TON1 :O ! CONSPIRATORS EAG]LY HOP$ W\LD AGREE TO LEAD ! >MY1 LIKE A PROTOTYPICAL ,BONAP>TE1 DISB& ! ,CONGRESS & ! /ATE LEGISLATURES1 & P]HAPS EV5 BECOME A CON/ITUTIONAL MON>*4 

,! TASK ( GA9+ ,WA%+TON'S SUPPORT = ?IS C\NT]REVOLUTION FELL TO ,ALEX&] ,HAMILTON4 ,9 MID-,FEBRU>Y #a#g#h#c1 ,HAMILTON1 FOLL[+ A C>ROT-&/ICK POLICY1 S5T A C>EFULLY COMPOS$ LETT] TO ,WA%+TON AT ,NEWBUR< W>N+ HIM ?AT ! ,CONGRESS C\LD NOT PAY ! SOLDI]S1 & ?AT :5 ?IS BECAME CLE> ! FOLL[+ ,JUNE1 ! >MY W\LD TAKE UP >MS 0TO PROCURE JU/ICE TO ITSELF40.<#b#a.> ,IT W\LD DO ?IS ) OR )\T ,WA%+TON1 ,HAMILTON W>N$1 BUT HE %REWDLY ADD$ ! PR$ICTION ?AT )\T ,WA%+TON1 0! DIFFICULTY WILL BE TO KEEP A COMPLA9+ & SUFF]+ >MY )9 ! B\NDS ( MOD]ATION40 ,! F> PREF]ABLE ALT]NATIVE1 HE URG$ ,WA%+TON1 W\LD BE = ! G5]AL TO LEAD HIS TROOPS 9 TAK+ CONTROL OV] ! C\NTRY HIMSELF & E/ABLI% A SY/EM ( TAXATION ?AT 0CAN DO JU/ICE TO ! CR$ITORS ( ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES40.<#b#a#a.> ,MON>*Y WAS ! SY/EM ( GOV]NM5T ?AT WAS MO/ KN[N TO HI/ORY & MO/ COMMON 9 ! WORLD TODAY1 ,HAMILTON >GU$2 9 ACCEPT+ ! (F] TO BECOME K+1 ,WA%+TON W\LD M]ELY BE ADH]+ TO ! NORM ( ! TIMES4 

,ONE ( ,WA%+TON'S [N CONFID5TIAL CORRESPOND5TS1 ,JOSEPH ,JONES1 CONFIRM$ = HIM ?AT DANG] WAS 9DE$ V]Y REAL 9 ! >MY4 ,! G5]AL'S REPUTATION ) ! M5 HE COMM&$1 ,JONES W>N$1 WAS BE+ SY/EMATICALLY UND]M9$ BY 0DANG]\S COMB9ATIONS 9 ! >MY10 SO ?AT %\LD ,WA%+TON REFUSE TO GO ALONG ) ! C\P PLAN1 0! WEI<T ( Y\R OPPOSITION WILL PROVE NO OB/ACLE TO !IR AMBITI\S DESIGNS0 & IT C\LD BE C>RI$ \T )\T HIM4 ,:5 ,WA%+TON 9VE/IGAT$ ! SITUATION HIMSELF1 HE F\ND ?AT ,JONES WAS CORRECT2 ! MOOD ( ! SOLDI]S WAS MORE REBELLI\S ?AN HE HAD SUPPOS$4.<#b#a#b.> 

,TO HIS LA/+ CR$IT1 ,WA%+TON 9 ,M>* REJECT$ ,HAMILTON'S PROPOSAL 9 ! FIRME/ POSSIBLE T]MS & REFUS$ TO LEAD AN 5T]PRISE ?AT W\LD BE 0PRODUCTIVE ( CIVIL COMMOTIONS & 5D 9 BLOOD40 0,I %ALL PURSUE ! SAME /EADY C\RSE ( CONDUCT :I* HAS GOV]N$ ME HI!RTO10 HE WROTE2 0FULLY CONV9C$ ?AT ! S5SIBLE & DISC]N+ P>T ( ! >MY CANNOT BE UNACQUA9T$ 7AL?\< ,I NEV] TOOK PA9S TO 9=M !M7 ( ! S]VICES ,I HAVE R5D]$ IT ON MORE OCCASIONS ?AN ONE40.<#b#a#c.> 

,ONCE ! CONSPIRATORS REALIZ$ ?AT !Y W\LD HAVE TO BYPASS ,WA%+TON1 ! 0DANG]\S COMB9ATIONS )9 ! >MY0 ( :I* ,JONES W>N$ GREW RAPIDLY 9 NUMB]S & DECISIV5ESS4 ,UNSIGN$ LIT]ATURE CIRCULAT$ ?R\<\T ,NEWBUR< DEPRECAT+ ! G5]AL HIMSELF & CALL+ = A MASS MEET+ ( ! (FIC]S TO DISCUSS ! UPCOM+ MILIT>Y C\P4 ,FRU/RAT$ BY HIS [N 9ABILITY TO HELP HIS SOLDI]S GA9 ! PAY !Y W]E [$1 ,WA%+TON NONE!LESS FELT ?AT HE HAD 0TO >RE/ ON ! SPOT ! FOOT ?AT /OOD WAV]+ ON A TREM5D\S PRECIPICE40 ,TO HEAD (F ! UPCOM+ MASS MEET+1 HE ANN\NC$ A MEET+ ( HIS [N AT ,NEWBUR<1 = ,M>* #a#e1 #a#g#h#c4 0,?IS WAS PROBABLY ! MO/ IMPORTANT S+LE GA!R+ EV] HELD 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES10 WRITES ,WA%+TON'S BIOGRAPH]1 ,JAMES ,?OMAS ,FLEXN].<#b#a#d.>--A DECISION BY ! G5]AL ?AT PROBABLY RESCU$ ! ,REVOLUTION FROM DEFEAT & ! =M] COLONIES FROM DOME/IC MON>*ICAL RULE4 

,AL?\< ,WA%+TON H9T$ TO HIS (FIC]S ?AT HE W\LD NOT ATT5D ! MEET+ HE HAD CALL$1 HIS SUDD5 APPE>ANCE ON/AGE TOOK ! REBELLI\S (FIC]S 9 ATT5DANCE ABACK4 ,HE TOLD HIS ANGRY M5 ?AT ! C\NTRY 9 :I* !Y W]E BE+ ASK$ TO E/ABLI% A TYRANNY WAS ?AT ( 0\R WIVES1 \R *ILDR51 \R F>MS & O!R PROP]TY10 & HE IMPLOR$ !M NOT TO 0DELUGE \R RIS+ EMPIRE 9 BLOOD40 ,BUT !IR FACES REMA9$ /ONILY IMPASSIVE4 ,HE !N TOOK \T A LETT] FROM A CONGRESSMAN ?AT HE WANT$ TO READ1 BUT HE C\LD NOT SEE IT WELL 5\< & SO HAD TO PUT ON HIS SPECTACLES4 ,HIS M5 HAD NEV] SE5 HIM WE> !M BE=E4 0,I HAVE NOT ONLY GR[N GRAY BUT ALMO/ BL9D 9 ! S]VICE ( MY C\NTRY10 HE QUIETLY EXPLA9$4 ,HIS MOM5T>Y HELPLESSNESS COMPLETELY WON OV] ! HE>TS ( HIS M51 :O GA!R$ >\ND HIM & WEPT ) CONTRITION OV] ! FRAILTY ( !IR COMM&]4 ,! CONSPIRACY SIMPLY DISSOLV$4 0,! MOD]ATION & VIRTUE ( A S+LE *>ACT]10 ,?OMAS ,JEFF]SON LAT] WROTE1 0PROBABLY PREV5T$ ?IS ,REVOLUTION FROM BE+ CLOS$1 AS MO/ O!RS HAVE BE51 BY A SUBV]SION ( ?AT LIB]TY IT WAS 9T5D$ TO E/ABLI%40.<#b#a#e.> 

,%,A,Y,S',S ,R,E,B,E,L,L,I,O,N 

,! ABORT$ C\P /ILL LEFT ! DEC5TRALIZ$ ,CONF$]ATION ,CONGRESS & ! ,>TICLES ( ,CONF$]ATION 9 PLACE1 & ! REPUBLIC'S WEAL?Y CR$ITORS LOA!D IT ALL ! MORE ONCE ! PROSPECT ( *ANG+ ! CONF$]AL GOV]NM5T SEEM$ TO BE PO/PON$ 9DEF9ITELY4 ,ALL ! DIFFICULTIES ?AT ! REPUBLIC FAC$ W]E PORTRAY$ BY !SE M5 AS /EMM+ FROM ! ,>TICLES1 & LAT] NATIONALI/ OR SO-CALL$ 0F$]ALI/0 HI/ORIANS ( ! ,REVOLUTION W]E TO PA9T ! ,CONF$]ATION ]A 9 ! D>KE/ COLORS4 ,9 FACT1 ! #a#g#hS WAS A P]IOD ( M>K$ IF UNEV5 RECOV]Y FROM W>TIME DISLOCATIONS4 ,TRADE BETWE5 ! ,AM]ICAN PORT CITIES & ,EUROPE BEGAN TO REVIVE SOON AFT] ! 5D ( HO/ILITIES1 & ) ! ,PEACE ,TREATY ( ,SEPTEMB] #a#g#h#c--9 :I* ,HIS ,BRITANNIC ,MAJE/Y RECOGNIZ$ HIS =M] COLONIES AS 0FREE1 SOV]EIGN & 9DEP5D5T0--,AM]ICAN %IPS W]E F> FRE] TO TRADE ?AN !Y HAD BE5 UND] ! IMP]IAL SY/EM4 ,! S\!RN ECONOMY1 TOO1 RECOV]$ RAPIDLY3 ITS TOBACCO1 9DIGO1 & RAW MAT]IALS W]E DIRELY NE$$ BY ! ,BRITI%1 & A BRISK TRADE DEVELOP$ BETWE5 ! TWO =M] 5EMIES4 

