,VOLUME #a1 ,P>T #c1 ,*APT] #aa 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,MURRAY ,BOOK*9 

,TEXT 3 

,*APT] #a#a4 ,REVOLUTION>Y ,IDEOLOGY 

,:5 ! ,AM]ICAN COLONI/S REBELL$ AGA9/ RULE BY ! ,BRITI%1 !RE WAS AS YET V]Y LITTLE ( A CONSCI\S REVOLUTION>Y TRADITION ) :I* !Y C\LD ID5TIFY & TO :I* !Y C\LD APPEAL4 ,! RADICAL ASPECTS ( ! #a#f#dS 9 ,5GL& W]E LITTLE KN[N TO ! PEOPLE AT L>GE4 ,:AT ! REVOLUTION>Y 9TELLECTUALS W]E ACUTELY AW>E (1 H[EV]1 WAS AN ONGO+ DECL9E ( LIB]TY ?R\<\T ! WORLD4 ,NE>LY EV]Y:]E1 !Y BELIEV$1 PEOPLE HAD KN[N ONLY TYRANNY4 ,ONLY A FEW SOCIETIES HAD EV] BE5 ABLE TO 5JOY LIB]TY = ANY L5G? ( TIME1 NOTABLY1 ANCI5T ,A!NS1 ! ,ROMAN ,REPUBLIC1 ! ,SWISS ,CONF$]ACY1 ! ,DUT* ,REPUBLIC1 ! ,V5ETIAN ,REPUBLIC1 ,SW$51 ,D5M>K1 PRE-,NORMAN ,5GL&1 & PO/-#a#f#h#h ,5GL&4 ,9 !SE SOCIETIES1 VIRTU\S & /URDY CITIZ5S HAD LIV$ ! *]I%$ SIMPLE & PATRIOTIC LIVES DEVOT$ TO JU/ICE & 9DIVIDUAL LIB]TY ?AT ,AM]ICANS ID5TIFI$ ) FRE$OM4.<#a#c#e.> 

,BUT1 AS ! ,AM]ICAN REVOLUTION>IES NOT$1 MO/ ( !SE SOCIETIES HAD SUBSEQU5TLY LO/ !IR LIB]TIES4 ,:ILE AMBITI\S & OPPORTUNI/IC M5 FROM )\T OR )9 S\<T TO EXP& !IR [N P[]1 ! GOV]N+ /RUCTURE BECAME TYRANNICAL1 & ! REPUBLICAN VIRTUES ?AT HAD UPHELD ! SY/EM HAD GIV5 WAY TO CORRUPTION1 CYNICISM1 & V5ALITY4 ,?US1 ,A!NS HAD FALL5 TO ,SP>TA & LAT] TO ,ALEX&]'S ,MAC$ONIAN EMPIRE2 ! ,ROMAN ,REPUBLIC-- :OSE HI/ORY FASC9AT$ ,AM]ICA POLITICAL !ORI/S1 AS IT DID ! ,FR5*-- HAD DEG5]AT$ 9TO A TYRANNICAL & BLATANTLY CORRUPT EMPIRE2 ! ,SW$I% PEOPLE1 ONCE FREE1 W]E N[ SUBJECT$ TO MON>*ICAL TYRANNY2 ,D5M>K'S P>LIAM5T>Y FRE$OMS HAD BE5 DE/ROY$ 9 ! PREVI\S C5TURY1 AS ! RESULT ( A CORRUPT NOBILITY & A /&+ >MY2 & ,V5ICE1 =M]LY A REPUBLIC1 WAS N[ RUL$ BY A CABAL ( DESPOTS4 ,ONLY ?OSE FREE SOCIETIES :OSE MEMB]S HAD MA9TA9$ !IR VIRTUE & EX]CIS$ CONT9UAL VIGILANCE HAD BE5 ABLE TO RESI/ ?IS T5D5CY T[>D TYRANNY & RETA9 !IR LIB]TIES3 MO/ NOTABLY1 ! ,SWISS & ! ,DUT*4 

,! O!R MAJOR EXCEPTION TO WORLDWIDE TYRANNY1 9 ! EYES ( E>LY ,AM]ICAN ?9K]S1 WAS ,GREAT ,BRITA94 ,C5TURIES AGO1 TO BE SURE1 ! LIB]TY-LOV+ ,SAXONS HAD BE5 SUBJUGAT$ BY ! ,NORMANS UND] ,WILLIAM ! ,CONQU]OR1 & MORE REC5TLY1 TO BE SURE1 ! ,/U>T K+S HAD ALMO/ SUCCE$$ 9 DE/ROY+ ,5GLI% LIB]TIES4 ,BUT AS A RESULT ( ! ,GLORI\S ,REVOLUTION ( #a#f#h#h1 :I* HAD E/ABLI%$ P>LIAM5T>Y SOV]EIGNTY1 LIB]TY /ILL EXI/$ 9 ,BRITA91 IT WAS BELIEV$2 NOR WAS ?IS HI/ORY LO/ ON ,5GLI% ,:IG 9TELLECTUALS ( ! LATE SEV5TE5? & E>LY EI<TE5? C5TURIES1 :O EXTOLL$ ! LIB]TIES ?AT ! ,5GLI% SY/EM /ILL PRES]V$4 ,M5 ( 9DEP5D5T PROP]TY 5JOY$ FRE$OMS UNP>ALLEL$ ELSE:]E ON E>?1 & ! KEY TO PRES]V+ !M1 SO ! ,:IG WRIT]S MA9TA9$1 WAS ,BRITA9'S UNIQUE CON/ITUTION--UNWRITT5 & ORGANIC--EMBODI$ 9 ! TRADITIONS ( ITS MON>*Y & ,P>LIAM5T4 ,BO? 9/ITUTIONS EXI/$ 9 EQUILIBRIUM AS A RESULT ( :AT W]E LAT] CALL$ 0*ECKS & BALANCES0 ?AT PREV5T$ ! 5CROA*M5T BY ONE BRAN* ( GOV]NM5T ON ANO!R1 :I* ,JOHN ,LOCKE GR\ND$ 9 NATURAL RI<TS & A SOCIAL CONTRACT4 ,! ,AM]ICAN 9TELLECTUALS BELIEV$ ?AT AS ,5GLI%M5 7& !Y W]E MA9LY M57 !Y %>$ 9 ?IS UNIQUE LEGACY1 & ACCORD+LY--AT LEA/ BE=E ! PR]EVOLUTION>Y DECADE-- !Y VIEW$ ! ,5GLI% SY/EM AS A P>AGON ( LA/+ P]SONAL FRE$OM4 

,BUT 9 ! #a#g#bS A NUMB] ( OPPOSITIONAL 9TELLECTUALS 9 ,5GL& REALIZ$ ?AT ?IS SY/EM1 SO EXTOLL$ BY E>LI] ,:IG 9TELLECTUALS LIKE ,LOCKE1 WAS A %AM4 ,! EQUILIBRIUM ( C\RT & ,P>LIAM5T )9 ! ,5GLI% SY/EM HAD GONE AWRY4 ,! K+ & HIS M9I/]S W]E BECOM+ ALL TOO P[]FUL & W]E ?REAT5+ TO USURP ! PRIVILEGES ( ,P>LIAM5T4 ,! ,CR[N'S M9I/]S HAD CORRUPT$ MEMB]S ( ,P>LIAM5T ?R\< PATRONAGE & FAVORS2 /&+ >MIES HAD BE5 E/ABLI%$ BY ! K+ & REMA9$ UND] HIS CONTROL1 RA!R ?AN ,P>LIAM5T'S2 & ! /EADY USURPATION ( P[] BY ! MON>*Y ?REAT5$ TO DISRUPT ! 9/ITUTIONAL BALANCE ?AT HAD ALL[$ ,5GL&'S SY/EM TO PRES]VE 9DIVIDUAL LIB]TIES4 

,! C(FEEH\SE RADICALS & ! OPPOSITION POLITICIANS :O MADE !SE CRITICISMS 9 #a#g#bS ,5GL& CALL$ !MSELVES ! ,9DEP5D5T OR ,TRUE ,:IGS1 AS OPPOS$ TO ! FALSE ,:IGS :O HAD BETRAY$ ! ,GLORI\S ,REVOLUTION4 ,!Y REVIV$ ! 0,C\NTRY0 CRITIQUE ( ! 0,C\RT0 ?AT HAD EXI/$ 9 ! DECADES BE=E ! ,5GLI% ,REVOLUTION1 & !IR PRIM>Y POLEMICI/S1 PAMPHLETE]S ,JOHN ,TR5*>D & ,?OMAS ,GORDON1 9VOK$ ! IDEALS ( ! ,GLORI\S ,REVOLUTION & ! WRIT+S ( ,LOCKE1 ,H>R+TON1 & O!RS AGA9/ ! PRES5T CORRUPTION ( ,5GLI% POLITICS & SOCIETY4 ,WRIT+ ) V]VE & COLOR 9 ,! ,9DEP5D5T ,:IG & ,CATO'S ,LETT]S1 !SE POLEMICI/S 9VEI<$ AGA9/ ! MANIPULATIVE & CORRUPT+ 5CROA*M5TS ( ,WALPOLE'S M9I/RY1 EMPHASIZ+ ! DANG]S ?AT A P[]FUL GOV]NM5T POS$4 ,AGA91 !Y POPUL>IZ$ IDEAS ( NATURAL RI<T1 ! SOCIAL CONTRACT1 & ,5GL&'S CON/ITUTION1 AS !SE HAD BE5 EXP\ND$ BY ,LOCKE1 ,SIDNEY1 ,NEVILLE1 & ESPECIALLY ! REPUBLICAN ,JAMES ,H>R+TON1 BUT ?IS TIME1 9 ! S]VICE ( OPPOSITION TO ! /ATUS QUO RA!R ?AN TO ITS CELEBRATION4 

