,VOLUME #a1 ,P>T #b1 ,*APT] #c 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,MURRAY ,BOOK*9 

,TEXT 3 

,P,>,T ,I,I4 ,! ,5,G,L,I,% ,R,E,V,O,L,U,T,I,O,N 

,*APT] #c4 ,! ,RISE ( ,COMM]CE3 ,! ,DUT* ,REVOLT & ,TUDOR ,5GL& 

,DESPITE ! 5ORM\S DAMAGE ?AT ! ,RE=MATION W>S & ! ,?IRTY ,YE>S ,W> 9FLICT$ ON ! ,G]MAN-SPEAK+ REGIONS ( ,EUROPE1 ! SOCIAL & ECONOMIC DECL9E ( !SE >EAS %\LD NOT BE ATTRIBUT$ EXCLUSIVELY TO MILIT>Y CONFLICT4 ,FROM ! MID-SIXTE5? C5TURY ONW>D1 ,EUROPE'S HI/ORICAL DEVELOPM5T %IFT$ BY DEGREES AWAY FROM ! 9L& >EAS ( ! CONT95T & ! ,M$IT]RANEAN TO ! ,ATLANTIC COA/ & ! NOR!RN CITIES ( ! CONT95T1 P>TICUL>LY TO ! EM]G+ NATION-/ATES ( ! ,NE!RL&S & ,5GL&4 ,A BOOM+ COMM]CE >OSE1 9 GREAT P>T [+ TO ! DISCOV]Y ( ! ,NEW ,WORLD & NEW TRADE R\TES ALONG ! ,ATLANTIC TO ! ,9DIES4 ,PORTUGAL BECAME A MAJOR M>ITIME P[] = A TIME1 AS DID ,SPA91 :OSE CITIES FL\RI%$ DUR+ ! RULE ( ,*>LES ,V & ,PHILIP ,I,I4 

,9 ! ,BRITI% ,ISLES ! =CES ?AT W]E TO PREP>E A F]TILE SOIL = ! EM]G5CE ( CAPITALISM W]E ALREADY AT WORK 9 ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY4 ,YET ?IS CAPITALI/ DEVELOPM5T WAS BY NO MEANS 9EVITABLE4 ,9 T]MS ( %E] WEAL? & RES\RCES1 ,5GL& WAS NO MORE RIPE ?AN ,SPA91 OR EV5 ,FRANCE1 TO MOVE RAPIDLY 9 A B\RGEOIS DIRECTION4 ,9DE$1 IT MI<T HAVE SEEM$ AT FIR/ ?AT ECONOMIC1 POLITICAL1 & CULTURAL HEGEMONY 9 CREAT+ ,EUROPEAN CAPITALISM W\LD FALL TO ,SPA94 ,! TREASURE ?AT ! ,SPANI>DS LOOT$ FROM !IR ,AM]ICAN POSSESSIONS F> & AWAY EXCE$$ ?AT ( ! ,BRITI%1 YET IT WAS NOT UNTIL ! TW5TIE? C5TURY ?AT CAPITALISM TRULY GA9$ ASC5DANCY ON ! ,IB]IAN P59SULA4 ,! ,SPANI% MON>*S FRITT]$ AWAY !IR 5ORM\S WEAL? 9 W>S WAG$ BY AMBITI\S K+S ON ! ,EUROPEAN CONT95T4 ,!IR EF=TS TO GA9 CONTROL ( ! DY+ ,HOLY ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE & !IR DUELS ) ,FRANCE EV5TUALLY IMPOV]I%$ ?IS E>LIE/ ( ,EUROPEAN NATION-/ATES4 ,?RIV+ ,SPANI% CITIES & T[NS W]E P]MITT$ TO LANGUI%1 & 9T]NAL AS WELL AS EXT]NAL COMM]CE FAD$ AWAY1 LEAV+ ,SPA9 A HI/ORIC BACKWAT] = C5TURIES4 ,! WA/AGE ( MAT]IAL RES\RCES 9 DYNA/IC CONFLICTS SEEM$ ALMO/ TO DOOM SEV5TE5?-C5TURY ,FRANCE TO A SIMIL> FATE1 SAVE = ! EF=TS ( ,C>D9AL ,RI*ELIEU--P]HAPS ! GREATE/ CL]ICAL NATION-/ATE BUILD] ( ! ]A--TO TRANS=M ! C\NTRY 9TO ! MAJOR CONT95TAL P[] ( ,EUROPE4 

,! ,D,U,T,* ,R,E,V,O,L,T 

,AMONG ! NOR!RN ,EUROPEAN C\NTRIES1 IT WAS ! ,NE!RL&S ?AT DISPLAC$ !SE E>LI] P[]S1 :]E COMM]CE BR\<T ,DUT* CITIES 5ORM\S MAT]IAL PROSP]ITY & FO/]$ A RI* CULTURAL DEVELOPM5T4 ,COMM&+ ! M\? ( ! ,RH9E1 ! ,DUT* W]E /RATEGICALLY PLAC$ TO CONTROL ! ,RH5I% TRADE 9 ! HE>TL& ( ,G]MANY1 &1 ESPECIALLY AFT] *RONIC W>F>E HAD WEAK5$ ! ,G]MANS1 !Y BEGAN TO ABSORB A GREAT DEAL ( ,EUROPE'S COMM]CE1 PREEMPT+ ! E>LI] ,BALTIC TRADE 9 :I* ! ,G]MAN ,HANSEATIC ,LEAGUE ( CITIES HAD PLAY$ SO IMPORTANT A P>T4 ,9DE$1 ! ,DUT* &1 %ORTLY AFT]W>DS1 ! ,5GLI% W]E TO BE ! MAJOR B5EFICI>IES ( ! ,AGE ( ,EXPLORATION ?AT ,PORTUGUESE & ,SPANI% M>9]S HAD PIONE]$4 

,! 9VOLVEM5T ( ,DUT* M]*ANTS 9 ! EXP&+ COMM]CE ( ! LATE ,MIDDLE ,AGES FO/]$ 9 ! ,NE!RL&S A /RONG S5SE ( NATIONHOOD & REPUBLICAN UNITY1 AS DID ! RES5TM5T ?AT ?IS RELATIVELY FREE PEOPLE FELT T[>D ,SPANI% 9T]F]5CE 9 !IR LIFCWAYS & RELIGI\S BELIEFS4 ,SO CONSID]ABLE WAS ! 9FLU5CE ( COMM]CE 9 ,DUT* LIFE ?AT IT IS EASY TO =GET ?AT ! NOR!RN L[L&S ( ! PRES5T-DAY ,NE!RL&S--AS DI/9CT FROM ,FLEMI% & ,FR5*SPEAK+ >EAS ( PRES5T-DAY ,BELGIUM--W]E UN9HABITABLE M>%Y >EAS ?AT W]E SL[LY RECLAIM$ FROM ! SEA4 ,OV] ! C5TURIES A PEASANTRY ) SPADES & W9DMILLS MANAG$ TO OP5 9TRACTABLE P>TS ( !IR COA/L9E TO AGRICULTURE & VILLAGE SETTLEM5TS SUPPORT$ BY MODE/ FI%+ FLEETS4 ,MORE A YEOMANRY ?AN A S]VILE PEASANTRY1 ! NOR!RN ,NE!RL&]S ( ,HOLL& W]E NOTABLE = !IR +RA9$ S5SE ( 5T]PRISE1 P]SONAL 9DEP5D5CE1 & BASICALLY HET]ODOX LIFEWAYS4 ,AS !IR PROV9CES TOOK =M1 !Y RETA9$ MU* ( ! EGALIT>IAN LAW ( !IR ,G]MANIC ANCE/ORS & !IR TRADITIONAL SY/EM ( LOCAL FRE$OMS4 ,:5 ! DUKES ( ,BURGUNDY UNIT$ ! PROV9CES ( BO? NOR? & S\?--,FL&]S & ,BRABANT AS WELL AS ,HOLL& & ,ZEEL&--UND] !IR [N ,E/ATES ,G5]AL1 ! DUKES1 :O SUMMON$ ?OSE BODIES1 NORMALLY P]MITT$ !M TO RETA9 !IR ORIG9AL RI<TS & TRADITIONS4 

,IDEOLOGICALLY1 ! ,DUT* L>GELY REWORK$ & B5EFIT$ FROM A NEW =M ( ,PROTE/ANTISM1 NOTABLY ,CALV9ISM1 ?AT ,LU!R HAD 9ADV]T5TLY /IRR$ UP ABROAD4 ,9 ITS ORIG9S 9 ,G5EVA1 ,CALV9ISM HAD SEEM$ LIKE A QUIETI/IC DOCTR9E COMP>ABLE TO ,LU!RANISM1 %>+ ,LU!R'S BELIEF 9 SALVATION BY FAI? ALONE1 & P]SONALLY ,JOHN ,CALV91 A NOBLE ,FR5*MAN TURN$ !OLOGIAN1 WAS NO LESS AN ADVOCATE ( OB$I5CE TO AU?ORITY ?AN ,LU!R4 0,! ,LORD HAS NOT ONLY TE/IFI$ ?AT ! /ATUS ( MAGI/RATE OR CIVIC (FIC] WAS APPROV$ BY HIM & WAS PLEAS+ TO HIM10 ,CALV9 9/RUCT$1 