,! POPULATION 9 & >\ND ,BO/ON 9 P>TICUL> WAS BASICALLY ORI5T$ T[>D A M>KET ECONOMY1 FUEL$ BY GR[+ OPPORTUNITIES = PR(IT & EXPANSION4 ,DUR+ ! ,CONF$]ATION1 ,BO/ON WAS NO MORE AN 9DU/RIAL T[N ?AN O!R ,AM]ICAN T[NS & CITIES1 AL?\< ,5GLI% ME?ODS ( MASS MANUFACTURE W]E BEG9N+ TO P5ETRATE ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES2 BUT UNLIKE 9 MU* ( RURAL ,AM]ICA1 MONEY RA!R ?AN B>T] WAS ! PR9CIPAL MEANS ( EX*ANGE1 & 9CREAS+LY ONE'S NE$S W]E SUPPLI$ BY PUR*AS+ GOODS ?AT O!RS HAD PRODUC$ ) !IR LABOR RA!R ?AN BY HOMEMADE GOODS4 ,! CITY'S POPULATION CONSI/$ L>GELY ( M]*ANTS1 >TISANS1 SPECULATORS1 & A HO/ ( PR(ESSIONALS2 IT WAS CLE>LY A COMM]CIAL T[N :OSE AU!NTIC CONC]N WAS BUS9ESS & ECONOMIC GR[?4 

,BY CONTRA/1 ! BACKC\NTRY AGR>IAN CULTURE WAS RADICALLY DIFF]5T FROM ?AT ( ! SEABO>D T[NS4 ,! F>M]S :O HAD SETTL$ 9 C5TRAL & WE/]N ,MASSA*USETTS HAD DEVELOP$ A MODE/ SUBSI/5CE AGRICULTURE ?AT ALL[$ !M TO BE ALMO/ :OLLY SELF-SUFFICI5T & REQUIR$ LITTLE1 IF ANY1 CURR5CY4 ,! YEOMAN :O REM>K$ ?AT HE C\LD ACQUIRE 0A GOOD LIV+ ON ! PRODUCE ( .<HIS F>M.>0 = HIMSELF & HIS 5TIRE FAMILY WAS NOT UNUSUAL4 0,NO?+ TO WE>1 EAT OR DR9K WAS PUR*AS$1 AS MY F>M PROVID$ ALL40.<#b#a#f.> ,SU* YEOM51 TO BE SURE1 USUALLY PRODUC$ SMALL CROP SURPLUSES = ! M>KET1 :I* !Y TOOK TO %OPKEEP]S 9 ,DE]FIELD & ,NOR?AMPTON TO EX*ANGE = GLASS1 GUNP[D]1 IRON1 M$ICAL SUPPLIES1 & ! LIKE1 BUT !SE TRANSACTIONS G5]ALLY TOOK ! =M ( B>T] RA!R ?AN MONET>Y EX*ANGES1 9 :I* FOOD/UFFS & HOMESPUN CLO? W]E TRAD$ (F = ITEMS CRAFT$ BY NE>BY >TISANS OR 9 DI/ANT CITIES4 

,9 ?IS RESPECT1 ! H\SEHOLD BUDGET ( A YEOMAN FAMILY 9 ,:ATELY1 ,MASSA*USETTS1 DESCRIB$ BY ,DAVID ,P4 ,SZATM>Y1 WAS NE>LY AUT>*ICAL3 

,9 #a#g#h#d1 TW5TY-N9E-YE>-OLD F>M] ,PAUL ,SMI? HAD ?REE DEP5D5TS & [N$ FIFTY-SIX ACRES ( L&1 AN OX1 TWO C[S1 & SIX SW9E4 ,TO FE$ HIMSELF & HIS FAMILY = A FULL YE>1 HE NE$$ R\<LY #f BU%ELS ( FL\R1 #e P\NDS ( PORK1 #b P\NDS ( BEEF1 FLAX = MAK+ CLO!S1 & SMALL AM\NTS ( PEAS1 TURNIPS1 POTATOES1 FRUIT1 & C>ROTS TO R\ND \T HIS FAMILY'S DIET4 ,9 ADDITION1 HE NE$$ GRA9 = SE$ TO BE PLANT$ ! FOLL[+ YE>1 ANO!R #af BU%ELS ( CORN TO FE$ ! C[S1 SOME GRA9 TO PAY ! CO/ ( MILL+ GRA9 9TO FL\R1 & AB\T #e TONS ( HAY = ! OX & ! C[S4.<#b#a#g.> 

,MOREOV]1 ,SMI? LIV$ \TSIDE ! M>KET ECONOMY3 

.<,HE.> UTILIZ$ ONLY 5\< L& TO MEET !SE IMM$IATE NE$S4 ,AL?\< HE HAD ! *ANCE TO GR[ MORE SURPLUS CROPS = M>KET1 GIV5 HIS FIFTY-SIX ACRES ( L&1 ! LABOR ( HIMSELF & HIS WIFE1 & ! CLOSE PROXIMITY ( ,:ATELY TO ! ,CONNECTICUT ,RIV]1 HE G5]ALLY US$ ONLY ! L& & LABOR NECESS>Y = %ORTRANGE REQUIREM5TS4.<#b#a#h.> 

,SU* EI<TE5?-C5TURY ,NEW ,5GL& YEOM51 :O F>M$ MA9LY TO MA9TA9 !MSELVES & !IR FAMILIES 9 REASONABLE COM=T1 LACK$ ANY ORI5TATION T[>D COMM]CE OR 9NOVATION & FOLL[$ V]Y TRADITIONAL CU/OMS !Y HAD 9H]IT$ FROM !IR FA!RS4 ,CULTIVAT+ ONLY 5\< TO MEET HIS FAMILY'S SIMPLE NE$S & 5JOY+ FRE$OM FROM S]VITUDE TO O!RS1 ! BACKC\NTRY YEOMAN LIV$ 9 A PREM>KET CULTURE ?AT FO/]$ A /RONG S5SE ( 9DIVIDUALITY1 MORAL PROBITY1 & A /URDY WILL+NESS TO DEF5D HIS 9DEP5D5CE FROM \TSIDE COMM]CIAL 9T]LOP]S4 ,?IS CONDITION ( NE>-AUT>*Y1 H[EV]1 WAS NOT 9DIVIDUALI/IC2 RA!R IT MADE = /RONG COMMUNITY 9T]DEP5D5CE4 0,AL?\< PRID+ !MSELVES ON !IR AUTONOMY10 ,SZATM>Y OBS]VES1 

YEOM5 LIV$ 9 A COMMUNITY-DIRECT$ CULTURE4 ,DUR+ PLANT+ & H>VE/+1 FAMILY & FRI5DS EAS$ !IR BACKBREAK+ WORK4 ,! 9DEP5D5T /ATUS ( YEOM51 !N1 RESULT$ 9 NEI!R SELF-SUFFICI5CY NOR A BASICALLY COMPETITIVE SOCIETY BUT L$1 RA!R1 TO COOP]ATIVE1 COMMUNITY-ORI5T$ 9T]*ANGES4.<#b#a#i.> 

,9 FACT1 ! 9DEP5D5CE ?AT ! ,NEW ,5GL& YEOMANRY 5JOY$ WAS ITSELF A FUNCTION ( ! COOP]ATIVE SOCIAL BASE FROM :I* IT EM]G$4 ,TO B>T] HOMEGR[N GOODS & OBJECTS1 TO %>E TOOLS & IMPLEM5TS1 TO 5GAGE 9 COMMON LABOR DUR+ H>VE/+ TIME 9 A SY/EM ( MUTUAL AID1 9DE$1 TO HELP NEWCOM]S 9 B>N-RAIS+1 CORN-HUSK+1 LOG-ROLL+1 & ! LIKE1 WAS ! 9DISP5SABLE CEM5T ?AT B\ND SCATT]$ F>M/EADS 9TO A UNIT$ COMMUNITY4 

,= BETT] OR WORSE1 H[EV]1 ?IS CULTURE C\LD NOT RESI/ ! IMPACT ( ! \TSIDE WORLD4 ,9 ! E>LY #a#g#hS1 ! M>KET ECONOMY BEGAN TO P5ETRATE 9L& TO C5TRAL & WE/]N ,MASSA*USETTS1 SL[LY LOCK+ ! YEOMAN CULTURE 9 :AT ,SZATM>Y CALLS A 0*A9 ( DEBT COLLECTIONS40 ,! 0*A90 />T$ ABROAD1 :5 MAJOR ,5GLI% %IPP]S TO ,AM]ICA DEM&$ PAYM5T ( ! LOANS !Y HAD PREVI\SLY EXT5D$ TO ,BO/ON M]*ANTS4 ,!SE %IPP]S REFUS$ TO ACCEPT ANY?+ BUT SPECIE--?AT IS1 GOLD OR SILV] CO9--9 PAYM5T1 S9CE PAP] CURR5CY HAD BECOME VIRTUALLY WOR?LESS4 ,BUT SPECIE WAS RELATIVELY R>E AMONG W>-/RICK5 ,YANKEE M]*ANTS1 MAK+ IT EXTREMELY DIFFICULT = !M TO PAY (F DEBTS4 ,BY DEM&+ CO9AGE 9 PAYM5T = !IR GOODS1 ,5GLI% %IPP]S PLAC$ AN 5ORM\S BURD5 ON ,AM]ICAN M]*ANTS1 :O PASS$ IT ON TO TRAD]S ALONG ! ,CONNECTICUT ,RIV]1 COMPELL+ !M TO DEM& SPECIE ON ! LOANS !Y HAD MADE TO RETAIL %OPKEEP]S 9 ,DE]FIELD & ,NOR?AMPTON4.<#b#b.> 