,! POLEMICI/S ( ! #a#g#bS DID MORE ?AN M]ELY UPHOLD ! AIMS ( ! ,GLORI\S ,REVOLUTION2 !IR WRIT+S W]E (T5 OV]TLY LIB]T>IAN4 ,!Y MA9TA9$ ?AT GOV]NM5T AS SU* WAS 9TR9SICALLY HO/ILE TO HUMAN LIB]TY1 EXI/+ ONLY BECAUSE PEOPLE :OSE NE$S IT S]V$ ALL[$ IT TO2 IF IT TRESPASS$ BEYOND ITS PROP] LIMITS & BECAME TYRANNICAL1 IT NOT ONLY C\LD BE BUT %\LD BE OV]?R[N4 ,:E!R KN[+LY OR NOT1 !IR PROGRAM REVIV$ ! SPIRIT ( ! MORE RADICAL ,LEVEL] MANIFE/OS BY 9SI/+ ?AT GOV]NM5T WAS NECESS>ILY ACC\NTABLE TO ! SOV]EIGN PEOPLE IF IT WAS NOT TO SLIP 9TO TYRANNY4 ,! PAMPHLETE]S EV5 RAIS$ OLD ,LEVEL] DEM&S = ADULT MANHOOD SUFFRAGE1 ! B9D+ ( REPRES5TATIVES TO !IR CON/ITU5CIES1 FRE$OM ( ! PRESS1 & COMPLETE RELIGI\S TOL]ANCE4 

,SURPRIS+LY1 !SE IDEAS HAD RELATIVELY LITTLE POLITICAL IMPACT 9 ! ,5GL& TO :I* !Y W]E ADDRESS$1 BUT 9 ! ,AM]ICAN COLONIES !IR 9FLU5CE WAS 5ORM\S4 ,! COLONI/S ?\<T ?AT ! TR5D ( ! ,BRITI% ,EMPIRE WAS NO LONG] T[>D ! PRES]VATION ( FRE$OM 9 ,AM]ICA BUT RA!R T[>D ! C5TRALIZATION ( ALL ,BRITI% T]RITORIES UND] ! AU?ORITY ( A ,P>LIAM5T CONTROLL$ BY ! ,CR[N4 ,LIKE ! ,5GLI% OPPOSITION WRIT]S ( ! #a#g#bS1 !Y HELD ?AT ! ROYAL GOV]NM5T WAS NOT PRES]V+ BUT D5Y+ !M ! 0RI<TS ( ,5GLI%M540 ,ACCORD+LY1 :5 ,BRITA9 TRI$ TO IMPOSE TAXES & T>IFFS ON ,AM]ICANS1 LEGITIMAT+ !M 9 A SEEM+LY REPRES5TATIVE BODY1 ,P>LIAM5T1 BUT ONE 9 :I* ,AM]ICANS HAD NO REPRES5TATION1 SU* ACTIONS W]E EQUIVAL5T TO D5Y+ ! ,AM]ICANS !IR [N LIB]TY-PRES]V+ POLITICAL 9/ITUTIONS1 SU* AS ! T[N MEET+S ( ,NEW ,5GL& & ! COLONIAL LEGISLATURES S\? ( ! ,HUDSON ALIKE4 ,! ,AM]ICANS W]E \TRAG$ ?AT ! RANKS ( ! ROYAL ADM9I/RATION1 P>TICUL>LY CU/OMS COMMISSIONS1 W]E BE+ EXP&$1 CREAT+ ! POSSIBILITY = MORE ( ! ,BRITI%-/YLE PATRONAGE & CORRUPTION AGA9/ :I* ,TR5*>D & ,GORDON HAD 9VEI<$4 ,&1 9 FACT1 SOME ( ! COLONIAL GOV]NORS1 ESPECIALLY ,HUT*9SON ( ,MASSA*USETTS1 SEEM$ 9T5T ON DEVELOP+ A L>GE PATRONAGE MA*9E ?AT WAS BE+ FILL$ ) PEOPLE :O1 AS ,B5JAM9 ,FRANKL9 EXPLA9$1 W]E 

G5]ALLY /RANG]S TO ! PROV9CES !Y >E S5T TO GOV]N1 HAVE NO E/ATE1 NATURAL CONNECTION1 OR RELATION !RE TO GIVE !M AN AFFECTION = ! C\NTRY444 !Y COME ONLY TO MAKE MONEY AS FA/ AS !Y CAN2 >E SOMETIMES M5 ( VICI\S *>ACT]S & BROK5 =TUNES1 S5T BY A M9I/] M]ELY TO GET !M \T ( ! WAY4.<#a#c#f.> 

,LIKE ! ,5GLI% ,TRUE ,:IGS1 ,AM]ICANS REG>D$ ! ROYAL P[] AS SELFAGGR&IZ+1 SEEK+ TO EXP& ITSELF AT !IR EXP5SE4 0,! CR[N WILL TAKE ADVANTAGE ( EV]Y OPPORTUNITY ( EXT5D+ ITS PR]OGATIVE 9 OPPOSITION TO ! PRIVILEGES ( ! PEOPLE10 WROTE ,JAMES ,WILSON ( ,P5NSYLVANIA1 :I* DE/ROY$ !IR VIRTUE S9CE 0IT IS ! 9T]E/ ( ?OSE :O HAVE P5SIONS OR (FICES AT WILL FROM ! CR[N TO CONCUR 9 ALL ITS MEASURES40.<#a#c#g.> ,! ATTEMPT BY ,P>LIAM5T 9 #aggb TO APPO9T COLONIAL JUDGES1 A PRACTICE ?AT HAD BE5 DISALL[$ 9 ,5GL& S9CE #a#g#a1 WAS A /EP ?AT ,AM]ICANS SAW AS P>TICUL>LY AGGR&IZ+ & A TYRANNICAL SUBV]SION ( ! ,5GLI% CON/ITUTION ON !IR SIDE ( ! OCEAN4 ,CLE>LY1 ! P[]FUL 9 ,BRITA9 W]E CONSPIR+ TO OV]?R[ LIB]TY-PRES]V+ 9/ITUTIONS 9 ,AM]ICA2 9DE$1 IT WAS FE>$1 PRIE/S W\LD BE IMPOS$ UPON ,AM]ICA & ! SEP>ATE COLONIAL LEGISLATURES W\LD BE ELIM9AT$4 ,?IS IS PRECISELY ! WAY 9 :I* MANY ,AM]ICANS VIEW$ ! ,QUEBEC ,ACT3 AS A REGRESSION TO 0POP]Y0 & ABSOLUTISM4 

,ACCORD+LY1 ! ,5GLI% LIB]T>IAN TRACTS1 ESPECIALLY ,CATO'S ,LETT]S1 W]E REPUBLI%$ OV] & OV] AS PAMPHLETS & 9 COLONIAL NEWSPAP]S = :AT SEEM$ LIKE A PUBLIC ( 9SATIABLE READ]S4 ,TO ,AM]ICANS1 ACCORD+ TO ,B]N>D ,BAILYN1 0! WRIT+S ( ,TR5*>D & ,GORDON RANK$ ) ! TREATISES ( ,LOCKE AS ! MO/ AU?ORITATIVE /ATEM5T ( ! NATURE ( POLITICAL LIB]TY & ABOVE ,LOCKE AS AN EXPOSITION ( ! SOCIAL S\RCES ( ! ?REATS IT FAC$40.<#a#c#h.> ,!SE WRIT+S SEEM$ ALMO/ TAILOR$ TO ! WAY ! COLONI/S CONCEIV$ ( !IR LIVES & !IR DE/9IES4 ,AM]ICANS1 IF ONLY 9 !ORY1 ASSUM$ ?AT !IRS WAS A L& BAS$ ON 9DEP5D5T F>M/EADS1 RELATIVELY REPRES5TATIVE LEGISLATURES1 & A POLITY MADE UP ( FREE1 VIRTU\S YEOMAN F>M]S :O CON=M$ TO RADICAL ,:IG IDEAS ( A FREE POLITY4 ,9DE$1 A GOOD DEAL ( ,5LI<T5M5T ?\<T SUPPORT$ ! NOTION ?AT ,AM]ICA WAS 9 EFFECT PUR] & FRE] ?AN ,5GL&1 ! APO!OSIS ( 0! RI<TS ( ,5GLI%M510 & MORE G5]ALLY AN 5CLAVE ( VIRTUE & LIB]TY4 ,BO? ,VOLTAIRE & ,DID]OT VIEW$ ,AM]ICA AS ! DI/ILLATION ( ALL ?AT WAS GOOD 9 ,5GL&1 & MANY ,AM]ICANS W]E ONLY TOO GLAD TO OBLIGE !M 9 ?IS IMAGE4 ,JOHN ,ADAMS VOIC$ ! SAME ATTITUDE 9 #agfe :5 HE MA9TA9$3 

