,VOLUME #a1 ,9TRODUCTION 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,MURRAY ,BOOK*9 

,TEXT 3 

,9TRODUCTION4 ,REVOLUTION FROM ,BEL[ 

,! TITLE ( ?IS BOOK1 ,! ,?IRD ,REVOLUTION1 IS TAK5 FROM :AT MAY SEEM AN EXTRAORD9>Y HI/ORICAL CO9CID5CE4 ,! DEM& = A 0?IRD REVOLUTION0 WAS ACTUALLY RAIS$ 9 TWO GREAT REVOLUTIONS3 ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION 9 ! CLOS+ DECADE ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY1 & #ab YE>S LAT] 9 ! ,RUSSIAN ,REVOLUTION DUR+ ! OP5+ DECADES ( ! TW5TIE?4 

,! REVOLUTION>Y SANS-CULOTTES ( ,P>IS 9 #agic RAIS$ ! CRY TO REPLACE ! SUPPOS$LY RADICAL ,NATIONAL ,CONV5TION ) A POPUL> DEMOCRACY--! ,P>ISIAN SECTIONS--?AT !Y !MSELVES HAD E/ABLI%$ DUR+ A S]IES ( 9SURRECTIONS1 (T5 AGA9/ ! WI%ES ( ! ,CONV5TION'S ,JACOB9 LEAD]S :O PR(ESS$ TO SPEAK 9 !IR NAME4 ,9 ANO!R PLACE & ANO!R TIME1 9 #aiba 9 ,RUSSIA1 ! REVOLUTION>Y WORK]S ( ,PETROGRAD & ! FAM\S 0R$ SAILORS0 ( ,KRON/ADT1 ! CAPITAL'S NE>BY NAVAL BASE1 RAIS$ ! ID5TICAL CRY4 ,!Y1 TOO1 S\<T TO OV]?R[ AN AU?ORIT>IAN1 ?\< SEEM+LY RADICAL REGIME--9 !IR CASE1 ONE L$ BY ,BOL%EVIKS--) DEMOCRATICALLY ELECT$ C\NCILS OR 0SOVIETS40 

,9 SURVEY+ ! EV5TS ( !SE TWO P]IODS1 IT /RUCK ME AS FASC9AT+--& MORE ?AN A M]E CO9CID5CE--?AT ?IS V]Y SAME DEM&1 WORD = WORD1 WAS RAIS$ 9 BO? ,P>IS & ,PETROGRAD T[>D ! 5D ( TWO HI/ORICALLY CRUCIAL REVOLUTIONS ?AT W]E SEP>AT$ BY SU* A GREAT SPAN ( TIME4 

,! TWO PEOPLES :O RAIS$ ! DEM& PR(\NDLY DIFF]$ 9 !IR CULTURAL & SOCIAL CONDITIONS4 ,NEI!R ! ,PETROGRAD WORK]S NOR ! ,KRON/ADT SAILORS W]E S*OOL$1 AS F> AS ,I CAN DISC]N1 9 REVOLUTION>Y HI/ORY--C]TA9LY NOT 9 ! DETAILS ( #a#g#i#c--& !Y C\LD NOT HAVE KN[N MU* AB\T ! ,P>ISIAN SANS-CULOTTES4 ,YET !Y DIRECT$ ! ID5TICAL CRY AGA9/ A SEEM+LY REVOLUTION>Y REGIME ?AT !Y HAD HELP$ BR+ TO P[] & BY :I* !Y N[ FELT BETRAY$4 

,:AT WAS IT AB\T ! DYNAMICS ( !SE TWO GREAT REVOLUTIONS ?AT CAUS$ SU* A DEM& TO BE RAIS$ TWICE8 ,:AT BR\<T !SE REVOLUTION>Y POPULACES 9TO OP51 EV5 BLOODY1 OPPOSITION TO ! LEAD]S1 ORGANIZATIONS1 & REGIMES ?AT CLAIM$ TO BE RADICAL TO ONE DEGREE OR ANO!R8 

,9 BO? CASES A 0FIR/ REVOLUTION0 HAD BE5 DIRECT$ AGA9/ A PAT5TLY OBSOLETE MON>*Y--! ,B\RBONS 9 ,FRANCE & ! ,ROMANOVS 9 ,RUSSIA--BECAUSE ( ! GROSS 9COMPET5CE ( ! ROYAL REGIME4 ,A %APELESS BUT E>NE/ COALITION ( LIB]ALS1 RADICALS1 & EV5 DISSATISFI$ MEMB]S ( ! C\RTLY RUL+ CLASS HAD TAK5 OV] ! RE9S ( GOV]NM5T 9 ?IS 0FIR/ REVOLUTION10 REPLAC+ ! MON>*Y ) A NEW & MOD]ATE BUT IRRESOLUTE REPRES5TATIVE GOV]NM5T4 ,ACCORD+LY1 9 BO? CASES1 A 0SECOND REVOLUTION0 HAD FOLL[$ ! FIR/ ONE1 9 :I* A RADICAL GOV]NM5T ?AT HAD ! SUPPORT ( ! MO/ 9SURG5T PEOPLE PROCE$$ TO OV]?R[ ! MOD]ATE ONE4 ,BUT ONCE 9 P[]1 ! RADICAL GOV]NM5T1 TOO1 BECAME DISCR$IT$ TO A PO9T :]E ! REVOLUTION>Y POPULACE DEM&$ /ILL A 0?IRD REVOLUTION0 TO RECLAIM ! P[] !Y HAD LO/4 

,A NUMB] ( WRIT]S ON REVOLUTION1 P]HAPS MO/ POPUL>LY ,CRANE ,BR9TON 9 ,! ,ANATOMY ( ,REVOLUTION1 HAVE ADVANC$ A 0/AGES0 !ORY ( REVOLUTIONS ?AT ACC\NTS V]Y WELL = ! FIR/ TWO REVOLUTIONS4 ,ACCORD+ TO ,BR9TON'S APPROA*1 ! ,5GLI%1 ,FR5*1 & ,RUSSIAN ,REVOLUTIONS ALL UND]W5T A S]IES ( FAIRLY DI/9CT /EPS ?AT FOLL[$ A R\< S*EMATIC PATT]N1 SOME:AT AS FOLL[S3 

,9ITIALLY1 ! PEOPLE >E DRAWN 9TO A MORE OR LESS UNIFI$ REVOLT AGA9/ A MON>*Y1 :I* LEADS TO ! E/ABLI%M5T ( A MOD]ATE REGIME--OR :AT ,I 7& !Y7 9 RETROSPECT CALL ! FIR/ REVOLUTION4 ,AFT] ITS 9ITIAL SUCCESS1 ! REVOLUTION MOVES 9 AN 9CREAS+LY RADICAL DIRECTION1 FOLL[$ OR ACCOMPANI$ BY A CIVIL W> ?AT AWAK5S BROAD SECTORS ( ! L[] CLASSES1 9 :I* EXTREMI/S 5GAGE 9 A /RUGGLE ) !IR =M]LY MOD]ATE ALLIES1 !REBY LEAD+ TO ! SECOND REVOLUTION4 ,9 TIME1 H[EV]1 CONFLICTS )9 ! REVOLUTION>Y CAMP >E RESOLV$ BY A MILIT>Y REGIME1 :I* ITSELF IS SUPPLANT$ BY A RE/ORATION ( ! OLD REGIME4 ,ACCORD+ TO ,BR9TON'S APPROA*--& ?AT ( ,M>X1 ,I %\LD ADD--?IS C\NT]REVOLUTION IS NEV] 5TIRELY SUCCESSFUL4 ,! REVOLUTION1 VIEW$ AS A :OLE1 W9S 9 ! S5SE ?AT ITS SOCIAL CONQUE/S CANNOT BE REMOV$ BY ! RE/OR$ OLD REGIME & >E ?US 9/ITUTIONALIZ$ AS A P]MAN5T HI/ORICAL ADVANCE1 DESPITE ! NOM9AL DEFEAT ( ! REVOLUTION & ITS MILIT>Y SEQUELAE4 

,BESIDES ,BR9TON1 !ORI/S 9FLU5C$ BY ! 0HUMAN ECOLOGY0 IDEAS ( ! ,*ICAGO ,S*OOL ( URBAN SOCIOLOGY HAVE ALSO ADVANC$ SU* A HI<LY IDEALIZ$ PATT]N4 ,SO1 TOO1 HAVE ,M>XI/ HI/ORIANS4 ,LEON ,TROTSKY CONT5D$ TO ! 5D ( HIS LIFE ?AT ,/AL9S RULE OV] ! =M] ,SOVIET ,UNION CON/ITUT$ A0,!RMIDOR0 COMP>ABLE TO ! C\NT]REVOLUTION>Y RULE ( ! ,DIRECTORY--! MOD]ATES :O OV]?REW ,ROBESPI]RE & ! ,JACOB9S--9 ,FRANCE4 

,9 FACT1 ! 0/AGES0 !ORY IS NOT COMPLETELY B]EFT ( TRU?4 ,/AGES !RE SURELY W]E 9 ! MAJOR REVOLUTIONS1 SUCCESSFUL & UNSUCCESSFUL ALIKE4 ,! EXTRAORD9>Y SIMIL>ITY1 AT LEA/ 9 ! SEQU5CE ( EV5TS1 BETWE5 ! ,5GLI%1 ,FR5*1 & ,RUSSIAN ,REVOLUTIONS RAISES FASC9AT+ QUE/IONS1 SOME ( :I* BE> ON ! NATURE ( REVOLUTION ITSELF4 

,TO :AT EXT5T DID POLITICAL FACTORS \TWEI< ECONOMIC ONES8 ,TO :AT EXT5T W]E ! \TCOMES DIFF]5T FROM :AT REVOLUTION>Y LEAD]S HAD 9T5D$-- & IF GREATLY SO1 :Y8 ,:AT EMANCIPATORY DIRECTIONS C\LD ! REVOLUTIONS HAVE FOLL[$1 HAD C]TA9 SPECIFIC EV5TS NOT ALT]$ !IR C\RSES PR(\NDLY8 ,9 :AT WAYS & ) :AT GOALS DID ! POPUL> MOVEM5TS--MORE SPECIFICALLY1 ORD9>Y PEOPLE !MSELVES--AFFECT !SE REVOLUTIONS8 

,! FACT IS ?AT ! /AGES !ORY DESCRIBES ONLY ! FIR/ & SECOND REVOLUTIONS4 ,REM>KABLY1 ! 9SURG5T PEOPLE :O CALL$ = A ?IRD REVOLUTION SEEM TO HAVE DROPP$ \T ( ! HI/ORICAL S*EMA WORK$ \T BY ,BR9TON1 ,TROTSKY1 & O!RS4 ,YET !Y W]E AN ABID+ PRES5CE ?R\<\T ! REVOLUTION>Y ]A1 &1 MORE ?AN ANY ( ! REVOLUTION>Y FIGURES & P>TIES ?AT LOOM OV] MO/ HI/ORICAL ACC\NTS ( ! GREAT REVOLUTIONS1 !Y W]E ! AU!NTIC RADICALS 9 ! EV5TS 9 :I* !Y P>TICIPAT$4 

,= ! 9SURRECTION>Y PEOPLE1 ALMO/ ALONE1 W]E SEEK+ TO RECLAIM & EXP& HI<LY DEMOCRATIC 9/ITUTIONS ?AT HAD BE5 E/ABLI%$ DUR+ E>LI] PHASES ( ! REVOLUTION>Y CYCLE & :OSE P[] HAD BE5 SUBSEQU5TLY R$UC$ OR USURP$ BY ! P>TIES & FACTIONS ?AT PR(ESS$ TO SPEAK 9 !IR NAME4 ,! ,FR5* SANS-CULOTTES S\<T TO EXT5D ! AU?ORITY ( !IR NEI<BORHOOD POPUL> ASSEMBLIES OR 0SECTIONS0 AT ! EXP5SE ( ! 9CREAS+LY P[]FUL1 C5TRALIZ$1 ESS5TIALLY LACOB9-CONTROLL$ /ATE APP>ATUS4 ,! ,RUSSIAN WORK]S & SAILORS WANT$ TO DEMOCRATIZE & RE9VIGORATE !IR GRASSROOTS C\NCILS OR 0SOVIETS0 AS A SUB/ITUTE = ! 9CREAS+LY AU?ORIT>IAN ,BOL%EVIK-CONTROLL$ /ATE APP>ATUS4 ,9 DEM&+ A ?IRD REVOLUTION1 !Y 9 EFFECT >TICULAT$ A POPUL> DESIRE = ! E/ABLI%M5T ( A RADICAL DEMOCRACY1 A DEM& ?AT REA*$ ! PO9T ( \TRI<T 9SURG5CY4 ,ULTIMATELY1 !IR UPRIS+S W]E QUELL$ :5 ! SELF-/YL$ REVOLUTION>Y ORGANIZATIONS ( ! SECOND REVOLUTION TURN$ AGA9/ ! POPUL> MOVEM5T & SUPPRESS$ IT ) MILIT>Y =CE4 

,! FAILURE ( 9SURRECTION>Y PEOPLE TO A*IEVE A POPUL> DEMOCRACY HAS NONE!LESS PR(\NDLY AFFECT$ ! EV5TS ( \R [N TIME4 ,9DE$1 SELDOM HAS ! PA/ BE5 SO 9TEGRALLY P>T ( ! PRES5T1 = WE LIVE UND] ! %AD[ ( ! FAILURE ( ! ,FR5* & ,RUSSIAN ,REVOLUTIONS TO ?IS V]Y DAY1 ALL REC5T CLAIMS TO ! CONTR>Y NOT)/&+4 ,:E!R DIRECTLY1 AS 9 ! CASE ( ! ,RUSSIAN ,REVOLUTION1 OR 9DIRECTLY1 AS 9 ! CASE ( ! ,FR5*1 !Y PR(\NDLY %AP$ ! C\RSE ( ! TW5TIE? C5TURY & ( ! C5TURY ?AT IS SOON TO FOLL[--& WE CANNOT AF=D TO FACE ! FUTURE )\T LE>N+ :AT !Y HAVE TO TEA* US4 

,IT WAS NOT ONLY 9 ! ,FR5* & ,RUSSIAN ,REVOLUTIONS ?AT ! DEM& = A ?IRD REVOLUTION >OSE3 RADICAL POPUL> T5D5CIES HAVE EM]G$ REPEAT$LY 9 REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5TS ( ! PA/1 ESS5TIALLY VOIC+ ! SAME DEM&S AS ! ,FR5* & ,RUSSIAN 9SURG5TS1 ALBEIT 9 DIFF]5T WORDS & DIFF]5T WAYS4 ,NOR HAVE !Y BE5 SIMPLE POPUL> EXPLOSIONS ?AT LACK$ DIRECTION1 PURPOSE1 OR LEAD]%IP4 

,REVOLUTION>Y 0MOBS0 OR CR[DS SEEM$ TO ]UPT LIKE ELEM5TAL =CES 9 MAJOR REVOLUTIONS1 YET !Y W]E H>DLY AS =MLESS OR 0*AOTIC0 AS MANY HI/ORICAL ACC\NTS & REM9ISC5CES W\LD LEAD US TO BELIEVE4 ,EPISODIC CR[D ]UPTIONS OR 0RIOTS0 %\LD NOT BE CONFUS$ ) ! MORE LA/+ & UND]LY+ POPUL> MOVEM5TS ?AT SL[LY CRY/ALLIZ$ FROM SMALL GR\PS 9 NEI<BORHOODS1 T[NS1 & VILLAGES 9TO 9CREAS+LY L>G] ONES DUR+ REVOLUTION>Y P]IODS4 ,BE=E HUGE CR[DS SURG$ >\ND ! ,BA/ILLE ON ,JULY #a#d1 #a#g#h#i1 9 ,P>IS1 OR CONFRONT$ CZ>I/ TROOPS 9 ! AV5UES ( ,PETROGRAD ON ,FEBRU>Y #bc & #b#d1 #a#i#a#g1 ! PEOPLE HAD ALREADY E/ABLI%$ VITAL POLITICAL NETWORKS 9 ! SLUMS & WORK+-CLASS NEI<BORHOODS ( BO? CITIES4 