,/&+ AT ! 5D ( ?IS 0*A9 ( DEBT COLLECTIONS10 ! YEOMANRY W]E N[ CAJOL$ BY LOCAL %OPKEEP]S NOT ONLY TO PUR*ASE MORE GOODS ?AN !Y HAD 9 ! PA/ BUT TO MAKE ALL !IR PAYM5TS & MEET ALL !IR DEBTS 9 MONEY RA!R ?AN B>T]4 ,S9CE ! F>M]S LACK$ MONEY1 ! %OPKEEP]S GRANT$ !M %ORT-T]M CR$IT = !IR PUR*ASES4 ,9 TIME1 MANY F>M]S BECAME SIGNIFICANTLY 9DEBT$ & C\LD NOT PAY (F :AT !Y [$1 LEA/ ( ALL 9 SPECIE1 :I* WAS :AT EV]YONE ALONG ! 0*A9 ( DEBT COLLECTIONS0 DEM&$--& SIGNIFICANTLY LACK$4 

,BY ! LATE #a#g#hS1 ?IS 0*A90 BEGAN S]I\SLY TO JEOP>DIZE ! TRADITIONAL1 BASICALLY 9DEP5D5T WAY ( LIFE ( ! YEOM51 :O FAC$ ! LOSS ( !IR F>MS TO M]*ANTS & SPECULATORS 9 DEBT COLLECTIONS4 ,) !IR CR$ITORS PRESS+ !M = SPECIE1 M]*ANTS & %OPKEEP]S FLOOD$ ! C\RTS ) SUITS DEM&+ ! REPAYM5T ( !IR LOANS TO F>M]S4 ,MANY F>M]S W]E DISPOSSESS$ ( !IR L&HOLD+S1 CATTLE1 IMPLEM5TS1 HOMES1 & EV5 FURNITURE1 VALUABLES !Y HAD USUALLY CRAFT$ ) !IR [N H&S2 & IF ! DISPOSSESS$ GOODS ( A YEOMAN W]E 9ADEQUATE TO PAY HIS DEBTS1 HE WAS LIKELY TO BE IMPRISON$4 ,BETWE5 ,AUGU/ #a<d & ,AUGU/ #a#g#h#f1 ! DOCKET ( ! ,MASSA*USETTS ,C\RT ( ,COMMON ,PLEAS CONTA9$ NE>LY ?REE ?\S& DEBT CASES FROM ,HAMP%IRE ,C\NTY ALONE1 OV] TWO & A HALF TIMES MORE ?AN 9 #a#g#g-#g#b4 ,AT LEA/ #ca P]C5T ( ! C\NTY'S MALE CITIZ5S OV] SIXTE5 YE>S OLD W]E SWEPT UP 9TO ?IS WAVE ( PROSECUTIONS1 & COMP>ABLE P]C5TAGES CAN BE CIT$ = ,ESSEX1 ,BRI/OL1 & ,B]K%IRE C\NTIES4 ,NOR WAS ,MASSA*USETTS ALONE 9 ! WAVE ( PROSECUTIONS3 OV] A FIF? ( ,CONNECTICUT TAXPAY]S W]E HAUL$ 9TO C\RT = 9DEBT$NESS 9 #a#g#h#f1 & SU* CASES W]E ALSO NUM]\S 9 ,NEW ,HAMP%IRE & ,V]MONT4 

,AS IF TO DEEP5 ! YEOMANRY'S \TRAGE1 ! ,MASSA*USETTS ,G5]AL ,C\RT HAD BIAS$ ! /ATE'S TAX COLLECTION SY/EM T[>D ! COMM]CIAL CLASSES ( ! SEABO>D T[NS1 IMPOS+ ! LION'S %>E ( ! TAX BURD5 ON L& RA!R ?AN ON SALABLE /OCK4 ,NE$LESS TO SAY1 TAXES1 LIKE DEBT PAYM5TS1 W]E G5]ALLY DEM&$ 9 SPECIE4 ,! YEOMANRY1 MANY ( :OM W]E VET]ANS :O HAD BE5 DIS*>G$ FROM ! >MY ) PAP] CURR5CY1 IF !Y W]E PAID AT ALL1 W]E PLAC$ 9 AN 9TOL]ABLE POSITION3 NOT ONLY W]E !Y REQUIR$ TO PAY (F IMPOSSIBLE DEBTS1 BUT !Y W]E ALSO BE+ ASK$ TO C>RY ! MAJOR TAX BURD5 ( !IR RESPECTIVE /ATES4 

,PRECISELY BECAUSE MANY ( ! F>M]S W]E VET]ANS ( ! ,REVOLUTION1 !Y W]E H>DLY WILL+ TO SIT BY & ALL[ CITY 5TREPR5EURS TO DEPRIVE !M ( !IR *]I%$ LIFEWAYS4 ,A SPONTANE\S MOVEM5T ( RESI/ANCE BROKE \T AMONG ! YEOMANRY 9 :I* !Y BEGAN TO REPLICATE !IR BEHAVIOR 9 OPPOSITION TO ! ,9TOL]ABLE ,ACTS ( ,M>*-,JUNE #a#g#g#d--MU* TO ! CON/]NATION ( ! ]/:ILE ,:IGS1 :O HAD 5C\RAG$ !SE V]Y ACTIONS A DECADE E>LI] AGA9/ ! ,BRITI%4 ,CALLS N[ W5T \T 9 T[N MEET+S ?R\<\T ,MASSA*USETTS1 ,V]MONT1 & ,NEW ,HAMP%IRE = C\NTY CONV5TIONS1 :I* W]E *ILL+LY R$OL5T ( ! ASSEMBLIES ?AT HAD L$ TO ! ,REVOLUTION A DECADE E>LI]4 ,9ITIALLY1 ! ASSEMBLIES' DEM&S W]E BY NO MEANS REVOLUTION>Y4 ,9 ,MASSA*USETTS1 !Y M]ELY ASK$ ?AT ! /ATE ISSUE PAP] MONEY &1 TO PROVIDE DEBT RELIEF1 RECOGNIZE GOODS AS A LEGITIMATE =M ( DEBT PAYM5T4 ,NE>LY A ?IRD ( ALL ! T[NS 9 ! /ATE S5T PETITIONS TO ! ,G5]AL ,C\RT ) SU* DEM&S1 :ILE COMP>ABLE ACTIONS W]E TAK5 9 ,V]MONT & ,NEW ,HAMP%IRE4 

,! URBAN COMM]CIAL ELITES ADAMANTLY RESI/$ !SE PEACEFUL PETITIONS2 9DE$1 !Y >ROGANTLY VIEW$ !M AS APPEALS FROM AN >*AIC RURAL WORLD ?AT LACK$ A FULL APPRECIATION ( ! SANCTITY ( CONTRACT & METALLIC WEAL?4 ,DESPITE ITS LEGALITY1 PAP] MONEY WAS VIEW$ BY ! PURITANICAL URBAN ELITES AS IMMORAL BY CONTRA/ ) METALLIC SPECIE1 & !Y GALL+IY BLAM$ ! PRESUMABLY IMPROVID5T F>M]S = 9CURR+ ! V]Y DEBTS !Y HAD ACTUALLY BE5 9DUC$ TO ACCUMULATE BY ALL ! M]*ANTS ALONG 0! *A9 ( DEBT0 FROM ,BO/ON TO ! FRONTI]4 ,AT ! SAME TIME1 F9ANCIAL SPECULATORS QUICKLY B\<T UP DEPRECIAT+ ,CONT95TALS1 AS ! NEW ,AM]ICAN CURR5CY WAS CALL$1 FROM DEBTPRESS$ VET]ANS AT SC&AL\SLY L[ PRICES1 :I* 9 LAT] TIMES !Y R$EEM$ AT !IR P> VALUE1 MU* TO ! \TRAGE ( ! SOLDI]S :O HAD SOLD !M = A M]E PITTANCE4 

,HEAVILY 9FLU5C$ BY ! COA/AL ELITES1 ! /ATE LEGISLATORS ALSO TURN$ A DEAF E> TO ! YEOMANRY'S DEM&S4 ,9 FACT1 /ATE CAPITALS SU* AS ,BO/ON1 ,H>T=D1 & ,EXET]1 :]E MO/ ( ! LEGISLATURES MET1 ALSO D\BL$ AS MAJOR COMM]CIAL C5T]S2 H5CE M]*ANTS & LAWY]S 9 ,MASSA*USETTS1 ,CONNECTICUT1 & ,NEW ,HAMP%IRE W]E ALWAYS PHYSICALLY PRES5T & WELL POSITION$ TO 9FLU5CE /ATE POLICY DIRECTLY4 ,NOT SURPRIS+LY1 /ATE LEGISLATORS T5D$ TO FAVOR SPECIE BY P]SI/5TLY REFUS+ TO ISSUE PAP] CURR5CY2 9DE$1 ONLY ,RHODE ,ISL& EXHIBIT$ ANY S5SITIVITY TO ! YEOMANRY'S NE$S BY VALIDAT+ ! USE ( NONMETALLIC MONEY4 