BUT ALSO HE HAS MOREOV] GREATLY RECOMM5D$ IT TO US1 HAV+ HONOR$ ITS DIGNITY ) V]Y HONORABLE TITLES4 ,= ! ,LORD AFFIRMS 7,PROV4 #h3#a#e-#a#f7 ?AT ! FACT ?AT K+S RULE1 ?AT C\NSELORS ORD] JU/ ?+S1 & ?AT ! GREAT ( ! E>? >E JUDGES1 IS A WORK ( HIS WISDOM4 ,& ELSE:]E 7,PS4 #h#b3#f-#g71 HE CALLS !M GODS1 BECAUSE !Y DO HIS WORK4 ,9 ANO!R PLACE ALSO 7,DEUT4 #a3#a#g2 ,I,I ,*RON4 #a#i3#e-#g7 !Y >E SAID TO EX]CISE JUDGM5T = ,GOD1 & NOT = MAN4 ,& ,SA9T ,PAUL 7,ROM4 #a#b3#h7 CALLS ! HI<] (FICES GIFTS ( ,GOD4.<#a#g.> 

,BUT ,CALV91 F> MORE ?AN ,LU!R1 9SI/5TLY REG>D$ ! ,*UR* AS A HI<] AU?ORITY ?AN ! /ATE & PLAC$ A GREAT] PREMIUM ON ECCLESIA/ICAL OV] SECUL> AU?ORITY G5]ALLY4 ,GOD'S WILL WAS ABSOLUTELY & ULTIMATELY SOV]EIGN OV] E>?LY AFFAIRS1 HE 5JO9$4 0,H5CE PR9CES & MAGI/RATES MU/ ?9K ( ,HIM :OM !Y S]VE 9 !IR (FICE10 HE ASS]T$1 0& DO NO?+ UNWOR?Y ( M9I/]S & LIEUT5ANTS ( ,GOD40.<#a#h.> ,9DE$1 

FROM OB$I5CE TO SUP]IORS WE MU/ ALWAYS EXCEPT ONE ?+3 ?AT IT DOES NOT DRAW US AWAY FROM OB$I5CE TO ,HIM TO :OSE $ICTS ! COMM&S ( ALL K+S MU/ YIELD4 ,! ,LORD1 !RE=E1 IS ! K+ ( K+S1 &1 ONCE ,HE HAS OP5$ HIS SACR$ M\?1 HE MU/ BE LI/5$ TO BY ALL & ABOVE ALL4 ,ONLY AFT] ?AT1 WE >E SUBJECT TO M5 :O >E CON/ITUT$ OV] US1 BUT NOT O!RWISE ?AN 9 HIM4 ,IF M5 COMM& US TO DO SOME?+ AGA9/ HIM1 WE MU/ DO NO?+1 NOR KEEP ANY ACC\NT ( SU* AN ORD]4 ,ON ! CONTR>Y1 LET RA!R ?IS S5T5CE TAKE PLACE3 ?AT IT IS NECESS>Y TO OBEY ,GOD RA!R ?AN M5 7,ACTS #d3#a#i74.<#a#i.> 

,SU* REM>KS CONF]R$ CONSID]ABLE P[] ON ! CL]GY OV] ! MAGI/RATES1 K+LY OR O!RWISE4 ,AFT] #a#e#d#a1 :5 ! COMMUNITY ( ,G5EVA F9ALLY ACCEPT$ ,CALV9 AS ITS SPIRITUAL LEAD]1 HE ESS5TIALLY REPLAC$ ITS UN/ABLE POLITICAL REGIME ) AN AU/]E !OCRACY1 SUBORD9AT+ ! CITY TO ! *UR*1 :I* RUL$ IT ) A /]N RIGOR ?AT REGULAT$ CONDUCT 9 ALL >EAS ( LIFE4 ,M9OR 9FRACTIONS ( ,CALV9I/ NOTIONS ( APPROPRIATE BEHAVIOR W]E TREAT$ AS CRIM9AL (F5SES1 & MAJOR H]ESIES W]E PUNI%$ AS CAPITAL CRIMES1 (T5 NOT )\T TORTURE4 ,CALV9 BURN$ ! ,UNIT>IAN ,MI*AEL ,S]VETUS AT ! /AKE 9 #a#e#e#c1 BELY+ LAT] PRET5SIONS ( MU* RADICAL ,PROTE/ANTISM TO A CONSI/5TLY LIB]T>IAN \TLOOK4 ,NEV]!LESS1 AS ,CALV9ISM DRIFT$ ?R\< ,EUROPE1 IT /EADILY MOD]AT$ ITS PRACTICES & CR$O1 ESPECIALLY 9 ! ,NE!RL&S & ,5GL&4 

,SU* MOD]ATION WAS ALL ! MORE NECESS>Y BECAUSE ,EUROPE REMA9$ L>GELY ,CA?OLIC1 A FACT ) :I* ,PROTE/ANTS W]E OBLIG$ TO RECONCILE !MSELVES1 DOCTR9ALLY AS WELL AS POLITICALLY4 ,UNLIKE ,LU!RANISM1 ,CALV9ISM ACCEPT$ & EV5 5C\RAG$ TRADE & PRODUCTION1 ULTIMATELY 7BUT NOT IMM$IATELY7 BECOM+ AN IDEOLOGICAL FACTOR 9 ! EM]G5CE ( CAPITALISM4 ,9 FACT1 BY NO MEANS WAS IT SIMPLY A 0B\RGEOIS0 RELIGION4 ,ITS DEVOTEES 9CLUD$ NOBLES AS WELL AS M]*ANTS & >TISANS & MANY ( ! POOR] PEOPLE ( ,EUROPE4 ,! ACCEPTANCE ( ,CALV9ISM DEP5D$ AS MU* ON ! PREVAIL+ POLITICAL CONDITIONS 9 A GIV5 LOCALE AS ON ! ECONOMIC4 ,9 ,FRANCE1 :]E ! ,CR[N HAD BR\<T ! ,CA?OLIC CL]GY 9TO ITS [N S]VICE1 IT FE>$ ! ,CALV9I/ ,HUGU5OTS AS AN >I/OCRATIC ?REAT TO ! NATION-/ATE1 S9CE MANY NOBLES ADH]$ TO ?AT FAI?4 ,AL?\< ,FR5* K+S TOL]AT$ ! ,HUGU5OTS 9ITIALLY1 !Y F9ALLY & RU?LESSLY P]SECUT$ !M 9 ! ,W>S ( ,RELIGION 7#a#e#f#b-#i#h7 & ! BLOODY ,SA9T ,B>?OLOMEW'S ,DAY ,MASSACRE ( #a#e#g#b4 

,9 ! ,NE!RL&S1 ,CALV9'S TEA*+S BECAME AN IDEOLOGICAL BASIS = ! E>LIE/ ATTEMPT 9 NOR!RN ,EUROPE TO A*IEVE A REPUBLICAN1 FAIRLY OP51 & PLURALI/IC SOCIETY4 ,9 #a#e#f#f1 :5 ,PHILIP ,I,I1 ! K+ ( ,SPA91 ATTEMPT$ TO BR+ ! NOTORI\S ,SPANI% ,9QUISITION 9TO ! ,L[L&S TO ROOT \T ,PROTE/ANT & O!R H]ETICAL DOCTR9ES1 ,CALV9ISM BECAME ID5TIFI$ ) A GR[+ NATIONALI/ S5TIM5T ?AT P]MEAT$ ,DUT* PEOPLE ( NE>LY ALL CLASSES & PROV9CES AGA9/ !IR MILIT&Y ,CA?OLIC ,SPANI% RUL]S4 ,A LEAGUE ( SOME TWO HUNDR$ NOBLES TRI$ TO KEEP ! ,9QUISITION \T ( ! C\NTRY1 BUT ! ZEAL\S ,PHILIP >ROGANTLY REJECT$ !IR PETITION--A HI<H&$ ACT ?AT 9CIT$ A POPUL> REVOLT ON ! P>T ( WAGE-E>N]S & POOR J\RNEYM51 NOT ONLY AGA9/ ,SPANI% RULE BUT AGA9/ ,CA?OLICISM AS A :OLE4 ,FL&]S & ,BRABANT 9ITIAT$ ! /RUGGLE = 9DEP5D5CE 9 #a#e#f#b1 & UND] ,WILLIAM ! ,SIL5T1 ! PR9CE ( ,ORANGE1 ! CONFLICT ASSUM$ WIDESPREAD & *RONIC PROPORTIONS4 ,NOR!RN 0SEA BEGG>S0 OR PIRATES1 BOOTY HUNT]S1 & PATRIOTS RAID$ ! ,SPANI%-HELD COA/AL T[NS1 FOLL[$ 9 TURN BY RU?LESS ,SPANI% ATTACKS ON ,DUT* COMMUNITIES4 

,9 TIME1 ! REVOLT OP5$ A CLEAVAGE BETWE5 ! NOBILITY ( ! REGION & ! L[] CLASSES4 ,! NOBLES1 FE>+ SOCIAL UNRE/ AMONG !IR UND]L+S1 W]E (T5 READY TO COME TO T]MS ) ,PHILIP1 & ! /RUGGLE MI<T HAVE EASILY TURN$ 9TO A CLASS W>1 R$OL5T ( ! >TISANAL UPRIS+S ( ! E>LY ,FLEMI% 0PROLET>IAT0 C5TURIES E>LI]4 ,9/EAD1 IT BECAME A SWEEP+ NATIONAL W> ?AT REUNIT$ VIRTUALLY ALL SOCIAL /RATA AGA9/ ! ,SPANI>DS1 [+ 9 GREAT P>T TO ,SPANI% >ROGANCE & /UPIDITY1 P>TICUL>LY :5 ! ,DUKE ( ,ALBA--! ,SPANI% EQUIVAL5T ( ,TRU*SESS ,GEORG VON ,WALDBURG--WAS UNLEA%$ UPON ! ,L[L&S4 ,ALBA WAS UTT]LY UNCONC]N$ ) CLASS DI/9CTIONS4 ,NOT ONLY DID HE BUT*] ?\S&S ( PEOPLE ( ! L[] CLASSES1 BUT HE FREELY CONFISCAT$ NOBLE E/ATES & IMPOS$ HEAVY TAXES ON ! WELL-TO-DO1 :OSE SUPPORT HE MI<T HAVE EASILY GA9$ ) A L5I5T POLICY4 ,BY #a#e#g#f1 AFT] ,WILLIAM ! ,SIL5T SUCCESSFULLY DROVE \T ! ,SPANI% G>RISONS1 ALL SEV5TE5 ( ! ,L[L& PROV9CES HAD UNIT$ 9 A COMMON LEAGUE TO /RUGGLE RESOLUTELY TO EXPEL ! ,SPANI>DS FROM !IR T]RITORY4 