,SU* NETWORKS EXI/$ NOT ONLY 9 URBAN BUT 9 VILLAGE MILIEUS4 ,9 ! C\NTRYSIDE1 VILLAGE LIFE ITSELF (T5 FO/]$ AMONG ITS MEMB]S1 = ALL !IR 9T]NAL /ATUS DIFF]5CES1 HI<LY 9TIMATE TIES & A DEEP S5SE ( COLLECTIVE MUTUAL RESPONSIBILITY4 ,RADICAL HI/ORIANS 9 P>TICUL> T5D TO OV]/ATE ! EXT5T TO :I* ! ,EUROPEAN PEASANTRY WAS DISP]S$ & ATOMIZ$ & !RE=E 9CAPABLE ( JO9T ACTION4 ,!Y E*O TOO CLOSELY ,M>X'S DISP>AGEM5T ( ! PEASANT WORLD 9 G5]AL AS MEAN-SPIRIT$1 BAS$ ON HIS P]CEPTION ( ! EGOISM ( ! ,FR5* PEASANTRY ( HIS [N TIME4 ,IF ALL PEASANT SOCIETIES RESEMBL$ ?AT ( N9ETE5?-C5TURY ,FRANCE1 IT W\LD BE DIFFICULT TO EXPLA9 ! PEASANT MOVEM5TS ?AT F\<T SO ZEAL\SLY & ) SU* SELF-SACRIFICE 9 ! ,MEXICAN ,REVOLUTION ( #a#i#a#b1 NOT TO SPEAK ( ! ,VIETNAMESE ,W> AGA9/ ! ,JAPANESE1 ,FR5*1 & ,AM]ICAN COLONIALI/S4 ,! GREAT JACQU]IES ( ,EUROPE & ,RUSSIA W\LD REMA9 MY/]IES TO US IF WE DID NOT UND]/& ?AT !Y W]E ROOT$ 9 ! /RONG & COLLECTIVI/ VILLAGE TIES ( PRECAPITALI/ AGR>IAN COMMUNITIES4 

,FROM ! L>GELY M$IEVAL PEASANT W>S ( ! SIXTE5?-C5TURY ,RE=MATION TO ! MOD]N UPRIS+S ( 9DU/RIAL WORK]S & PEASANTS1 OPPRESS$ PEOPLES HAVE CREAT$ !IR [N POPUL> =MS ( COMMUNITY ASSOCIATION--POT5TIALLY1 ! POPUL> 9FRA/RUCTURE ( A NEW SOCIETY--TO REPLACE ! OPPRESSIVE /ATES ?AT RUL$ OV] !M4 ,G5]ALLY !SE POPUL> ASSOCIATIONS %>$ ! SAME GOAL3 ! DE FACTO POLITICAL EMP[]M5T ( ! PEOPLE4 ,9 TIME1 DUR+ ! C\RSE ( ! REVOLUTIONS1 !SE ASSOCIATIONS TOOK ! 9/ITUTIONAL =M ( LOCAL ASSEMBLIES1 MU* LIKE T[N MEET+S1 OR REPRES5TATIVE C\NCILS ( M&AT$ RECALLABLE DEPUTIES4 

,!SE NETWORKS W]E G5]ALLY IMP]VI\S NOT ONLY TO POLICE SURVEILLANCE BUT TO SUBSEQU5T HI/ORICAL 9VE/IGATION4 ,) FEW EXCEPTIONS & ONLY 9 REC5T TIMES HAVE HI/ORIANS TRI$ TO LOOK BEYOND ! =MAL REVOLUTION>Y 9/ITUTIONS1 SU* AS REVOLUTION>Y P>LIAM5T>Y BODIES1 & ORGANIZATIONS1 SU* AS POLITICAL P>TIES1 TO DISC]N H[ ORD9>Y PEOPLE1 & P>TICUL>LY ! ANONYM\S MILITANTS AMONG !M1 5GAG$ 9 !IR [N SELF-ORGANIZATION4 

,IT IS !SE SUBT]RANEAN POPUL> MOVEM5TS1 !IR V>I\S =MS ( ORGANIZATION SU* AS COMMITTEE NETWORKS & ASSEMBLIES1 & !IR (T5 LITTLEKN[N OR NEGLECT$ LEAD]S ?AT ,I EXPLORE 9 ! PAGES ?AT FOLL[4 ,MY [N SUCCESS 9 ?IS 5DEAVOR IS NECESS>ILY LIMIT$1 S9CE ?IS HIDD5 >EA ( ACTIVITY IS H>DLY REPLETE ) DOCUM5TATION & OBJECTIVE REM9ISC5CES4 

,NONE!LESS1 ON ! BASIS ( :AT #a HAVE BE5 ABLE TO GA!R1 ,I HAVE F\ND ?AT ! PROCESS ( POPUL> SELF-ORGANIZATION (T5 BROADLY FOLL[S A DEF9ITE PATT]N4 ,9 ! POOR] NEI<BORHOODS--& 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE1 9 ! VILLAGES ( UND]PRIVILEG$ PEASANTS--PEOPLE 9ITIALLY GA!R 9 LOCAL TAV]NS1 CAFES1 SQU>ES1 & M>KETPLACES2 9 9DU/RIAL >EAS !Y GA!R 9 FACTORY 0HANG\TS10 9 UNION HALLS1 OR 9 CASAS DEL PUEBLO 7LIT]ALLY1 0H\SES ( ! PEOPLE10 OR NEI<BORHOOD C5T]S74 ,!RE !Y HAVE ACCESS TO NEWSPAP]S1 LECTURES1 CLASSES1 & ! LIKE4 ,ULTIMATELY1 !SE LOOSE GA!R+S GIVE RISE TO A DI/9CTIVE NEI<BORHOOD POLITICAL CULTURE1 ) $UCATIONAL1 DEBAT+1 EV5 *ORAL & LIT]>Y GR\PS4 ,SU* LITTLE-NOTIC$ & POORLY EXPLOR$ CULTURES !N UND]GO A PROCESS ( /RUCTURATION1 9FLU5C$ BY AN >TICULATE1 MILITANT GRASSROOTS LEAD]%IP1 SO ?AT AN ORGANIZ$ POPUL> MOVEM5T BEG9S TO EM]GE4 ,?IS OCCURS QUITE (T5 )\T ! HELP ( ANY POLITICAL P>TIES4 ,!RE IS A V]Y REAL S5SE1 9 FACT1 9 :I* ALL ! GREAT REVOLUTIONS ( ! PA/ W]E CIVIC OR MUNICIPAL REVOLUTIONS AT !IR BASE1 :E!R IT WAS A VILLAGE1 T[N1 NEI<BORHOOD1 OR CITY :]E ! COMPLEX PROCESS ( COMMUNITY /RUCTURATION TOOK PLACE4 ,H5CE :AT (T5 APPE>S TO ! POLICE1 TO HI<] AU?ORITIES1 & EV5 TO SYMPA!TIC J\RNALI/S & HI/ORIANS AS A 0MOB0 9 A P]IOD ( SOCIAL UPHEAVAL IS FREQU5TLY A REM>KABLY >TICULAT$1 COMMUNALLY DEF9ABLE1 & WELL-L$ POPUL> UPSURGE4 

,!SE COMMUNAL PROCESSES ( /RUCTURATION NOT ONLY N\RI% REVOLUTIONS1 BUT ALSO EXPLA9 :Y L>GE MASSES ( PEOPLE P]SI/5TLY 5GAGE 9 RECURR+ BATTLES ) WELL->M$ TROOPS4 ,!SE POPUL> POLITICAL CULTURES & !IR NETWORKS SU/A9 ! REVOLUTION>Y PEOPLE & ITS LEAD]S DUR+ P]IODS ( TEMPOR>Y DEFEAT1 :I* >E (T5 FOLL[$ BY VIGOR\S & EV5 MORE DECISIVE UPSURGES4 ,9 ,FEBRU>Y #a#i#a#g1 :5 EV]-L>G] CR[DS FROM ! WORK+-CLASS ,VYBORG DI/RICT ( ,PETROGRAD 9VAD$ ! C5T] ( ! CITY1 !Y W]E ABLE REPEAT$LY TO DEFY ! CLUBS & PI/OLS ( POLICE1 ! SAB]S ( DRAGOONS1 & ! GUNFIRE ( 9FANTRY REGIM5TS1 UNTIL F9ALLY EV5 ! MILIT>Y G>RISON ITSELF MUT9I$ & HELP$ TO PULL D[N ! CZ>I/ MON>*Y4 ,9 A V]Y REAL S5SE1 !N1 MOVEM5TS ( OPPRESS$ /RATA & CLASSES W]E CLE>LY CIVIC MOVEM5TS1 ROOT$ 9 ! COMMUNAL LIFE ( VILLAGES1 T[NS1 CITIES1 & NEI<BORHOODS1 NOT ONLY L&$ E/ATES1 SMALL %OPS1 & FACTORIES--A FACT ?AT HAS NOT RECEIV$ ! RECOGNITION IT DES]VES FROM HI/ORIANS ( ! GREAT REVOLUTIONS4 

,9ITIALLY1 NO POLITICAL P>TY L$ !SE PEOPLE1 LEA/ ( ALL ! PR9CIPAL P>TIES ( ! ,RUSSIAN ,LEFT3 ! ,M5%EVIKS1 ! ,BOL%EVIKS1 & ! ,SOCIAL ,REVOLUTION>IES4 ,9 FACT1 %ORTLY BE=E ! ,PETROGRAD WORK]S BEGAN !IR UPRIS+1 CZ>I/ POLICE >RE/$ ! CITY COMMITTEES ( ! REVOLUTION>Y P>TIES--P]HAPS =TUNATELY1 S9CE !IR RA!R DOGMATIC IDEOLOGIES1 & !IR 9HIBIT+ NOTIONS ( ! 0/AGES0 ?R\< :I* !Y BELIEV$ A REVOLUTION %\LD GO1 C\LD V]Y WELL HAVE IMP$$ ! 9SURRECTION>Y UPSURGE ?AT OV]?REW ! MON>*Y4 

,BUT ?IS UPSURGE WAS NEI!R =MLESS NOR IMPULSIVE4 ,! VICTORY ( ! ,PETROGRAD PEOPLE IS TE/IMONY TO ! HIDD5 /RUCTURES ?AT !Y HAD ALREADY CREAT$ )9 !IR NEI<BORHOODS & FACTORIES1 & TO ! LITTLE-KN[N LEAD]S--! CLASS-CONSCI\S 9SURG5TS--:O1 AS ORATORS & CATALY/S1 PROVID$ 9DISP5SABLE GUIDANCE TO !IR NEI<BORS & C[ORK]S 9 FOM5T+ ! REVOLUTION4 ,?US1 AFT] TEMPOR>Y SETBACKS1 ! PEOPLE CONSCI\SLY RECONV5$ !IR =CES &1 9 L>GE P>T BECAUSE ( !IR LOCAL LEAD]S1 CONT9U$ TO ATTACK ! (FICIAL 9/ITUTIONS UNTIL !Y HAD COMPLETELY DEMOLI%$ !M4 ,LIKE ! ,RUSSIAN WORK]S 9 #a#i#a#g1 ! ,P>ISIAN SANS-CULOTTES TOO W]E SUPPRESS$ = A TIME1 !N ROSE UP AGA9 UNTIL !Y SUCCE$$ 9 PU%+ ! REVOLUTION 9 A MORE RADICAL DIRECTION4 

,?IS FIR/ PHASE ( A REVOLUTION1 9 :I* ! PEOPLE & !IR LEAD]S 9ITIALLY CONFRONT ! E/ABLI%$ AU?ORITIES1 MAY ALSO BE CALL$ ITS POPUL> PHASE4 ,NOT ONLY DO ! AU?ORITIES ( ! OLD REGIMES SEEK TO CONTROL ?IS PHASE1 BUT !Y SEEK TO SUPPRESS ! POPUL> MOVEM5T--& IF !Y FAIL1 P>TIES1 LIB]AL OR RADICAL 9 COMPLEXION1 TRY TO MOVE TO ! HEAD ( ! POPUL> MOVEM5T4 ,NOR DO !SE P>TIES HESITATE TO USE ! V]Y SLOGANS RAIS$ BY ! PEOPLE & !IR LEAD]S TO GA9 CONTROL OV] IT1 AS DID ,DANTON & ,ROBESPI]RE DUR+ ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION & ,L59 & ,TROTSKY DUR+ ! ,RUSSIAN ,REVOLUTION4 

,REVOLUTIONS >E PR(\NDLY $UCATIONAL PROCESSES1 9DE$ V]ITABLE CAULDRONS 9 :I* ALL K9DS ( CONFLICT+ IDEAS & T5D5CIES >E SIFT$ \T 9 ! M9DS ( A REVOLUTION>Y PEOPLE4 ,NO SOON] IS ! OLD REGIME OV]?R[N ?AN A V]ITABLE /ORM ( PAMPHLETS1 MANIFE/OS1 & RESOLUTIONS APPE>S1 TOGE!R ) PUBLIC MEET+S1 DEMON/RATIONS1 CLUBS1 & SOCIETIES--9 %ORT1 A W> ( WRITT5 WORDS & ORATORY FROM :I* WE CAN BEG9 TO ID5TIFY ! CONFLICT+ FACTIONS & !IR GOALS )9 ! REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5T4 

,9DIVIDUALS :O 5T] 9TO A REVOLUTION>Y PROCESS >E BY NO MEANS ! SAME AFT] ! REVOLUTION AS !Y W]E BE=E IT BEGAN4 ,?OSE :O 5C\NT] A MODICUM ( SUCCESS 9 REVOLUTION>Y TIMES LE>N MORE )9 A SPAN ( A FEW WEEKS OR MON?S ?AN !Y MI<T HAVE LE>N$ OV] !IR LIFETIME 9 NONREVOLUTION>Y TIMES4 ,CONV5TIONAL IDEAS FALL AWAY ) EXTRAORD9>Y RAPIDITY2 VALUES & PREJUDICES ?AT W]E C5TURIES 9 ! MAK+ DISAPPE> ALMO/ OV]NI<T4 ,/RIK+LY 9NOVATIVE IDEAS >E QUICKLY ADOPT$1 TE/$1 &1 :]E NECESS>Y1 DISC>D$4 ,EV5 NEW] IDEAS1 (T5 FLAGRANTLY RADICAL 9 *>ACT]1 >E ADOPT$ ) AN DLAN ?AT FRI<T5S RUL+ ELITES--H[EV] RADICAL ! LATT] MAY PR(ESS TO BE--& !Y SOON BECOME DEEPLY ROOT$ 9 ! POPUL> CONSCI\SNESS4 ,AU?ORITIES HALL[$ BY AGE-OLD TRADITION >E SUDD5LY DIVE/$ ( !IR PRE/IGE1 LEGITIMACY1 & P[] TO GOV]N1 :ILE ! REVOLUTION>Y PEOPLE COMPELS ITS [N (T5 UNN]V$ & HESITANT LEAD]S TO ADAPT !MSELVES TO RADICAL *ANGES 9 POPUL> MOOD4 

,SO TUMULTU\S SOCIALLY & PSY*OLOGICALLY >E REVOLUTIONS 9 G5]AL ?AT !Y CON/ITUTE A /&+ *ALL5GE TO IDEOLOGUES1 9CLUD+ SOCIOBIOLOGI/S :O ASS]T ?AT HUMAN BEHAVIOR IS FIX$ & HUMAN NATURE PR$ET]M9$4 ,REVOLUTION>Y *ANGES REVEAL A REM>KABLE FLEXIBILITY 9 0HUMAN NATURE10 YET FEW PSY*OLOGI/S HAVE ELECT$ TO /UDY ! SOCIAL & PSY*OLOGICAL TUMULT ( REVOLUTION AS WELL AS ! 9/ITUTIONAL *ANGES IT SO (T5 PRODUCES4 ,?IS MU* MU/ BE SAID ) F]V5T EMPHASIS3 TO CONT9UE TO JUDGE ! BEHAVIOR ( A PEOPLE DUR+ & AFT] A REVOLUTION BY ! SAME /&>DS ONE JUDG$ !M BY BE=EH& IS COMPLETELY MYOPIC1 

,I WI% TO >GUE ?AT ! CAPACITY ( A REVOLUTION TO PRODUCE F>-REA*+ IDEOLOGICAL & MORAL *ANGES 9 A PEOPLE /EMS PRIM>ILY FROM ! OPPORTUNITY IT AF=DS ORD9>Y1 9DE$ OPPRESS$1 PEOPLE TO EX]CISE POPUL> SELFMANAGEM5T--TO 5T] DIRECTLY1 RAPIDLY1 & EXHIL>AT+LY 9TO CONTROL OV] MO/ ASPECTS ( !IR SOCIAL & P]SONAL LIVES4 ,TO ! EXT5T ?AT AN 9SURRECTION>Y PEOPLE TAKES OV] ! RE9S ( P[] FROM ! =M]LY HALL[$ ELITES :O OPPRESS$ !M & BEG9S TO RE/RUCTURE SOCIETY ALONG RADICALLY POPULI/ L9ES1 9DIVIDUALS GR[ AW>E ( LAT5T P[]S )9 !MSELVES ?AT N\RI% !IR PREVI\SLY SUPPRESS$ CREATIVITY1 S5SE ( SELF-WOR?1 & SOLID>ITY4 ,!Y LE>N ?AT SOCIETY IS NEI!R IMMUTABLE NOR SANCTIFI$1 AS 9FLEXIBLE CU/OM HAD PREVI\SLY TAU<T !M2 RA!R1 IT IS MALLEABLE & SUBJECT1 )9 C]TA9 LIMITS1 TO *ANGE ACCORD+ TO HUMAN WILL & DESIRE4 