,! CONT9U+ DEBT PROSECUTIONS & ! 9DIFF]5CE ( /ATE LEGISLATORS TO ! PLI<T ( ! F>M]S PU%$ ! PEACEFUL MOVEM5T TO VIOL5T REBELLION4 ,9 ! LATE SUMM] ( #a#g#h#f1 MANY ,MASSA*USETTS YEOMAN F>M]S =M$ MILITIAS ?AT SY/EMATICALLY CLOS$ D[N C\RTS ?R\<\T MO/ ( ! /ATE'S 9L& >EAS4 ,BY CALL+ !MSELVES ,REGULATORS1 !SE >M$ F>M]S W]E 9VOK+ ! M5AC+ PR]EVOLUTION>Y AGR>IAN UPRIS+ ( ! ,C>OL9A BACKWOODSM54 ,TO HI/ORY1 H[EV]1 !Y CAME TO BE KN[N AS ,%AYSITES AFT] ,DANIEL ,%AYS1 A REVOLUTION>Y W> VET]AN :O WAS ACTUALLY ONLY ONE ( SEV]AL COEQUAL MEMB]S ( A 0,COMMITTEE ( ! ,PEOPLE0 = ,HAMP%IRE ,C\NTY4 

,9 ,V]MONT1 ,CONNECTICUT1 & ,NEW ,HAMP%IRE1 ! ,%AYSITE MOVEM5T MA9LY TOOK ! =M ( UNDISCIPL9$ CR[D ACTIONS1 :I* W]E EASILY SUBDU$ BY LOCAL MILITIAS COMPOS$ ( WELL-TO-DO PEOPLE :O ASSI/$ LOCAL POLICE (FICIALS4 ,BUT 9 ,MASSA*USETTS1 ! RIS+ TOOK A S]I\S1 POT5TIALLY REVOLUTION>Y =M4 ,NOT ONLY W]E MANY ( ! ,%AYSITES 9 ! /ATE VET]ANS ( ! ,REVOLUTION1 BUT SOME HAD EV5 S]V$ AS (FIC]S & KNEW H[ TO PLAN & LEAD A SU/A9$ CAMPAIGN4 ,DANIEL ,%AYS HIMSELF HAD S]V$ AS A CAPTA91 AS HAD HIS FELL[ LEAD]S ,LUKE ,DAY1 ,AGRIPPA ,WELLS1 & ,ADAM ,:EEL]1 AMONG O!RS4 ,! ,MASSA*USETTS ,%AYSITES1 9 EFFECT1 W]E NOT UNDISCIPL9$1 ILL-TRA9$ CR[DS BUT RA!R DISCIPL9$1 S+LE-M9D$1 & WELL-TRA9$ SOLDI]S ) ABLE MILIT>Y LEAD]S4 

,!IR MILITIAS1 MOREOV]1 W]E ORGANIZ$ ALONG TYPICALLY LIB]T>IAN L9ES1 /RUCTUR$ >\ND C\NTY COMMITTEES 70,COMMITTEES ( ! ,PEOPLE071 EA* ( :I* ASSUM$ MILIT>Y LEAD]%IP ( ! >M$ =CES 9 EV]Y C\NTY & REMA9$ ITS HI<E/ MILIT>Y UNIT4 ,:E!R WISELY OR NOT1 ?IS /RUCTURE OBVIAT$ ! NE$ = A SUPREME COMM& OV] ! 5TIRE MOVEM5T4 ,LOCAL MILITIA COMMITTEE LEAD]S S]V$ MORE AS *AIRP]SONS ?AN AS (FIC]S1 & ! AGREEM5T ( ! M5 WAS 9DISP5SABLE = EV]Y MAJOR DECISION & ACTION4 ,AS ,RI*>D ,M4 ,BR[N HAS OBS]V$ 9 HIS DISCUSSION ( ,AM]ICAN AGR>IAN REBELLIONS1 0! PROTAGONI/ ( ! BACK C\NTRY REBELLION ROSE FROM ! PEOPLE BUT1 UNLIKE ,JOHN ,ADAMS ( ! PATRIOT MOVEM5T1 = EXAMPLE1 DID NOT RISE ABOVE !M40.<#b#b#a.> ,!Y DRILL$ TOGE!R ON GRE5S 9 FRONT ( TAV]NS OR 9 OP5 SPACES 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE1 ADOPT+ AN EV]GRE5 SPRIG AS AN 9SIGNIA ON !IR ?REE-CORN]$ HATS--P]HAPS ) NO KN[L$GE ?AT ! ,5GLI% ,LEVEL]S ( ! PREVI\S C5TURY HAD US$ ! SAME SYMBOL4 

,! ,%AYSITES N[ =M$ !IR MILITIAS 9TO WELL-ORGANIZ$ PLATOONS4 ,%REWDLY SELECT+ !IR T>GETS & C>EFULLY COORD9AT+ !IR PLANS1 !Y M>*$ 9 REGUL> ORD] TO C\R?\SES & SY/EMATICALLY CLOS$ !M D[N4 ,!IR POPUL>ITY WAS MU* TOO WIDE & !IR MANEUV]S TOO WELL PLANN$ TO MAKE IT EASY = LOCAL AU?ORITIES TO SUPPRESS !M4 ,9 ,WORCE/]1 ! C\NTY MILITIA REFUS$ TO OPPOSE !M1 :ILE 9 ,B]K%IRE1 ,HAMP%IRE1 ,BRI/OL1 & ,MIDDLESEX C\NTIES1 MANY MILITIAM5 DES]T$ TO ! REBELS4 

,! COMM]CIAL /RATA ON ! SEABO>D & 9 ! 9L& M>KET T[NS RESPOND$ TO !SE DEVELOPM5TS ) VIRTUAL HY/]IA1 RAIS+ CRIES ( 0AN>*Y0 & ACTUALLY VOIC+ APPEALS TO REPLACE ! ,COMMONWEAL? ) A MON>*Y4 

,! LEGISLATURE1 NOT )\T ! AID ( ,SAMUEL ,ADAMS1 %AMEFULLY PASS$ A RIOT ACT TO PROHIBIT ANY GA!R+ ?AT ! AU?ORITIES MI<T VIEW ) SUSPICION1 & EV5 SUSP5D$ HABEAS CORPUS1 DESPITE ITS SANCTITY 9 ,5GLI% COMMON LAW4 ,ALL ( !SE ATTEMPTS F\ND]$4 ,IT WAS NOT UNTIL ! WEAL?Y /RATA ( ! /ATE COLLECT$ SIZABLE CONTRIBUTIONS FROM !IR [N K9D TO RECRUIT :AT WAS LITTLE MORE ?AN A M]C5>Y >MY1 MADE UP P>TLY ( !IR P]SONAL S]VANTS1 ?AT ! /ATE C\LD BEG9 TO (F] S]I\S RESI/ANCE TO ! 9SURG5TS4 

,F> FROM 9TIMIDAT+ ! ,%AYSITES1 H[EV]1 ?IS MOBILIZATION BY ! UPP] CLASSES S]V$ PRIM>ILY TO RADICALIZE !M4 ,FROM :AT HAD />T$ AS A DEBT REBELLION1 ,%AYSITES N[ BEGAN TO ESCALATE !IR GOALS TO BROAD] & MORE ?REAT5+ DIM5SIONS4 ,PRESUMABLY ) ! PURPOSE ( TAK+ COMPLETE CONTROL ( ! /ATE GOV]NM5T1 V>I\S ,%AYSITE DETA*M5TS UNIT$ 9TO AN >MY NUMB]+ SEV]AL ?\S& M5 & LAID PLANS 9 ,JANU>Y #a<g TO CAPTURE ! ,CONF$]ATION >S5AL 9 ,SPR+FIELD1 :I* W\LD HAVE PROVID$ !M ) #g1 MILIT>Y MUSKETS1 #a1#c B>RELS ( P[D]1 &1 V]Y SIGNIFICANTLY1 >TILL]Y ) A GOOD SUPPLY ( %OT & %ELL4 ,HAD ! >MORY BE5 TAK51 !Y W\LD HAVE BECOME A =MIDABLE 9SURRECTION>Y =CE1 PROBABLY CAPABLE ( CAPTUR+ ,BO/ON4 ,>M$ ) !IR OLD MUSKETS & EV5 WOOD5 CLUBS1 ! ,%AYSITES1 BETWE5 ,JANU>Y #ba & #b#d1 =M$ ?REE SEP>ATE COMPANIES ALONG ?REE APPROA*ES TO ,SPR+FIELD4 ,ACCORD+ TO !IR C>EFULLY LAID PLANS1 ! ,B]K%IRE ,C\NTY REBELS W]E EXPECT$ TO ATTACK ! >S5AL FROM ! NOR? ON ,JANU>Y #b#e1 9 CONJUNCTION ) ! ,WORCE/] & ,MIDDLESEX COMPANIES FROM ! NOR!A/1 & ! ,HAMP%IRE COMPANY FROM ! WE/4 

,ON ! DAY ( ! PLANN$ ATTACK1 ,LUKE ,DAY FROM ! ,HAMP%IRE COMPANY DECID$ ON HIS [N 9ITIATIVE TO S5D AN ULTIMATUM TO ,G5]AL ,WILLIAM ,%EP>D'S GOV]NM5T =CES1 :O W]E DEF5D+ ! >S5AL1 GIV+ !M TW5TY-F\R H\RS TO LAY D[N !IR >MS4 ,DAY ALSO S5T A MESSAGE TO ! TWO O!R COMPANIES1 APPRIZ+ !M ?AT HE HAD PO/PON$ ! DATE ( ! ATTACK BY ONE DAY TO ALL[ TIME = A REPLY FROM ! >S5AL4 ,BUT ?IS MESSAGE WAS 9T]CEPT$ BY ,%EP>D'S M51 & IT NEV] REA*$ ! O!R ,%AYSITE COMPANIES1 :I* PROCE$$ ) ! ATTACK ON ! TW5TY-FIF? AS ORIG9ALLY PLANN$4 ,LACK+ ! SUPPORT ( ! ,HAMP%IRE COMPANY1 ! ASSAULT 5TIRELY MISC>RI$3 ,COLUMNS ( YEOM5 PREMATURELY ATTACK$ ! GOV]NM5T =CES1 :I* RAK$ >TILL]Y FIRE DIRECTLY 9TO !IR RANKS4 ,9 ! ABS5CE ( >TILL]Y & SUFFICI5T =CES1 ! ATTACK+ ,%AYSITES W]E COMPELL$ TO )DRAW TO \TLY+ T[NS1 LEAV+ BEH9D TW5TY-F\R DEAD & W\ND$4 ,ELI ,P>SONS1 A ,%AYSITE1 LAT] DECL>$ ?AT ,DAY'S 9T]CEPT$ MESSAGE 0OCCASION$ .<! ,%AYSITES'.> FAILURE--!Y MU/ HAVE C>RI$ IT1 IF !IR MEASURES HAD BE5 PROP]LY CONC]T$40.<#b#b#b.> 