,! LIB]TIES ( MANK9D & ! GLORY ( HUMAN NATURE IS 9 7,AM]ICANS'.> KEEP+4 ,AM]ICA WAS DESIGN$ BY ,PROVID5CE = ! !AT] ON :I* MAN WAS TO MAKE HIS TRUE FIGURES1 ON :I* SCI5CE1 VIRTUE1 LIB]TY1 HAPP9ESS1 & GLORY W]E TO EXI/ 9 PEACE4.<#a#c#i.> 

,! ,AM]ICAN REVOLUTION>Y 9TELLECTUALS ?US VIEW$ !IR BATTLE AS A /RUGGLE = LIB]TY AS SU*1 & !IR COLONIES AS ! CRUCIAL HOLD\T AGA9/ ! WORLDWIDE DEMISE ( FRE$OM4 ,IT WAS NO SMALL MATT] ?AT ,?OMAS ,PA9E1 9 HIS ELECTRIFY+ PAMPHLET ,COMMON ,S5SE1 ASSIGN$ A QUASI-MILL5>IAN GOAL TO ! ,AM]ICAN ,REVOLUTION3 

,O YE ?AT LOVE MANK9D6 ,YE ?AT D>E OPPOSE1 NOT ONLY ! TYRANNY1 BUT ! TYRANT1 /& =?6 ,EV]Y SPOT ( ! OLD WORLD IS OV]RUN ) OPPRESSION4 ,FRE$OM HA? BE5 HUNT$ R\ND ! GLOBE4 ,ASIA & ,AFRICA LONG EXPELL$ H]--,EUROPE REG>DS H] LIKE A /RANG]1 & ,5GL& HA? GIV5 H] W>N+ TO DEP>T4 ,O6 RECEIVE ! FUGITIVE1 & PREP>E 9 TIME AN ASYLUM = MANK9D4.<#a#d.> 

,9 ?IS P]CEPTION1 ALL ?AT /OOD BETWE5 LIB]TY & TYRANNY WAS VIGILANCE1 AS ! CASES ( ! VIRTU\S ,SWISS & ,DUT* SEEM$ TO DEMON/RATE4 

,9 FACT1 ! ,AM]ICAN ANALYSIS ( ! 9/ITUTIONAL S\RCES ( !IR LIB]TY WAS BAS$ ON A FALLACY4 ,! COLONI/S HAD DEP5D$ MU* LESS ON ! EXI/+ ,5GLI% CON/ITUTION = ! PRES]VATION ( !IR LIB]TIES ?AN ON ! 0B5IGN NEGLECT0 ( ! COLONIES BY ! ROYAL ADM9I/RATION OV] PA/ G5]ATIONS4 ,BE=E #a#g#f1 ! ,CR[N & ,P>LIAM5T HAD SC>CELY EX]CIS$ !IR P[]S OV] ! COLONIES1 ) ! RESULT ?AT ! COLONI/S HAD BECOME ACCU/OM$ TO A SY/EM 9 :I* !Y ESS5TIALLY GOV]N$ !MSELVES4 ,9 ! ABS5CE ( /RICT ADM9I/RATION FROM ,LONDON1 ! T[N MEET+S & ! COLONIAL ASSEMBLIES EX]CIS$ REAL P[] 9 MO/ IMPORTANT >EAS ( COLONIAL LIFE4 ,?US1 ,P>LIAM5T'S LEGAL P[]S TO APPROVE OR REJECT BILLS PASS$ BY COLONIAL LEGISLATURES & DECISIONS BY COLONIAL C\RTS1 TO MAKE APPO9TM5TS1 TO REGULATE TRADE1 & ! LIKE1 W]E LESS 9TEGRAL TO DAILY LIFE1 EV5 :5 !Y HAD BE5 EX]CIS$ BE=E #a#g#f4 

,IT HAD 9 FACT BE5 LOCAL1 COMMON LAW C\RTS ?AT ADM9I/]$ JU/ICE 9 ! COLONIES2444 ,& IT HAD 9 FACT BE5 LOCAL BODIES--T[NS & C\NTIES 9 ! ,]/ 9/ANCE1 ULTIMATELY ! PROV9CIAL ,ASSEMBLIES--?AT LAID D[N ! RULES = DAILY LIFE2 RULES CONC]N+ ! PRODUCTION & DI/RIBUTION ( WEAL?1 P]SONAL CONDUCT1 ! WOR%IP ( ,GOD--MO/ ( ! WAYS 9 :I* PEOPLE DEAL ) ! WORLD1 ANIMATE & 9ANIMATE AB\T !M4 ,& !SE SAME BODIES HAD BE5 ! ONES ACCU/OM$ TO TAX4 ,MONEYS HAD ( C\RSE BE5 COLLECT$ BY ! HOME AU?ORITIES2 BUT !Y HAD BE5 FEES1 DUES1 & R5TS--*>GES1 = ! MO/ P>T1 9CID5TAL TO ! REGULATION ( OV]SEAS TRADE--NOT TAXES4 ,! P[] ( TAX+1 FROM ! E>LIE/ YE>S ( SETTLEM5T1 HAD BE5 EX]CIS$ BY ! REPRES5TATIVE ,ASSEMBLIES ( ! V>I\S COLONIES1 & EX]CIS$ )\T COMPETITION--9DE$ ) 5C\RAGEM5T--FROM ,5GL&4 ,! CONDITION ( ,BRITI% ,AM]ICA BY ! 5D ( ! ,SEV5 ,YE>S' ,W> WAS !RE=E ANOMAL\S3 EXTREME DEC5TRALIZATION ( AU?ORITY )9 AN EMPIRE PRESUMABLY RUL$ BY A S+LE1 ABSOLUTE1 UNDIVID$ SOV]EIGN4.<#a#d#a.> 

,UND] SU* CIRCUM/ANCES1 ! ,5GLI% CON/ITUTION WAS SC>CELY RELEVANT TO ,AM]ICAN LIB]TIES1 & :5 !Y BEGAN !IR REVOLT AGA9/ ,BRITA9 ! ,AM]ICANS F\ND ?AT ! SOCIAL & POLITICAL ORD] ?AT !Y W]E CON/RUCT+ EXHIBIT$ RELATIVELY LITTLE RESEMBLANCE TO ! MU*-APO!OSIZ$ ,GLORI\S ,REVOLUTION4 ,:E!R KN[+LY OR NOT1 !Y W]E REVIV+ ! DEM&S ?AT ! ,LEVEL]S HAD MADE 9 !IR V]Y FIR/ ,AGREEM5T ( ! ,PEOPLE 3 SOV]EIGNTY ( ! PEOPLE1 IF ONLY BY DEVELOP+ & 5L>G+ ! SCOPE ( 9/ITUTIONS !Y HAD E/ABLI%$ UND] ! NEGLECT ( ! ,BRITI% AU?ORITIES ACROSS ! ,ATLANTIC4 

,P,A,9,E',S ,C,O,M,M,O,N ,S,5,S,E 

,NEV]!LESS1 AT ! TIME :5 HO/ILITIES BROKE \T BETWE5 ! COLONIES & ,BRITA91 MANY PATRIOTS REMA9$ DEV\T MON>*I/S :O ?\<T !Y W]E M]ELY TRY+ TO RECTIFY ABUSES ( P[] ON ! P>T ( A FLAW$ K+ & HIS M9I/]S--EV5 AS ,GEORGE ,I,I,I WAS DECL>+ !M 0REBELS0 & OBLIG+ !M TO FI<T !IR ,5GLI% C\S9S 9 R$ COATS4 ,! >M$ CONFLICT W5T BEYOND M]E SKIRMI%ES AT ! ,BATTLE ( ,BUNK] ,HILL 7ACTUALLY ( ,BRE$'S ,HILL7 ON ! \TSKIRTS ( ,BO/ON ON ,JUNE #a#g1#a#g#g#e--! FIR/ ORGANIZ$ 5C\NT] ( ,BRITI% REGUL>S ) ,NEW ,5GL& MILITIAM5 ON A L>GE SCALE4 ,! ,BRITI% VICTORY WAS A PYRRHIC ONE3 MORE ?AN A ?\S& DEAD & #b1#b W\ND$ FELL AGA9/ 5TR5*$ ,AM]ICANS1 :O LO/ ONLY #dda \T ( AN E/IMAT$ #c1#b4 ,9 SELECT+ ,GEORGE ,WA%+TON TO COMM& ! #a#e1 MILITIA :O =M$ ! UNIT$ COLONIAL =CES1 ! ,CONT95TAL ,CONGRESS %[$ UN]R+ JUDGM5T3 ! WOOD5 IMAGE ?AT ,AM]ICANS COMMONLY HOLD TODAY ( ?IS GALLANT MAN DOES HIM LITTLE JU/ICE4 ,WA%+TON COMM&$ A =CE ( HIS [N DUR+ ! ,FR5* & ,9DIAN ,W>1 DUR+ :I* TIME HE EXHIBIT$ EXCEPTIONAL QUALITIES AS A MILIT>Y /RATEGI/4 ,HE WAS A MAN ( IMM5SE P]SONAL C\RAGE 9 COMBAT SITUATIONS & A DEVOT$ LEAD] ( HIS TROOPS4 ,9 ! E>LY P]IOD ( ! W> ! ,CONT95TAL ,>MY--?AT IS1 ! >MY 9 :I* ,AM]ICANS 5LI/$ AS REGUL>S-- & LOCAL MILITIAS TRI$ TO \TWIT RA!R ?AN RECKLESSLY CONFRONT ! RELATIVELY SLUGGI% BUT WELL-TRA9$1 WELL-EQUIPP$1 & SIZABLE >MY ( ,BRITI% REGUL>S4 ,ONCE ! COLONIAL =CES W]E R\T$ 9 ! ,NEW ,YORK ,CITY >EA--:I* REMA9$ 9 ,BRITI% H&S UNTIL ! 5D ( ! W>--,WA%+TON'S TACTICS ALT]NAT$ BETWE5 RETREATS DESIGN$ TO PRES]VE HIS SMALL >MY FROM TOTAL DE/RUCTION & LIMIT$ SURPRISE ATTACKS ?AT ?REW ! ,BRITI% COMM&]1 ,G5]AL ,WILLIAM ,H[E1 (F BALANCE4 