,AT SOME PO9T EV]Y REVOLUTION>Y PEOPLE MU/ CONFRONT ! ISSUE ( H[ TO R5D] P]MAN5T ! *ANGES IT HAS MADE & ! 9NOVATIONS IT HAS 9TRODUC$--?AT IS1 H[ TO 9/ITUTIONALIZE PEOPLE'S [N P>TICIPATION 9 ! MANAGEM5T ( SOCIAL AFFAIRS 9 SU* A WAY ?AT NOT EV5 ! REVOLUTION>Y REGIME ITSELF CAN EXCLUDE !M4 ,DUR+ ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION ! SANS-CULOTTES & !IR LEAD]S SOLIDIFI$ !IR SECTIONS & ATTEMPT$ TO TURN !M 9TO P]MAN5T 9/ITUTIONS = A DIRECT DEMOCRACY ?R\<\T ,FRANCE4 ,! ,RUSSIAN WORK+ CLASS & PEASANTRY1 TOO1 HAD TO FACE ! QUE/ION ( ! SOV]EIGNTY ( !IR SOVIET OR C\NCIL =M ( SOCIAL ORGANIZATION4 ,9 BO? CASES1 ! POPUL> MOVEM5TS F\ND ?AT POLITICAL P>TIES ALT]NATELY APPEAL$ TO & OPPOS$ !IR POPUL> SOCIAL ASPIRATIONS1 (T5 OB/RUCT+ ! FL[ ( EV5TS T[>D RADICAL DEMOCRATIC 5DS4 

,:AT ROLE1 IT IS FAIR TO ASK1 DO REVOLUTION>Y POLITICAL P>TIES PLAY 9 ?IS DEVELOPM5T8 ,NORMALLY1 P>TIES >E NOT SIMPLY ORGANIZATIONAL /RUCTURES ?AT SEEK TO MOBILIZE POPUL> SUPPORT4 ,NOR >E !Y1 GIV5 !IR /RUCTURE & ! M5TALITY ( !IR LEAD]%IP1 ALT]NATIVES TO ! NATION-/ATE4 ,QUITE TO ! CONTR>Y3 P>TIES >E PRODUCTS ( ! NATION-/ATE ITSELF1 :E!R !Y PR(ESS TO BE REVOLUTION>Y1 LIB]AL1 OR REACTION>Y1 ,! PR9CIPAL DIFF]5CE ?AT DI/+UI%ES ONE P>TY FROM ANO!R IS ! K9D ( NATION-/ATE IT WI%ES TO E/ABLI%4 

,9 ,EUROPE ! NATION-/ATE BEGAN TO REPLACE FEUDALI/IC SOV]EIGNTIES AS REC5TLY AS ! FIFTE5? & SIXTE5? C5TURIES4 ,! NATION-/ATES ?AT EM]G$ 9 ,5GL&1 ,FRANCE1 & LAT] ,RUSSIA W]E ! PRODUCTS ( VIGOR\S C5TRALIZ+ MON>*S :O1 P>TICUL>LY 9 ! CASES ( ,FRANCE & ,RUSSIA1 SUCCE$$ 9 E/ABLI%+ HUGE BUREAUCRACIES TO MANAGE !IR SPECIFIC T]RITORIES & EMPIRES4 ,9 CONTRA/ TO ! RELATIVE *AOS ( ! FEUDAL WORLD1 ! MORE SUCCESSFUL NATION/ATES CREAT$ /RONG1 /ABLE C5TRALIZ$ BUREAUCRACIES ?AT RUL+ CLASSES ELSE:]E 9 ,EUROPE TRI$ TO EMULATE4 

,! POLITICAL P>TY1 9 TURN1 EMULAT$ ! NATION-/ATE1 EV5 :5 IT OPPOS$ ITS MORE TYRANNICAL OP]ATIONS4 ,EM]G+ AFT] AN 9ITIAL HI/ORICAL LAG1 POLITICAL P>TIES P>ALLEL$ ! NATION-/ATE ORGANIZATIONALLY & POLITICALLY2 9 TIME !Y BECAME MORE OR LESS 9SEP>ABLE FROM IT4 ,!Y W]E & >E TODAY CONSCI\SLY /RUCTUR$ TO RESEMBLE NATION-/ATES1 LIKE NATION-/ATES-9-WAIT+ ?AT SEEK TO TAKE P[]1 :E!R BY PEACEFUL MEANS1 AS A LOYAL OPPOSITION1 OR BY =CE ( >MS1 AS A REVOLUTION>Y ORGANIZATION4 ,LIKE MON>*IES & REPUBLICS1 P>TIES BECOME C5TRALIZ$ 5TITIES 9 V>Y+ DEGREES1 ) BUREAUCRATIC OR QUASIBUREAUCRATIC 9FRA/RUCTURES :]E AU?ORITY *>ACT]I/ICALLY FL[S FROM ! C5T] TO ! BASE4 

,NOT ONLY >E P>TIES ORGANIZ$ LIKE NATION-/ATES1 BUT !Y >E USUALLY NATIONAL 9 SCALE1 KNIT TOGE!R BY SY/EMS ( COMM& & OB$I5CE1 ) !IR C5T] F> REMOV$ FROM CONTROL BY !IR BASE4 ,! TAUTNESS ( !IR 9FRA/RUCTURES1 TO BE SURE1 V>IES CONSID]ABLY FROM LOOSE SY/EMS ( COMM& 9 REPUBLICAN NATION-/ATES TO /R+5T ONES 9 HI<LY AU?ORIT>IAN /ATES4 ,BUT !Y REMA9 C5TRALIZ$ NONE!LESS4 ,9 ?IS RESPECT1 MANY REVOLUTION>Y P>TIES 9 ! PA/ CAME TO RESEMBLE ! V]Y /ATE /RUCTURES !Y PR(ESS$ TO OPPOSE4 ,DESIGN$ TO TAKE P[]--OR1 9 ,L59I/ LANGUAGE1 TO 0SEIZE P[]0--!Y KN[+LY OR UNKN[+LY BECAME SMALL NATION-/ATES !MSELVES1 BO? 9 !IR M5TALITY & 9 !IR FUNCTION+1 IRRESPECTIVE ( !IR SIZE & DEGREE ( POPUL> SUPPORT4 

,IT %\LD NOT BE SURPRIS+1 !N1 ?AT REVOLUTION>Y POLITICAL P>TIES-- H[EV] IDEALI/IC !IR LEAD]%IP & MEMB]S1 NORMALLY LOOK$ ASKANCE AT ! POPUL> /RUCTURES ?AT ! MASSES & !IR LEAD]S CREAT$1 ESPECIALLY 9 REVOLUTION>Y SITUATIONS :5 0! SEIZURE ( P[]0 WAS ON ! AG5DA ( ! DAY4 ,?IS RAIS$ ! HI/ORICAL QUE/ION3 :AT K9D ( 0P[]0 W\LD REPLACE ! EXI/+ /RUCTURES ?AT W]E TO BE 0SEIZ$08 ,(T5 SUBM]G$ 9 ! 9ITIAL SWEEP ( ! POPUL> REVOLUTION1 P>TIES EM]G$ 9 ITS AFT]MA? ) ! DI/9CT GOAL ( US+ ! MASS MOVEM5T TO GA9 P[] = !MSELVES & ! 9T]E/S !Y REPRES5T$1 NOT ( DEMOLI%+ ! /ATE & ITS BUREAUCRATIC MA*9]Y4 

,ULTIMATELY1 !SE P>TIES CAME 9TO HEAD-ON COLLISION ) ! POPUL> 9/ITUTIONS ?AT ! REVOLUTION>Y PEOPLE & !IR LEAD]S HAD E/ABLI%$1 SU* AS !IR T[N & NEI<BORHOOD ASSEMBLIES OR FACTORY C\NCILS1 GIV+ RISE TO ! CRY = A ?IRD REVOLUTION4 ,HI/ORIES ?AT EMPHASIZE ! RIVALRIES BETWE5 LIB]AL1 RADICAL1 & REVOLUTION>Y P>TIES = CONTROL ( ! /ATE ALL TOO EASILY OV]LOOK ! CLA% BETWE5 PR(ESS$LY REVOLUTION>Y P>TIES & ! NEW1 (T5 DIRECTLY DEMOCRATIC 9/ITUTIONS CREAT$ BY AN 9SURG5T PEOPLE4 

,EV5 MORE CONFUS+ = HI/ORIANS3 AS ! PEOPLE BECAME 9CREAS+LY RADICAL ) ! UNFOLD+ ( A REVOLUTION1 ! LEAD]S ( ! MORE REVOLUTION>Y P>TIES NE$$ TO GA9 !IR SUPPORT1 P>TICUL>LY 9 9T]P>TY CONFLICTS4 ,?IS NECESSITY TEMPOR>ILY COMPELL$ !M TO ADOPT ! POPUL> MOVEM5T'S DEMOCRATIC AIMS4 ,BUT ?IS NOD 9 ! DIRECTION ( DEMOCRACY WAS JU/ ?AT--A GE/URE--& USUALLY DID NOT LA/4 ,9 ,FRANCE1 :5 ! HI<LY CCNTRALI/IC ,JACOB9S W]E LOCK$ 9 A BITT] /RUGGLE ) ! MOD]ATE ,GIROND9S & REQUIR$ POPUL> SUPPORT TO DISLODGE !IR OPPON5TS FROM LEAD+ GOV]NM5TAL POSITIONS1 !Y ADOPT$ A HI<LY REVOLUTION>Y & DEMOCRATIC RHETORIC ?AT SEEM$ TO HAVE NO O!R PURPOSE ?AN TO GA9 MASS SUPPORT4 ,SIMIL>LY1 ! ESS5TIALLY AU?ORIT>IAN ,BOL%EVIKS S\ND$ VIRTUALLY LIKE AN>*I/S 9 !IR CONFLICTS ) ! B\RGEOISORI5T$ ,M5%EVIKS1 ! ,SOCIAL ,REVOLUTION>IES1 & !IR LIB]AL RIVALS4 

,ONCE E/ABLI%$ 9 P[]1 H[EV]1 IACOB9S & ,BOL%EVIKS ALIKE DID EV]Y?+ !Y C\LD TO NEUTRALIZE ! P[] ( ! SECTIONS & ! SOVIETS1 RESPECTIVELY1 ACCEL]AT+ ! TRANS=MATION ( ,FRANCE & ,RUSSIA 9TO 9CREAS+LY AU?ORIT>IAN NATION-/ATES4 ,! P>TIES & ! PEOPLE CAME 9TO >M$ CONFLICT1 & :]EV] ! PEOPLE W]E VANQUI%$ ! REVOLUTION>Y PROCESS CAME TO AN 5D1 DESPITE ! SOCIAL & ECONOMIC *ANGES ! REVOLUTION MAY HAVE PRODUC$4 

,WE %ALL FOLL[ ?IS DRAMA 9 ALL ! CLASSICAL REVOLUTIONS ( ! MOD]N ]A & EXAM9E ! 9/ITUTIONAL =MS ?AT ! PEOPLE & !IR LEAD]S CREAT$1 ! ROLES ?AT ! P>TIES PLAY$ 9 SUPPRESS+ !M1 & ! IDEAS ?AT EVOLV$ AMONG BO? ! PEOPLE & ! P>TIES--& F9ALLY ! MAT]IAL & POLITICAL CONDITIONS ?AT C\LD HAVE L$ TO ! SUCCESS ( ! POPUL> MOVEM5T 9 A ?IRD REVOLUTION4 

,GIV5 ?IS P]SPECTIVE1 ! MAJOR REVOLUTIONS ( ! MOD]N ]A >E NOT R$UCIBLE EXCLUSIVELY TO CONFLICTS BETWE5 CLE>LY DEF9ABLE ECONOMIC CLASSES4 ,BROADLY SPEAK+1 !Y ALWAYS 5COMPASS$ CONFLICTS BETWE5 ! EXPLOIT$ & !IR EXPLOIT]S1 ! RI* & ! POOR1 ! WELL-TO-DO & ! MAT]IALLY D5I$4 ,BUT KN[+LY OR NOT1 !SE REVOLUTIONS W]E ALSO CONFLICTS BETWE5 OPPOS+ VISIONS ( POLITICAL LIFE4 ,WORK]S1 PEASANTS1 & RADICAL 9TELLECTUALS T5D$ TO FAVOR ! GR\P+S !Y HAD =M$ 9 !IR [N COMMUNITIES1 (T5 PITT+ !IR DEC5TRALIZ$ 9/ITUTIONS ( POPUL> RULE & FACE-TO-FACE DEMOCRACY 9 %>P OPPOSITION TO /ATI/ =MS ( RULE BAS$ ON NATIONHOOD1 TOP-D[N CONTROL1 C5TRALISM1 & BUREAUCRACY4 ,:5 ! SANS-CULOTTES & ! ,PETROGRAD WORK+-CLASS LEAD]S CALL$ = A ?IRD REVOLUTION1 !Y W]E CONC]N$ NOT ONLY ) BETT]+ !IR ECONOMIC POSITION BUT1 TO TAKE !IR [N DECL>ATIONS & DEM&S AT !IR WORD1 ) EXP&+ !IR REVOLUTION>Y 9/ITUTIONS AS ! PR9CIPAL MEANS ( CONDUCT+ A DEMOCRATIC PUBLIC LIFE4 ,REVOLUTION 9 !IR EYES MEANT ! 9/ITUTIONALIZATION ( DIRECT ACTION3 NAMELY1 5GAG+ 9 SELFADM9I/RATION AS A NORMAL =M ( POLITICS4 ,! ORGANIZATION ( ! REVOLUTION AS A P]MAN5T CONDITION ( LIFE1 ?R\< POPUL> ASSEMBLIES1 %OP COMMITTEES1 SOVIETS1 & POPUL> SOCIETIES1 CON/ITUT$ DIRECT ACTION 9 ITS MO/ ADVANC$ =M--ULTIMATELY F> MORE SIGNIFICANT ?AN O!R1 MORE SPORADIC TYPES ( DIRECT ACTION1 BE !Y ! TEMPOR>Y OCCUPATION ( FACTORIES OR ! RAIS+ ( !ATRICAL BUT MILIT>ILY USELESS B>RICADES4 ,9 REVOLUTION1 DIRECT ACTION MEANT A SPECIAL =M ( POLITICAL ACTION3 ! 9/ITUTIONALIZATION ( SELF-MANAGEM5T & ! CREATION ( AN ORGANIZ$ =M ( P>TICIPATORY DEMOCRACY4 

,:AT (T5 IMP$$ ! SUCCESS ( ! POPUL> MOVEM5T WAS ITS FAILURE TO =M A VANGU>D ORGANIZATION 9 ! BE/ S5SE ( ! T]M3 ?AT IS TO SAY1 AN ACC\NTABLE1 RECALLABLE1 CONF$]AL LEAD]%IP GR\P ?AT EXPLICITLY *ALL5G$ ALL /ATI/ ORGANIZATIONS AS SU*4.<#a.> ,! FAILURE1 9 ,FRANCE & ,RUSSIA1 ( SU* AN ORGANIZATION TO EM]GE & M\NT A S]I\S *ALL5GE TO ! ,JACOB9 & ,BOL%EVIK /ATES PR(\NDLY %AP$ ! HI/ORY ( ! PA/ TWO C5TURIES & WILL POSSIBLY CONT9UE TO %APE EV5TS1 H[EV] 9DIRECTLY1 = G5]ATIONS TO COME4 ,! POPUL> LEAD]S W]E (T5 TOO IRRESOLUTE1 TOO DISORGANIZ$1 & TOO UN9=M$ TO DEAL EFFECTIVELY ) ! HI<LY MANEUV]ABLE C5TRALIZ$ P>TIES1 RADICAL OR O!RWISE1 ?AT !Y CONFRONT$4 

,ANO!R FACTOR ?AT IMP$$ ! SUCCESS ( ! REVOLUTION>Y PEOPLE WAS ! MAT]IAL LIMITS ?AT CIRCUMSCRIB$ ! LIVES ( PEOPLE 9 !IR MOVEM5TS4 ,IT %\LD BE EMPHASIZ$ QUITE FRANKLY ?AT = MO/ ( HUMAN HI/ORY ORD9>Y PEOPLE HAVE LACK$ SUFFICI5T MEANS & FREE TIME TO 5GAGE FULLY 9 ! MANAGEM5T ( SOCIAL AFFAIRS4 ,AS LONG AS !Y >E OBLIG$ TO DEVOTE MO/ ( !IR TIME TO ACQUIR+ ! MEANS ( EV]YDAY SUBSI/5CE1 POLITICAL LIFE WILL USUALLY FALL 9TO ! H&S ( ! PRIVILEG$ FEW4 ,?IS COMPELL+ FACT HAS BE5 CLE>LY RECOGNIZ$ S9CE ,>I/OTLE'S DAY 9 ANCI5T ,A!NS1 :]E A L[ LEVEL ( TE*NOLOGY1 SLAV]Y1 PATRI>*Y1 & W>F>E PR(\NDLY AFFECT$ ! LIFE & FUTURE ( ! POLIS4 