,CONV5TIONAL HI/ORIES ( ! 9SURRECTION CREATE AN EGREGI\SLY MISLEAD+ IMPRESSION ?AT ! ,%AYSITES W]E DISPAT*$ BY A :IFF ( GRAPE%OT4 ,>M$ ONLY ) OLD MUSKETS1 CLUBS1 & LACK+ AID FROM ,LUKE ,DAY'S COLUMN1 !Y HAD NO *OICE BUT TO RETREAT2 NOR DID ! MOVEM5T EVAPORATE AFT] ! ,SPR+FIELD FIASCO4 ,9 FACT1 SKIRMI%ES & M9OR BATTLES CONT9U$ ?R\<\T ,MASSA*USETTS UNTIL ! ,%AYSITES W]E F9ALLY QUELL$ BY ,G5]AL ,B5JAM9 ,L9COLN1 :O COMM&$ A WELL->M$ =CE ( ?REE ?\S& M5 FROM ,BO/ON1 SUPPORT$ BY >TILL]Y4 ,DUR+ ,FEBRU>Y1 ,L9COLN SURPRIS$ ! ,%AYSITES AT !IR ,PET]%AM CAMP & DISP]S$ !M ) HIS MASSIVELY SUP]IOR =CES & EQUIPM5T4 ,MANY ,%AYSITES W]E SUBSEQU5TLY R\ND$ UP & TRI$2 O!RS FL$1 F9D+ REFUGE 9 ,V]MONT1 AS DID ,DANIEL ,%AYS HIMSELF1 OR 9 ,NEW ,YORK1 & ULTIMATELY DRIFT+ WE/W>D 9TO ! ,OHIO ,VALLEY4 ,! MAJORITY ( ,%AYSITES1 H[EV]1 SEEM TO HAVE REMA9$ BEH9D 9 ,MASSA*USETTS AS ! ECONOMY IMPROV$ & GRADUALLY ACCEPT$ ! NEW SOCIAL DISP5SATION ?AT FOLL[$ ! ,REVOLUTION4 

,IF ! DEF9ITION ( A REVOLUTION>Y REQUIRES ?AT ! P]SON HOLD VIEWS ANTI!TICAL TO PROP]TY AS SU*1 !N 9 ?AT S5SE ! ,%AYSITES W]E NOT REVOLUTION>IES4 ,!Y W]E PROP]TY [N]S !MSELVES & NEV] QUE/ION$ ITS LEGITIMACY4 ,BUT TO ! ,NEW ,5GL& YEOMANRY1 PROP]TY1 AS WE HAVE SE51 MEANT SOME?+ V]Y DIFF]5T FROM :AT IT DID TO ! EM]G+ B\RGEOISIE4 ,!Y REG>D$ IT AS A MEANS ( LIFE ?AT =M$ ! BASIS = P]SONAL 9DEP5D5CE & 9DIVIDUAL FRE$OM1 NOT A MEANS = PR(ITE]+1 ACQUIR+ RI*ES1 OR GA9+ P[]4 ,!IR NOTIONS ( PROP]TY W]E IMBU$ BY A S5SE ( /RONG MORAL RESPONSIBILITIES = ! L&1 ! COMMUNITY1 & COMMUNAL LIFEWAYS & CAME CLOS] TO A =M ( SIMPLE USUFRUCT ?AN PRODUCTION = GA94 ,AL?\< ! COMM]CIAL M5 ( ! ,NEW ,5GL& CITIES & M>KET T[NS %>$ ! YEOMANRY'S VIEWS ( PROP]TY AS SACR$1 !Y W]E 5GAG$ 9 MAK+ PR(IT & CREAT$ A HI<LY MONETIZ$ M>KET & AN EXP&+ ECONOMY ?AT CONF]R$ P[] & /ATUS AS WELL AS SECURITY ON AN EXPLOITATIVE ELITE4 ,! YEOM51 = !IR P>T1 HAD LIT]ALLY C>V$ !IR SMALL PROP]TIES \T ( ! =E/4 ,H5CE1 AS 9 ! ,G]MAN ,PEASANT ,W>1 TWO CULTURES COLLID$ ?AT W]E GUID$ BY RADICALLY DISSIMIL> VALUES & ECONOMIC IMP]ATIVES3 ! ONE TO SEEK 5RI*M5T & P[]1 ! O!R TO RETA9 MODE/1 TRADITIONAL1 & COMMUNAL LIFEWAYS4 

,WE WILL NEV] KN[ ) C]TA9TY :AT ! ,%AYSITES W\LD HAVE DONE HAD !Y SEIZ$ ! ,SPR+FIELD >S5AL4 ,BUT ,%AYS HIMSELF TOLD ! ,MASSA*USETTS ,S5T9EL 9 ,JANU>Y #a<g ?AT AFT] TAK+ ! >S5AL1 !Y PLANN$ TO 0M>* DIRECTLY TO ,BO/ON1 PLUND] IT1 & !N 444 TO DE/ROY ! NE/ ( DEVILS1 :O BY !IR 9FLU5CE1 MAKE ! .<,G5]AL.> ,C\RT 5ACT :AT !Y PLEASE1 BURN IT & LAY ! T[N ( ,BO/ON 9 A%ES40 ,! ,%AYSITE F>M]S W\LD !N HAVE IT 09 !IR P[] TO OV]?R[ ! PRES5T CON/ITUTION0 & ELIM9ATE ! PRES5T GOV]NM5T1 :I* WAS CONTROLL$ BY COMM]CIAL 9T]E/S4.<#b#b#c.> ,:E!R ,%AYS ACTUALLY MADE !SE PAT5TLY 9C5DI>Y REM>KS IS DIFFICULT TO E/ABLI%4 ,! POLITICAL SY/EM ?AT ! ,%AYSITES 9T5D$ TO E/ABLI% 9 PLACE ( ! OLD REGIME SEEMS TO HAVE BE5 A YEOMAN DEMOCRACY1 :I* ALREADY EXI/$ 9 V>Y+ DEGREES ?R\< !IR [N NETWORK ( T[N MEET+S & C\NTY CONV5TIONS4 ,HAD !Y WON1 ,MASSA*USETTS1 CONCEIVABLY1 C\LD HAVE BECOME A CONF$]AL DEMOCRACY1 NOT UNLIKE E>LY ,SWITZ]L&1 & YEOM5 ?R\<\T ,NEW ,5GL& C\LD HAVE TRI$ TO EMULATE !M4 ,9 ANY CASE1 TOGE!R ) ! REVOLUTION>Y EV5TS 9 ,P5NSYLVANIA DUR+ ! W>1 ,%AYS'S REBELLION WAS AS CLOSE AS ,AM]ICA CAME TO AN 9SURRECTION>Y ?IRD REVOLUTION4 

,! ,C,O,N,/,I,T,U,T,I,O,N ,( #a<i 

,! M5 :O SUPPRESS$ ,%AYS'S REBELLION W]E SURPRIS+LY L5I5T 9 !IR TREATM5T ( ! REBELS4 ,!Y MADE NO EF=T TO FOLL[ UP !IR VICTORY ) A C\NT]REVOLUTION>Y BLOODLETT+2 9DE$1 ! FEW ,%AYSITES :O W]E S5T5C$ TO DEA? W]E ULTIMATELY P>DON$4 ,BUT IF ! 0M5 ( WEAL? & TAL5TS0 DREW NO BLOOD1 !Y PR(IT$ IMM5SELY FROM ! YEOMAN REBELLION4 ,! ,%AYSITE UPRIS+ WAS PORTRAY$ AS DRAMATIC EVID5CE ?AT ! DEC5TRALIZ$ ,>TICLES ( ,CONF$]ATION W]E UNWORKABLE1 9DE$ *AOTIC1 & ?AT !Y HAD TO BE REPLAC$ BY A NEW ,CON/ITUTION1 ONE ?AT PROVID$ = AN EFFECTIVE1 C5TRALIZ$ NATION-/ATE4 ,TO FRI<T5 WAV]+ SUPPORT]S ( ! ,>TICLES1 ,G5]AL ,H5RY ,KNOX1 ! ,SECRET>Y ( ,W> & A RABID C5TRALI/1 BLUNTLY D5\NC$ ! ,%AYSITES AS 0LEVEL]S10 AWAK5+ FE>S ?AT ! ,BRITI% RUL+ ELITE HAD FELT 9 ! PREVI\S C5TURY4 ,TO ,KNOX1 ! 0/ATE .<CONF$]AL.> SY/EM0 WAS 0! ACCURS$ ?+ :I* WILL PREV5T \R BE+ A NATION 444 ! VILE /ATE GOV]NM5TS >E S\RCES ( POLLUTION :I* WILL CONTAM9ATE ,AM]ICA = AGES40 ,:AT WAS NE$$1 ,KNOX CLAIM$1 WAS A /RONG C5TRAL GOV]NM5T ) *ECKS & BALANCES4 ,! WOR?Y G5]AL HIMSELF WAS PREP>$ TO 5=CE ! COMM&S ( SU* A GOV]NM5T 0BY A BODY ( >M$ M5 TO BE KEPT = ! PURPOSE03 ?AT IS1 BY A /&+ >MY4 ,RIS+ TO ORATORICAL HEI<TS1 ,KNOX 5JO9$ SU* A GOV]NM5T1 :I* HAD YET TO BE E/ABLI%$1 TO 0SMITE0 ! /ATE GOV]NM5TS 09 ! NAME ( ,GOD & ! PEOPLE40.<#b#b#d.> ,$MUND ,R&OLPH AGRE$ ?AT 0! *IEF DANG] .<9 ! PRES5T SITUATION.> >ISES FROM ! DEMOCRATIC P>TS ( \R .</ATE.> CON/ITUTIONS4 ,IT IS A MAXIM :I* ,I HOLD 9CONTROV]TIBLE ?AT ! P[]S ( GOV]NM5T EX]CIS$ BY ! PEOPLE SWALL[S UP ! O!R BRAN*ES4 ,NONE ( ! CON/ITUTIONS HAVE PROVID$ SUFFICI5T *ECKS AGA9/ ! DEMOCRACY40 ,A S5ATE WAS NECESS>Y AS A BULW>K AGA9/ 0EVILS0 ?AT /EM FROM 0! TURBUL5CE & FOLLIES ( DEMOCRACY40.<#b#b#e.> 