,FOLL[+ A MORE CONCILIATORY POLICY AFT] ! REMOVAL ( ,ALBA1 ! ,PR9CE ( ,P>MA1 :O BECAME GOV]NOR-G5]AL ( ! ,NE!RL&S 9 #a#e#g#h1 MANAG$ TO DIVIDE ! UNION BY W9N+ OV] ! SUPPORT ( ! L>GELY ,CA?OLIC S\!RN PROV9CES4 ,! ,SPANI% GOV]NOR ,ALESS&RO ,FAMESE EV5TUALLY RECONQU]$ ! S\!RN PROV9CES1 :I* REMA9$ ,SPANI% POSSESSIONS1 & ! ,PROTE/ANTS AMONG !M W]E GRADUALLY RECONV]T$ TO ,CA?OLICISM4 ,9 #aeha ! SEV5 ,PROTE/ANT NOR!RN PROV9CES--,HOLL&1 ,ZEEL&1 ,UTRE*T1 ,GELD]L&1 ,OV]IJSSEL1 ,FRIESL&1 & ,GRON+5--E/ABLI%$ A P]MAN5T UNION ( !IR [N3 ! ,UNIT$ ,PROV9CES ( ! ,NE!RL&S1 OR ! ,DUT* ,REPUBLIC1 :I* DECL>$ ITS DEF9ITIVE 9DEP5D5CE FROM ,SPA94 ,! CONFLICT CONT9U$ WELL BEYOND ! LIFETIME ( ITS 9ITIATORS & ORIG9AL P>TICIPANTS2 9DE$1 NOT UNTIL #afi WAS ! ,DUT* ,REPUBLIC LEGITIMAT$ BY A TWELVE-YE> TRUCE4 ,! CONFLICT REVIV$ DUR+ ! ,?IRTY ,YE>S ,W> 7#a#f#a#h-#d#h71 UPON :OSE CONCLUSION ! ,TREATY ( ,WE/PHALIA ( #afdh F9ALLY RECOGNIZ$ ! 9DEP5D5CE ( ! ,UNIT$ ,PROV9CES4 

,! ,DUT* REVOLT HAS NOT F\ND ITS PROP] PLACE 9 ! HI/ORY ( ,EUROPEAN REVOLUTIONS4 ,AS A REVOLT AGA9/ ,SPANI% RULE1 IT WAS ONE ( ! E>LIE/ REVOLUTIONS TO RAISE ! IMAGE ( ! 0NATION0 AS A MOTIVE =CE = REBELLION1 A WORD ?AT 9 ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY D5OT$ A PEOPLE1 NOT M]ELY A SOV]EIGN T]RITORIAL 5TITY4 ,PATRIOTISM1 9 TURN1 MEANT DEVOTION TO ONE'S FREE 0NATION10 RA!R ?AN NATIONALI/IC *AUV9ISM AS WE KN[ IT TODAY4 ,BUT ! REVOLT HAD FUR!R IMPLICATIONS AS AN EF=T TO CREATE A NEW K9D ( SOCIETY4 ,9 ! ,UNIT$ ,PROV9CES ! 0NATION0 DID NOT BECOME A PRETEXT = ROYAL ABSOLUTISM2 QUITE TO ! CONTR>Y1 IT S]V$ TO WEAK5 /ATI/ ELEM5TS ( ! K9D ?AT ! GREAT MON>*IES ( ,EUROPE W]E !N =G+4 ,NOR DID ,DUT* PATRIOTISM S]VE TO SUBV]T LOCAL & PROV9CIAL FRE$OMS4 ,RA!R1 IT BECAME ! BASIS = A CONF$]AL REPUBLIC1 ONE ?AT CONJO9$ PROV9CIAL CU/OMS & LOCAL AUTONOMY ) NATIONAL UNIFICATION4 ,9DE$1 ! ,DUT* ,E/ATES ,G5]AL W]E COMPOS$ ( SEV5 DELEGATES FROM EA* ( ! SEV5 PROV9CES ?AT CON/ITUT$ ! REPUBLIC1 :I* WAS ACTUALLY MORE ( A CONF$]AL CANTONAL SY/EM ?AN A C5TRALIZ$ REPUBLICAN ONE4 

,HEAD$ BY ! HI<LY PRE/IGI\S BUT UNPRET5TI\S PR9CES ( ,ORANGE1 ! SOCIETY ( ! ,UNIT$ ,PROV9CES DID NOT FULLY %$ ALL ITS FEUDAL TRAITS1 SU* AS ! AU?ORITY ?AT GUILD MA/]S HELD OV] J\RNEYM52 NOR DID ! HI<] SOCIAL /ATUS ?AT >I/OCRATS 5JOY$ OV] M]*ANTS DISAPPE>4 ,L>GE DIFF]5CES 9 WEAL? SURELY EXI/$1 YET MOD]ATE & HUMANE ,CALV9I/S REG>D$ EXTRAVAGANT DISPLAYS ( WEAL? & ! EXTREMES ( EXPLOITATION AS VIRTUALLY SACRILEGI\S4 ,DI/9CTIONS 9 SOCIAL /RATA W]E AS MU* A MATT] ( P]SONAL & FAMILY PRE/IGE AS REAL ECONOMIC P[]1 P]HAPS EV5 MORE SO4 

,/ILL1 ! CIVILIZ$ ,DUT* BUR<] REPUBLIC WAS UNABA%$LY COMM]CIAL4 ,LIKE ! FIGURES PA9T$ BY ,V]ME] & ,REMBR&T1 COMMON]S W]E CONC]N$ ) TRADE1 TID9ESS1 DOME/ICITY1 >TISAN%IP1 & ! REW>DS ( BANK+4 ,A ,DUT* COMM]CIAL EMPIRE BEGAN TO EM]GE EV5 BE=E ! #afi TRUCE1 ) ! =MATION ( ! ,DUT* ,EA/ ,9DIA ,COMPANY SEV5 YE>S E>LI]2 & IF ! =M]LY PROSP]\S PORT ( ,ANTW]P LANGUI%$ UND] ,SPANI% RULE1 ,AM/]DAM & O!R ,DUT* PORTS--GIV5 CONTROL OV] ! ,S*ELDT ,RIV] BY ! ,TREATY ( ,WE/PHALIA--BECAME SUPREME 9 ,DUT* TRADE1 BR++ ! BUR<]S IMM5SE PROSP]ITY4 

,:I* IS NOT TO SAY ?AT ! ,DUT* REVOLT WAS A 0B\RGEOIS REVOLUTION02 9DE$1 QUITE TO ! CONTR>Y4 ,! REVOLT WAS L$ BY ! NOBLE ,H\SE ( ,ORANGE1 & ,HOLL&'S PROSP]ITY RE/$ PRIM>ILY ON ! [N]%IP ( L&4 ,AT ! SAME TIME1 0B\RGEOIS0 URBAN C5T]S ( ! ,L[L&S EI!R DID NOT P>TICIPATE 9 ! /RUGGLE1 HESITAT$ TO DO SO1 OR REMA9$ LOYAL TO ,SPA94 ,AM/]DAM1 ! MO/ 0B\RGEOIS0 ( ! ,DUT* CITIES1 9ITIALLY REFUS$ TO JO9 ! UPRIS+1 :ILE ,ANTW]P1 ! MO/ IMPORTANT NOR!RN ,EUROPEAN BANK+ CITY1 RETA9$ ITS ALLEGIANCE TO ! ,SPANI% CR[N 9 ! LONG RUN1 [+ TO ! FE> ( ! POPUL> UNRE/ ?AT HAD BE5 >\S$ 9 ! NOR!RN PROV9CES4 ,NOR DID RELIGI\S ALLEGIANCES /RICTLY FOLL[ CLASS L9ES4 ,! MO/ PROSP]\S >EAS1 & 9 MANY RESPECTS ! MO/ 0B\RGEOIS0 ( ! ,SPANI% ,NE!RL&S1 ADH]$ TO ,CA?OLICISM1 :I* REMA9$ ! PREF]R$ RELIGION ( ! UPP] CLASSES & BUR<] PATRICIANS1 :ILE ,CALV9ISM APPEAL$ 9 GREAT P>T TO ! L[] CLASSES4 