,! QUE/ION ( :E!R ! SCOPE ( ! DEMOCRACY DEM&$ BY A REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5T MU/ BE P>$ TO MEET ! MAT]IAL LIMITS ( ! TIME 9 :I* IT >ISES HAS UND]/&ABLY OCCUPI$ S]I\S RADICAL !ORI/S = G5]ATIONS4 ,9 ! EI<TE5? & TO A MU* GREAT] EXT5T ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 REVOLUTION>Y P>TIES T5D$ TO EMPHASIZE ! IMPORTANCE ( MEET+ ! MAT]IAL NE$S ( ! PEOPLE RA!R ?AN ! ATTA9M5T ( DEMOCRATIC 5DS4 ,:5 ! ,JACOB9S TRI$ TO RE/RICT ! MEET+S ( ! ,P>ISIAN SECTIONS1 O/5SIBLY TO ALL[ PEOPLE TO GET 5\< SLEEP TO GO TO WORK ! NEXT DAY1 ,ROBESPI]RE JU/IFI$ ?IS POLICY AT ! REVOLUTION>Y ,CONV5TION BY ASK+1 0,:O W]E ! PEOPLE1 9 FACT1 :O C\LD SACRIFICE !IR TIME TO GO TO MEET+S8 444 ,>TISANS & HONE/ WORK+ PEOPLE CANNOT SP5D ALL !IR TIME AT MEET+S .<ASSEMBLIES.>40.<#b.> ,H[EV] %REWD HIS REPLY1 ! QUE/ION WAS NOT AT ALL MEAN+LESS4 ,NOR IS IT MEAN+LESS EV5 TODAY4 

,NEV]!LESS1 ! F]VOR ( ! POPUL> MOVEM5T 9 REVOLUTION>Y SITUATIONS (T5 OV]RODE ECONOMIC CONSID]ATIONS1 AT LEA/ = A TIME4 ,! TRU? ( ,ROBESPI]RE'S ASSESSM5T IS DIFFICULT = HI/ORIANS TODAY TO E/ABLI%4 ,SECTION MEET+S ?AT ADDRESS$ V]Y IMPORTANT ISSUES G5]ALLY ATTRACT$ HUGE CR[DS1 ESPECIALLY DUR+ P]IODS ( HEI<T5$ RADICAL F]VOR & ACTIVITY4 ,O!RWISE !Y T5D$ TO BE V]Y SMALL1 PROBABLY 9 L>GE P>T BECAUSE ( ! LONG WORK+ H\RS ?AT PREVAIL$ AT ! TIME4 

,NOR W]E ! SANS-CULOTTE LEAD]S :O PU%$ ! REVOLUTION 9 A DEMOCRATIC DIRECTION C]TA9 ?AT ! RE/ ( ,FRANCE WAS BEH9D !M4 ,9 FACT1 ! RADICAL DEM&S ( ! ,P>ISIAN REVOLUTION>IES 9CREAS+LY ALI5AT$ ! PEASANTRY 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE & ! MORE WELL-TO-DO SECTORS ( ,FR5* SOCIETY4 ,SO1 TOO1 DID ! ,BOL%EVIKS 9 REVOLUTION>Y ,PETROGRAD HAVE CAUSE TO D\BT ?AT ,RUSSIA WAS BEH9D !M1 AL?\< !Y GA9$ A CONSID]ABLE $GE OV] !IR POLITICAL OPPON5TS BY !IR WILL+NESS TO ADDRESS PEASANT L& HUNG] & ! W> WE>9ESS ( ! SOLDI]S4 ,IP ! 5D1 H[EV]1 ONLY ! PROSPECT ( A MAT]IALLY COM=TABLE LIFE ) M9IMAL TOIL = ! PEOPLE AT L>GE C\LD ULTIMATELY HAVE LAID ! LA/+ BASIS = A FREE1 DEMOCRATIC1 & RATIONAL SOCIETY4 

,[+ TO ! LIMIT$ EXT5T TO :I* MOVEM5TS 9 ! CLASSICAL REVOLUTIONS ADDRESS$ RADICAL ECONOMIC ISSUES1 !Y W]E NOT 9 FACT MAJORIT>IAN REVOLUTIONS4 ,! HEADY *ANGES ?AT 9ITIAT$ MO/ ( ! GREAT REVOLUTIONS 9ITIALLY RESULT$ FROM A SPIRIT ( REJECTION RA!R ?AN AFFIRMATION4 ,H[EV] EAG] ! POPUL> MOVEM5T WAS TO E/ABLI% DEMOCRACY1 ITS IDEAS ( PRECISELY H[ SOCIETY W\LD FUNCTION ECONOMICALLY W]E V]Y AMBIGU\S4 ,?AT HI<LY DISP>ATE ELEM5TS 9 SOCIETY C\LD UNITE >\ND ! ABOLITION ( AN >BITR>Y MON>*Y 9 ,FRANCE OR CZ>I/ DESPOTISM 9 ,RUSSIA %\LD NOT BE SURPRIS+4 ,BUT AS SOON AS O!R ISSUES W]E RAIS$--SU* AS ! R$I/RIBUTION ( L&1 *ALL5GES TO WEAL? & PR(ITE]+1 & ! MAT]IAL NE$S ( ! UND]PRIVILEG$--! REVOLUTION>Y PROCESS BEGAN TO DIV]GE 9 MANY DIRECTIONS4 ,NE$LESS TO EMPHASIZE1 AS 9CREAS+LY RADICAL DEM&S1 P>TICUL>LY ) RESPECT TO PROP]TY1 BEGAN TO COMM& PUBLIC ATT5TION1 V>I\S PRIVILEG$ LAY]S ( SOCIETY TURN$ AGA9/ ! REVOLUTION>Y PROCESS4 

,AS ?IS JUNCTURE WAS REA*$1 ! REVOLUTION>Y NATION-/ATE & ITS P>TIES CONFLICT$ 9CREAS+LY ) ! COMMUNAL /RUCTURES ( ! PEOPLE4 ,SU* JUNCTURES HAVE A LONG HI/ORICAL P$IGREE1 9 :I* ! PROP]TYLESS >E PITT$ AGA9/ ! PROP]TI$1 ! POOR AGA9/ ! WEAL?Y1 & POPUL> DEMOCRACY AGA9/ BUREAUCRATIC CONTROL4 ,?IS DRAMA WAS PLAY$ \T 9 ! PEASANT W> 9 ,G]MANY DUR+ ,LU!R'S TIME1 9 ! ,5GLI% & ,AM]ICAN REVOLUTIONS1 & DUR+ ! ,GREAT ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 ! ,P>IS ,COMMUNE ( #a#h#g#a1 ! ,RUSSIAN ,REVOLUTION ( #a#i#a#g-#b#a1 & ! ,SPANI% ,REVOLUTION ( #a#i#c#f-#c#i4 ,ALL ( !SE REVOLUTIONS 9 !IR LAT] /AGES 7EXCEPT ! %ORT-LIV$ ,P>IS ,COMMUNE ( #a#h#g#a7 W]E PU%$ =W>D BY VOLATILE IF UNC]TA9 M9ORITIES1 BO? ?OSE )9 ! POPUL> MOVEM5T ITSELF & SEEM+LY REVOLUTION>Y ADVOCATES ( 9CREAS$ /ATE P[] SU* AS ,OLIV] ,CROMWELL1 ,ALEX&] ,HAMILTON1 ,MAXIMILI5 ,ROBESPI]RE1 & ,V4 ,I4 ,L594 

,!RE >E1 TO BE SURE1 NOTABLE EXCEPTIONS TO ?IS DEVELOPM5T4 ,! ,KRON/ADT SAILORS :O ROSE UP 9 #aiba AGA9/ ! 9CREAS+ AU?ORIT>IANISM ( ! ,BOL%EVIKS PROBABLY SPOKE = MO/ ( ! PEOPLE 9 ,RUSSIA :5 !Y E/ABLI%$ A REVOLUTION>Y 0COMMUNE0 AT !IR NAVAL BASE 9 ! ,GULF ( ,F9L&4 ,BUT BY !N1 ! ,RUSSIAN PEOPLE HAD BECOME EXHAU/$ & P>ALYZ$ POLITICALLY BY ?REE YE>S ( BLOODY CIVIL W>1 FAM9E1 & WIDESPREAD DISILLUSIONM5T4 

,9 :AT S5SE CAN ! GREAT REVOLUTIONS ( ! PA/ BE SE5 AS 0B\RGEOIS DEMOCRATIC0 REVOLUTIONS8 ,K>L ,M>X'S APPROA* ON ?IS SCORE HAS GA9$ SU* WIDESPREAD ACCEPTANCE AMONG RADICAL & EV5 LIB]AL HI/ORIANS ?AT IT MAY SEEM H]ETICAL TO TAKE EXCEPTION TO HIS VIEW ?AT L>GELY ECONOMIC--& NOTABLY B\RGEOIS--9T]E/S W]E ! GUID+ FACTORS4 ,HI/ORIANS G5]ALLY T5D TO DESCRIBE ! ,5GLI%1 ,AM]ICAN1 & ,FR5* ,REVOLUTIONS AS 0B\RGEOISDEMOCRATIC10 AS IF !Y W]E ! WORK ( ! CAPITALI/ CLASS4 ,AS ,I HAVE ALREADY 9DICAT$ 9 MY PREFACE1 ,I PLAN TO TAKE ! POPUL> P>TICIPANTS ( ! GREAT REVOLUTIONS AT !IR WORD RA!R ?AN RETROSPECTIVELY DEAL+ ) !M FROM A PRES5T-DAY P]SPECTIVE4 

,I %ALL HAVE OCCASION TO EXAM9E ! EXT5T TO :I* ! CLASSICAL REVOLUTIONS CAN BE REG>D$ AS B\RGEOIS :5 ,I DEAL ) EA* REVOLUTION 9DIVIDUALLY4 ,9 G5]AL1 ,M>X'S VIEW T5DS TO R5D] ! HI/ORICAL REVOLUTION>Y PROCESS HI<LY FATALI/IC1 OBLIG+ US TO ASSUME ?AT 9 ALL ! GREAT MOVEM5TS = FRE$OM OV] ! PA/ F\R C5TURIES1 !RE WAS NEV] AN ALT]NATIVE TO ! ULTIMATE TRIUMPH ( CAPITALISM--9 MY VIEW1 AN UNACCEPTABLE CASE ( HI/ORICAL TELEOLOGY4 ,WE W\LD BE OBLIG$ TO ASSUME ?AT ! ,G]MAN PEASANTS :O REVOLT$ 9 ! #a#e#bS W]E 0REACTION>IES0 BECAUSE !Y W]E TRY+ TO RETA9 !IR >*AIC VILLAGE LIFE2 ?AT ! ,R\NDHEAD YEOMANRY :O =M$ ,CROMWELL'S ,NEW ,MODEL ,>MY W]E HI/ORICALLY 0DOOM$0 AS A SOCIAL /RATUM BY 9DU/RIAL 9V5TIONS & =MS ( PRODUCTION ?AT HAD YET TO BE DEVELOP$2 ?AT ! RADICAL ,M9UTEM5 F>M]S 9 ! ,AM]ICAN COLONIES 9EVITABLY HAD TO DISAPPE> LIKE !IR ,5GLI% YEOMAN C\S9S2 ?AT ! SANS-CULOTTES :O E/ABLI%$ ! FIR/ ,FR5* REPUBLIC W]E DECLAS/ RIFFRAFF OR M]E 0CONSUM]S10 AS MORE ?AN ONE HI/ORIAN HAS CALL$ !M--& SO ON1 UP TO FAIRLY REC5T TIMES4 

,9 ! ,M>XI/ & LIB]AL VIEW ( !SE REVOLUTIONS1 IT WAS ! BANK]S1 M]*ANTS1 MANUFACTUR]S1 & O!R 5TREPR5EURS--! PR$ATORY M5 :O W]E AMASS+ 5ORM\S WEAL? 9 ! EI<TE5? C5TURY--:O =M$ ! CLASS VANGU>D ( ! GREAT REVOLUTIONS1 PRESUMABLY 9 SPITE ( !MSELVES4 ,LET US AGREE1 FROM ! \TSET1 ?AT ! B\RGEOISIE B5EFIT$ FROM MO/ ( !SE REVOLUTIONS4 ,C]TA9LY1 ! B\RGEOISIE WANT$ 0FREE0 TRADE1 0FREE0 WORK]S1 & ! 0FREE0 PLAY ( EGOTISM1 :I* CAN EASILY BE MUTAT$ 9TO A CRY = 0LIB]TE1 EGALITT1 FRAT]NITY40 ,BUT IF IT IS TRUE ?AT CAPITALISM IS GLOBALLY SUPREME TODAY1 NO CLASS 9 HI/ORY HAS BE5 MORE CRAV51 C[>DLY1 & FE>FUL ( SOCIAL *ANGE 7ESPECIALLY *ANGE 9VOLV+ ! 0D>K PEOPLE10 AS !Y CALL$ ! UND]PRIVILEG$7 ?AN ! 5TREPR5EURS :O PEOPL$ ! COMM]CIAL C5T]S ( ,EUROPE & ,AM]ICA DUR+ ! EI<TE5? C5TURY4 ,AS A CLASS1 ! B\RGEOISIE HAS NEV] BE5 POLITICALLY REVOLUTION>Y1 LET ALONE 9SURG5T4 ,9DE$1 UNTIL REC5T TIMES IT WAS UND]/&ABLY ! OBJECT ( DISDA9 BY NOBLES1 9TELLECTUALS1 & CL]ICS4 ,IT WAS LONG IMBU$ ) A S5SE ( SOCIAL 9F]IORITY & POLITICAL 9EFFECTUALITY--& DES]V$LY SO4 

,IF NOT ! B\RGEOISIE1 :AT SOCIAL /RATA C>RI$ ?R\< !SE REVOLUTIONS8 ,SOCIETIES UND]GO+ 9/ITUTIONAL & ECONOMIC TRANSITION >E BY DEF9ITION UN/ABLE1 NOT ONLY POLITICALLY & ECONOMICALLY BUT ALSO CULTURALLY1 PSY*OLOGICALLY1 & 9TELLECTUALLY4 ,FROM ! SIXTE5? C5TURY ONW>D1 ,EUROPEANS LIV$ 9 A /ATE ( *RONIC *ANGE & UPHEAVAL 9 ALL !SE RESPECTS--ESPECIALLY PEASANTS1 9DEP5D5T F>M]S1 >TISANS1 LABOR]S1 &1 LAT]1 FACTORY WORK]S4 ,FROM ! ,5GLI% ,REVOLUTION ( ! #a#f#dS TO ! ,SPANI% ,REVOLUTION ( ! MID#a#i#cS1 :AT /&S \T V]Y /RIK+LY 9 REVOLUTION>Y UPSURGES IS ?AT !Y OCCURR$ DUR+ P]IODS ( SWEEP+ SOCIAL TRANSITION FROM AGR>IAN TO 9DU/RIAL CULTURE4 ,M5 & WOM5 FROM SMALL VILLAGES SUDD5LY F\ND !MSELVES LIV+ 9 URBAN & LAT] L>GE 9DU/RIAL COMMUNITIES1 F> REMOV$ FROM ! NATURAL RHY?MS1 EXT5D$ FAMILIES1 COMMUNAL SUPPORT SY/EMS1 & TIMEHONOR$ TRADITIONS ( RURAL LIFE4 

,BUT EV5 :5 AN EM]G+ CAPITALI/ ECONOMY BEGAN TO ASSAIL !IR VALUES1 PEOPLE /ILL FELT !MSELVES P>T ( A TRADITIONAL COMMUNITY4 ,AS !Y MOV$ 9TO CITIES1 VILLAG]S BR\<T ) !M !IR OLD COMMUNAL NETWORKS & ATTITUDES BAS$ ON ! 9TIMACIES ( VILLAGE LIFE1 :ILE AMONG CITY-DWELL+ >TISANS ! TRADITIONAL NETWORKS ( ! M$IEVAL GUILDS HAD NOT YET DISAPPE>$ COMPLETELY4 ,! *RONIC RIOTS & SMALL-SCALE 9SURRECTIONS ?AT EXPLOD$ REPEAT$LY ?R\<\T ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY W]E MORE R$OL5T ( ! LIMIT$ PEASANT JACQU]IES ( ! LATE ,MIDDLE ,AGES--ALBEIT N[ C>RI$ BY NEW MIGRANTS FROM ! C\NTRYSIDE 9TO T[NS1 NEI<BORHOODS1 & CITIES--?AN ( ! GREAT REVOLUTIONS 9TO :I* !SE UPRIS+S EV5TUALLY FL[$4 ,EV5 BE=E ! GREAT REVOLUTIONS1 9 EFFECT1 !RE EXI/$ A SPIRIT ( REBELLION1 A CULTURE ( RADICAL POLITICAL LIFE1 & AN ONGO+ PROCESS ( EX]CIS+ DIRECT ACTION ?AT EV5TUALLY L$ TO SWEEP+ REVOLUTION>Y *ANGE4 ,9SURRECTION>Y TOCS9S1 OR AL>M BELLS1 S\ND$ REPEAT$LY OV] SEV]AL G5]ATIONS ( RE/LESS SLUM-DWELL]S BE=E !Y GAVE RISE TO GREAT SOCIAL UPHEAVALS SU* AS ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION4 