,! /ATE CON/ITUTIONS ?AT ,KNOX & ,R&OLPH D5\NC$ SO VIGOR\SLY W]E1 9 FACT1 ! ONLY REFUGE = SMALL F>M]S :O W]E FAC$ ) CRU%+ DEBTS4 ,UND] ! PRESSURE ( YEOMAN PROTE/S & NE> REVOLTS1 MANY /ATE LEGISLATURES F9ALLY DID PASS LAWS DELAY+ OR SUSP5D+ ! COLLECTION ( TAXES & DEBTS1 & MORE ?AN HALF ( ! ?IRTE5 /ATES ISSU$ PAP] MONEY1 MAK+ IT POSSIBLE = IMPOV]I%$ F>M]S TO RESOLVE !IR F9ANCIAL DIFFICULTIES4 ,A FEW /ATES COMPELL$ CR$ITORS TO ACCEPT PAP] 9/EAD ( SPECIE AS AN AU!NTIC MEANS ( EX*ANGE4 ,IF ANY S+LE FEATURE ( ! ,>TICLES ( ,CONF$]ATION SEEMS TO HAVE 9FURIAT$ ,JAMES ,MADISON--! 0,FA!R ( ! ,CON/ITUTION0--IT WAS PRECISELY ! FACT ?AT !SE MEASURES W]E TAK5 BY ! /ATE LEGISLATURES4 ,HE VIEW$ !M AS S]I\S TRANSGRESSIONS ( PROP]TY RI<TS BY IMPROVID5T AGR>IANS1 & REG>D$ CR$ITORS AS AN OPPRESS$ M9ORITY :OSE RI<TS IT WAS ! GOV]NM5T'S RESPONSIBILITY TO PROTECT 0,GOV]NM5T10 ,MADISON WROTE1 0IS 9/ITUT$ TO PROTECT PROP]TY ( EV]Y SORT10 A CONC]N ?AT WAS CLE>LY FOCUS$ ON ! 9T]E/S ( ! WELL-TO-DO /RATA 9 ! NEW C\NTRY4 0,?IS BE+ ! 5D ( GOV]NM5T1 ?AT ALONE IS A JU/ GOV]NM5T :I* IMP>TIALLY SECURES TO EV]Y MAN :ATEV] IS HIS [N40.<#b#b#f.> 

,DESPITE ! DIFF]5CES ?AT EXI/$ BETWE5 !M1 M]*ANTS & PLANTATION [N]S REQUIR$ NO >GUM5TS TO CONV9CE !M ?AT ! ,>TICLES ( ,CONF$]ATION HAD TO BE SUPPLANT$ BY AN 5TIRELY NEW 9/RUM5T ( GOV]NM5T4 ,! WEAL?Y & WELL-$UCAT$ ELITE ( ! NEW NATION !REUPON PROCE$$ TO ADOPT A /RATEGY ?AT !Y LE>N$ FROM ! RADICAL PATRIOTS DUR+ ! ,REVOLUTION3 !Y CONVOK$ AN EXTRALEGAL CONV5TION TO CREATE A NEW1 BASICALLY NATIONALI/IC1 CON/ITUTION4 ,IF 0! PEOPLE0 C\LD CALL CONV5TIONS 9 ! NAME ( PRES]V+ !IR LIB]TIES1 ! WEAL?Y FELT FREE TO CALL !M 9 ! NAME ( PROTECT+ !IR PROP]TY4 ,9 ,SEPTEMB] #a#g#h#f1 AN ASSEMBLY 9 ,ANNAPOLIS S5T \T A CALL = SU* A CONV5TION1 PRESUMABLY TO REVISE ! ,>TICLES ( ,CONF$]ATION4 ,SIX MON?S LAT] ! ,CONF$]ATION ,CONGRESS1 UND] /RONG PRESSURE1 AGRE$ TO ! CONV5TION = 0! SOLE & EXPRESS PURPOSE ( REVIS+ ! ,>TICLES ( ,CONF$]ATION0 & 0TO DEVISE SU* FUR!R PROVISIONS AS %ALL APPE> TO !M NECESS>Y TO R5D] ! CON/ITUTION ( ! F$]AL GOV]NM5T ADEQUATE TO ! EXIG5CIES ( ! UNION40.<#b#b#g.> 

,! CONV5TION'S M&ATE1 IT %\LD BE EMPHASIZ$1 WAS V]Y LIMIT$1 BUT ! ,CON/ITUTIONAL ,CONV5TION1 :I* MET FROM ,MAY #be TO ,SEPTEMB] #a#g1#a#g#h#g1 9 ,PHILADELPHIA1 BLATANTLY & ILLEGALLY EXCE$$ IT4 ,9 FACT1 ! ,CONV5TION C>RI$ \T A POLITICAL REVOLUTION--& UNLIKE ! ASSEMBLIES ( ! PEOPLE DUR+ ! ,REVOLUTION1 :I* W]E OP5 TO ALL CITIZ5S1 IT WAS HELD 9 EXTRAORD9>Y1 9DE$ CONSPIRATORIAL1 SECRECY4 ,! W9D[S ON ! GR\ND FLOOR ( ! ,P5NSYLVANIA ,/ATEH\SE1 :]E ! ,CONV5TION ASSEMBL$1 W]E KEPT %UT EV5 DUR+ ! SWELT]+ SUMM] DAYS TO PREV5T ORD9>Y PEOPLE FROM OV]HE>+ ! DEBATES )91 :ILE TROOPS PATROLL$ ! GR\NDS \TSIDE4 ,! SECRET>Y ( ! ,CONV5TION RECORD$ LITTLE MORE ?AN ! V>I\S MOTIONS & ! VOTES EA* ONE RECEIV$4 ,=TUNATELY = LAT] HI/ORIANS1 ,MADISON TOOK COPI\S NOTES ( ! PROCE$+S1 BUT !Y W]E NOT PUBLI%$ UNTIL ! LA/ ( ! DELEGATES PRES5T--NAMELY1 ,MADISON HIMSELF--HAD DI$4 ,?US1 ! PROCESS BY :I* ! PRES5T-DAY ,F$]AL ,CON/ITUTION WAS DRAWN UP L>GELY REMA9$ UNKN[N TO ! MU*-REV]$ 0PEOPLE10 9 :OSE NAME IT PR(ESS$ TO SPEAK1 UNTIL WELL 9TO ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 BY :I* TIME ! ,CON/ITUTION HAD S$IM5T$ ITSELF 9TO EV]YDAY ,AM]ICAN /ATECRAFT & TRADITION4 ,GIV5 ?IS PROC$URE & ALL ! MANEUV]+ SURR\ND+ ! ,CONV5TION1 IT IS NOT LURID TO CONSID] IT A CONSPIRACY BY A SELF-9T]E/$ ELITE AGA9/ ! PEOPLE & ! GOV]N+ 9/ITUTIONS ( ! ,CONF$]ATION4 ,! PRES5CE ( ,WA%+TON AT ! GA!R+ GAVE ! ,CONV5TION A LEGITIMACY IT PROBABLY C\LD NOT HAVE ATTA9$ ON ITS [N4 ,RHODE ,ISL& REFUS$ TO S5D ANY DELEGATES1 :ILE ,PATRICK ,H5RY DECL9$ TO ATT5D IT ) ! REM>K1 0,I SMELL A RAT40 