,NOR W]E ,UNIT$ ,PROV9CES ! ONLY REPUBLIC ON ! CONT95T3 ! ,SWISS1 ,V5ETIANS1 & ,G5OESE 5JOY$ A SIMIL> POLITICAL =M4 ,BUT ! ,DUT* W]E PROBABLY ! MO/ TOL]ANT & EGALIT>IAN ( ALL ( !M1 ) ! POSSIBLE EXCEPTION ( C]TA9 RURAL ,SWISS CANTONS1 9ASMU* AS A ?IRD ( ! ,DUT* W]E /ILL ,CA?OLIC1 DOME/IC H>MONY REQUIR$ A MORE TOL]ANT =M ( ,CALV9ISM ?AN ! K9D ?AT HAD EXI/$ UND] ,CALV9 HIMSELF4 ,! ,DUT* ,RE=M$ ,*UR* NEV] BECAME AS 9TOL]ANT ( DISS5T]S1 9CLUD+ ,CA?OLICS1 AS O!R ,PROTE/ANT *UR*ES1 SU* AS ! ,5GLI% ,ANGLICANS & ,PRESBYT]IANS1 DESPITE ! FACT ?AT ! ,RE=M$ ,*UR* ESS5TIALLY BECAME ! ,DUT* /ATE RELIGION4 ,A DEC5T HUMANISM FL\RI%$ 9 ! REPUBLIC1 TOGE!R ) A /RONG BUR<] S5SE ( DUTY1 RESPONSIBILITY1 & MORAL PROBITY1 A SIGNAL FEATURE ( ! ,NE!RL&S TO ?IS V]Y DAY4 ,! REPUBLIC BECAME A REFUGE = OPPRESS$ PEOPLES ( ALL K9DS1 9CLUD+ ,PORTUGUESE & ,SPANI% ,JEWS1 ,HUGU5OTS1 & SECT>IES1 :O 5JOY$ CONSID]ABLE FRE$OM AS LONG AS !Y DID NOT 9VOLVE !MSELVES TOO DEEPLY 9 ! C\NTRY'S 9T]NAL AFFAIRS4 

,F9ALLY1 ! ,DUT* REVOLT & ! REPUBLIC ?AT FOLL[$ FROM IT PR(\NDLY AFFECT$ ! ,PURITAN MOVEM5T ON ! ,5GLI% SIDE ( ! ,*ANNEL1 /R5G!N+ ITS MILITANCY & GIV+ IT A /RONG POLITICAL FLAVOR4 ,QUE5 ,ELIZABE?'S SUPPORT = ,DUT* 9DEP5D5CE1 AL?\< GUID$ MA9LY BY REALPOLITIK1 GREATLY CONSOLIDAT$ ,BRITI% ,PROTE/ANTISM & ASSOCIAT$ ! ,TUDOR MON>*Y ) ! ,PROTE/ANT 9T]E/ 9 ,EUROPE4 ,! MOD]ATE1 /ABLE1 & TOL]ANT ,CALV9ISM 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,PROV9CES1 9 EFFECT1 BECAME A BRE$+ GR\ND = MORE RADICAL ,PURITAN T5D5CIES ?AT SURFAC$ 9 ! ,5GLI% ,REVOLUTION4 ,IT WAS 9 ,AM/]DAM & ! ,HAGUE ?AT MANY REFUGEE ,5GLI% ,PURITANS LE>N$ REPUBLICAN IDEAS-- IDEAS ?AT !Y LAT] BR\<T BACK HOME4 ,! FRE$OMS ?AT ! ,DUT* 5JOY$1 9 EFFECT1 RE9=C$ DESIRES TO EXP& SIMIL> FRE$OMS 9 ,5GL&4 

,T,U,D,O,R ,5,G,L,& 

,LIKE ! ,DUT*1 ! ,5GLI% RUL+ CLASSES B5EFIT$ 9 V>Y+ DEGREES FROM ! COMM]CIAL ADVANCES ( ! ,ATLANTIC TRADE ( ! SIXTE5? C5TURY4 ,BUT EV5 MORE ?AN ! ,DUT*1 ! ,5GLI% >I/OCRACY WAS NOTABLE = ITS SOCIAL & /RUCTURAL WEAKNESS4 ,BETWE5 #adee & #a#d#h#e1 ! ,W>S ( ! ,ROSES HAD ALL BUT EXT]M9AT$ ! ISL&'S TRADITIONAL NOBILITY4 ,UNLIKE O!R B>ONIAL W>S ( ! TIME1 9 :I* RIVALS F\<T TO ACQUIRE EA* O!R'S E/ATES BY HOLD+ !IR RESPECTIVE [N]S = RANSOM1 ! ,W>S ( ! ,ROSES1 9 :I* ! H\SES ( ,YORK & ,LANCA/] DESP]ATELY F\<T EA* O!R TO ACQUIRE ! ?RONE1 C>RI$ ! CONFLICT NE>LY TO ! PO9T ( !IR MUTUAL PHYSICAL EXT]M9ATION4 ,! OBJECT ( CONQUE/ WAS ?US CONTROL ( ! EM]G+ NATION-/ATE ITSELF1 NOT ( A P>TICUL> L&$ E/ATE4 ,AFT] ! ,YORKI/S TEMPOR>ILY SUCCE$$ 9 W9N+ ! ?RONE = ,$W>D ,I,V 9 #a#d#d#b1 BLOODY 9T]NEC9E CONFLICTS FL>$ UP BETWE5 ! VICTORS4 ,! CONFLICTS CONT9U$ AFT] ,$W>D'S DEA? 9 #a#d#h#c1 ?IS TIME BETWE5 ! FUTURE ,RI*>D ,I,I,I & ! NOBLES1 ESPECIALLY AFT] HE MURD]$ ,$W>D'S TWO Y\NG SONS1 ONLY TO BE KILL$ 9 BATTLE 9 ! CLOS+ P]IOD ( ! W>4 

,BY ! TIME ,H5RY ,TUDOR CAME TO P[] 9 #a#d#h#e1 UNIT+ ! H\SES ( ,YORK & ,LANCA/] ) AN 9T]DYNA/IC M>RIAGE1 ! >I/OCRACY HAD BE5 L>GELY EXT]M9AT$1 LEAV+ NO P[]FUL NOBILITY ?AT C\LD S]I\SLY *ALL5GE ROYAL AU?ORITY4 ,9DE$1 GREAT T]RITORIAL LORDS LIKE ?OSE ( SEV5TE5?-C5TURY ,FRANCE1 :O *AS$ ! Y\NG ,L\IS ,X,I,V \T ( ,P>IS & WR\<T HAVOC ON ! MON>*Y1 W]E L>GELY UNKN[N 9 ,5GL& AFT] ! ,W>S ( ! ,ROSES4 ,JU/ AS ,L\IS1 FULLY S*OOL$ 9 ! DANG]S ( AN AMBITI\S NOBILITY1 MANAG$ ) ,C>D9AL ,MAZ>9'S HELP TO =GE ONE ( ! MO/ C5TRALIZ$ /ATES 9 ,EUROPE1 SO ,H5RY ,V,I,I & HIS M9I/]S TRI$ TO 5L>GE & CONC5TRATE ALL P[] 9 ! MON>*'S H&S4 ,AS ! ,SPANI% AMBASSADOR TO ! C\RT ( ,H5RY ,V,I,I IRONICALLY OBS]V$ 9 #a#d#i#h1 ! K+ 0W\LD LIKE TO GOV]N ,5GL& 9 ! ,FR5* FA%ION BUT HE CANNOT40 

,?IS JUDGM5T WAS V]Y A/UTE4 ,ALL ( ,H5RY'S EF=TS NOT)/&+1 ,5GLI% SOCIETY WAS F> FROM /ABLE OR C5TRALIZ$4 ,! ,5GLI% MON>*Y1 9 EFFECT1 WAS /RIK+LY UNLIKE ! ABSOLUTI/ REGIMES ?AT W]E EM]G+ ON ! ,EUROPEAN CONT95T2 9DE$1 IF ANY?+1 FIFTE5?- & SIXTE5?-C5TURY ,5GL& UND] ! ,TUDORS WAS P]HAPS ! MO/ SOCIALLY MOBILE & LEA/ ABSOLUTI/ ( ANY MON>*ICAL NATION-/ATE 9 ,EUROPE4 

,H5RY ,V,I,I1 AS ! F\ND] ( ! ,TUDOR DYNA/Y1 DEP5D$ = HIS SUPPORT ON ! L[] G5TRY & 9DEP5D5T SQUIRES1 :O HAD ESS5TIALLY BE5 BY/&]S 9 ! 9T]DYNA/IC W>S1 & ON ! C\NTY GOV]NM5TS ?AT !Y RAN1 AS WELL AS ! REALM'S FREE F>M]S OR YEOM54 ,9DE$1 A NEW NOBILITY HAD BE5 CREAT$ \T ( ! WELL-TO-DO MIDDLE CLASSES1 :OSE APPETITE = ! PR(ITS ( TRADE F> EXCE$$ !IR DESIRE = ! SPOILS ( BATTLE4 ,! K+ WAS ALSO OBLIG$ TO RELY = SUPPORT ON A L>GE V>IETY ( M]*ANTS1 >TISANS1 & SOCIALLY 9DEF9ABLE COMMON]S :O HAD BE5 DISGORG$ BY ! DECL9+ FEUDAL SY/EM4 ,AS ,LAWR5CE ,/ONE OBS]VES1 

! ,CR[N .<BECAME.> HEAVILY DEP5D5T UPON ,P>LIAM5T = POLITICAL & F9ANCIAL SUPPORT4 ,! CLASSES REPRES5T$ 9 ! ,H\SE ( ,COMMONS W]E WILL+ 5\< TO GIVE ! ,K+ !IR SUPPORT 9 HIS RELIGI\S & POLITICAL POLICIES1 BUT ONLY SO LONG AS !Y W]E LEFT TO RULE OV] ! C\NTRYSIDE & ! T[NS4 ,! ,CR[N WAS ?US 9 NO POSITION TO PROCE$ TO ! NEXT /AGE 9 ! CREATION ( A /RONG MON>*Y1 ! REPLACEM5T ( ! LOCAL G5TRY BY PAID (FICIALS ( ITS [N4.<#b.> 