,MO/ ( ! WORK+ PEOPLE ( ! REVOLUTION>Y ]A W]E PEASANT 9 ORIG9 OR W]E REMOV$ BY ONLY ONE G5]ATION FROM VILLAGE SOCIETY4 ,CAU<T 9 AN 9CREAS+LY ATOMIZ$ & SYN!TIC WORLD1 RU?LESSLY EXPLOIT$ & LACK+ ! BASIC MEANS ( LIFE1 !SE PEOPLE W]E CONFRONT$ DAILY BY />K CULTURAL CONTRA/S4 ,CULTURALLY DISLOCAT$ & PSY*OLOGICALLY AT ODDS ) 9DU/RIAL =MS ( LIFE1 !Y W]E HI<LY SUSCEPTIBLE TO REBELLION--& ULTIMATELY REVOLUTION4 ,CAPITALISM1 9 EFFECT1 HAD NOT FULLY P5ETRAT$ 9TO !IR LIVES OR UND]M9$ !IR S5SE ( 9DEP5D5CE4 ,IT WAS ?IS K9D ( 0PROLET>IAT10 A CLASS ) ONE FOOT 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE & ANO!R 9 ! CITY1 ?AT TURN$ TO REVOLUTION1 IF ONLY TO RECOV] A S5SE ( SOCIAL ROOT$NESS1 COH]5CE1 & MEAN+ ?AT WAS 9CREAS+LY D5I$ TO !M 9 ! DISMAL %OPS & CONGE/$ NEI<BORHOODS ( ! SEV5TE5? & EI<TE5? C5TURIES4 

,! WORK]S :O F\ND !MSELVES CAU<T UP 9 ! TRANSITION BETWE5 A BASICALLY RURAL ECONOMY1 AN URBAN ECONOMY1 & LAT] A GR[+ 9DU/RIAL ONE W]E IMBU$ ) EXCEPTIONAL QUALITIES4 ,?OSE FOLL[+ ! TRADITIONAL TIMEHONOR$ CRAFTS1 SU* AS PR9T]S1 BLACKSMI?S1 JEWEL]S1 :EELWRI<TS1 & 9DEP5D5T F>M]S1 W]E (T5 EXPRESSIVE 9DIVIDUALS ) /RONGLY ET*$ P]SONALITIES4 ,!Y W]E FILL$ ) A DEEP S5SE ( !IR [N COMPET5CE & SELF-WOR?4 ,DAILY READ+S ( ! ,BIBLE 9 ! TRADITIONAL FAMILY GAVE >TISANS & YEOM5 F>M]S A REM>KABLE DEGREE ( LIT]ACY4 ,! LETT]S ( A YEOMAN F>M] SU* AS ! ,AM]ICAN ABOLITIONI/ ,JOHN ,BR[N REVEAL H[ ELOQU5T & KN[L$GEABLE ! >TISAN-F>M] & ! >TISAN G5]ALLY 9 PRECAPITALI/ SOCIETIES C\LD BE4 

,! ,P>ISIANS :O RAIS$ B>RICADES 9 ! S]IES ( REVOLUTIONS UP TO ! ,COMMUNE ( #a#h#g#a--:AT HAS LOOSELY BE5 CALL$ ! 0,P>ISIAN PROLET>IAT0-- W]E PRIM>ILY CRAFT WORK]S :O1 H[EV] URBANIZ$1 /ILL RETA9$ !SE P]SONAL QUALITIES4 ,9DE$1 IT WAS PRECISELY ?IS K9D ( WORK+ CLASS & ! LEAD]S IT PRODUC$ ?AT MADE ! ,FR5* CAPITAL ! C5T] ( ,EUROPEAN REVOLUTIONS = ! GREAT] P>T ( A C5TURY4 ,IF ! ,P>ISIAN >TISAN HAD ONE FOOT 9 A TRADITIONAL1 L>GELY SMALL-T[N PA/ & ! O!R 9 A HI<LY URBAN FUTURE1 ! ,RUSSIAN WORK] ON ! EVE ( #aiag HAD ONE FOOT 9 ! PEASANT VILLAGE & ! O!R 9 AN 9DU/RIAL PRES5T4 ,A V]Y L>GE NUMB] ( ! ,PETROGRAD WORK]S W]E NEWLY >RIV$ FROM ! C\NTRYSIDE & EV5 RETA9$ L& ALLOTM5TS1 TO :I* !Y C\LD RETURN & BECOME PEASANTS AGA9 IF ! NE$ >OSE4 ,9DE$1 !Y DID RETURN TO !IR VILLAGES 9 L>GE NUMB]S DUR+ ! NE>-FAM9E CONDITIONS ( ! ,RUSSIAN ,CIVIL ,W> BETWE5 #aiah & #a#i#b#a4 ,NOT FULLY CAPTIVE TO 9DU/RIAL R\T9ES & POSSESS$ ( /RONG AGR>IAN SUPPORT SY/EMS UPON :I* !Y C\LD RELY 9 P]IODS ( CRISIS1 !Y W]E MILITANT 9 WAYS ?AT H]$IT>Y PROLET>IANS FULLY IMM]S$ 9 MOD]N B\RGEOIS SOCIETY >E LESS LIKELY TO BE4 ,9 NEI!R ,P>IS NOR ,PETROGRAD DID WORK]S TAKE CAPITALI/ SOCIETY = GRANT$ AS A 0NATURAL0 OR PR$ET]M9$ SOCIAL ORD]2 9DE$1 ! %>P CONTRA/S BETWE5 PRECAPITALI/ & CAPITALI/ CULTURES EXAC]BAT$ DEEP-SEAT$ CLASS & SOCIAL DIFF]5CES TO A PO9T :]E EXPLOSIVE HATR$ ( ! EM]G+ 9DU/RIAL SOCIETY REA*$ REVOLUTION>Y PROPORTIONS4 

,REVOLUTION IS CREAT$ NOT BY A NONDESCRIPT BODY ( PEOPLE CALL$ 0! MASSES10 H[EV] MU* ,I AM OBLIG$ TO USE ?IS T]M4 ,C]TA9LY1 ! FUEL ?AT /OK$ FIRES 9TO BLAZES WAS A M9ORITY ( MILITANTS :O CAME FROM SUPPRESS$ /RATA &1 V]Y SIGNIFICANTLY1 A RADICAL 9TELLIG5TSIA4 ,A TIME-HONOR$ /RATUM ?AT DATES BACK TO ! P]IPATETIC ,GREEK PHILOSOPH]S1 ! 9TELLIG5TSIA W]E ORGANIZ]S ( V>I\S DISSID5T GR\PS & CIRCLES1 SOCIAL CRITICS1 S[]S ( D\BT1 PUBLICI/S1 & OCCASIONALLY P[]FUL !ORI/S4 ,!Y FURNI%$ ! REVOLUTIONS ) 9VALUABLE !ORETICAL 9SI<TS1 A S5SE ( DIRECTION1 A CRITICAL ?RU/1 & CONSID]ABLE CREATIVITY4 ,BY AN 09TELLIG5TSIA0--A ,RUSSIAN WORD1 LET IT BE NOT$-- ,I AM SPEAK+ NOT ( :AT WE CALL 09TELLECTUALS0 TODAY :O >E WELL 5SCONC$ 9 UNIV]SITIES1 BUT A FOOTLOOSE NETWORK ( WRIT]S1 >TI/S1 POETS1 & PR(ESSIONALS ( ALL SORTS1 EV5 ACTORS 7:O =M$ AN EXCEPTIONALLY CLOSE & VISIBLE COMMUNITY 9 CITIES SU* AS ,P>IS DUR+ ! EI<TE5? & N9ETE5? C5TURIES74 ,!IR ABSORPTION 9 REC5T YE>S 9TO ! MOD]N UNIV]SITY SY/EM1 ) ITS MANY EMOLUM5TS1 HAS BE5 ONE ( ! MO/ CO/LY BL[S TO ! DEVELOPM5T ( PRES5T-DAY REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5TS4 

,REVOLUTION ALSO NE$S A VISIBLE T>GET1 A SOCIAL 5EMY1 :OSE BEHAVIOR 9 SOME S5SE PROVOKES POPUL> ACTION4 ,MO/ REVOLUTIONS1 9 FACT1 BEG9 AS DEF5SIVE ACTIONS AGA9/ ATTEMPTS BY RUL+ ELITES TO SUPPRESS AN EM]G+ POPUL> MOVEM5T4 ,P>ISIANS ATTACK$ ! ,BA/ILLE ON ,JULY #a#d1 #a#g#h#i1 BECAUSE !Y BELIEV$ ! K+ WAS COLLECT+ TROOPS NE> ,P>IS TO SEIZE ! CAPITAL & SUPPRESS SOCIAL UNRE/4 ,9 ! ,OCTOB] ,REVOLUTION ( #a#i#a#g1 ! ,BOL%EVIKS 9ITIALLY DISPOSSESS$ ! LIB]AL ,K]5SKY REGIME 9 ,PETROGRAD BECAUSE ! GOV]NM5T FATU\SLY CLOS$ !IR PRESS1 AL?\<1 AS WAS EVID5T TO EV]YONE 9 ! ,RUSSIAN CAPITAL1 !Y HAD ALREADY BE5 C>EFULLY PLANN+ AN 9SURRECTION AGA9/ ! PROVISIONAL GOV]NM5T4 

,!RE IS NO D\BT ?AT ! V>I\S RUL+ ELITES :OM ! POPUL> REVOLUTIONS OV]?REW & REPLAC$ W]E HI<LY VISIBLE TO ! POPULACE4 ,BUT !Y W]E VISIBLE 9 A V]Y SPECIAL WAY4 ,AS ! PEOPLE MOV$ T[>D REVOLUTION1 (T5 AFT] A S]IES ( ABORT$ LOCAL UPRIS+S1 ! RUL+ ELITES MADE IT V]Y CLE> ?AT !IR REGIMES W]E 9 A DEEP-SEAT$ CRISIS4 ,IT WAS NOT ONLY ! POPULACE ?AT LO/ CONFID5CE 9 ! EXI/+ ORD]2 !IR [N MA/]S EXHIBIT$ A VISIBLE FAILURE ( N]VE4 ,:ILE ! 9CIPI5T REVOLUTION>Y =CES BECAME MORE & MORE UNIT$1 ! RUL+ ELITES BECAME MORE & MORE DIVID$4 ,?AT ! E/ABLI%$ ORD] WAS BREAK+ D[N BECAME APP>5T TO ALL1 BO? ABOVE & BEL[1 & ONLY ! MO/ 9FLEXIBLE ELEM5TS ( ! OLD SOCIETY OPPOS$ ! TRANSP>5T NE$ = *ANGE4 ,9DE$1 9 ,FRANCE1 MANY ELEM5TS ( ! NOBILITY PATRONIZ$ ! GREAT ,5LI<T5]S :O CREAT$ ! 9TELLECTUAL & MORAL ATMOSPH]E ( ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 :ILE 9 TURN-(-!-C5TURY ,RUSSIA1 9DIVIDUAL NOBLES & M]*ANTS (T5 GAVE L>GE SUMS ( MONEY TO REVOLUTION>Y ORGANIZATIONS4 

,IT WAS ! EXT5T TO :I* ! ELITES RESI/$ *ANGE ?AT (T5 DET]M9$ H[ F>-REA*+ A REVOLUTION W\LD BE1 H[ RADICAL ! POPUL> MOVEM5T W\LD BECOME1 & H[ LONG IT W\LD LA/4 ,S9CE C]TA9 RUL+ /RATA :O FAVOR$ ! /ATUS QUO PUT UP 9T5SE1 (T5 UN?9K+1 RESI/ANCE TO EV5 M9IMAL RE=MS1 MANY ( ! GREAT REVOLUTIONS W5T ON = YE>S1 IF ONE 9CLUDES NOT ONLY ! 9SURRECTIONS OR J\RRTIES 70DAYS071 AS !Y W]E CALL$ 9 ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 BUT ! CIVIL W>S ?AT FOLL[$ !M4 ,9DE$1 IT IS QUE/IONABLE :E!R ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION REALLY 5D$ ) ! OV]?R[ ( ,JACOB9 RULE 9 #a#g#i#d4 ,MANY ( ! SAME SOCIAL =CES EXI/$ & CLA%$ ) EA* O!R P]SI/5TLY 9 REPEAT$ 9SURRECTIONS UP TO #a#h#g#a1 SO ?AT WE CAN SPEAK ( A UNIQUELY ,FR5* REVOLUTION>Y ]A ?AT EXI/$ = NE>LY A C5TURY4 ,! ,5GLI% ,REVOLUTION SPANN$ A P]IOD ( AT LEA/ F\R YE>S & CONT9U$ = NE>LY TWO DECADES IF WE 9CLUDE ,CROMWELL'S ,PROTECTORATE4 ,! ,AM]ICAN ,REVOLUTION LA/$ ALMO/ ?REE DECADES IF WE DATE ! REVOLUTION>Y P]IOD AS />T+ ) ! BEG9N+S ( DISS5T 9 ! E>LY #a#g#fS & 5D+ ) ! ADOPTION ( ! ,CON/ITUTION BY ! /ATES 9 #a#g#h#i4 ,EV5 IF WE *OOSE TO DATE ! />T ( ! ,RUSSIAN ,REVOLUTION AT #aiag RA!R ?AN ! ABORT$ REVOLUTION ( #a#i#e1 ! REVOLUTION CONT9U$ = F\R YE>S BE=E IT WAS SUPPRESS$ ) ! CRU%+ ( ! ,KRON/ADT COMMUNE ( #a#i#b#a4 ,ALL ( !SE REVOLUTIONS1 IF !Y W]E NOT CRU%$ AT ! \TSET1 W]E M>K$ BY AN 9T]NAL LOGIC ( EV5TS ?AT SL[LY WORK$ ITS WAY ?R\< PREC>I\S P]IODS ( UNC]TA9TY1 P>TIAL VICTORIES = ! MASSES1 & EV5TUALLY DEFEATS ( ! POPUL> MOVEM5TS TO ONE DEGREE OR ANO!R4 ,AL?\< EA* ( !SE DEVELOPM5TS WAS DIFF]5T 9 MANY SPECIFICS1 MO/ ( !M W]E A/ONI%+LY SIMIL> 9 !IR G5]AL \TL9ES4 

,IT IS V]Y MU* MY TASK1 IF POSSIBLE1 TO ACC\NT = ?IS SIMIL>ITY 9 ! G5]AL \TL9ES ( C]TA9 MAJOR REVOLUTIONS1 EV5 AS ,I EXAM9E REM>KABLE =MS ( FRE$OM ?AT ! SPECIFIC POPUL> MOVEM5TS CREAT$ ?R\<\T ! REVOLUTIONS4 ,AS ,I HAVE ALREADY SUGGE/$1 AFT] ! FALL ( ! JACOB9S 9 #agid ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION BECAME ! 0MODEL0 ON :I* O!R REVOLUTIONS BAS$ !IR VISIONS ( SOCIAL *ANGE4 ,! SEQU5CE ( EV5TS ( ! ,RUSSIAN ,REVOLUTION CLOSELY RESEMBLES ?AT ( ! ,FR5*1 ALBEIT 9 A TELESCOP$ =M4 ,?AT LEAD]S ( ALL ,RUSSIAN REVOLUTION>Y T5D5CIES1 FROM ,M>XI/S LIKE ,L59 TO AN>*I/S LIKE ,PET] ,KROPOTK91 W]E /EEP$ 9 ! HI/ORY ( ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 H[EV]1 DOES NOT 9 ITSELF EXPLA9 !SE SIMIL>ITIES2 NOR DOES ! EXI/5CE ( ECONOMIC COMMONALITIES LIKE ! PEASANT MAJORITIES 9 BO? C\NTRIES1 ! HI<LY RADICALIZ$ URBAN POPULATIONS1 & ! EM]G5CE ( RESOLUTE1 C5TRALIZ$ VANGU>D P>TIES4 