,AFT] !SE MON?S ( >M$ CONFLICT1 ) BLOODY BODIES LEFT ON BATTLEFIELDS1 9CREAS+ NUMB]S ( ,AM]ICAN COLONI/S BEGAN TO AB&ON ANY ALLEGIANCE TO ! MON>*Y4 ,MANY :O HAD CONT9U$ TO FAVOR ,AM]ICA'S ASSOCIATION ) ,BRITA9 LIV$ 9 ! VA9 HOPE ?AT ! MO!R C\NTRY W\LD MA9TA9 A BASIC RESPECT & AFFECTION = ITS COLONIES--A HOPE ?AT WAS F9ALLY %ATT]$ BY ! NEWS ?AT ! ,CR[N HAD HIR$ #b1 ,HESSIAN M]C5>IES TO FI<T AGA9/ ITS [N COLONIAL SUBJECTS4 ,SO DEVA/AT+ TO LOYALI/ >GUM5TS WAS ! DEPLOYM5T ( =EIGN M]C5>IES ?AT EV5 MANY COMMITT$ MON>*I/S W]E \TRAG$1 & = MANY LOYAL COLONI/S ! BOND BETWE5 RUL] & SUBJECT WAS REVEAL$ AS A %AM4 

,9 ,JANU>Y #a#g#g#f1 ,TOM ,PA9E'S /IRR+ PAMPHLET ,COMMON ,SEME DE>LY =MULAT$ ! /ILL 9*OATE BUT 9CREAS+LY HO/ILE S5TIM5TS ( ! COLONIALS 9TO A FLAT REJECTION ( ! NOTION ?AT ! ,5GLI% CON/ITUTION1 ) ITS K+ & ,P>LIAM5T1 C\LD CON=M TO ,AM]ICAN CONCEPTIONS ( LIB]TY4 ,CONTR>Y TO MORE ?AN A C5TURY ( ,5GLI% ,:IG ?\<T1 ,PA9E >GU$1 ! BALANCE ( K+ & ,P>LIAM5T CON/ITUT$ AN \TRI<T ?REAT TO COLONIAL FRE$OM4 ,NOT ONLY DID ,AM]ICANS LACK ANY REPRES5TATION 9 ,P>LIAM5T1 BUT !Y C\LD NOT FEASIBLY OBTA9 SU* REPRES5TATION 9 A BODY ?AT MET ?\S&S ( MILES AWAY4 ,TO RE/ORE A BALANCE 9 !IR RELATIONS ) ,BRITA9 WAS *IM]ICAL1 ,PA9E >GU$2 BLUNTLY1 ,AM]ICANS HAD TO SEV] !IR TIES ) ,5GL& & 9DEP5D5TLY FOLL[ !IR [N DE/9Y4 

,CONTR>Y TO ! COMMONLY HELD VIEW ?AT ,COMMON ,S5SE M]ELY 9SPIR$ ! PATRIOT P>TY TO DEM& 9DEP5D5CE1 ,PA9E'S PAMPHLET WAS ACTUALLY A SPIRIT$ >GUM5T = REPUBLICANISM AS SU*4 0,! NE>] ANY GOV]NM5T APPROA*ES TO A REPUBLIC ! LESS BUS9ESS !RE IS = A K+10 HE MILITANTLY DECL>$4.<#a#d#b.> ,& IT WAS NOT ! K+ ALONE BUT ! ,5GLI% SY/EM AS SU* ?AT WAS FATALLY FLAW$--0! SO MU* BOA/$ CON/ITUTION ( ,5GL&10 AS ,PA9E CALL$ IT--:I* CONSI/S M]ELY ( TWO TYRANNIES1 0MON>*ICAL TYRANNY 9 ! P]SON ( ! ,K+ 444 .<&.> >I/OCRATICAL TYRANNY 9 ! P]SONS ( ! PE]S10 A SY/EM ?AT M]ELY RELIES ON ! OLIG>*ICAL ,H\SE ( ,COMMONS TO CREATE ! ILLUSION ( TRUE REPRES5TATION4 ,! IDEA 0?AT ! CON/ITUTION IS A UNION ( ?REE P[]S RECIPROCALLY *ECK+ EA* O!R10 ,PA9E WROTE1 0IS F>CICAL40.<#a#d#c.> 

,TYRANNY WAS 5DEMIC TO K+S1 >GU$ ,PA9E2 !Y NATURALLY T5D$ TO EXP& !IR [N P[]4 ,GRASP+ & T5ACI\S1 RE/LESS & 9SATIABLE1 MON>*ICAL P[] 9V>IABLY CORRUPT$ VIRTUE & DE/ROY$ LIB]TY4 ,LIKE ! ,LEVEL] ,?OMAS ,RA9BOR\<1 :O HAD 9VOK$ ! NATURAL RI<TS ( ! 9DIVIDUAL 9 ! ,PUTNEY ,DEBATES ALMO/ A C5TURY & A HALF E>LI]1 ,PA9E TOO 9VOK$ NATURAL RI<TS 9 =MULAT+ HIS CASE AGA9/ MON>*Y3 0! EXALT+ ONE MAN SO GREATLY ABOVE ! RE/ CANNOT BE JU/IFI$ ON ! EQUAL RI<TS ( NATURE40 ,FUR!R3 0,= ALL M5 BE+ ORIG9ALLY EQUALS1 NO ONE BY BIR? C\LD HAVE A RI<T TO SET UP HIS [N FAMILY 9 P]PETUAL PREF]5CE TO ALL O!RS40.<#a#d#d.> ,PA9E LEFT NO >GUM5T = MON>*Y UNANSW]$1 NO CLAIM TO SCRIPTURAL AU?ORITY UNREF9$4 0,= MON>*Y 9 EV]Y 9/ANCE IS ! POP]Y ( GOV]NM5T10 HE W>N$1 ASSOCIAT+ K+%IP ) ! WIDELY REG>D$ 5EMY ( LIB]TY1 ! ,CA?OLIC ,*UR*4.<#a#d#e.> 

,=TUNATELY1 ,PA9E'S >GUM5T CONT9U$1 A K+ IS UNNECESS>Y TO POLITICAL SY/EMS2 9DE$1 MON>*Y 0IS A POLITICAL SUP]FLUITY40 ,NOR IS A BALANCE ( =CES OR 0*ECKS & BALANCES0 NECESS>Y TO PRES]VE LIB]TIES4 ,9 FACT1 HE CONT9U$1 ! S\RCE ( ! LIB]TY-PRES]V+ ELEM5TS ( ! ,5GLI% CON/ITUTION HAS BE5 MISID5TIFI$3 ! LIB]TIES ( ,5GL&1 SU* AS !Y >E1 >E ALL 0:OLLY [+ TO ! CON/ITUTION ( ! PEOPLE1 & NOT TO ! CON/ITUTION ( ! GOV]NM5T40.<#a#d#f.> ,!RE IS NO REASON = ,AM]ICANS TO TRY TO RECAPITULATE ! ,5GLI% SY/EM 9 ,AM]ICA1 S9CE 0IT IS ! REPUBLICAN & NOT ! MON>*ICAL P>T ( ! CON/ITUTION :I* ,5GLI%M5 GLORY 91 VIZ4 ! LIB]TY ( *OOS+ A H\SE ( COMMONS FROM \T ( !IR [N BODY40.<#a#d#g.> ,AM]ICANS %\LD CA/ (F ! ANCI5T TRADITIONS ( ,5GL&'S CORRUPT SY/EM & CREATE A NEW POLITICAL ORD] BAS$ NOT ON ,5GLI% TRADITION BUT ON NATURAL RI<TS1 :I* ALONE >E ! TRUE BASES ( HUMAN LIB]TY4 ,AS ! RADICAL ,5GLI% ,:IGS HAD PREVI\SLY DONE & AS ,FR5* REVOLUTION>IES W\LD DO ONLY A FEW YE>S LAT]1 HE 9VOK$ 0REPUBLICAN VIRTUE0 AS ! MORAL BASIS ( ! NEW SY/EM4 0,IT IS EASY TO SEE10 HE WROTE1 0?AT :5 REPUBLICAN VIRTUE FAILS1 SLAV]Y 5SUES40.<#a#d#h.> 