,9DE$1 UNLIKE CONT95TAL MON>*S1 ,5GLI% MON>*S DID NOT ]ECT A LOCAL GOV]NM5T MADE UP ( BUREAUCRACIES ( PR(ESSIONAL SAL>I$ (FICIALS DEP5D5T UPON ! CR[N4 ,9/EAD1 !Y HAD TO RELY ON ! PROM95T FAMILIES 9 C\NTIES & CORPORATE T[NS TO ADM9I/] LOCAL JU/ICE1 5=CE LAWS1 COLLECT P>LIAM5T>Y LEVIES1 & MU/] ! MILITIA1 AMONG O!R FUNCTIONS4 ,?US1 AS ,/ONE OBS]VES1 

,!RE WAS A TACIT AGREEM5T TO DIVIDE RESPONSIBILITY1 & ! MA9 BURD5 ( LOCAL ADM9I/RATION HAD TO BE LEFT 9 ! H&S ( UNPAID G5TRY & URBAN WOR?IES1 :OSE LOYALTY & EFFICI5CY WAS DEP5D5T ON A C>EFUL REG>D BE+ HAD = !IR 9T]E/S1 PRIVILEGES1 & PREJUDICES4 ,SO F> FROM BE+ PROGRESSIVELY WEAK5$1 LOCAL P>TICUL>ISM GREW /EP BY /EP ) ! GR[? ( ! C5TRAL GOV]NM5T4.<#b#a.> 

,:ILE ! MON>*Y FAIL$ TO GA9 ABSOLUTE CONTROL OV] ! C\NTRYSIDE1 ! ,H\SE ( ,COMMONS REALLY BEGAN1 9 EFFECT1 TO HOLD ! NATION TOGE!R4 ,NOT ?AT ,P>LIAM5T WAS P>TICUL>LY ACTIVE DUR+ ! ,TUDOR ]A1 BUT ! ,TUDOR MON>*S--9 P>TICUL> ,H5RY ,V,I,I1 ,H5RY ,V,I,I,I1 & ,ELIZABE?--PRUD5TLY RESPECT$ ITS P[]S & C>EFULLY C\RT$ ITS MEMB]S4 ,P>LIAM5T1 9 TURN1 OBLIG+LY VOT$ ! TAXES1 :5 IT WAS SUMMON$ 9TO SESSION1 NE$$ TO SUPPORT ! MON>*Y4 ,MOREOV]1 ! ,TUDORS W]E %REWD 5\< TO DEAL CAUTI\SLY ) ! CITIZ5S ( ,LONDON1 ! L>GE/ & WEAL?IE/ ( ,5GL&'S CITIES & C]TA9LY ONE ( ITS MO/ VOLATILE4 

,GEOGRAPHY1 TOO1 FAVOR$ BO? ! ,5GLI% MON>*Y & ,5GLI% LOCALISM4 ,) ITS ISL& LOCATION1 ,5GL& WAS SET AP>T FROM ! DEVA/AT+ CONFLICTS ?AT SWEPT OV] ! ,CONT95T4 ,9 ,TUDOR TIMES1 ,5GLI% 9T]F]5CE 9 ,EUROPEAN AFFAIRS WAS C5T]$ PRIM>ILY ON DEFLECT+ ! ATT5TION ( ! ISL&'S POT5TIAL 5EMIES TO ,CONT95TAL AFFAIRS4 ,! DEFEAT ( ! ,SPANI% ,>MADA 9 #aehh SECUR$ ,5GL& SAFETY FROM FUR!R 9VASIONS1 SO ?AT ! MON>*Y WAS N[ ACCEPT$ AT HOME AS A /ABILIZ+ =CE AS WELL AS A GU>DIAN ( ,5GLI% 9T]NATIONAL 9T]E/S4 ,:E!R BECAUSE ( ! C\NTRY'S GEOGRAPHIC 9SUL>ITY OR ! G5TRY'S OPPOSITION TO A /RONG ROYAL P[] OR BO?1 ! ,TUDOR MON>*S BUILT NEI!R A /&+ >MY NOR A CO/LY & F>-REA*+ BUREAUCRACY4 ,! T]RITORIAL DEF5SE ( ! REALM WAS UND]TAK5 BY LOCAL MILITIAS OR 0TRA9$ B&S10 :ILE ! PRACTICAL AFFAIRS ( ! REALM W]E H&L$ BY ! LOCAL G5TRY1 :OSE G5]AL 9T]E/S W]E EXPRESS$ 9 ! ,H\SE ( ,COMMONS4 

,BY NO MEANS1 H[EV]1 W]E ! K+S & QUE5S ( ,5GL& WILL+ TO ACCEPT ! MON>*Y AS A PASSIVE >BIT] 9 DOME/IC AFFAIRS1 & !IR PRUD5CE NOT)/&+1 ! MO/ PRON\NC$ PROBLEMS ( ! ,TUDOR ]A /EMM$ FROM ! ?RONE'S 9SIDI\S EF=TS TO 9CREASE ITS [N P[] AT ! EXP5SE ( ! SQUIRES4 ,9DE$1 ALL ! ,TUDOR MON>*S TRI$ TO BE ABSOLUTE RUL]S1 ALBEIT ) LIMIT$ SUCCESS4 ,H5RY ,V,I,I LEFT HIS SON1 ,H5RY ,V,I,I,I1 A CONSID]ABLE F9ANCIAL PATRIMONY1 :I* HE RAPIDLY DISSIPAT$ AS MU* TO /R5G!N HIS POLITICAL P[] AS = P]SONAL REASONS4 ,AL?\< ,H5RY'S TA/ES W]E ( LEG5D>Y EXTRAVAGANCE1 ! K+1 M9DFUL ( POSSIBLE CONFLICTS BETWE5 NOBLES & HIS ROYAL P[]1 ALSO TRI$ TO R$UCE :AT REMA9$ ( ! W>RIOR NOBILITY TO A C\RTI] /RATUM DEP5D5T ON ! MON>*Y4 ,TO SOME EXT5T1 ,H5RY ,V,I,I,I ANTICIPAT$ ,L\IS ,X,I,V'S LAT] POLICY ( COLLECT+ ! ,FR5* >I/OCRACY AT ,V]SAILLES1 PLAC+ ,5GLI% NOBLES UND] ROYAL SUP]VISION1 & VIRTUALLY DIVE/+ !M ( ?REAT5+ AMBITIONS4 ,HIS [N AMBITIONS W]E CLE> :5 HE DECL>$ TO ! ,IRI% ?AT HIS 0ABSOLUTE P[] .<WAS.> ABOVE ! LAW02 NOR DID HIS DAU<T] ,ELIZABE? HAVE LESS DESPOTIC ASPIRATIONS DUR+ ! FIR/ HALF ( H] REIGN4 

,9 CONTRA/ TO :AT HAPP5$ ON ! ,CONT95T1 ! P[] ( ! ,5GLI% ,P>LIAM5T & ! SQUIRE>*Y = :I* IT SPOKE HELD ,H5RY ,V,I,I,I'S ASPIRATIONS TO ABSOLUTE P[] C>EFULLY 9 *ECK1 =C+ ALL ! ,TUDOR MON>*S TO REA* COMPROMISES BETWE5 !IR [N AMBITIONS & ! PALPABLE LIMITS PLAC$ ON !IR P[]S BY ,P>LIAM5T4 ,! ,CR[N HAD TO CONCEAL ITS AMBITIONS ) L>GELY CONCILIATORY MEASURES & A ROYAL DEF]5CE TO ! RI<TS ( 0FREEBORN ,5GLI%M540 ,P>LIAM5T1 9 TURN1 NEV] SURR5D]$ ITS PR]OGATIVES TO ! K+1 & EA* ,TUDOR MON>* WAS OBLIG$ TO COME TO T]MS ) ! ,CR[N'S DEP5D5CE ON ! G5TRY & ! ,H\SE ( ,COMMONS4 0,C\NTRY0 & 0,C\RT10 TO USE ! LANGUAGE ( ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY1 ?US LIV$ 9 AN UNEASY1 IF SYMBIOTIC1 RELATION%IP ) EA* O!R4 ,! 0,C\NTRY0 =M$ A P>ALLEL P[] TO ! 0,C\RT10 & A POT5TIALLY REBELLI\S ,P>LIAM5T C\LD PLACE V]Y S]I\S IMP$IM5TS 9 ! WAY ( AN OV]BE>+ MON>*Y--H5CE ! A/UT5ESS ( ! ,SPANI% AMBASSADOR'S OBS]VATIONS ON ! LIMITS ( ! ,5GLI% CR[N4 

,5,G,L,I,% ,P,R,O,T,E,/,A,N,T,I,S,M 

,:E!R BY DESIGN OR CIRCUM/ANCE1 ! ,PROTE/ANT ,RE=MATION 9 ,5GL& WAS 9ITIAT$ L>GELY FROM ! TOP D[N1 BY ! MON>*Y RA!R ?AN BY CL]ICAL DIV9ES4 ,BY #aecd ,H5RY ,V,H,I HAD BROK5 ) ! ,VATICAN & CONV]T$ ! ,5GLI% ,*UR*1 ,CA?OLIC 9 ALL RESPECTS1 9TO A SYMBOL ( NATIONAL UNITY & A SUP9E CREATURE ( ! MON>*Y4 ,5GLI% BI%OPS & PRELATES1 5TIRELY UND] ROYAL SOV]EIGNTY1 REPLAC$ ,CA?OLIC CL]ICS1 & RELIGI\S DOCTR9E WAS TURN$ 9TO AN IDEOLOGICAL PROP = ! C5TRAL GOV]NM5T4 ,! CLOS+ ( ! MONA/]IES & ! EXPROPRIATION ( !IR VA/ WEAL? ?AT FOLL[$ FROM ,H5RY'S MEASURES BOL/]$ HIS %AKY F9ANCIAL POSITION = A TIME & GREATLY EXP&$ HIS AU?ORITY OV] MANY ASPECTS ( ,5GLI% LIFE ?AT HAD HI!RTO BE5 CLAIM$ BY ,CA?OLIC ECCLESIA/ICS4 