,MY PO9T 9 SAY+ ?IS IS ?AT BO? REVOLUTIONS W]E GUID$ NOT ONLY BY SIMIL> ECONOMIC CONDITIONS1 BUT ALSO BY A COMPELL+ POLITICAL GOAL--NAMELY1 A POPUL> DESIRE = FRE$OM4 ,!SE REVOLUTIONS CONTA9$ AN EM95TLY MORAL1 NOT ONLY ECONOMIC1 DIM5SION4 ,AS WELL AS BE+ MOTIVAT$ BY ! V]Y REAL ECONOMIC 9T]E/S1 SU* AS L& HUNG]1 ?AT PLAY$ SO DECISIVE A ROLE 9 BO? REVOLUTIONS1 ! ,FR5* & ,RUSSIAN PEASANTRIES W]E POSSESS$ BY A PASSIONATE1 ALMO/ MILL5>IAN1 DESIRE = A NEW1 JU/1 & FREE WAY ( LIFE4 ,! M>VEL1 & ! TRAG$Y1 ( ! CLASSICAL REVOLUTIONS DUR+ ! #a#f#dS 9 ,5GL& & ! #a#i#cS 9 ,SPA9 IS ?AT !Y W]E FUEL$ BY A DEEP-SEAT$ DESIRE = POPUL> SOV]EIGNTY :I* ! REVOLUTION>Y LEAD]S & !IR NATION-/ATE TYPE ( ORGANIZATIONS SY/EMATICALLY UND]M9$4 

,I HAVE OMITT$ FROM ?IS BOOK ANY ACC\NT ( ! 0,?IRD ,WORLD0 REVOLUTIONS ?AT HAVE OCCURR$ S9CE ! ,SECOND ,WORLD ,W>4 ,AL?\< SPACE LIMITATIONS ALONE W\LD NECESS>ILY RE/RICT ME TO REVOLUTIONS 9 ,EUROPE 7& ,NOR? ,AM]ICA7 ! 0,?IRD ,WORLD0 REVOLUTIONS HAVE BE5 & /ILL >E DIFF]5T 9 SIGNIFICANT RESPECTS FROM ! ,EUROPEAN REVOLUTIONS4 ,= ONE ?+1 ! ,EUROPEAN REVOLUTIONS1 EV5 ! ,AM]ICAN1 EM]G$ FROM ALREADY =M$ NATION-/ATES1 (T5 ABSOLUTI/ MON>*IES2 ! 0,?IRD ,WORLD0 REVOLUTIONS >E ATTEMPTS TO =M NATION-/ATES1 TO GA9 A S5SE ( NATIONAL ID5TITY AFT] LONG P]IODS ( COLONIAL RULE4 ,MOREOV]1 ! ,EUROPEAN REVOLUTIONS1 DESPITE !IR 9DISP5SABLE AGR>IAN UPSWELLS1 W]E PRIM>ILY C5T]$ 9 CITIES1 SU* AS ,LONDON1 ,BO/ON1 ,P>IS1 ,PETROGRAD1 & ,B>CELONA4 ,! 0,?IRD ,WORLD0 REVOLUTIONS1 BY CONTRA/1 HAVE BE5 F\<T \T PRIM>ILY 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE 7AL?\< ,*9A 9 ! #a#i#bS =MS AN 9T]E/+ EXCEPTION74 

,! ,EUROPEAN REVOLUTIONS1 9 FACT1 SPOKE = OPPRESS$ HUMANITY AS A :OLE1 & ! BREAD? ( !IR GOALS HAS BE5 UNEQUAL$ BY REVOLUTIONS 9 O!R P>TS ( ! WORLD4 ,!Y NOT ONLY RAIS$ MAJOR POLITICAL ISSUES SU* AS REPUBLICANISM & DEMOCRACY1 BUT HAD V]Y P[]FUL 9T]NATIONAL & IDEOLOGICAL EFFECTS UPON ! DEVELOPM5T ( ,EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION = OV] ?REE C5TURIES4 ,9DE$1 !Y W]E IMPORTANT IDEOLOGICAL1 CULTURAL1 & ECONOMIC TURN+ PO9TS 9 WORLD HI/ORY G5]ALLY4 ,!IR GREAT DECL>ATIONS1 *>T]S1 & MANIFE/OS APPEAL$ TO ALL ( HUMANITY 9 SUPPORT ( UNIV]SAL HUMAN RI<TS & FRE$OM1 (T5 TRANSC5D+ NATIONAL CONSID]ATIONS4 

,! 0,?IRD ,WORLD0 REVOLUTIONS1 BY CONTRA/1 UND]/&ABLY T5D$ TO BE DEEPLY SELF-ORI5T$1 & !IR IDEOLOGICAL IMPACT UPON ! WORLD HAS BE5 V]Y LIMIT$4 ,A ?RU/ T[>D DEMOCRACY & POPUL> DEM&S = LOCAL RI<TS AT ! EXP5SE ( ! NATION-/ATE >E NOT CONSPICU\S FEATURES ( !SE UPSURGES4 ,!Y >E L>GELY NATIONAL /RUGGLES AGA9/ IMP]IALISM 9 :I* COLONIZ$ PEOPLES SEEK TO DEF9E !IR ID5TITY & A*IEVE NATIONAL 9DEP5D5CE4 ,DESPITE ! POPUL>ITY ( ,MAOI/ DOCTR9ES 9 ! #a#i#fS1 ! ,*9ESE ,COMMUNI/ REVOLUTION WAS AN 9SURRECTION>Y V>IANT ( ,L59ISM1 & AFT] ,MAO'S DEA? IT BEGAN TO LOSE ITS HOLD EV5 9 ,*9A ITSELF4 ,NEI!R ,CA/RO'S REVOLUTION 9 ,CUBA NOR ! ,S&9I/AS' 9 ,NIC>AGUA PRODUC$ MAJOR IDEOLOGICAL *ANGES 9 ! WORLD1 DESPITE ! IMPACT !IR UPRIS+S HAD ON ,LAT9 ,AM]ICA4 ,9DE$1 !IR ECLIPSE BY MOVEM5TS LIKE ! ,%9+ ,PA? 9 ,P]U & !IR 9CREAS+ CLI5TAGE TO ,EURO-,AM]ICAN P[]S REVEAL ?AT !IR IMPACT ON SOCIAL DEVELOPM5T G5]ALLY IS MORE LIMIT$ ?AN #a#i#fS RADICALS 9 ! ,WE/ C\LD HAVE ANTICIPAT$ 9 !IR DAY4 

,! POSSIBLE *>GE ?AT ,I AM 0,EUROC5TRIC',TEAVES ME S+UL>LY UNTR\BL$4 ,! FACT IS ?AT ! AU!NTIC C5T] ( ! REVOLUTION>Y ]A WAS ! ,EUROPEAN CONT95T1 9CLUD+ ,RUSSIA1 & ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES 7:OSE REVOLUTION BELONGS V]Y MU* 9 ! ,EUROPEAN TRADITION74 ,TO ! EXT5T ?AT REVOLUTIONS 9 ! 0,?IRD ,WORLD0 HAD C]TA9 UNIV]SAL FEATURES & S\<T OR PR(ESS$ TO E/ABLI% A RADICALLY NEW SOCIAL DISP5SATION = HUMANITY AS A :OLE1 !Y EMULAT$ ! GREAT ,EUROPEAN REVOLUTIONS DISCUSS$ 9 ?IS BOOK4 ,!IR NATIONALI/IC & ANTI-IMP]IALI/IC ASPECTS MAY BE UND]/&ABLE 9 ! CONTEXT 9 :I* !Y OCCURR$2 BUT !SE REVOLUTIONS %\LD NOT BE MY/IFI$1 NOR %\LD !IR JU/IFIABLE CLAIMS TO FRE$OM FROM IMP]IALISM BE VIEW$ AS COMP>ABLE TO ! UNIV]SAL APPEALS TO HUMANITY ?AT M>K$ ! GREAT REVOLUTIONS ?AT OCCURR$ 9 ,EUROPE4 

,SIGNIFICANTLY1 EA* ( ! CLASSICAL REVOLUTIONS FOLL[$ ! O!RS T[>D A MORE RADICALLY SOPHI/ICAT$ HI/ORICAL LEVEL 9 :I* AN ALMO/ UTOPIAN 9T]NATIONALI/ \TLOOK & A BROAD] DEF9ITION ( FRE$OM SUP]S$$ ANY E>LI] NATIONALI/IC OR 0PATRIOTIC0 CLAIMS4 ,9DE$1 ! ,SPANI% ,REVOLUTION ( #a#i#c#f-#c#i *ALL5G$ EV5 DOME/IC HI]>*IES AS WELL AS CLASSES1 (T5 ASSUM+ AN EXPLICITLY LIB]T>IAN =M4 ,BY CONTRA/1 EI!R ! 0,?IRD ,WORLD0 REVOLUTIONS DEVOLV$ 9TO E/ABLI%$ NATION-/ATES ORI5T$ T[>D 9DU/RIALIZATION1 OR !IR IDEOLOGIES L+]$ ON MA9LY AS E*OES ( ! OLD] ,EUROPEAN REVOLUTIONS4 ,! REVOLUTIONS ?AT HELP$ =M NEW NATION-/ATES 9 ,9DIA1 ,*9A1 ,S\!A/ ,ASIA1 ,AFRICA1 & ,C5TRAL ,AM]ICA HAVE LITTLE ( ! 9T]NATIONALI/ *>ACT] ?AT M>K$ ! ,FR5* & ,RUSSIAN REVOLUTIONS4 ,EV5 ! ,AM]ICAN ,REVOLUTION SAW ITSELF AS A UTOPIAN BEACON TO AN OPPRESS$ WORLD1 DESPITE ATTEMPTS BY MANY RADICAL HI/ORIANS TO R$UCE IT TO A M]E 0W> = 9DEP5D5CE40 

,IT IS MY HOPE ?AT ?IS BOOK WILL REVIVE ! FLAGG+ 9T]E/ 9 ! GREAT REVOLUTIONS ?AT SO PR(\NDLY %AP$ MOD]N HI/ORY & 5C\RAGE ! READ] TO EXAM9E ! DYNAMICS ( ! CLASSICAL ,WE/]N REVOLUTIONS FROM ! /&PO9T ( MOVEM5TS FROM BEL[3 ! 9/ITUTIONAL =MS ?AT REVOLUTION>Y PEOPLES & !IR LEAD]S DEVELOP$ TO MANAGE SOCIETY & !IR 9T]ACTION ) ! REVOLUTION>Y P>TIES ?AT PR(ESS$ TO LEAD ! PEOPLE OR C]TA9 OPPRESS$ /RATA4 ,I WI% TO EXPLORE ! PROBLEMS ?AT ?IS 9T]ACTION PRODUC$1 ! LESSONS WE CAN LE>N1 & ! V>I\S !ORIES ?AT CLU/] >\ND ! NATURE & TRAJECTORY ( ! GREAT REVOLUTIONS !MSELVES4 ,!ORY WILL CLOSELY 9T]M+LE ) N>RATIVE1 & G5]ALIZATIONS ) SPECIFIC FACTS4 

,I W\LD LIKE NOT ONLY TO EVOKE ! ]A ( ! GREAT REVOLUTIONS 9 AN ADMITT$LY 9T]PRETIVE WAY--!IR LIMITS & POSSIBILITIES--BUT TO CONVEY ! ESPRIT R@&VOLUTIOTMAIRE ?AT EXI/$ NOT ONLY DUR+ ! HI< PO9TS ( ! REVOLUTIONS !MSELVES BUT ?R\<\T ! REVOLUTION>Y ]A1 EV5 9 P]IODS ( RELATIVE QUIESC5CE4 ,I WILL ASK :AT IT MEANS TO BE A REVOLUTION>Y1 NOT M]ELY A 0RADICAL0 OR A 0PROGRESSIVE10 TO USE WORDS V]Y MU* 9 VOGUE TODAY4 ,9 VIEW ( ! FACT ?AT1 9 #a#i#h#i1 ! BIC5T5NIAL ( ! ,GREAT ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION WAS CELEBRAT$ MORE AS A PATRIOTIC EX]CISE ?AN AS AN EVOCATION ( ! GREAT WORLD-9SPIR+ REVOLUTION IT WAS1 ?IS TASK SEEMS P>TICUL>LY NECESS>Y TODAY4 ,I WI% TO LIFT1 AS BE/ ,I CAN1 ! *AUV9I/IC CL\DS ?AT OBSCURE ! HOPES ?AT ! GREAT REVOLUTIONS PRODUC$ 9 ! HE>TS ( ALL 5LI<T5$ HUMAN BE+S1 & ! IDEOLOGIES ?AT HAVE 9FLU5C$ !M OV] ! GREAT] P>T ( TWO C5TURIES4 

,AT ?IS TIME ( WRIT+ AN E]IE C\NT]-,5LI<T5M5T IS P]COLAT+ ?R\< ,WE/]N CULTURE1 ONE ?AT CELEBRATES EGOC5TRICITY AT ! EXP5SE ( SOCIAL COMMITM5T1 MY/ICISM AT ! EXP5SE ( NATURALISM1 9TUITIONISM AT ! EXP5SE ( RATIONALISM1 ATAVISM AT ! EXP5SE ( CIVILIZATION1 A PASSIVE-RECEPTIVE M5TALITY AT ! EXP5SE ( A MILITANT1 ACTIVI/ ONE1 & AN 5]VAT+ RELIGIOSITY AT ! EXP5SE ( A CRITICAL SECUL>ITY4 ,AS CAPITALISM EXP&S TO GLOBAL PROPORTIONS1 A M$IA-OR*E/RAT$ B>B>ISM IS PU%+ ! MOD]N HUMAN SPIRIT BACK 9TO AN ABSURD C>ICATURE ( M$IEVALISM--ALMO/ C5TURIES REMOV$ 9 SPIRIT & \TLOOK FROM ! REVOLUTION>Y ]A ?AT GAVE BIR? TO MOD]N IDEALS ( FRE$OM4 ,:E!R ?IS M>KS A DEF9ITIVE 5D ( ! REVOLUTION>Y ]A & ! ,5LI<T5M5T ?AT N\RI%$ IT1 ,I DO NOT KN[4 ,:AT ,I DO KN[ IS ?AT ,I1 = ONE1 DO NOT WANT TO BE P>T ( A HI/ORICAL P]IOD ?AT LACKS A REVOLUTION>Y SPIRIT TO GIVE MEAN+ TO LIFE4 ,?IS BOOK IS 9T5D$ TO EVOKE ?AT SPIRIT &1 IF POSSIBLE1 TO MAKE IT RELEVANT TO \R TIME4 

,NEV]!LESS1 ! F]VOR ( ! POPUL> MOVEM5T 9 REVOLUTION>Y SITUATIONS (T5 OV]RODE ECONOMIC CONSID]ATIONS1 AT LEA/ = A TIME4 ,! TRU? ( ,ROBESPI]RE'S ASSESSM5T IS DIFFICULT = HI/ORIANS TODAY TO E/ABLI%4 ,SECTION MEET+S ?AT ADDRESS$ V]Y IMPORTANT ISSUES G5]ALLY ATTRACT$ HUGE CR[DS1 ESPECIALLY DUR+ P]IODS ( HEI<T5$ RADICAL F]VOR & ACTIVITY4 ,O!RWISE !Y T5D$ TO BE V]Y SMALL1 PROBABLY 9 L>GE P>T BECAUSE ( ! LONG WORK+ H\RS ?AT PREVAIL$ AT ! TIME4 

,NOR W]E ! SANS-CULOTTE LEAD]S :O PU%$ ! REVOLUTION 9 A DEMOCRATIC DIRECTION C]TA9 ?AT ! RE/ ( ,FRANCE WAS BEH9D !M4 ,9 FACT1 ! RADICAL DEM&S ( ! ,P>ISIAN REVOLUTION>IES 9CREAS+LY ALI5AT$ ! PEASANTRY 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE & ! MORE WELL-TO-DO SECTORS ( ,FR5* SOCIETY4 ,SO1 TOO1 DID ! ,BOL%EVIKS 9 REVOLUTION>Y ,PETROGRAD HAVE CAUSE TO D\BT ?AT ,RUSSIA WAS BEH9D !M1 AL?\< !Y GA9$ A CONSID]ABLE $GE OV] !IR POLITICAL OPPON5TS BY !IR WILL+NESS TO ADDRESS PEASANT L& HUNG] & ! W> WE>9ESS ( ! SOLDI]S4 ,IP ! 5D1 H[EV]1 ONLY ! PROSPECT ( A MAT]IALLY COM=TABLE LIFE ) M9IMAL TOIL = ! PEOPLE AT L>GE C\LD ULTIMATELY HAVE LAID ! LA/+ BASIS = A FREE1 DEMOCRATIC1 & RATIONAL SOCIETY4 