,JAMES ,MADISON'S POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY DRAWS A CLE> DI/9CTION BETWE5 DEMOCRATIC & REPRES5TATIVE GOV]NM5T4 ,9 HIS FAM\S ,F$]ALI/ ,NO4 #a1 ,MADISON DEF9ES 0A PURE DEMOCRACY0 AS 0A SOCIETY CONSI/+ ( A SMALL NUMB] ( CITIZ5S1 :O ASSEMBLE & ADM9I/] ! GOV]NM5T 9 P]SON4444 ,A COMMON PASSION OR 9T]E/ WILL1 9 ALMO/ EV]Y CASE1 BE FELT BY A MAJORITY ( ! :OLE2 A COMMUNICATION & CONC]T RESULTS FROM ! =M ( GOV]NM5T ITSELF0.<#b#b#h.> --CONCEPTS ?AT C\LD ALMO/ HAVE COME FROM ! WRIT+S ( ,R\SSEAU4 ,! PRACTICABILITY ( DEMOCRACY1 ,MADISON OBS]VES1 IS A FUNCTION ( SIZE & SCALE3 IT WAS POSSIBLE ONLY 9 SMALL COMMUNITIES ( 9TIMATES1 NOT 9 L>GE CITIES1 /ILL LESS 9 A NATION-/ATE4 ,ROOT+ HIS VIEWS ( POLITICS 9 ! FIXITIES ( HUMAN NATURE1 HE ASKS3 0,:AT IS GOV]NM5T ITSELF BUT ! GREATE/ ( ALL REFLECTIONS ON HUMAN NATURE8 ,IF M5 W]E ANGELS1 NO GOV]NM5T W\LD BE NECESS>Y4 ,IF ANGELS W]E TO GOV]N M51 NEI!R EXT]NAL NOR 9T]NAL CONTROLS ON GOV]NM5T W\LD BE NECESS>Y40 ,9ASMU* AS ?IS WAS NOT ! CASE1 HE CONT9U$3 0,9 FRAM+ A GOV]NM5T444 Y\ MU/ FIR/ 5ABLE ! GOV]NM5T TO CONTROL ! GOV]N$2 & 9 ! NEXT PLACE OBLIGE IT TO CONTROL ITSELF4 ,A DEP5D5CE ON ! PEOPLE IS1 NO D\BT1 ! PRIM>Y CONTROL ON ! GOV]NM5T2 BUT EXP]I5CE HAS TAU<T MANK9D ! NECESSITY ( AUXILI>Y PRECAUTIONS40.<#b#b#i.> ,A SEP>ATION ( P[]S IS NECESS>Y AS A *ECK ON TYRANNY BY PLAY+ EA* BRAN* ( GOV]NM5T--! LEGISLATIVE1 EXECUTIVE1 & JUDICIAL--AGA9/ ! O!R1 !REBY LIMIT+ ! P[]S ( ANY S+LE BRAN*4 

,MO/ ( ! DELEGATES AT ! CONV5TION AGRE$ ON ! NE$ = A C5TRALIZ$ NATIONAL GOV]NM5T :OSE AU?ORITY 5JOY$ PREEM95CE OV] ! /ATES4 ,= SOME1 ?IS MEANT ?AT ! /ATES W\LD HAVE TO DEF] TO ! C5TRAL GOV]NM5T BUT W\LD RETA9 REAL P[]S ?AT ! NATIONAL 9/ITUTIONS DID NOT CLAIM = !MSELVES2 = O!RS1 9CLUD+ ,MADISON HIMSELF1 IT MEANT ?AT ! /ATES W\LD ALL BUT DISAPPE> EXCEPT AS ADM9I/RATIVE UNITS1 SOME:AT LIKE ! DEP>TM5TS LAT] E/ABLI%$ 9 REVOLUTION>Y ,FRANCE4 ,! MAJORITY ( ! DELEGATES1 H[EV]1 FAVOR$ A NATIONAL GOV]NM5T NOT ONLY BAS$ ON A DE> SEP>ATION ( P[]S BUT ALL[+ CONSID]ABLE AU?ORITY TO /ATE LEGISLATURES4 ,H[ ! P[]S ( ! NATIONAL GOV]NM5T W]E TO BE /RUCTUR$1 ALLOCAT$1 & GIV5 AU?ORITY WAS ! SUBJECT ( 9T5SE DEBATE1 BUT MO/ ( ! DELEGATES FAVOR$ A BICAM]AL LEGISLATURE 9 :I* AN UPP] *AMB] PRESUMABLY W\LD CONSI/ ( WISE1 MOD]AT+1 & CONS]VATIVE ELEM5TS OV] A MORE POPUL> & IRASCIBLE L[] ONE4 

,MADISON & HIS ALLIES W]E UNSUCCESSFUL 9 PRODUC+ ! HI<LY C5TRALIZ$ SY/EM !Y WANT$4 ,! DOCUM5T PRES]V$ CONSID]ABLE /ATES' RI<TS1 :I* WAS TO PRODUCE AN ONGO+ TUMULT OV] CON/RU+ !IR P[]S = MORE ?AN TWO C5TURIES AFT]W>DS4 ,9DE$1 9 FAIL+ TO CLE>LY SPECIFY ! P[]S ( ! /ATES1 ! M5 :O SAT AT ,PHILADELPHIA ?R\<\T ! SUMM] ( #a<g CREAT$ A NEW =M ( GOV]NM5T ?AT WAS NEI!R A HI<LY C5TRALIZ$ NATION-/ATE ( ! K9D ?AT SUFFOCATES ,FR5* POLITICAL LIFE TO ?IS DAY1 NOR A ,SWISS-/YLE CANTONAL CONF$]ACY1 BUT RA!R A HYBRIDIZ$ SY/EM 9 :I* ! F$]AL GOV]NM5T REMA9$ SURPRIS+LY WEAK ?R\<\T ! N9ETE5? C5TURY & ! E>LY P>T ( ! TW5TIE?4 ,ONLY ! ,NEW ,DEAL ]A & ! ,SECOND ,WORLD ,W> MASSIVELY BUREAUCRATIZ$ ! NATIONAL GOV]NM5T & 9CREAS$ ITS SCOPE OV] PUBLIC LIFE4 

,! GOV]NM5T ?AT ! ,F$]AL ,CON/ITUTION E/ABLI%$ WAS NONE!LESS MU* MORE C5TRALIZ$ ?AN ! ,>TICLES1 APPROPRIAT+ P[]S ?AT HAD =M]LY BE5 *]I%$1 H[EV] BRIEFLY1 BY ! /ATES4 ,9DE$1 SOME ( ! DELEGATES NEV] ACCEPT$ ,MADISON'S C5TRALI/IC APPROA*4 ,ELBRIDGE ,G]RY ( ,MASSA*USETTS MA9TA9$ ?AT ! RESPECTIVE P[]S ( ! ,PRESID5T & ,CONGRESS W]E TOO SWEEP+ TO AVOID A 0TYRANNY10 :ILE ,GEORGE ,MASON ELOQU5TLY W>N$ ?AT A CON/ITUTION =M$ 9 SECRET FROM ! PUBLIC1 ) A P[]FUL EXECUTIVE1 MI<T EXP& 9TO A BUREAUCRATIC DESPOTISM &1 LACK+ ANY BILL ( RI<TS1 UND]M9E ! DOME/IC GOALS ( ! ,REVOLUTION4 

,! RATIFICATION /RUGGLE ?AT FOLL[$ ! EXTRALEGAL CONV5TION WAS F\<T FURI\SLY OV] PRECISELY !SE ISSUES4 ,! CONV5TIONE]S HAD DECID$ UPON A RATIFICATION PROC$URE ?AT DELIB]ATELY AVOID$ SUBMITT+ ! NEW ,CON/ITUTION TO ! /ATE LEGISLATURES1 :I* ALMO/ C]TA9LY W\LD HAVE REJECT$ IT4 ,9/EAD1 TAK+ ANO!R PAGE FROM ! BOOK ( ! ,REVOLUTION1 ! CONV5TIONE]S DECID$ TO BYPASS ! LEGISLATURES & GO DIRECTLY TO ! SOV]EIGN 0PEOPLE40 ,IF ! LEGISLATURES W]E ADAMANTLY OPPOS$ TO RATIFICATION1 ! 0PEOPLE0 MI<T /ILL BE P]SUAD$ TO ACCEPT ! NEW ,CON/ITUTION4 ,9 EA* /ATE1 IT WAS DECID$1 ! PEOPLE W\LD ELECT A RATIFY+ CONV5TION TO CONSID] ! DOCUM5T4 ,AW>E ?AT MO/ ,AM]ICANS MI<T /ILL REMA9 HI<LY SKEPTICAL ( A C5TRAL GOV]NM5T AFT] !IR EXP]I5CE ) ! ,BRITI% ,CR[N1 SUPPORT]S ( ! ,CON/ITUTION CYNICALLY COOPT$ ! LABEL F$]ALI/ TO D5OTE !IR CAUSE1 RA!R ?AN NATIONALI/1 :I* W\LD MORE ACCURATELY HAVE EXPRESS$ !IR AU!NTIC GOALS4 ,?US WAS AN ILLEGAL ACT1 ! CLOS$ & F>-RANG+ ,CONV5TION1 COMP\ND$ BY A DEMAGOGIC ACT ( MISREPRES5TATION4 ,! ,CONV5TION PRUD5TLY 9/ITUT$ ! REQUIREM5T ?AT ! SUPPORT ( NO MORE ?AN N9E /ATES \T ( ! ?IRTE5 WAS NE$$ TO RATIFY ! CON/ITUTION4 