,YET ,H5RY HIMSELF WAS NOT FULLY COMMITT$ TO ,RE=MATION IDEAS2 NOR DID HE AB&ON ,CA?OLIC RITUALS4 ,! K+ REPLAC$ ! POPE ) HIMSELF AS HEAD ( ! NEW ,ANGLICAN ,*UR*1 5D$ CELIBACY1 ABOLI%$ MONA/]IES1 & EXPROPRIAT$ ! ,*UR*'S VA/ MAT]IAL RES\RCES4 ,BUT ,5GLI% ,PROTE/ANTS :O PUBLICLY *ALL5G$ ,CA?OLIC DOCTR9ES SU* AS ! ,TR9ITY & TRANSUB/ANTIATION W]E PUT TO DEA? ) ! SAME IMP>TIALITY AS ,CA?OLICS :O ASS]T$ ! AU?ORITY ( ! PAPACY OV] ! MON>*Y4 ,H5RY'S FAILURE TO COMPLETE ! ,RE=MATION WAS ITSELF A POT5TIAL S\RCE ( CONFLICT BETWE5 ! MON>*Y & ,P>LIAM5T1 = AS LONG AS ! ,ANGLICAN ,*UR* WAS BASICALLY A ,CA?OLIC *UR* TAILOR$ TO ,5GLI% ROYAL NE$S1 ,H5RY C\LD NEV] GA9 ! FULL ALLEGIANCE ( HIS TRULY ,PROTE/ANT SUBJECTS1 :O W]E GR[+ RAPIDLY 9 NUMB]4 ,NOR C\LD !Y1 9 TURN1 S]I\SLY *ALL5GE HIS RULE BY ABETT+ ! RETURN ( ,CA?OLICISM4 ,?US1 AS 9 ! POLITICAL REALM1 AN UNEASY BALANCE ( =CES PREV5T$ EI!R \TRI<T ,RE=MATION OR \TRI<T REBELLION 9 ! RELIGI\S REALM4 

,YET EV5 9 ITS TEPID ,ANGLICAN =M1 ,5GLI% ,PROTE/ANTISM FO/]$ A BELIEF 9 9DIVIDUALITY & ITS 09N] LI<T0 OV] ECCLESIA/ICAL 9/ITUTIONS4 ,5GLI%M5 :O W]E 9FLU5C$ BY ,CALV9ISM SAW !MSELVES LESS AS M]E SUBJECTS ( ! ,CR[N & MORE AS MEMB]S ( A GODLY ELITE--AN 0ELECT0 ( 0VISIBLE SA9TS0 9 AN UNGODLY WORLD4 ,NOR DID ,ANGLICANISM R$UCE ! 9DIVIDUAL TO A M]E MEMB] ( A CORPORATE E/ATE1 AS ,CA?OLICISM DID TO COMMON]S 9 ,FRANCE & ,SPA94 ,9DE$1 9 C\NT]POSITION TO ! DESPOTIC PROCLIVITIES ( ! MON>*Y1 ,5GLI% COMMON]S BECAME 9CREAS+LY SELF-CONSCI\S 9DIVIDUALS1 /RID5T 9 EXPRESS+ !IR VIEWS & CONFID5T ( !IR [N P]SONAL JUDGM5TS4 ,SUBDU$ GUILDS GAVE WAY TO RAUC\S M]*ANT ADV5TUR]S1 & PLACID PEASANTS TO AN UNRULY 0MOBILITY0 ?AT WAS QUICK-TEMP]$ & READY TO 9T]F]E 9 POLITICAL & RELIGI\S ISSUES4 ,! ,H\SE ( ,GAMMONS1 DESPITE ITS M$IEVAL ORIG9S 9 A CORPORATE SOCIETY1 WAS RE9=C$ BY AN 9DEP5D5T G5TRY1 M]*ANT CLASS1 & >TISANRY & BEGAN TO REG>D ITSELF AS ! AU!NTIC VOICE ( ! 0PEOPLE0--AN AMBIGU\S WORD AT ! TIME--RA!R ?AN A L[LY E/ATE 9 A FEUDAL HI]>*Y4 

,AFT] ,H5RY ,V,I,I,I'S DEA? 9 #a#e#d#g1 A ,C\NCIL ( ,REG5CY SUP]VIS$ ,5GLI% AFFAIRS ON BEHALF ( ,H5RY'S Y\NG SON1 ,$W>D ,V,I4 ,) ,H5RY GONE1 ! ,C\NCIL FUR!R LOOS5$ ,5GLI% SOCIETY BY 9CREAS+LY SUPPLANT+ ,H5RY'S ,ANGLICAN RE=MATION ) A MORE MILITANT ,PROTE/ANTISM--ONE ?AT CONT9U$ TO PLUND] ! REMA9+ WEAL? ( ! ,*UR* & WID5 ITS DI/ANCE FROM ,CA?OLICISM4 ,:E!R ?IS NEW DISP5SATION WAS ! PRODUCT ( GRE$ OR IDEOLOGY IS IRRELEVANT2 9DE$1 BO? MOTIVES W]E PROBABLY 9VOLV$4 ,BUT ,$W>D DID NOT LIVE 9TO MANHOOD1 & :5 HIS HALF-SI/] ,M>Y ASC5D$ TO ! ?RONE1 RELIGI\S POLICY %IFT$ TO A FLAGRANTLY PRO-,CA?OLIC EXTREME4 ,! NEW QUE5 M>RI$ ,PHILIP ( ,SPA91 ! MON>* ( A L& ?AT MANY ,5GLI% PEOPLE VIEW$ AS !IR C\NTRY'S MO/ DANG]\S RIVAL4 ,QUITE REASONABLY1 !Y SAW ! ZEAL\S ,SPANI% K+ AS ! /&>D-BE>] ( A ,CA?OLIC OR?ODOXY B5T ON AN 9QUISITORIAL C\NT]RE=MATION3 UND] ,M>Y'S RULE1 ! ,MASS1 :I* ,$W>D'S REG5TS HAD DISC>D$1 WAS RE/OR$2 RELATIONS ) ! ,VATICAN W]E REE/ABLI%$2 & A FURI\S ATTACK1 9CLUD+ NUM]\S EXECUTIONS1 WAS VISIT$ UPON DISS5T+ ,PROTE/ANTS :OSE VIEWS W]E MORE RADICAL ?AN ,H5RY'S RE=MATION4 0,BLOODY0 ,M>Y'S ATTEMPTS TO RE/ORE ,CA?OLICISM1 FOLL[$ BY A DISA/R\S & CO/LY W> ) ,FRANCE1 COMPLETELY ALI5AT$ ! ,5GLI% PEOPLE1 & :5 %E DI$ 9 #aeeh ,5GL&'S =TUNES & MORALE HAD REA*$ !IR L[E/ EBB4 ,FRAGM5T$ BY RELIGI\S CONFLICTS & BURD5$ BY AN IMM5SE DEBT1 ! C\NTRY WAS ON ! $GE ( CIVIL W>4 

,ANGLICANS REG>D$ ! ASC5T ( ! NEW ,PROTE/ANT QUE51 ,ELIZABE?1 ! DAU<T] ( ,H5RY ,V,I,I,I & ,ANNE ,BOLEYN1 AS A ,GOD-GIV5 DELIV]ANCE--& %E L>GELY LIV$ UP TO !IR EXPECTATIONS4 ,AL?\< NO LESS IMP]I\S ?AN H] FA!R1 %E MADE E>NE/ ATTEMPTS TO COMPROMISE ) ALL ! OPPOS+ FACTIONS & 9T]E/S ?AT C\LD HAVE UND]M9$ ! C\NTRY4 ,RELATIONS ) ! ,VATICAN W]E SEV]$ COMPLETELY1 & ,CA?OLIC PRIE/S W]E P]EMPTORILY EXPELL$ FROM ! C\NTRY1 :I* DID NOT PREV5T H] FROM DRIV+ RADICAL ,PROTE/ANTS OR ,PURITANS UND]GR\ND1 ESPECIALLY !IR MILL5>IAN CONV5TICLES4 ,BASICALLY ORI5T$ T[>D SOCIAL RE=MS1 ,ELIZABE? & H] ABLE ADVIS]S /ABILIZ$ ! CURR5CY1 IMPROV$ WORK+ CONDITIONS = ! L[] CLASSES1 & S(T5$ LONG-/&+ ANTAGONISMS BETWE5 HO/ILE SOCIAL /RATA 9 ! REALM4 ,! DEFEAT ( ! ,SPANI% ,>MADA 5SUR$ ,5GLI% NAVAL & COMM]CIAL SUPREMACY1 :ILE H] RULE GAVE EV]Y 5C\RAGEM5T TO TRADE1 MANUFACTURES1 & AGRICULTURAL IMPROVEM5TS4 ,! /ATE TOOK OV] ! C>E ( ! POOR1 MANY ( :OM W]E VICTIMS ( ! L& 5CLOSURES ?AT HAD BE5 GO+ ON = MORE ?AN A C5TURY4 ,ELIZABE? CAME TO T]MS ) ! G5TRY TO :I* E>LI] ,TUDOR K+S HAD TO ACCOMMODATE !MSELVES1 & H] %REWD POLICY ( COMPROMISE ) ,P>LIAM5T1 ! NOBILITY1 ! G5TRY1 & ! M]*ANT CLASS E/ABLI%$ A P]IOD ( 9T]NAL PEACE4 ,NE$LESS TO EMPHASIZE1 H] REIGN WAS A TIME ( EXCEPTIONAL LIT]>Y & CULTURAL A*IEVEM5T3 ! 0,ELIZABE?AN ,AGE10 P>TICUL>LY FAM$ = ITS DRAMA & POETRY4 