,9DEP5D5T ,AM]ICA1 ,PA9E >GU$1 %\LD ADOPT ! REPUBLIC AS !IR =M ( GOV]NM5T--A BODY ( REPRES5TATIVES )\T EI!R A K+ OR AN >I/OCRACY4 ,FALL+ BACK ON ! LONG EXP]I5CE ( ! COLONIES ) WRITT5 COLONIAL *>T]S1 :I* HAD (T5 PROTECT$ !M FROM ,BRITI% 9T]F]5CE1 ,PA9E CALL$ UPON ! ?IRTE5 NEW /ATES TO ADOPT CON/ITUTIONS ?AT 9/ITUTIONALIZ$ UNICAM]AL ASSEMBLIES--A S+LE H\SE ( P>LIAM5T--:OSE MEMB]S W\LD BE ELECT$ ANNUALLY1 BAS$ ON A RELATIVELY EQUAL SUFFRAGE1 & PRESID$ OV] BY AN ELECT$ PRESID5T4 ,= ! COLONIES AS A :OLE1 ,PA9E RAIS$ ! CRY = A 0,CONT95TAL ,*>T]1 OR ,*>T] ( ! ,UNIT$ ,COLONIES0 ?AT W\LD 0SECURJE.> FRE$OM & PROP]TY TO ALL M540 ,HE (F]$ HIS [N PLAN = A REPUBLICAN CON/ITUTION1 AGA9 ) A L>GE UNICAM]AL ASSEMBLY1 :OSE MEMB]S 70AT LEA/ #c#i07 W]E TO BE ELECT$ ANNUALLY BY A BROAD SUFFRAGE4 ,! PRESID+ (FIC]1 ! PRESID5T1 ,PA9E >GU$1 %\LD BE *OS5 BY LOT & ROTATION BY ! ,CONGRESS FROM AMONG ! DELEGATES ( ! /ATES4 

,NOT ALL PATRIOTS1 TO BE SURE1 AGRE$ ) ,PA9E'S CALL = ! UNICAM]AL LEGISLATURE NOR ) HIS REJECTION ( ! 0*ECKS & BALANCES0 ( ! ,5GLI% CON/ITUTION4 ,PA9E'S CONCEPTION ( REPUBLICAN GOV]NM5T1 COMPLA9$ ,JOHN ,ADAMS1 0WAS SO DEMOCRATICAL1 )\T ANY RE/RA9T OR EV5 AN ATTEMPT AT ANY EQUILIBRIUM OR C\NT]POISE1 ?AT IT MU/ PRODUCE CONFUSION & EV]Y EVIL WORK40.<#a#d#i.> ,POPUL> ASSEMBLIES1 ,ADAMS FELT1 W]E TOO *ANGEABLE1 TOO SUBJECT TO HA/Y JUDGM5TS1 & TOO AM5ABLE TO DEMAGOG]Y TO L5D /ABILITY TO A POLITICAL & SOCIAL ORD]4 ,ADAMS1 9 HIS [N ,?\<TS ON ,GOV]NM5T1 :I* APPE>$ ONLY A FEW MON?S AFT] ,COMMON ,S5SE & APP>5TLY 9 RESPONSE TO IT1 PRES5T$ A MODEL ( REPUBLICAN GOV]NM5T ?AT RECAPITULAT$ ! EQUILIBRIUM ( ! ,5GLI% CON/ITUTION1 ALBEIT )\T ! K+ & ! >I/OCRACY3 !RE W\LD BE TWO H\SES 9 ! LEGISLATURE1 ,ADAMS PRESCRIB$1 & AN EXECUTIVE ?AT C\LD VETO BILLS PASS$ BY ! LEGISLATURE1 AS WELL AS AN 9DEP5D5T JUDICI>Y4 

,AL?\< ,AM]ICAN CON/ITUTIONALI/S W]E TO EV5TUALLY ACCEPT ,ADAMS'S VIEWS 9 HIS ,?\<TS ON ,GOV]NM5T1 IT WAS ,PA9E'S PAMPHLET ?AT FIR$ ! MOOD ( ! REVOLUTION>IES4 ,) BLI/]+ POLEMICAL >DOR & TAUT RATIONALITY1 ,COMMON ,S5SE ELECTRIFI$ ! PATRIOT MOVEM5T1 & MORE ?AN ANY S+LE WORK AT ! TIME IT L$ TO ! WRIT+ ( ! ,DECL>ATION ( ,9DEP5D5CE4 

,FOLL[+ ITS PUBLICATION4 ,G5]AL ,WA%+TON CEAS$ TOA/+ ! K+'S HEAL? AT ! NI<TLY MESS ( HIS (FIC]S4 ,AS HE NOT$ 9 A LETT] ( ,JANU>Y #c#a1#a#g#g#f1 0! S\ND DOCTR9E & UNANSW]ABLE REASON+ CONTA9$ 9 ! PAMPHLET ,COMMON ,S5SE0 AMONG O!R >GUM5TS1 0WILL NOT LEAVE MEMB]S AT A LOSS TO DECIDE UPON ! PROPRIETY ( A SEP>ATION40.<#a#e.> ,)9 A WEEK OR TWO1 ! ,VIRG9IA >I/OCRAT & MILIT>Y COMM&] HAD BE5 CONV]T$ FROM A ROYALI/ TO A REPUBLICAN1 & HE ORD]$ HIS (FIC]S TO READ ! PAMPHLET TO !IR TROOPS4 

,! DEBATE OV] ! PROP] =M ( GOV]NM5T1 ESPECIALLY AS >TICULAT$ BY ,PA9E & ,ADAMS1 REA*$ A PEAK ( 9T5SITY ONCE ! ,AM]ICAN PROV9CES NO LONG] CONSID]$ !MSELVES SUBJECTS ( ! K+1 & IT BECAME !IR TASK TO WRITE CON/ITUTIONS = !MSELVES AS 9DEP5D5T /ATES4 0,UP & D[N ! /ILL SP>SELY SETTL$ COA/ ( ,BRITI% ,NOR? ,AM]ICA10 WRITES ,BAILYN1 

GR\PS ( M5--9TELLECTUALS & F>M]S1 S*OL>S & M]*ANTS1 ! LE>N$ & ! IGNORANT--GA!R$ = ! PURPOSE ( CON/RUCT+ 5LI<T5$ GOV]NM5TS444 1 ,EV]Y:]E !RE W]E DISCUSSIONS ( ! IDEAL NATURE ( GOV]NM5T2 EV]Y:]E PR9CIPLES ( POLITICS W]E EXAM9$1 9/ITUTIONS WEI<$1 & PRACTICES CONSID]$4 ,& !SE DEBATES 444 W]E DIRECT CONT9UATIONS ( ! DISCUSSIONS ?AT HAD PREC$$ ,9DEP5D5CE4.<#a#e#a.> 

,9DE$1 9 #aggf ALONE1 EI<T /ATES DRAFT$ & ADOPT$ CON/ITUTIONS E/ABLI%+ !IR 9DEP5D5CE FROM ! ,CR[N4 

,ON ,JUNE #a#b1#a#g#g#f1 ! FAM\S ,VIRG9IA ,BILL ( ,RI<TS APPE>$1 CL>IFY+ :AT ,AM]ICANS W]E FI<T+ =4 ,WRITT5 BY ,GEORGE ,MASON1 ! ,VIRG9IA BILL /AT$ ! *]I%$ LIB]TIES ( CITIZ5S ?AT HAD ALWAYS BE5 WON BY C\NTLESS /RUGGLES ?R\<\T ,5GLI% HI/ORY1 BUT UNLIKE LAT] BILLS ( RI<TS ( :I* IT WAS TO BE ! PROG5ITOR1 ! ,VIRG9IA BILL WAS ALSO PRES5T$ AS A 0BASIS & F\NDATION ( GOV]NM5T40 0,ALL P[] IS VE/$ 91 & CONSEQU5TLY D]IV$ FROM1 ! PEOPLE10 ! BILL DECL>$ 9 SWEEP+ PROSE2 0MAGI/RATES >E !IR TRU/EES & S]VANTS1 & AT ALL TIMES AM5ABLE TO !M40 ,ITS >TICLES ASS]T$ ! RI<T TO 0ALT]0 & 0ABOLI%0 GOV]NM5T 09 SU* A MANN] AS %ALL BE JUDG$ MO/ CONDUCIVE TO ! PUBLIC WEAL10 ) 0FREQU5T C]TA9 & REGUL> ELECTIONS0 7:I* AT ?IS TIME MEANT ANNUAL ONES74 ,IT UPHELD SUFFRAGE = 0ALL M5 HAV+ SUFFICI5T EVID5CE ( P]MAN5T COMMON 9T]E/ )1 & ATTA*M5T TO ! COMMUNITY0 7A PROP]TY QUALIFICATION71 & PROCLAIM$ ! JUDICIAL RI<T ( ALL ACCUS$ P]SONS TO CONFRONT !IR ACCUS]S 9 OP5 C\RTS 9 ! C\RSE ( A 0SPE$Y TRIAL BY AN IMP>TIAL JURY ( .<!IR.> [N VIC9AGE10 PROHIBIT+ EXCESSIVE BAIL1 0CRUEL & UNUSUAL PUNI%M5T10 & G5]AL W>RANTS SU* AS WRITS ( ASSI/ANCE4 ,F9ALLY1 ! BILL AFFIRM$ FRE$OM ( ! PRESS AS 0ONE ( ! GREAT BULW>KS ( LIB]TY10 & IT FAVOR$ A MILITIA AS AGA9/ A /&+ >MY ?AT 09 TIMES ( PEACE %\LD BE AVOID$ AS DANG]\S TO LIB]TY40 ,?IS SWEEP+ DOCUM5T ELIM9AT$ ALL RE/RA9TS ON RELIGI\S LIB]TY & 5D[$ ALL M5 ) 0! FREE EX]CISE ( RELIGION1 ACCORD+ TO ! DICTATES ( CONSCI5CE40.<#a#e#b.> ,IT MAY BE WELL TO NOTE ?AT MO/ ( !SE RI<TS & FRE$OMS W\LD HAVE BE5 CONSID]$ TREASONABLE 9 ! RE/ ( ! WORLD AT ?AT TIME4 