,OPPON5TS ( RATIFICATION W]E /AMP$ ) ! UN5VIABLE & UN9SPIR+ SOBRIQUET ( ANTIF$]ALI/S4 ,MADISON'S >GUM5TS = A NATIONAL GOV]NM5T & ,MASON'S 9 OPPOSITION DEM>CAT$ ! BROAD \TL9ES ( ! 0DEBATE0 OV] ! ,CON/ITUTION1 IF SU* IT CAN PROP]LY BE CALL$1 GIV5 ! LEVEL ( MANIPULATIVE 0F$]ALI/0 PAMPHLETE]+ ?AT W5T ON4 ,OP9ION RANG$ FROM EXTREME ANTIF$]ALI/S :OSE VIEWS V]G$ ON 0,SWITZ]+ AN>*Y0 7AS A ,CROMWELLIAN MI<T HAVE PUT IT MORE ?AN A C5TURY E>LI]7 TO EXTREME NATIONALI/S :O SEEM$ TO FAVOR A CON/ITUTIONAL MON>*Y RA!R ?AN A REPUBLIC4 ,! 0F$]ALI/S0 %REWDLY AVAIL$ !MSELVES ( RADICAL SLOGANS & MEASURES TO GA9 POPUL> SUPPORT1 SU* AS ,TOM ,PA9E'S MAXIM1 0,?AT GOV]NM5T IS BE/ :I* GOV]NS LEA/40 ,:5 ANTIF$]ALI/S EXPRESS$ CONC]N ?AT ! ,CON/ITUTION NO:]E GU>ANTE$ ! BASIC LIB]TIES ( EA* 9DIVIDUAL1 ! 0F$]ALI/S0 ASSUR$ !M ?AT !SE GU>ANTEES W]E IMPLI$ 9 ! ,CON/ITUTION1 BUT ! ANTIF$]ALI/S W]E NOT TAK5 9 BY ?IS RUSE1 & ! 0F$]ALI/S0 W]E OBLIG$ TO ACCEPT ! NE$ = A BILL ( RI<TS ?AT EXPLICITLY /AT$ ! LIB]TIES ?AT ,AM]ICANS W]E TO 5JOY4 

,ELITE & WELL-TO-DO SECTORS ( ! POPULATION MOBILIZ$ 9 GREAT =CE TO SUPPORT AN 9/RUM5T ?AT CLE>LY B5EFIT$ !M AT ! EXP5SE ( ! BACKC\NTRY AGR>IANS & URBAN POOR4 ,A P[]FUL C5TRAL GOV]NM5T W\LD BE ABLE TO E/ABLI% A S\ND1 WELL-REGULAT$ CURR5CY1 MAKE 9T]NATIONAL TREATIES ?AT FAVOR$ COMM]CE1 E/ABLI% A TRANSPORTATION SY/EM ?AT P5ETRAT$ 9TO ! 9T]IOR ( ! CONT95T ) ITS POT5TIALLY 9EXHAU/IBLE RI*ES 9 FURS1 =E/ GOODS1 & CULTIVABLE L&1 & MOBILIZE TROOPS NOT ONLY TO DEAL ) DOME/IC UNRE/ BUT TO WAGE EXPANSIONI/ T]RITORIAL W>S4 

,BUT ! ECONOMIC CONSID]ATIONS %\LD NOT BE OV]EMPHASIZ$4 ,! RATIFICATION DEBATE1 AS A :OLE1 SEEM$ TO BE GUID$ PRIM>ILY BY POLITICAL CONC]NS4 ,ADMITT$LY1 MANY ( ! 0F$]ALI/S0 W]E M5 ( SUB/ANCE-- M]*ANTS1 WELL-TO-DO >TISANS1 PATROONLIKE LORDS1 & SLAVE-[N+ PLANT]S-- BUT FURI\SLY AS ! 0F$]ALI/0 & ANTIF$]ALI/ DEBATE WAS WAG$ AMONG ! ELITE /RATA ( ! C\NTRY1 IT /IRR$ SURPRIS+LY LITTLE PASSION AMONG ! SOCALL$ L[] CLASSES4 ,AN ECONOMIC UPSW+ 9 ! LATE #a#g#hS HAD QUIET$ ! REBELLI\S AGR>IANS :O =M]LY UNIT$ AS ,%AYSITES & ,REGULATORS BUT N[ B5EFIT$ FROM ! C\NTRY'S RELATIVELY /ABLE CURR5CY & ,EUROPE'S NE$ = GRA94 ,9DE$1 ! DEBATE CROSS$ MANY CLASS L9ES4 ,SOME ( ! MO/ ADAMANT ANTIF$]ALI/S W]E ACTUALLY M5 ( WEAL? & POSITION SU* AS ,GEORGE ,MASON1 ,JAMES ,W9?ROP1 ,*RI/OPH] ,GADSD51 ,PATRICK ,H5RY1 ! ,LEES ( ,VIRG9IA1 &1 = A TIME1 ,JOHN ,HANCOCK1 :]EAS ,SAM ,ADAMS WAS OBLIG$ TO 5D HIS OPPOSITION TO ! ,CON/ITUTION S9CE HIS CON/ITU5TS AMONG ! ,BO/ON %IPWRI<TS SUPPORT$ IT4 

,! RATIFY+ CONV5TIONS HELD 9 ! SMALL] /ATES QUICKLY ACCEPT$ ! DOCUM5T4 ,IT GRANT$ !M P>ITY ( REPRES5TATION 7TWO S5ATORS = EA* /ATE1 IRRESPECTIVE ( ITS SIZE7 ) ! L>G] /ATES 9 ! ,S5ATE1 :I* WAS ! MO/ !Y C\LD HAVE HOP$ =4 ,9DE$1 IT WAS ! L>GE/ /ATES ?AT POS$ ! MO/ S]I\S OB/ACLES4 ,MASSA*USETTS WAS SO %>PLY DIVID$ ON RATIFICATION ?AT ONLY ! MO/ CUNN+ MANEUV]+1 ! MO/ 9SI/5T PRESSURE TACTICS1 & MAJOR CONCESSIONS TO ! ANTIF$]ALI/S GAVE ! 0F$]ALI/S0 A N9ETE5-VOTE MAJORITY \T ( ! #cee REPRES5TATIVES AT ! /ATE CONV5TION4 ,VIRG9IA & ,NEW ,YORK'S DECISIONS HUNG 9 ! BALANCE = MON?S4 ,DESPITE ! /RONG NATIONALI/ S5TIM5T AMONG ! DELEGATES ?AT ,VIRG9IA HAD S5T TO ! ,CONV5TION 9 ,PHILADELPHIA1 ,VIRG9IANS W]E L>GELY ANTIF$]ALI/4 ,IT REQUIR$ MU* HEAT$ DEBATE & MANEUV]+ BE=E ! /ATE RATIFI$ ! ,CON/ITUTION1 & !N BY ONLY A T5-VOTE M>G9 \T ( #a#f#i4 ,A HUGE B>RAGE ( >TICLES & PAMPHLETS FAVOR+ ! ,CON/ITUTION WAS UNLEA%$ 9 ORD] TO G>N] ,NEW ,YORK'S VOTE1 SPE>HEAD$ BY ! ,F$]ALI/ ,PAP]S 7WRITT5 MA9LY BY ,HAMILTON & ,MADISON ) A FEW ESSAYS BY ,JOHN ,JAY74 ,NEV]!LESS ! 0F$]ALI/S0 WON ! /ATE BY ONLY ?REE VOTES \T ( FIFTY-SEV54 ,RHODE ,ISL&1 HAV+ REFUS$ TO S5D DELEGATES TO ! ,PHILADELPHIA ,CONV5TION1 ALSO REFUS$ TO CALL A RATIFY+ CONV5TION4 ,! ,CON/ITUTION W5T 9TO EFFECT )\T ITS ASS5T1 & ONLY 9 #agi DID ,RHODE ,ISL& F9ALLY RATIFY ! DOCUM5T & REJO9 ! ,UNION4 

,! ,CON/ITUTION & ! ,BILL ( ,RI<TS ESS5TIALLY ALL[$ ! /ATES &1 BY 9DIRECTION1 ! SMALL LOCALITIES 5\< LEEWAY TO RETA9 0DEMOCRATIC0 FEATURES ( F$]ALISM )9 A LOOSELY C5TRALIZ$ UNION1 AS ,TOCQUEVILLE OBS]V$ 9 ! #a#h#cS4 ,OV] TIME1 AS NEW /ATES 5T]$ ! UNION1 ! RI<T TO VOTE WAS FUR!R BROAD5$ & A L>GE V>IETY ( HUMAN RI<TS W]E GRANT$ ?AT DID NOT FALL )9 ! PURVIEW ( ! F$]AL GOV]NM5T4 ,/ATES C\LD DECIDE :E!R !Y W\LD BE FREE OR SLAVE1 :E!R !Y W\LD RE/RICT OR EXP& ! FRAN*ISE1 GRANT ! VOTE TO WOM5 OR NOT1 HAVE BICAM]AL OR UNICAM]AL LEGISLATURES1 TAX OR NOT TAX !IR 9HABITANTS--9DE$1 AS WE SEE TODAY1 ALL[ = ABORTION1 CAPITAL PUNI%M5T1 OR GAMBL+1 H>BOR OR EXTRADITE FUGITIVES FROM ALL BUT F$]AL CRIMES1 LEGALLY 0REBEL0 OR NOT1 & A HO/ ( O!R LESS] BUT P]SONALLY RELEVANT & POLITICALLY IMPORTANT RI<TS1 9CLUD+ V>Y+ DEGREES ( EASY ACCESS TO ! LEV]S ( GOV]NM5T ITSELF4 ,DESPITE ! B\RGEOIS1 COMM]CIAL1 & LAT] IMP]IALI/IC SOCIETY ?AT EM]G$ 9 ! FOLL[+ DECADES1 ! ,AM]ICAN ,REVOLUTION HAD PRODUC$ A REM>KABLY MULTILAY]$ GOV]NM5TAL SY/EM3 )9 ! C5TRALIZ$ REPUBLIC EXI/$ 9/RUM5TALITIES = CREAT+ A FAIRLY DEC5TRALIZ$ DEMOCRACY4 ,:E!R ?IS /RUCTURE CAN CONT9UE TO EXI/ & ITS DEMOCRATIC FEATURES BE EXP&$ AT ! EXP5SE ( ! C5TRALIZ$ NATION-/ATE REMA9S ! MO/ UNC]TA9 & UNDECID$ LEGACY ( ! ,REVOLUTION TO ?IS V]Y DAY4 

,FROM 3 ,!,AN>*I/,LIBR>Y4ORG4 

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