,S,O,C,I,A,L ,C,O,N,D,I,T,I,O,N,S 

,! H>MONY CREAT$ BY ,ELIZABE?'S COMPROMISES1 H[EV]1 WAS 9 SOME RESPECTS ILLUSORY4 ,COMM]CIAL LIFE WAS GR[+ AT A DISORI5T+ PACE4 ,MORE ?AN ANY C\NTRY 9 ,EUROPE1 ,5GL& WAS UND]GO+ A RAPID TRANSITION FROM A FEUDAL TO A COMM]CIAL SOCIETY4 ,9 ADDITION TO ITS GR[+ M>ITIME COMM]CE1 ! C\NTRY WAS BY F> ! WORLD'S GREATE/ COAL PRODUC]1 & TO FE$ A RAPIDLY GR[+ POPULATION 7:I* D\BL$ BETWE5 #ae & #a#f#f71 AGRICULTURAL \TPUT 9CREAS$ 5ORM\SLY ?R\< ! DRA9+ ( M>%Y >EAS & DE=E/ATION4 

,! IMPROVEM5TS ?AT W]E BE+ MADE 9 AGRICULTURE1 P>TICUL>LY ! %IFT FROM FOOD CULTIVATION TO %EEP RUNS1 W]E TO AFFECT PR(\NDLY ! FUTURE ( ,5GLI% SOCIETY4 ,! COMMON L&S ?AT ! PEASANTRY HAD TRADITIONALLY %>$ = C5TURIES W]E RU?LESSLY 5CLOS$ 9 ORD] TO CREATE %EEP PA/URE = ! GR[+ WOOL TRADE4 ,ASIDE FROM ! L>GE POOL ( LABOR PRODUC$ BY ! 5CLOSURES1 ! 5TIRE L&SCAPE ( RURAL LIFE BEGAN TO *ANGE ALONG L9ES ?AT /OOD V]Y MU* AT ODDS ) ! C\NTRY'S FEUDAL PA/4 ,BEG9N+ 9 ! F\RTE5? C5TURY1 ! ,5GLI% HAD EXPORT$ RAW WOOL TO ! ,L[L&S ACROSS ! ,NOR? ,SEA1 :]E IT WAS REF9$ & WOV5 9TO ! F9E/ CLO? 9 NOR!RN ,EUROPE4 ,BY ! MID-SIXTE5? C5TURY1 :5 ,FLEMI% ,PROTE/ANT WEAV]S S\<T REFUGE ON ! ISL& FROM RELIGI\S W>S1 ,5GL& HAD GR[N TO ASC5DANCY 9 ! ,EUROPEAN CLO? TRADE1 RIVAL$ ONLY BY ! ,DUT* 9 ! PRODUCTION ( CLO?4 ,BY FO/]+ ! 5CLOSURE ( COMMON L&S & ELIM9AT+ MANY T5ANT F>MS1 TEXTILE PRODUCTION CREAT$ A NATIONWIDE ECONOMY RA!R ?AN ONE /RUCTUR$ >\ND SMALL1 ISOLAT$ REGIONS4 ,AS ,LAWR5CE ,/ONE HAS OBS]V$1 TRADE 9 CLO? 

WAS A P[]FUL UNIFY+ =CE 9 SOCIETY S9CE ITS PROSP]ITY AFFECT$ ! L&$ CLASSES1 :O [N$ ! %EEP :I* PRODUC$ ! WOOL1 ! POOR LABOR]S & !IR WIVES & *ILDR5 :O SPUN IT1 ! >TISANS :O WOVE IT1 ! CLO?I]S :O H&L$ IT1 & ! M]*ANTS :O EXPORT$ IT4.<#b#b.> 

,ISOLAT$ REGIONS ( ,5GL& W]E ?US BR\<T 9TO A WIDE-RANG+ SKE9 ( ECONOMIC 9T]ACTIONS ?AT (T5 S]V$ TO MAKE IT A NATION AS MU* AS DID ITS RELIGI\S & POLITICAL 9/ITUTIONS4 

,IT IS EASY TO EXAGG]ATE ! BURGEON+ ,5GLI% COMM]CIALISM4 ,SEV5TE5?C5TURY ,5GL& WAS NEI!R AN 9DU/RIAL SOCIETY NOR A CAPITALI/ ONE 9 ! S5SE ?AT WE SPEAK ( CAPITALISM TODAY4 0,5GL& 9 ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY REMA9$ :AT IT & ! RE/ ( ,EUROPE HAD ALWAYS BE510 OBS]VES ,/ONE1 

AN UNDEVELOP$ SOCIETY4 ,ON ! O!R H& !RE CAN BE NO D\BT ?AT IT WAS P]MEAT$ ) SMALL-SCALE 9DU/RY & COMM]CE1 MORE M>KET-ORI5T$1 & RI*] ?AN IT HAD EV] BE5 BE=E1 & MORE SO ?AN ANY O!R CONTEMPOR>Y SOCIETY1 ) ! PROBABLE EXCEPTION ( ! ,UNIT$ ,PROV9CES4.<#b#c.> 

,/ONE'S JUDGM5T H]E IS S\ND4 ,! C\NTRY WAS /ILL PRECAPITALI/1 NEI!R FULLY AGR>IAN NOR FULLY B\RGEOIS2 9DE$1 ITS ,9DU/RIAL ,REVOLUTION /ILL LAY F> AHEAD1 DESPITE ! FACT ?AT %EEP-F>M+ WAS MAK+ AGRICULTURAL CAPITALISM A RELATIVELY WIDESPREAD PH5OM5ON1 UNEQUAL$ ANY:]E 9 ! WORLD4 ,BUT AS LATE AS #a#f#h#h1 ONLY A HALF MILLION \T ( ! FIVE MILLION ,5GLI% PEOPLE W]E 5GAG$ 9 TRADE & CRAFT PRODUCTION1 & ( !SE1 AB\T HALF W]E 9VOLV$ 9 COMM]CIAL TRANSACTIONS4 

,9 G5]AL1 A QUASI-FEUDAL S5SE ( OBLIGATION TO UND]L+S WAS /ILL MORE COMMON ?AN ! PR$ATORY B\RGEOIS M5TALITY ?AT WAS TO BE U%]$ 9 A C5TURY & A HALF LAT]4 ,DUR+ ! SIXTE5? C5TURY1 TO BE SURE1 CAPITALISM WAS TAK+ A CONSID]ABLE TOLL ON ,5GLI% LABOR]S1 & NEW TE*NOLOGIES1 :ILE NOT V]Y REVOLUTION>Y1 W]E CREAT+ S]I\S UNEMPLOYM5T4 ,BUT ! MON>*Y /ILL FELT A TRADITION-HALL[$ S5SE ( OBLIGATION TO ! L[] CLASSES4 ,TYPICALLY1 AS LATE AS ! REIGN ( ,*>LES ,I1 ! K+ PROHIBIT$ ! USE ( A NEW SAWMILL ?AT ?REAT5$ TO R$UCE ! JOBS ( WOODWORK]S1 & PLAC$ RE/RA9TS ON L& 5CLOSURES4 ,HE EV5 LIMIT$ RIS+ PRICES AS WELL AS WAGES TO S(T5 ! ECONOMIC DISLOCATIONS ?AT CREAT$ H>D%IPS = ! POOR4 ,TO :AT EXT5T SU* ACTIONS W]E ! RESULT ( G5U9E CONC]N = ! L[] CLASSES OR ATTEMPTS TO CURRY FAVOR ) !M AT ! EXP5SE ( ! COMM]CIAL CLASSES IS H>D TO JUDGE4 ,LAT]1 ( C\RSE1 :5 CAPITALISM WAS FULLY E/ABLI%$ 9 ,5GL&1 ! NEGLECT ?AT ! POOR & ! PROLET>IAT SUFF]$ WAS TO BE APPALL+4 ,BUT ! CONGE/$1 POLLUT$1 & DISEASE-RIDD5 ,5GL& ( ! ,9DU/RIAL ,REVOLUTION WAS NOT TO EM]GE = SOME TWO C5TURIES4 

,AT ! TIME ( ,ELIZABE?'S DEA? 9 #a#f#c1 ! TOTAL POPULATION ( ! C\NTRY1 9CLUD+ ,WALES1 NUMB]$ ONLY F\R & A HALF MILLION4 ,AP>T FROM ,LONDON1 V]Y FEW T[NS EXCE$$ T5 ?\S& 9HABITANTS & MO/ HAD TWO ?\S& OR FEW]2 9 FACT1 ,5GL&'S SECOND-L>GE/ CITY1 ,BRI/OL1 A LIVELY COMM]CIAL C5T]1 NUMB]$ ONLY #d#h1 PEOPLE4 ,! L>G] T[NS ( ,5GL& W]E SMALL M]*ANT & >TISAN C5T]S1 FEW ( :OSE WORK]S W]E MEMB]S ( GUILDS ANY LONG]4 ,9DE$1 ! GUILD SY/EM HAD ALMO/ COMPLETELY DI$ \T 9 MO/ ( ! C\NTRY AP>T FROM ,LONDON1 & >TISANAL PRODUCTION1 AT LEA/1 WAS L>GELY UN5CUMB]$ BY GUILD RE/RICTIONS4 