,9,D,E,P,5,D,5,C,E 

,! RAPID ADVANCE FROM A CONCILIATORY ATTITUDE T[>D ! K+ TO ONE ( OP5 HO/ILITY & DISAV[AL IS REM>KABLE1 REFLECT+ ! FACT ?AT REVOLUTIONS TELESCOPE EV5TS ?AT ORD9>ILY TAKE G5]ATIONS1 EV5 C5TURIES1 9TO A S+LE YE> OR LESS4 ,BY ! E>LY MON?S ( #a#g#g#f1 PATRIOT S5TIM5T ?R\<\T ! COLONIES WAS SO 9FLAM$ ?AT ,JOHN ,ADAMS1 AT ! ,CONT95TAL ,CONGRESS AT ,PHILADELPHIA1 C\LD WRITE3 0,BY EV]Y ,PO/ & EV]Y DAY1 ,9DEP5D5CE ROLLS 9 ON US LIKE A TORR5T40.<#a#e#c.> ,NOT ?AT ! COLONIES W]E UNDIVID$2 9 ,RHODE ,ISL& ! BACKC\NTRY WAS ! DRIV+ =CE T[>D 9DEP5D5CE1 = EXAMPLE1 BUT ,NEWPORT & ,N>RAGANSETT ,C\NTIES 9 ! WEAL?Y S\!RN P>T ( ! /ATE REMA9$ LOYAL1 :ILE ! AGR>IAN NOR?1 :I* WAS 9 CONTROL ( ! PROV9CIAL GOV]NM5T1 OP5LY DECL>$ ! COLONY'S 9DEP5D5CE4 

,MOREOV]1 MANY DELEGATES TO ! ,CONT95TAL ,CONGRESS W]E HESITANT AB\T SUPPORT+ SEP>ATION FROM ! MO!R C\NTRY4 ,9 ! SPR+ ( #a#g#g#f1 ! DEF5D]S ( PROPRIET>Y 9T]E/S 9 ,P5NSYLVANIA & DELEGATES FROM MANY S\!RN COLONIES W]E %OCK$ BY ,PA9E'S DEM&S1 & AT ! ,CONGRESS ITSELF !Y MA9TA9$ A P>TICUL> W>9ESS ( ! ,NEW ,5GL&]S1 ) !IR T[N MEET+ 0MOB RULE0 DEMOCRACY & !IR APP>5T DESIRE TO EXT5D IT TO ! O!R COLONIES4 ,! DELEGATES FROM ,P5NSYLVANIA1 ,M>YL&1 & ,NEW ,YORK-- COLONIES :]E WEAL?Y CONS]VATIVE 9T]E/S W]E /ILL 9 P[]--HAD BE5 SPECIFICALLY 9/RUCT$ TO VOTE AGA9/ 9DEP5D5CE IF IT WAS RAIS$4 ,NOR W\LD DELEGATES FROM !SE COLONIES VOTE = 9DEP5D5CE UNTIL ! RADICALS AT HOME TURN$ TO \TRI<T REVOLUTION>Y ACTIONS & E/ABLI%$ POPUL> GOV]NM5TAL 9/ITUTIONS4 

,/ILL1 ,PA9E'S WORDS PR(\NDLY 9FLU5C$ ! COMMITTEE ?AT ! ,SECOND ,CONT95TAL ,CONGRESS APPO9T$ 9 MID-,JUNE #aggf TO PREP>E ! ,DECL>ATION ( ,9DEP5D5CE4 ,! COMMITTEE 9CLUD$ ,SAM ,ADAMS ( ,MASSA*USETTS1 ,B5JAM9 ,FRANKL9 ( ,P5NSYLVANIA1 ,ROG] ,%]MAN ( ,CONNECTICUT1 ,ROB]T ,LIV+/ON ( ,NEW ,YORK &1 ( C\RSE1 ,?OMAS ,JEFF]SON1 :O WAS ASK$ BY HIS CO-MEMB]S TO DRAFT ! ,DECL>ATION ) :I* HIS NAME IS FAM\SLY ASSOCIAT$4 ,! DOCUM5T WAS A SWEEP+ /ATEM5T ( ! BASIC CONCEPTS ( LIB]TY ?AT HAD BE5 P]COLAT+ ?R\< ! COLONIES FROM ! 9CEPTION ( !IR /RUGGLE3 

,WE HOLD !SE TRU?S TO BE SELF-EVID5T1 ?AT ALL M5 >E CREAT$ EQUAL1 ?AT !Y >E 5D[$ BY !IR ,CREATOR ) C]TA9 UNALI5ABLE ,RI<TS1 ?AT AMONG !SE >E ,LIFE1 ,LIB]TY1 & ! PURSUIT ( ,HAPP9ESS4 ,?AT TO SECURE !SE RI<TS1 ,GOV]NM5TS >E 9/ITUT$ AMONG ,M51 D]IV+ !IR JU/ P[]S FROM ! CONS5T ( ! GOV]N$4 ,?AT :5EV] ANY =M ( ,GOV]NM5T BECOMES DE/RUCTIVE ( !SE 5DS1 IT IS ! ,RI<T ( ! ,PEOPLE TO ALT] OR ABOLI% IT1 & TO 9/ITUTE NEW ,GOV]NM5T4 

,MANY ( ! 0SELF-EVID5T TRU?S0 ( :I* ,JEFF]SON WROTE HAD !IR IMM$IATE ROOTS 9 ! TREATISES ( ,JOHN ,LOCKE3 NOTABLY1 ?AT M5 AS 9DIVIDUALS 7& WOM5 NO LESS1 WE W\LD 9T]JECT TODAY7 HAVE 9ALI5ABLE NATURAL RI<TS ?AT CANNOT BE ABRIDG$2 ?AT !SE RI<TS /EM FROM ! V]Y NATURAL ORD] ( ?+S2 & ?AT GOV]NM5T EXI/S BY ! CONS5T ( ! GOV]N$ & HAS NO AU?ORITY EXCEPT :AT ! PEOPLE GRANT TO IT4 ,MANY ( !SE IDEAS HAVE CLE> PR$ECESSORS 9 ! WRIT+S ( ! ,LEVEL]S1 AL?\< AT ! TIME ( ! ,5GLI% ,REVOLUTION !Y W]E H>DLY SE5 AS 0SELF-EVID5T40 ,IF NOT BY DESIGN1 ! AU?ORS REPEAT$LY EXPRESS VIEWS1 EV5 /ATEM5TS1 9 ! ,DECL>ATION ?AT P>ALLEL E>LY ,LEVEL] ASS]TIONS GO+ BACK TO ! #a#f#dS4 0,BY NATURAL BIR?10 ,RI*>D ,OV]TON HAD ASS]T$1 0ALL M5 >E EQUALLY & ALIKE BORN TO LIKE PROPRIETY1 LIB]TY1 & FRE$OM40.<#a#e#d.> ,SIMIL>LY1 0BY NATURE10 ,JOHN ,LILBURNE HAD WRITT51 !Y >E 0ALL EQUAL & ALIKE 9 P[]1 DIGNITY1 AU?ORITY1 & MAJE/Y40.<#a#e#e.> ,& AGA93 0,WE >E RESOLV$ UPON \R NATURAL RI<TS & FRE$OMS10 ,OV]TON WROTE4.<#a#e#f.> 0,! ONLY & SOLE LEGISLATIVE LAW-MAK+ P[] IS ORIG9ALLY 9H]5T 9 ! PEOPLE10 ,LILBURNE AFFIRM$1 0& D]IVATIVELY 9 !IR COMMISSIONS *OS5 BY !MSELVES BY COMMON CONS5T & NO O!R40.<#a#e#g.> 0,SO \<T ! :OLE NATION TO BE FREE !RE9 EV5 TO ALT] & *ANGE ! PUBLIC =M10 ,WILLIAM ,WALWYN ASS]T$1 0AS MAY BE/ /& ) ! SAFETY & FRE$OM ( ! PEOPLE40.<#a#e#h.> 

,BY CONTRA/1 IT IS WOR? ADD+1 ! CON/ITUTION ?AT ,JOHN ,LOCKE HIMSELF HAD PREP>$ = HIS PATRON'S NEWLY ACQUIR$ COLONY ( ,C>OL9A 9 ! LATE SEV5TE5? C5TURY WAS A CURI\S REGRESSION TO FEUDAL PRIVILEGE & HI]>*Y4 ,YET ,LOCKE'S !ORETICAL IDEAS BE> IMPLICATIONS ?AT >E F> 9 ADVANCE ( PREVI\S ?9K+ ON SOCIAL CONTRACT & NATURAL LAW IDEAS4 ,AL?\< ! NOTION ( EQUAL NATURAL RI<TS HAD BE5 LONG 9 ! MAK+1 ,LOCKE'S ,SECOND ,TREATISE TURN$ IT 9TO A RATIONAL IDEA BY EMPHASIZ+ ?AT M5 BY !IR [N LABOR REFA%ION NATURE1 9 A S5SE1 :5 !Y 9VE/ !IR LABOR TO MEET !IR [N NE$S & AIMS4 ,?AT IS TO SAY1 !IR LABOR RECREATES NATURE AS A DOMA9 ( 9DIVIDUAL RI<TS4 ,NATURE1 9 EFFECT1 IS NOT M]ELY AN ORIG9AL CONDITION ( HUMAN EQUALITY2 IT IS A REALM P]MEAT$ BY PROP]TY RI<TS1 =MULAT$ BY HUMAN ACTIVITY1 & RECREAT$ BY WORK & 9TELLIG5CE4 