,[+ TO ! LIMIT$ EXT5T TO :I* MOVEM5TS 9 ! CLASSICAL REVOLUTIONS ADDRESS$ RADICAL ECONOMIC ISSUES1 !Y W]E NOT 9 FACT MAJORIT>IAN REVOLUTIONS4 ,! HEADY *ANGES ?AT 9ITIAT$ MO/ ( ! GREAT REVOLUTIONS 9ITIALLY RESULT$ FROM A SPIRIT ( REJECTION RA!R ?AN AFFIRMATION4 ,H[EV] EAG] ! POPUL> MOVEM5T WAS TO E/ABLI% DEMOCRACY1 ITS IDEAS ( PRECISELY H[ SOCIETY W\LD FUNCTION ECONOMICALLY W]E V]Y AMBIGU\S4 ,?AT HI<LY DISP>ATE ELEM5TS 9 SOCIETY C\LD UNITE >\ND ! ABOLITION ( AN >BITR>Y MON>*Y 9 ,FRANCE OR CZ>I/ DESPOTISM 9 ,RUSSIA %\LD NOT BE SURPRIS+4 ,BUT AS SOON AS O!R ISSUES W]E RAIS$--SU* AS ! R$I/RIBUTION ( L&1 *ALL5GES TO WEAL? & PR(ITE]+1 & ! MAT]IAL NE$S ( ! UND]PRIVILEG$--! REVOLUTION>Y PROCESS BEGAN TO DIV]GE 9 MANY DIRECTIONS4 ,NE$LESS TO EMPHASIZE1 AS 9CREAS+LY RADICAL DEM&S1 P>TICUL>LY ) RESPECT TO PROP]TY1 BEGAN TO COMM& PUBLIC ATT5TION1 V>I\S PRIVILEG$ LAY]S ( SOCIETY TURN$ AGA9/ ! REVOLUTION>Y PROCESS4 

,AS ?IS JUNCTURE WAS REA*$1 ! REVOLUTION>Y NATION-/ATE & ITS P>TIES CONFLICT$ 9CREAS+LY ) ! COMMUNAL /RUCTURES ( ! PEOPLE4 ,SU* JUNCTURES HAVE A LONG HI/ORICAL P$IGREE1 9 :I* ! PROP]TYLESS >E PITT$ AGA9/ ! PROP]TI$1 ! POOR AGA9/ ! WEAL?Y1 & POPUL> DEMOCRACY AGA9/ BUREAUCRATIC CONTROL4 ,?IS DRAMA WAS PLAY$ \T 9 ! PEASANT W> 9 ,G]MANY DUR+ ,LU!R'S TIME1 9 ! ,5GLI% & ,AM]ICAN REVOLUTIONS1 & DUR+ ! ,GREAT ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 ! ,P>IS ,COMMUNE ( #a#h#g#a1 ! ,RUSSIAN ,REVOLUTION ( #a#i#a#g-#b#a1 & ! ,SPANI% ,REVOLUTION ( #a#i#c#f-#c#i4 ,ALL ( !SE REVOLUTIONS 9 !IR LAT] /AGES 7EXCEPT ! %ORT-LIV$ ,P>IS ,COMMUNE ( #a#h#g#a7 W]E PU%$ =W>D BY VOLATILE IF UNC]TA9 M9ORITIES1 BO? ?OSE )9 ! POPUL> MOVEM5T ITSELF & SEEM+LY REVOLUTION>Y ADVOCATES ( 9CREAS$ /ATE P[] SU* AS ,OLIV] ,CROMWELL1 ,ALEX&] ,HAMILTON1 ,MAXIMILI5 ,ROBESPI]RE1 & ,V4 ,I4 ,L594 

,!RE >E1 TO BE SURE1 NOTABLE EXCEPTIONS TO ?IS DEVELOPM5T4 ,! ,KRON/ADT SAILORS :O ROSE UP 9 #aiba AGA9/ ! 9CREAS+ AU?ORIT>IANISM ( ! ,BOL%EVIKS PROBABLY SPOKE = MO/ ( ! PEOPLE 9 ,RUSSIA :5 !Y E/ABLI%$ A REVOLUTION>Y 0COMMUNE0 AT !IR NAVAL BASE 9 ! ,GULF ( ,F9L&4 ,BUT BY !N1 ! ,RUSSIAN PEOPLE HAD BECOME EXHAU/$ & P>ALYZ$ POLITICALLY BY ?REE YE>S ( BLOODY CIVIL W>1 FAM9E1 & WIDESPREAD DISILLUSIONM5T4 

,9 :AT S5SE CAN ! GREAT REVOLUTIONS ( ! PA/ BE SE5 AS 0B\RGEOIS DEMOCRATIC0 REVOLUTIONS8 ,K>L ,M>X'S APPROA* ON ?IS SCORE HAS GA9$ SU* WIDESPREAD ACCEPTANCE AMONG RADICAL & EV5 LIB]AL HI/ORIANS ?AT IT MAY SEEM H]ETICAL TO TAKE EXCEPTION TO HIS VIEW ?AT L>GELY ECONOMIC--& NOTABLY B\RGEOIS--9T]E/S W]E ! GUID+ FACTORS4 ,HI/ORIANS G5]ALLY T5D TO DESCRIBE ! ,5GLI%1 ,AM]ICAN1 & ,FR5* ,REVOLUTIONS AS 0B\RGEOISDEMOCRATIC10 AS IF !Y W]E ! WORK ( ! CAPITALI/ CLASS4 ,AS ,I HAVE ALREADY 9DICAT$ 9 MY PREFACE1 ,I PLAN TO TAKE ! POPUL> P>TICIPANTS ( ! GREAT REVOLUTIONS AT !IR WORD RA!R ?AN RETROSPECTIVELY DEAL+ ) !M FROM A PRES5T-DAY P]SPECTIVE4 

,I %ALL HAVE OCCASION TO EXAM9E ! EXT5T TO :I* ! CLASSICAL REVOLUTIONS CAN BE REG>D$ AS B\RGEOIS :5 ,I DEAL ) EA* REVOLUTION 9DIVIDUALLY4 ,9 G5]AL1 ,M>X'S VIEW T5DS TO R5D] ! HI/ORICAL REVOLUTION>Y PROCESS HI<LY FATALI/IC1 OBLIG+ US TO ASSUME ?AT 9 ALL ! GREAT MOVEM5TS = FRE$OM OV] ! PA/ F\R C5TURIES1 !RE WAS NEV] AN ALT]NATIVE TO ! ULTIMATE TRIUMPH ( CAPITALISM--9 MY VIEW1 AN UNACCEPTABLE CASE ( HI/ORICAL TELEOLOGY4 ,WE W\LD BE OBLIG$ TO ASSUME ?AT ! ,G]MAN PEASANTS :O REVOLT$ 9 ! #a#e#bS W]E 0REACTION>IES0 BECAUSE !Y W]E TRY+ TO RETA9 !IR >*AIC VILLAGE LIFE2 ?AT ! ,R\NDHEAD YEOMANRY :O =M$ ,CROMWELL'S ,NEW ,MODEL ,>MY W]E HI/ORICALLY 0DOOM$0 AS A SOCIAL /RATUM BY 9DU/RIAL 9V5TIONS & =MS ( PRODUCTION ?AT HAD YET TO BE DEVELOP$2 ?AT ! RADICAL ,M9UTEM5 F>M]S 9 ! ,AM]ICAN COLONIES 9EVITABLY HAD TO DISAPPE> LIKE !IR ,5GLI% YEOMAN C\S9S2 ?AT ! SANS-CULOTTES :O E/ABLI%$ ! FIR/ ,FR5* REPUBLIC W]E DECLAS/ RIFFRAFF OR M]E 0CONSUM]S10 AS MORE ?AN ONE HI/ORIAN HAS CALL$ !M--& SO ON1 UP TO FAIRLY REC5T TIMES4 

,9 ! ,M>XI/ & LIB]AL VIEW ( !SE REVOLUTIONS1 IT WAS ! BANK]S1 M]*ANTS1 MANUFACTUR]S1 & O!R 5TREPR5EURS--! PR$ATORY M5 :O W]E AMASS+ 5ORM\S WEAL? 9 ! EI<TE5? C5TURY--:O =M$ ! CLASS VANGU>D ( ! GREAT REVOLUTIONS1 PRESUMABLY 9 SPITE ( !MSELVES4 ,LET US AGREE1 FROM ! \TSET1 ?AT ! B\RGEOISIE B5EFIT$ FROM MO/ ( !SE REVOLUTIONS4 ,C]TA9LY1 ! B\RGEOISIE WANT$ 0FREE0 TRADE1 0FREE0 WORK]S1 & ! 0FREE0 PLAY ( EGOTISM1 :I* CAN EASILY BE MUTAT$ 9TO A CRY = 0LIB]TE1 EGALITT1 FRAT]NITY40 ,BUT IF IT IS TRUE ?AT CAPITALISM IS GLOBALLY SUPREME TODAY1 NO CLASS 9 HI/ORY HAS BE5 MORE CRAV51 C[>DLY1 & FE>FUL ( SOCIAL *ANGE 7ESPECIALLY *ANGE 9VOLV+ ! 0D>K PEOPLE10 AS !Y CALL$ ! UND]PRIVILEG$7 ?AN ! 5TREPR5EURS :O PEOPL$ ! COMM]CIAL C5T]S ( ,EUROPE & ,AM]ICA DUR+ ! EI<TE5? C5TURY4 ,AS A CLASS1 ! B\RGEOISIE HAS NEV] BE5 POLITICALLY REVOLUTION>Y1 LET ALONE 9SURG5T4 ,9DE$1 UNTIL REC5T TIMES IT WAS UND]/&ABLY ! OBJECT ( DISDA9 BY NOBLES1 9TELLECTUALS1 & CL]ICS4 ,IT WAS LONG IMBU$ ) A S5SE ( SOCIAL 9F]IORITY & POLITICAL 9EFFECTUALITY--& DES]V$LY SO4 

,IF NOT ! B\RGEOISIE1 :AT SOCIAL /RATA C>RI$ ?R\< !SE REVOLUTIONS8 ,SOCIETIES UND]GO+ 9/ITUTIONAL & ECONOMIC TRANSITION >E BY DEF9ITION UN/ABLE1 NOT ONLY POLITICALLY & ECONOMICALLY BUT ALSO CULTURALLY1 PSY*OLOGICALLY1 & 9TELLECTUALLY4 ,FROM ! SIXTE5? C5TURY ONW>D1 ,EUROPEANS LIV$ 9 A /ATE ( *RONIC *ANGE & UPHEAVAL 9 ALL !SE RESPECTS--ESPECIALLY PEASANTS1 9DEP5D5T F>M]S1 >TISANS1 LABOR]S1 &1 LAT]1 FACTORY WORK]S4 ,FROM ! ,5GLI% ,REVOLUTION ( ! #a#f#dS TO ! ,SPANI% ,REVOLUTION ( ! MID#a#i#cS1 :AT /&S \T V]Y /RIK+LY 9 REVOLUTION>Y UPSURGES IS ?AT !Y OCCURR$ DUR+ P]IODS ( SWEEP+ SOCIAL TRANSITION FROM AGR>IAN TO 9DU/RIAL CULTURE4 ,M5 & WOM5 FROM SMALL VILLAGES SUDD5LY F\ND !MSELVES LIV+ 9 URBAN & LAT] L>GE 9DU/RIAL COMMUNITIES1 F> REMOV$ FROM ! NATURAL RHY?MS1 EXT5D$ FAMILIES1 COMMUNAL SUPPORT SY/EMS1 & TIMEHONOR$ TRADITIONS ( RURAL LIFE4 

,BUT EV5 :5 AN EM]G+ CAPITALI/ ECONOMY BEGAN TO ASSAIL !IR VALUES1 PEOPLE /ILL FELT !MSELVES P>T ( A TRADITIONAL COMMUNITY4 ,AS !Y MOV$ 9TO CITIES1 VILLAG]S BR\<T ) !M !IR OLD COMMUNAL NETWORKS & ATTITUDES BAS$ ON ! 9TIMACIES ( VILLAGE LIFE1 :ILE AMONG CITY-DWELL+ >TISANS ! TRADITIONAL NETWORKS ( ! M$IEVAL GUILDS HAD NOT YET DISAPPE>$ COMPLETELY4 ,! *RONIC RIOTS & SMALL-SCALE 9SURRECTIONS ?AT EXPLOD$ REPEAT$LY ?R\<\T ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY W]E MORE R$OL5T ( ! LIMIT$ PEASANT JACQU]IES ( ! LATE ,MIDDLE ,AGES--ALBEIT N[ C>RI$ BY NEW MIGRANTS FROM ! C\NTRYSIDE 9TO T[NS1 NEI<BORHOODS1 & CITIES--?AN ( ! GREAT REVOLUTIONS 9TO :I* !SE UPRIS+S EV5TUALLY FL[$4 ,EV5 BE=E ! GREAT REVOLUTIONS1 9 EFFECT1 !RE EXI/$ A SPIRIT ( REBELLION1 A CULTURE ( RADICAL POLITICAL LIFE1 & AN ONGO+ PROCESS ( EX]CIS+ DIRECT ACTION ?AT EV5TUALLY L$ TO SWEEP+ REVOLUTION>Y *ANGE4 ,9SURRECTION>Y TOCS9S1 OR AL>M BELLS1 S\ND$ REPEAT$LY OV] SEV]AL G5]ATIONS ( RE/LESS SLUM-DWELL]S BE=E !Y GAVE RISE TO GREAT SOCIAL UPHEAVALS SU* AS ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION4 

,MO/ ( ! WORK+ PEOPLE ( ! REVOLUTION>Y ]A W]E PEASANT 9 ORIG9 OR W]E REMOV$ BY ONLY ONE G5]ATION FROM VILLAGE SOCIETY4 ,CAU<T 9 AN 9CREAS+LY ATOMIZ$ & SYN!TIC WORLD1 RU?LESSLY EXPLOIT$ & LACK+ ! BASIC MEANS ( LIFE1 !SE PEOPLE W]E CONFRONT$ DAILY BY />K CULTURAL CONTRA/S4 ,CULTURALLY DISLOCAT$ & PSY*OLOGICALLY AT ODDS ) 9DU/RIAL =MS ( LIFE1 !Y W]E HI<LY SUSCEPTIBLE TO REBELLION--& ULTIMATELY REVOLUTION4 ,CAPITALISM1 9 EFFECT1 HAD NOT FULLY P5ETRAT$ 9TO !IR LIVES OR UND]M9$ !IR S5SE ( 9DEP5D5CE4 ,IT WAS ?IS K9D ( 0PROLET>IAT10 A CLASS ) ONE FOOT 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE & ANO!R 9 ! CITY1 ?AT TURN$ TO REVOLUTION1 IF ONLY TO RECOV] A S5SE ( SOCIAL ROOT$NESS1 COH]5CE1 & MEAN+ ?AT WAS 9CREAS+LY D5I$ TO !M 9 ! DISMAL %OPS & CONGE/$ NEI<BORHOODS ( ! SEV5TE5? & EI<TE5? C5TURIES4 

,! WORK]S :O F\ND !MSELVES CAU<T UP 9 ! TRANSITION BETWE5 A BASICALLY RURAL ECONOMY1 AN URBAN ECONOMY1 & LAT] A GR[+ 9DU/RIAL ONE W]E IMBU$ ) EXCEPTIONAL QUALITIES4 ,?OSE FOLL[+ ! TRADITIONAL TIMEHONOR$ CRAFTS1 SU* AS PR9T]S1 BLACKSMI?S1 JEWEL]S1 :EELWRI<TS1 & 9DEP5D5T F>M]S1 W]E (T5 EXPRESSIVE 9DIVIDUALS ) /RONGLY ET*$ P]SONALITIES4 ,!Y W]E FILL$ ) A DEEP S5SE ( !IR [N COMPET5CE & SELF-WOR?4 ,DAILY READ+S ( ! ,BIBLE 9 ! TRADITIONAL FAMILY GAVE >TISANS & YEOM5 F>M]S A REM>KABLE DEGREE ( LIT]ACY4 ,! LETT]S ( A YEOMAN F>M] SU* AS ! ,AM]ICAN ABOLITIONI/ ,JOHN ,BR[N REVEAL H[ ELOQU5T & KN[L$GEABLE ! >TISAN-F>M] & ! >TISAN G5]ALLY 9 PRECAPITALI/ SOCIETIES C\LD BE4 