,BUT C]TA9 FEUDAL TRADITIONS /ILL EXI/$ 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE4 ,WELL OV] F\R MILLION PEOPLE W]E /ILL WORK+ 9 AGRICULTURE OR AGRICULTURE-RELAT$ TASKS1 & ! MAJORITY LIV$ 9 VILLAGES AS COPYHOLD]S1 :OSE FAMILIES HELD LIFETIME FEUDAL CLAIMS TO !IR P>CELS ( L&4 ,/ILL1 NEW ECONOMIC DEVELOPM5TS W]E SUBV]T+ TRADITIONAL AGR>IAN LIFEWAYS4 ,MORE & MORE COTTAG]S BECAME 9VOLV$ 9 ! PRODUCTION ( CLO?1 G5]ALLY = 0FACTORS10 AS !IR EMPLOY]S OR CONTRACTORS W]E CALL$1 :O SUPPLI$ !M ) WOOL & R5T$ !M H&-OP]AT$ MA*9ES4 ,/ILL O!RS W]E S]VILE T5ANTS :O C\LD EASILY BE DISPOSSESS$ FROM ! L& TO MAKE WAY = %EEP RUNS1 :ILE A M9ORITY ( ! RURAL POPULATION W]E 9DEP5D5T YEOM51 :O PR\DLY [N$ !IR [N F>MS4 

,S]FDOM HAD LONG DISAPPE>$ FROM ! REALM1 UNLIKE ON ! ,CONT95T1 :]E IT WAS /ILL DY+ \T 9 ,WE/]N ,EUROPE & WAS RETA9$ OR FIRMLY RE/OR$ 9 ! EA/4 ,/ILL1 AS LATE AS ! 5D ( ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY1 BY F> ! MAJORITY ( ,5GL&'S GR[+ FIVE & A HALF MILLION PEOPLE LIV$ 9 VILLAGES & HAMLETS1 FOLL[$ BY LESS ?AN A MILLION 9 L>GE & SMALL T[NS1 & APPROXIMATELY A HALF MILLION 9 ,LONDON4 ,NUM]\S PAUP]S L+]$ 9 ,5GLI% T[NS & VILLAGES1 SUBSI/+ ON PITIFULLY SMALL FOOD ALLOTM5TS OR DRIFT+ AIMLESSLY FROM ! C\NTRYSIDE TO ,LONDON1 :]E !Y 9CREAS$ ! CAPITAL'S UNRULY MULTITUDES4 

,NORMALLY OB$I5T :5 ! NOBLES & G5TRY DEALT ) !M PAT]NALI/ICALLY1 HUSB&M5 C\LD BECOME ALMO/ 9SURRECTION>Y :5 !IR OV]LORDS ?REAT5$ TO DISPOSSESS !M ( !IR SMALLHOLD+S4 ,ADD+ FUEL TO !IR VOLATILITY 9 TIMES ( UNC]TA9TY1 GR[+ SECT>IAN RELIGI\S DIFF]5CES 9CREAS+LY FRAGM5T$ ,5GL&2 9DE$1 ! MO/ MAT]IALLY DEP5D5T T5ANT MI<T BREAK AWAY FROM ! MO/ C>+ L&LORD IF ! T5ANT WAS A RADICAL ,PURITAN & ! L&LORD A CONS]VATIVE ,PRESBYT]IAN4 ,) ! ONSET ( ! REVOLUTION>Y P]IOD1 :I* CAN BE DAT$ BACK TO ! DEA? ( ,ELIZABE? 9 #a#f#c1 !SE V>I$ DIFF]5CES %>P5$ 9TO SOCIAL TURMOIL &1 9 ! E>LY #a#f#dS1 EXPLOD$ 9TO OP5 REVOLUTION4 

,SURPRIS+LY1 EV5 ! >I/OCRACY1 ! RUL+ ELITE ( ,5GL&1 WAS /ILL SMALL 9 ! #a#f#cS4 ,IT CONSI/$ ( ONLY #abb PE]S & #bf BI%OPS1 TO :I* CAN BE ADD$ SOME #c ELDE/ SONS ( PE]S & NEWLY CREAT$ B>ONETS4 ,! NOBILITY HAD SUFF]$ LOSSES 9 PRE/IGE & WEAL? OV] ! YE>S & NO LONG] 5JOY$ !IR HI< /ATUS AS 5]GETIC W>RIORS ( M$IEVAL TIMES4 ,!IR /ATUS 9 ! SOCIAL HI]>*Y WAS FUR!R ]OD$ :5 ! F9ANCIALLY BURD5$ ,/U>T MON>*S :O SUCCE$$ ,ELIZABE?1 ! LA/ ( ! ,TBDORS1 SOLD TITLES 7ESPECIALLY ! NEWLY CREAT$ /ATUS ( B>ONET7 TO RAISE CA% = ! SP5D?RIFT ?RONE4 ,UNLIKE ! LESS] G5TRY1 ! TITL$ NOBILITY GRAVITAT$ T[>D ! LIVELY C\RT LIFE 9 ,LONDON & BECAME ABS5TEE L&LORDS1 RETA9+ LITTLE OR NO CONTACT ) !IR RURAL CLI5TS4 

,! REAL /RUCTURAL BASE ( ,5GL& RE/$ ON ! LOCAL G5TRY1 :O MAY HAVE NUMB]$ #a1#h KNI<TS & #i1 SQUIRES AT ! MO/1 :ILE A LESS] G5TRY ( #a#d1 G5TLEM51 ?AT IS TO SAY1 L&$ PROP]TY [N]S 7:O 5JOY$ A /ATUS SOME:AT HI<] ?AN YEOM571 AS WELL AS WELL-TO-DO M]*ANTS1 PR(ESSIONALS1 ACADEMICS1 & (FIC]S ( ! CR[N4 ,TAK5 AS A :OLE1 IT WAS !SE M5 :O HELD ,5GL& TOGE!R1 FILL+ ! C\NTY (FICES ( ! REALM AS %]IFFS1 JU/ICES ( ! PEACE1 & COMM&]S ( ! MILITIA4 ,FROM AMONG ! POOR] G5TRY-- M5 :O B>ELY QUALIFI$ AS 0G5TLEM50--! C\NTY RECRUIT$ ITS CON/ABLES1 OV]SE]S ( ! POOR1 *UR*W>D5S1 & P>I% CL]ICS4 ,?US1 ! >I/OCRATIC ELITE1 9CLUD+ ITS 0G5TLEM510 & ! C\NTRY G5TRY ACC\NT$ = ONE \T ( EV]Y TW5TY-FIVE PEOPLE4 ,MOREOV]1 TOGE!R ) FREEHOLD]S :O C\LD CLAIM TO E>N TW5TY-FIVE %ILL+S A YE>--NOT A TRIVIAL SUM 9 ?OSE DAYS--! ELITE & ! G5TRY CON/ITUT$ ! PR9CIPAL QUALIFI$ VOT]S 9 P>LIAM5T>Y ELECTIONS1 LEAV+ A L>GE P>T ( ! POPULATION DIS5FRAN*IZ$4 

,! M5 :O ACTUALLY HELD SEATS 9 ! ,H\SE ( ,COMMONS W]E ! M]*ANTS1 G5TRY1 ACADEMICS1 & LAWY]S ( ! C\NTRY4 ,! ,H\SE SPOKE = ! MAT]IALLY WELL-TO-DO & PRE/IGI\S P>T ( ! POPULATION1 CLE>LY NOT = ! MAJORITY ( ! PEOPLE4 ,GIV5 ! PROP]TY RE/RICTIONS ( ! TIME1 P]HAPS ONE 9 T5 ,5GLI%M5 WAS QUALIFI$ TO VOTE1 & ( !SE VOT]S1 A MU* SMALL] NUMB] W]E LIKELY TO RUN = ! ,H\SE ( ,COMMONS4 ,( ! ,H\SE'S FIVE HUNDR$ MEMB]S1 AB\T ?REE-QU>T]S W]E FROM ! G5TRY & ONLY A QU>T] FROM ! M]*ANT & PR(ESSIONAL /RATA4 

,LIKE ALL LEAD]S 9 LAT] REVOLUTIONS1 :5 ! ,COMMONS F9ALLY CONFRONT$ ! K+ 9 >M$ CONFLICT ,P>LIAM5T SPOKE 9 ! NAME ( ! 0PEOPLE0 TO LEGITIMATE ITS CLAIMS4 ,BUT :O W]E ! 0PEOPLE0 9 SIXTE5?- & SEV5TE5?C5TURY ,5GL&8 ,! MIX$ ECONOMY & SOCIETY MADE A DE> ANSW] TO ?IS QUE/ION DIFFICULT TO =MULATE1 & AS NEW ECONOMIC DEVELOPM5TS CREAT$ NEW DISP>ITIES ( WEAL?1 !SE ONGO+ *ANGES W\LD LEAD TO MAJOR DIVISIONS )9 ! 0,C\NTRY0 =CES !MSELVES--& ULTIMATELY TO MOVEM5TS T[>D A ?IRD REVOLUTION4 ,BUT BE=E !SE MOVEM5TS >OSE1 ! 0PEOPLE0--9 ! S5SE ( ! MAJORITY ( ! ,H\SE ( ,COMMONS--HAD WAG$ AN E>NE/ CAMPAIGN TO RE/RA9 NEW MON>*ICAL CLAIMS TO ABSOLUTE AU?ORITY OV] ?AT ABORN+ 5TITY1 ! NATION-/ATE4 

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