,BY ,LOCKE'S TIME1 RADICAL /ATESM5 HAD 9DISSOLUBLY W$D$ PROP]TY TO NATURAL LAW2 HUMAN LABOR1 !Y >GU$1 HAD CONF]R$ 0NATURAL RI<TS0 UPON ! 9DIVIDUAL ?AT W]E BEYOND ! REA* ( ! /ATE1 /ILL LESS ( >BITR>Y RUL]S4 

,! FACT ?AT NE>LY ALL ! GREAT DECL>ATIONS PROMULGAT$ BY REPUBLICAN REVOLUTIONS 9 ! EI<TE5? C5TURY W$D$ PROP]TY TO NATURAL RI<TS OR AT LEA/ SWEPT PROP]TY RI<TS 9TO !IR LI/ ( 9ALI5ABLE RI<TS--9CLUD+ !IR RI<T TO ! LIB]TY ( !IR [N BODIES--WAS NOT NECESS>ILY DUE TO SELF-9T]E/ OR CLASS 9T]E/1 IMPORTANT AS !SE 9T]E/S W]E TO M5 ( PROP]TY4 ,RA!R1 BY VIRTUE ( ! FACT ?AT PROP]TY WAS ACQUIR$ ?R\< LABOR 9 REWORK+ NATURE1 ,LOCKE 9 EFFECT %IFT$ ! PRIORITY ,HOBBES HAD GIV5 TO ! /ATE OV] ! 9DIVIDUAL TO 9DIVIDUAL PROP]TY AS A MAJOR S\RCE ( NATURAL RI<TS1 !REBY DIM9I%+ ITS AU?ORITY OV] ! PEOPLE4 

,PROP]TY1 9 TURN1 CONF]R$ MAJOR LIB]TIES ON ! CITIZ54 ,IT GAVE HIM ! MAT]IAL 9DEP5D5CE TO ACT AS A FREE AG5T1 BEHOLD5 TO NO ONE & NO?+ O!R ?AN HIS [N REASON & CONSCI5CE4 ,UNLIKE ! DEP5D5T S]F ( ! FEUDAL SY/EM1 :O HAD [$ PRODUCE & S]VICE TO HIS LORD 9 EX*ANGE = MILIT>Y PROTECTION & ! USE ( ! LORD'S L&1 ! 9DEP5D5T CITIZ5 9 ! REPUBLIC [N$ HIS [N L&1 PROVID$ = HIS FAMILY ) IT1 & BORE >MS TO DEF5D HIS [N L& & HIS COMMUNITY4 ,& UNLIKE S]VANTS & O!RS :O HAD NO PROP]TY & H5CE C\LD BE MANIPULAT$ BY !IR MA/]S1 ! PROP]TI$ MAN C\LD BE GUID$ BY HIS [N RATIONAL JUDGM5TS1 FREE ( EXT]NAL CO]CION OR FE>S ( MAT]IAL WANT4 ,HE WAS NOT A CLI5T BUT A CITIZ51 OR AT LEA/ POT5TIALLY SO4 ,NOR WAS HE A 0DRIFT]10 A MEMB] ( ! 0MOBILITY0 OR 0MOB10 BUT RA!R A WELL-ROOT$ MEMB] ( A GIV5 COMMUNITY :O HAD A SOCIAL /AKE 9 ITS WELF>E4 ,HE HAD LA/+ FRI5DS1 NEI<BORS1 MAT]IAL 9T]E/S1 & RESPONSIBILITIES1 & H5CE HE C\LD BE C\NT$ UPON TO BE CONC]N$ ) ! COMMUNITY'S BE/ 9T]E/S AS WELL AS HIS [N4 

,B\RGEOIS AS !SE NOTIONS SEEM TO US TODAY1 !Y DATE BACK TO ANCI5T TIMES & CAN BE F\ND 9 ! WORKS ( ,>I/OTLE4 ,D\BTLESS1 HAD ,JOHN ,LOCKE HIMSELF ATT5D$ ! ,PUTNEY ,DEBATES1 HE W\LD HAVE SID$ ) ,H5RY ,IRETON :5 ,CROMWELL'S SON-9-LAW 9SI/$ ?AT PROP]TY WAS ! PR]EQUISITE = POLITICAL RI<TS4 ,BUT ,LOCKE'S IDEAS C\LD BE US$1 BY IMPLICATION AT LEA/1 BY ,?OMAS ,RA9BOR\<1 :O DEF5D$ UNIV]SAL SUFFRAGE ON ! BASIS ( NATURAL RI<TS & WAS WILL+ TO EXT5D CITIZ5%IP EV5 TO ! POORE/ ,5GLI%MAN :O WAS NOT A S]VANT4 ,IRETON HAD >GU$ TO CONSID]ABLE EFFECT ?AT A SOCIAL ORD] BAS$ ON NATURAL RI<TS W\LD NOT ONLY GIVE EV]YONE ! VOTE BUT C\LD BE US$ BY ! PROP]TYLESS TO CLAIM A RI<T TO PROP]TY4 ,LOCKE HAD YET TO WRITE ! ,SECOND ,TREATISE :5 ! ,PUTNEY ,DEBATES W]E UND] WAY1 & ,RA9BOR\< HAD NO EFFECTIVE REBUTTAL TO ,IRETON'S >GUM5T4 ,YET ,LOCKE'S !ORIES WRE/+ PRIVATE PROP]TY FROM NATURE ?R\< ONE'S LABOR C\LD HAVE BE5 US$ BY ,RA9BOR\< TO C\NT] ,IRETON1 ASSUM+ ?AT HE WAS PREP>$ TO ASS]T ! 0RI<T0 ( ALL M5 TO [N PROP]TY--AN ISSUE ?AT WAS TO EM]GE TWO DECADES LAT] AMONG ! RADICAL ,JACOB9S1 AT LEA/ BY IMPLICATION1 9 ! FAM\S ,V5TDSE LAWS ( #a#g#i#d4 

,UNKN[N 9 ! #a#f#dS1 ! NONB\RGEOIS ASPECTS ( ,LOCKE'S !ORIES W]E V]Y MU* 9 ! AIR A C5TURY & A HALF LAT]4 ,TO YEOMAN F>M]S ( LIMIT$ MEANS1 !IR WORLD ( PROP]TY WAS A WORLD ( FAMILIAL HUSB&RY2 ,AM]ICAN F>M]S1 9 FACT1 T5D$ TO CULTIVATE ONLY AS MU* L& AS !Y NE$$ TO MEET !IR IMM$IATE NE$S4 ,ONE MI<T F>M MORE L& IF ONE LIV$ CLOSE TO ! L>G] >TISANAL & COMM]CIAL T[NS ALONG ! ,ATLANTIC SEABO>D & RIV]WAYS1 :]E A GR[+ M>KET ECONOMY T5D$ TO S$UCE ! F>M] 9TO COMM]CIAL AGRICULTURE4 ,BUT ! CLOS] YEOMAN F>M]S CAME TO ! FRONTI]1 ! LESS ?IS CONDITION PREVAIL$1 AS WE %ALL SEE 9 \R DISCUSSION ( ! ,%AYSITES4 ,H]E ! VIEW ( PROP]TY AS A NATURAL RI<T1 C>V$ \T ( ! WILD]NESS BY VIRTUE ( ONE'S [N PHYSICAL LABOR1 SEEM$ ONLY TOO OBVI\S1 & A ,LOCKEAN >GUM5T C\LD BE US$ AS EFFECTIVELY AGA9/ ! M]*ANTS ( ,BO/ON1 ,NEW ,YORK1 ,PHILADELPHIA1 & ,*>LE/ON1 TO :OM ! F>M]S W]E 9DEBT$1 AS IT C\LD AGA9/ ! K+4 ,NOR DID ! SMALL PROPRIETORS ( ,AM]ICA EV] QUITE LOSE SI<T ( ! VIEW ?AT ATTEMPTS TO SEIZE !IR F>M/EADS & POSSESSIONS = UNPAID DEBTS W]E A VIOLATION ( !IR 0NATURAL RI<TS10 & FROM ! #a#g#gS UNTIL AS LATE AS ! #a#i#cS !Y TOOK UP >MS TO KEEP M]*ANTS & BANK]S FROM DISPOSSESS+ !M FROM L& ?AT !Y OR !IR ANCE/ORS HAD WRE/$ FROM 0NATURE0 BY VIRTUE ( !IR [N LABOR4 ,! NOTION ?AT PROP]TY WAS SACR$ WAS ?US HI<LY ELA/IC3 IT C\LD BE US$ AS EFFECTIVELY BY PRECAPITALI/ /RATA TO HOLD ON TO !IR PROP]TY AS IT C\LD BY CAPITALI/ /RATA TO EXP& !IR HOLD+S4 

,! SIGN]S ( ! ,DECL>ATION ( ,9DEP5D5CE--:I* WAS NO LESS A SUMMONS TO ! ,AM]ICAN PEOPLE TO TAKE UP >MS AGA9/ ! MON>*Y ?AN A CLAIM TO 9DEP5D5CE--W]E MA9LY LAWY]S1 AL?\< QUITE A FEW HAD ?RIV+ BUS9ESSES & P]HAPS FEW] HAD ?RIV+ PLANTATIONS ( !IR [N4 ,! WELL-TO-DO M]*ANT CLASS1 ! NE>E/ ?+ ! ,AM]ICANS HAD TO AN AU!NTIC B\RGEOISIE1 CON/ITUT$ ONLY A M9ORITY ( ! SIGN]S1 & ! EXT5T TO :I* !Y W]E REPRES5TATIVE ( !IR CLASS IS QUE/IONABLE1 DESPITE EF=TS TO *>ACT]IZE ! ,REVOLUTION AS 0B\RGEOIS40 ,9 A S5SE ! SIGN]S REFLECT$ ! 9T]E/S ( A BROAD MIDDLE CLASS1 AS YET UNDEF9$1 & EV5 ( A 0B\RGEOISIE0 9 ! S5SE ( BURGESSES :O W]E NOT /RICTLY CAPITALI/IC4 ,!Y BELONG$ TO A WORLD ?AT WAS /ILL MIX$ ECONOMICALLY1 9 :I* 0PROP]TY0 9CLUD$ A MAN'S LIFE1 SOCIAL /ATUS1 LIB]TIES1 & P]SONAL E/EEM AS WELL AS HIS MAT]IAL HOLD+S4 ,%\LD ONE ADD TO ?IS LI/ ONE'S RESPONSIBILITY TO ! COMMUNITY1 ! DESCRIPTION IS MORE ,HELL5IC ?AN CAPITALI/IC & 9 SOME RESPECTS MORE PUBLIC ?AN PRIVATI/IC4 

,ROOT$ 9 NATURAL LAW1 ! ,DECL>ATION ( ,9DEP5D5CE /&S AP>T FROM MO/ REVOLUTION>Y DECL>ATIONS ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY 9 ITS DEM& ?AT ! 0UNALI5ABLE RI<TS0 9CLUDE LIFE1 LIB]TY1 & ! 0PURSUIT ( HAPP9ESS10 RA!R ?AN PROP]TY1 AS ! ,FR5* ,DECL>ATION ( ,HUMAN ,RI<TS W\LD ANN\NCE ?IRTE5 YE>S LAT]4 ,NE>LY ALL ! PROCLAMATORY LIT]ATURE ( ! ]A US$ 0LIFE1 LIB]TY1 & PROP]TY0 AS A DEF9ITION ( RI<TS & FRE$OM4 ,JEFF]SON1 :O DRAFT$ ! DOCUM5T1 WAS H>DLY 9DIFF]5T TO ! RI<TS ( PROP]TY1 TO BE SURE2 9DE$1 HE UPHELD IT AS A S\RCE ( MEAN+ TO NATURAL LAW DOCTR9ES1 & IT IS HE :O IS MO/ CLE>LY ID5TIFI$ 9 ! E>LY HI/ORY ( ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES ) ! POLITICAL DEM&S & 9T]E/S ( ! 9DEP5D5T F>M]-PROPRIETOR4 ,:ATEV] ,JEFF]SON HIMSELF MAY HAVE MEANT BY ! WORD HAPP9ESS1 HIS USE ( IT ADD$ A UTOPIAN1 9DE$ TRANSC5D5TAL DIM5SION TO IDEAS ( RI<TS & FRE$OM4 ,IT CONVEY$ ! VISION ?AT ! REVOLUTION WAS AN E?ICAL & HUMANI/IC MOVEM5T1 NOT M]ELY A MAT]IAL ONE OR A 0TAX REVOLT0 OR COMM]CIAL ADV5TURE BY M]*ANTS & PLANT]S :O WI%$ TO HAVE GREAT] FRE$OM ( TRADE4 

,BUT ! ,DECL>ATION IS NOT )\T A MAJOR CONTRADICTION3 AL?\< IT SPEAKS ALMO/ LYRICALLY ( HUMANITY'S NATURAL RI<TS1 IT TAKES NO NOTE :ATEV] ?AT ONE 9 FIVE PEOPLE 9 ,AM]ICA W]E BLACK SLAVES1 LET ALONE ,9DIANS :O W]E TREAT$ AS ALI5S 9 !IR [N L&1 & WOM5 :O W]E ! LEGAL EQUIVAL5T ( JUV5ILES4 ,P>TICUL>LY 9 ! LI<T ( ! MANY ,AM]ICAN D5UNCIATIONS ( ,BRITI% RULE AS 0SLAV]Y10 ,JEFF]SON WAS ACUTELY AW>E ( ! P>ADOX CREAT$ BY ! EXI/5CE ( *ATTEL SLAV]Y 9 ! COLONIES4 ,AMONG ! GRIEVANCES HE LI/$ AGA9/ ! K+ 9 ! ORIG9AL DRAFT ( ! ,DECL>ATION WAS ! *>GE ?AT 0HE HAS WAG$ A CRUEL W> AGA9/ HUMAN NATURE ITSELF444 9 ! P]SONS ( A DI/ANT PEOPLE :O NEV] (F5D$ HIM1 CAPTIVAT+ !M & C>RY+ !M 9TO SLAV]Y 9 ANO!R HEMISPH]E0 & KEPT AN 0OP5 M>KET :]E ,M,5 C\LD BE B\<T & SOLD40 ,?IS CLAUSE 9 ! ,DECL>ATION WAS DELET$1 H[EV]1 TO SATISFY OBJECTIONS FROM DELEGATES FROM S\!RN /ATES & ,YANKEE SLAVE-TRAD]S FROM ,NEW ,5GL&4 

,:AT MAKES ! ,DECL>ATION EXTRAORD9>Y IS ! FACT ?AT IT WAS A PROCLAMATION DIRECT$ TO ! 5TIRE WORLD4 ,TO CITE ITS OP5+ L9ES1 0A DEC5T RESPECT TO ! OP9IONS ( MANK9D0 OBLIGES ! ,AM]ICAN REVOLUTION>IES TO 0DECL>E ! CAUSES ?AT IMPEL !M TO SEP>ATION40 ,! ,DECL>ATION EXPLICITLY ADDRESSES ITSELF TO HUMANITY & TO PUBLIC 0OP9ION02 ! ,AM]ICANS :O SIGN$ ?IS REM>KABLE DOCUM5T W]E PAT5TLY DECL>+ !IR CAUSE TO ! WORLD1 A PREC$5T ?AT ALL LAT] MAJOR REVOLUTIONS W\LD FOLL[1 ) ITS IMPLI$ APPEAL TO SOLID>ITY AMONG ALL PEOPLE & ) ITS IMPLI$ APPLICATION ( 9ALI5ABLE NATURAL RI<TS NOT ONLY TO ! ,5GLI% & ,AM]ICANS BUT TO EV]YONE :OM ITS WORDS C\LD REA*4 ,LIKE ! ,5LI<T5M5T ITSELF1 IT WAS A CLE>LY UNIV]SALI/IC DECL>ATION ?AT APPEAL$ TO PEOPLE AS A :OLE :O >E FREE OR LIVE 9 TRAMMELS ( POLITICAL REPRESSION1 AV[+ ?AT ! ,AM]ICAN ,REVOLUTION WAS ORI5T$ T[>D ! WORLD & CONC]N$ ) ! EXI/5CE ( OPPRESSION AS SU*4 

,! ,REVOLUTION PROV$ ?AT A FREE PEOPLE C\LD CREATE REM>KABLY EFFECTIVE 9/ITUTIONS AT ! V]Y BASE ( !IR SOCIETY1 9/ITUTIONS ?AT W]E ULTIMATELY F> MORE EFFECTIVE ?AN ! BUREAUCRACY ( ! ,5GLI% MON>*Y4 ,! ,DECL>ATION BR\<T ?IS REALITY TO ! =EGR\ND SU* AS NO PUBLIC DOCUM5T HAD DONE BE=E4 ,:]E ! ,LEVEL]S HAD ! ,NEW ,MODEL ,>MY & AN EASILY FRAGM5T$ POLITICAL NETWORK AS AN 9/ITUTIONAL BASE1 ! ,AM]ICANS HAD A SOCIETY & A BODY POLITIC4 ,GEORGE ,I,I,I HAD ESS5TIALLY LO/ ! COLONIES ONCE ,BRITI% TROOPS W]E NO LONG] NE$$ TO PROTECT !M FROM ! ,FR5* & ,9DIANS 9 #a#g#f4 ,! ,DECL>ATION TOOK ?IS FACT = GRANT$ :5 IT CIT$ MANY ( HIS ROYAL PR]OGATIVES AS VIOLATIONS ( COLONIAL SOV]EIGNTY3 IT DESCRIB$ HIS MON>*ICAL RI<T TO VETO LAWS & SUSP5D LEGISLATURES AS ! ABUSES ( AN 9VAD+ TYRANT1 NOT AS ! EX]CISE ( LEGITIMATE ROYAL AU?ORITY BY EI<TE5?-C5TURY /&>DS4 ,IT IS NO WOND]1 !N1 ?AT A DEMOCRATIC SPIRIT 9SPIR$ MANY ORD9>Y PATRIOTS AFT] ! ,DECL>ATION ( ,9DEP5D5CE WAS SIGN$4 ,!REAFT]1 REVOLUTION>IES US$ NOT ONLY ,TORY & LOYALI/ AS EPI!TS = !IR OPPON5TS1 BUT ) 9CREAS+ FREQU5CY ROYALI/4 

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