,! ,P>ISIANS :O RAIS$ B>RICADES 9 ! S]IES ( REVOLUTIONS UP TO ! ,COMMUNE ( #a#h#g#a--:AT HAS LOOSELY BE5 CALL$ ! 0,P>ISIAN PROLET>IAT0-- W]E PRIM>ILY CRAFT WORK]S :O1 H[EV] URBANIZ$1 /ILL RETA9$ !SE P]SONAL QUALITIES4 ,9DE$1 IT WAS PRECISELY ?IS K9D ( WORK+ CLASS & ! LEAD]S IT PRODUC$ ?AT MADE ! ,FR5* CAPITAL ! C5T] ( ,EUROPEAN REVOLUTIONS = ! GREAT] P>T ( A C5TURY4 ,IF ! ,P>ISIAN >TISAN HAD ONE FOOT 9 A TRADITIONAL1 L>GELY SMALL-T[N PA/ & ! O!R 9 A HI<LY URBAN FUTURE1 ! ,RUSSIAN WORK] ON ! EVE ( #aiag HAD ONE FOOT 9 ! PEASANT VILLAGE & ! O!R 9 AN 9DU/RIAL PRES5T4 ,A V]Y L>GE NUMB] ( ! ,PETROGRAD WORK]S W]E NEWLY >RIV$ FROM ! C\NTRYSIDE & EV5 RETA9$ L& ALLOTM5TS1 TO :I* !Y C\LD RETURN & BECOME PEASANTS AGA9 IF ! NE$ >OSE4 ,9DE$1 !Y DID RETURN TO !IR VILLAGES 9 L>GE NUMB]S DUR+ ! NE>-FAM9E CONDITIONS ( ! ,RUSSIAN ,CIVIL ,W> BETWE5 #aiah & #a#i#b#a4 ,NOT FULLY CAPTIVE TO 9DU/RIAL R\T9ES & POSSESS$ ( /RONG AGR>IAN SUPPORT SY/EMS UPON :I* !Y C\LD RELY 9 P]IODS ( CRISIS1 !Y W]E MILITANT 9 WAYS ?AT H]$IT>Y PROLET>IANS FULLY IMM]S$ 9 MOD]N B\RGEOIS SOCIETY >E LESS LIKELY TO BE4 ,9 NEI!R ,P>IS NOR ,PETROGRAD DID WORK]S TAKE CAPITALI/ SOCIETY = GRANT$ AS A 0NATURAL0 OR PR$ET]M9$ SOCIAL ORD]2 9DE$1 ! %>P CONTRA/S BETWE5 PRECAPITALI/ & CAPITALI/ CULTURES EXAC]BAT$ DEEP-SEAT$ CLASS & SOCIAL DIFF]5CES TO A PO9T :]E EXPLOSIVE HATR$ ( ! EM]G+ 9DU/RIAL SOCIETY REA*$ REVOLUTION>Y PROPORTIONS4 

,REVOLUTION IS CREAT$ NOT BY A NONDESCRIPT BODY ( PEOPLE CALL$ 0! MASSES10 H[EV] MU* ,I AM OBLIG$ TO USE ?IS T]M4 ,C]TA9LY1 ! FUEL ?AT /OK$ FIRES 9TO BLAZES WAS A M9ORITY ( MILITANTS :O CAME FROM SUPPRESS$ /RATA &1 V]Y SIGNIFICANTLY1 A RADICAL 9TELLIG5TSIA4 ,A TIME-HONOR$ /RATUM ?AT DATES BACK TO ! P]IPATETIC ,GREEK PHILOSOPH]S1 ! 9TELLIG5TSIA W]E ORGANIZ]S ( V>I\S DISSID5T GR\PS & CIRCLES1 SOCIAL CRITICS1 S[]S ( D\BT1 PUBLICI/S1 & OCCASIONALLY P[]FUL !ORI/S4 ,!Y FURNI%$ ! REVOLUTIONS ) 9VALUABLE !ORETICAL 9SI<TS1 A S5SE ( DIRECTION1 A CRITICAL ?RU/1 & CONSID]ABLE CREATIVITY4 ,BY AN 09TELLIG5TSIA0--A ,RUSSIAN WORD1 LET IT BE NOT$-- ,I AM SPEAK+ NOT ( :AT WE CALL 09TELLECTUALS0 TODAY :O >E WELL 5SCONC$ 9 UNIV]SITIES1 BUT A FOOTLOOSE NETWORK ( WRIT]S1 >TI/S1 POETS1 & PR(ESSIONALS ( ALL SORTS1 EV5 ACTORS 7:O =M$ AN EXCEPTIONALLY CLOSE & VISIBLE COMMUNITY 9 CITIES SU* AS ,P>IS DUR+ ! EI<TE5? & N9ETE5? C5TURIES74 ,!IR ABSORPTION 9 REC5T YE>S 9TO ! MOD]N UNIV]SITY SY/EM1 ) ITS MANY EMOLUM5TS1 HAS BE5 ONE ( ! MO/ CO/LY BL[S TO ! DEVELOPM5T ( PRES5T-DAY REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5TS4 

,REVOLUTION ALSO NE$S A VISIBLE T>GET1 A SOCIAL 5EMY1 :OSE BEHAVIOR 9 SOME S5SE PROVOKES POPUL> ACTION4 ,MO/ REVOLUTIONS1 9 FACT1 BEG9 AS DEF5SIVE ACTIONS AGA9/ ATTEMPTS BY RUL+ ELITES TO SUPPRESS AN EM]G+ POPUL> MOVEM5T4 ,P>ISIANS ATTACK$ ! ,BA/ILLE ON ,JULY #a#d1 #a#g#h#i1 BECAUSE !Y BELIEV$ ! K+ WAS COLLECT+ TROOPS NE> ,P>IS TO SEIZE ! CAPITAL & SUPPRESS SOCIAL UNRE/4 ,9 ! ,OCTOB] ,REVOLUTION ( #a#i#a#g1 ! ,BOL%EVIKS 9ITIALLY DISPOSSESS$ ! LIB]AL ,K]5SKY REGIME 9 ,PETROGRAD BECAUSE ! GOV]NM5T FATU\SLY CLOS$ !IR PRESS1 AL?\<1 AS WAS EVID5T TO EV]YONE 9 ! ,RUSSIAN CAPITAL1 !Y HAD ALREADY BE5 C>EFULLY PLANN+ AN 9SURRECTION AGA9/ ! PROVISIONAL GOV]NM5T4 

,!RE IS NO D\BT ?AT ! V>I\S RUL+ ELITES :OM ! POPUL> REVOLUTIONS OV]?REW & REPLAC$ W]E HI<LY VISIBLE TO ! POPULACE4 ,BUT !Y W]E VISIBLE 9 A V]Y SPECIAL WAY4 ,AS ! PEOPLE MOV$ T[>D REVOLUTION1 (T5 AFT] A S]IES ( ABORT$ LOCAL UPRIS+S1 ! RUL+ ELITES MADE IT V]Y CLE> ?AT !IR REGIMES W]E 9 A DEEP-SEAT$ CRISIS4 ,IT WAS NOT ONLY ! POPULACE ?AT LO/ CONFID5CE 9 ! EXI/+ ORD]2 !IR [N MA/]S EXHIBIT$ A VISIBLE FAILURE ( N]VE4 ,:ILE ! 9CIPI5T REVOLUTION>Y =CES BECAME MORE & MORE UNIT$1 ! RUL+ ELITES BECAME MORE & MORE DIVID$4 ,?AT ! E/ABLI%$ ORD] WAS BREAK+ D[N BECAME APP>5T TO ALL1 BO? ABOVE & BEL[1 & ONLY ! MO/ 9FLEXIBLE ELEM5TS ( ! OLD SOCIETY OPPOS$ ! TRANSP>5T NE$ = *ANGE4 ,9DE$1 9 ,FRANCE1 MANY ELEM5TS ( ! NOBILITY PATRONIZ$ ! GREAT ,5LI<T5]S :O CREAT$ ! 9TELLECTUAL & MORAL ATMOSPH]E ( ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 :ILE 9 TURN-(-!-C5TURY ,RUSSIA1 9DIVIDUAL NOBLES & M]*ANTS (T5 GAVE L>GE SUMS ( MONEY TO REVOLUTION>Y ORGANIZATIONS4 

,IT WAS ! EXT5T TO :I* ! ELITES RESI/$ *ANGE ?AT (T5 DET]M9$ H[ F>-REA*+ A REVOLUTION W\LD BE1 H[ RADICAL ! POPUL> MOVEM5T W\LD BECOME1 & H[ LONG IT W\LD LA/4 ,S9CE C]TA9 RUL+ /RATA :O FAVOR$ ! /ATUS QUO PUT UP 9T5SE1 (T5 UN?9K+1 RESI/ANCE TO EV5 M9IMAL RE=MS1 MANY ( ! GREAT REVOLUTIONS W5T ON = YE>S1 IF ONE 9CLUDES NOT ONLY ! 9SURRECTIONS OR J\RRTIES 70DAYS071 AS !Y W]E CALL$ 9 ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 BUT ! CIVIL W>S ?AT FOLL[$ !M4 ,9DE$1 IT IS QUE/IONABLE :E!R ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION REALLY 5D$ ) ! OV]?R[ ( ,JACOB9 RULE 9 #a#g#i#d4 ,MANY ( ! SAME SOCIAL =CES EXI/$ & CLA%$ ) EA* O!R P]SI/5TLY 9 REPEAT$ 9SURRECTIONS UP TO #a#h#g#a1 SO ?AT WE CAN SPEAK ( A UNIQUELY ,FR5* REVOLUTION>Y ]A ?AT EXI/$ = NE>LY A C5TURY4 ,! ,5GLI% ,REVOLUTION SPANN$ A P]IOD ( AT LEA/ F\R YE>S & CONT9U$ = NE>LY TWO DECADES IF WE 9CLUDE ,CROMWELL'S ,PROTECTORATE4 ,! ,AM]ICAN ,REVOLUTION LA/$ ALMO/ ?REE DECADES IF WE DATE ! REVOLUTION>Y P]IOD AS />T+ ) ! BEG9N+S ( DISS5T 9 ! E>LY #a#g#fS & 5D+ ) ! ADOPTION ( ! ,CON/ITUTION BY ! /ATES 9 #a#g#h#i4 ,EV5 IF WE *OOSE TO DATE ! />T ( ! ,RUSSIAN ,REVOLUTION AT #aiag RA!R ?AN ! ABORT$ REVOLUTION ( #a#i#e1 ! REVOLUTION CONT9U$ = F\R YE>S BE=E IT WAS SUPPRESS$ ) ! CRU%+ ( ! ,KRON/ADT COMMUNE ( #a#i#b#a4 ,ALL ( !SE REVOLUTIONS1 IF !Y W]E NOT CRU%$ AT ! \TSET1 W]E M>K$ BY AN 9T]NAL LOGIC ( EV5TS ?AT SL[LY WORK$ ITS WAY ?R\< PREC>I\S P]IODS ( UNC]TA9TY1 P>TIAL VICTORIES = ! MASSES1 & EV5TUALLY DEFEATS ( ! POPUL> MOVEM5TS TO ONE DEGREE OR ANO!R4 ,AL?\< EA* ( !SE DEVELOPM5TS WAS DIFF]5T 9 MANY SPECIFICS1 MO/ ( !M W]E A/ONI%+LY SIMIL> 9 !IR G5]AL \TL9ES4 

,IT IS V]Y MU* MY TASK1 IF POSSIBLE1 TO ACC\NT = ?IS SIMIL>ITY 9 ! G5]AL \TL9ES ( C]TA9 MAJOR REVOLUTIONS1 EV5 AS ,I EXAM9E REM>KABLE =MS ( FRE$OM ?AT ! SPECIFIC POPUL> MOVEM5TS CREAT$ ?R\<\T ! REVOLUTIONS4 ,AS ,I HAVE ALREADY SUGGE/$1 AFT] ! FALL ( ! JACOB9S 9 #agid ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION BECAME ! 0MODEL0 ON :I* O!R REVOLUTIONS BAS$ !IR VISIONS ( SOCIAL *ANGE4 ,! SEQU5CE ( EV5TS ( ! ,RUSSIAN ,REVOLUTION CLOSELY RESEMBLES ?AT ( ! ,FR5*1 ALBEIT 9 A TELESCOP$ =M4 ,?AT LEAD]S ( ALL ,RUSSIAN REVOLUTION>Y T5D5CIES1 FROM ,M>XI/S LIKE ,L59 TO AN>*I/S LIKE ,PET] ,KROPOTK91 W]E /EEP$ 9 ! HI/ORY ( ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 H[EV]1 DOES NOT 9 ITSELF EXPLA9 !SE SIMIL>ITIES2 NOR DOES ! EXI/5CE ( ECONOMIC COMMONALITIES LIKE ! PEASANT MAJORITIES 9 BO? C\NTRIES1 ! HI<LY RADICALIZ$ URBAN POPULATIONS1 & ! EM]G5CE ( RESOLUTE1 C5TRALIZ$ VANGU>D P>TIES4 

,MY PO9T 9 SAY+ ?IS IS ?AT BO? REVOLUTIONS W]E GUID$ NOT ONLY BY SIMIL> ECONOMIC CONDITIONS1 BUT ALSO BY A COMPELL+ POLITICAL GOAL--NAMELY1 A POPUL> DESIRE = FRE$OM4 ,!SE REVOLUTIONS CONTA9$ AN EM95TLY MORAL1 NOT ONLY ECONOMIC1 DIM5SION4 ,AS WELL AS BE+ MOTIVAT$ BY ! V]Y REAL ECONOMIC 9T]E/S1 SU* AS L& HUNG]1 ?AT PLAY$ SO DECISIVE A ROLE 9 BO? REVOLUTIONS1 ! ,FR5* & ,RUSSIAN PEASANTRIES W]E POSSESS$ BY A PASSIONATE1 ALMO/ MILL5>IAN1 DESIRE = A NEW1 JU/1 & FREE WAY ( LIFE4 ,! M>VEL1 & ! TRAG$Y1 ( ! CLASSICAL REVOLUTIONS DUR+ ! #a#f#dS 9 ,5GL& & ! #a#i#cS 9 ,SPA9 IS ?AT !Y W]E FUEL$ BY A DEEP-SEAT$ DESIRE = POPUL> SOV]EIGNTY :I* ! REVOLUTION>Y LEAD]S & !IR NATION-/ATE TYPE ( ORGANIZATIONS SY/EMATICALLY UND]M9$4 

,I HAVE OMITT$ FROM ?IS BOOK ANY ACC\NT ( ! 0,?IRD ,WORLD0 REVOLUTIONS ?AT HAVE OCCURR$ S9CE ! ,SECOND ,WORLD ,W>4 ,AL?\< SPACE LIMITATIONS ALONE W\LD NECESS>ILY RE/RICT ME TO REVOLUTIONS 9 ,EUROPE 7& ,NOR? ,AM]ICA7 ! 0,?IRD ,WORLD0 REVOLUTIONS HAVE BE5 & /ILL >E DIFF]5T 9 SIGNIFICANT RESPECTS FROM ! ,EUROPEAN REVOLUTIONS4 ,= ONE ?+1 ! ,EUROPEAN REVOLUTIONS1 EV5 ! ,AM]ICAN1 EM]G$ FROM ALREADY =M$ NATION-/ATES1 (T5 ABSOLUTI/ MON>*IES2 ! 0,?IRD ,WORLD0 REVOLUTIONS >E ATTEMPTS TO =M NATION-/ATES1 TO GA9 A S5SE ( NATIONAL ID5TITY AFT] LONG P]IODS ( COLONIAL RULE4 ,MOREOV]1 ! ,EUROPEAN REVOLUTIONS1 DESPITE !IR 9DISP5SABLE AGR>IAN UPSWELLS1 W]E PRIM>ILY C5T]$ 9 CITIES1 SU* AS ,LONDON1 ,BO/ON1 ,P>IS1 ,PETROGRAD1 & ,B>CELONA4 ,! 0,?IRD ,WORLD0 REVOLUTIONS1 BY CONTRA/1 HAVE BE5 F\<T \T PRIM>ILY 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE 7AL?\< ,*9A 9 ! #a#i#bS =MS AN 9T]E/+ EXCEPTION74 

,! ,EUROPEAN REVOLUTIONS1 9 FACT1 SPOKE = OPPRESS$ HUMANITY AS A :OLE1 & ! BREAD? ( !IR GOALS HAS BE5 UNEQUAL$ BY REVOLUTIONS 9 O!R P>TS ( ! WORLD4 ,!Y NOT ONLY RAIS$ MAJOR POLITICAL ISSUES SU* AS REPUBLICANISM & DEMOCRACY1 BUT HAD V]Y P[]FUL 9T]NATIONAL & IDEOLOGICAL EFFECTS UPON ! DEVELOPM5T ( ,EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION = OV] ?REE C5TURIES4 ,9DE$1 !Y W]E IMPORTANT IDEOLOGICAL1 CULTURAL1 & ECONOMIC TURN+ PO9TS 9 WORLD HI/ORY G5]ALLY4 ,!IR GREAT DECL>ATIONS1 *>T]S1 & MANIFE/OS APPEAL$ TO ALL ( HUMANITY 9 SUPPORT ( UNIV]SAL HUMAN RI<TS & FRE$OM1 (T5 TRANSC5D+ NATIONAL CONSID]ATIONS4 

,! 0,?IRD ,WORLD0 REVOLUTIONS1 BY CONTRA/1 UND]/&ABLY T5D$ TO BE DEEPLY SELF-ORI5T$1 & !IR IDEOLOGICAL IMPACT UPON ! WORLD HAS BE5 V]Y LIMIT$4 ,A ?RU/ T[>D DEMOCRACY & POPUL> DEM&S = LOCAL RI<TS AT ! EXP5SE ( ! NATION-/ATE >E NOT CONSPICU\S FEATURES ( !SE UPSURGES4 ,!Y >E L>GELY NATIONAL /RUGGLES AGA9/ IMP]IALISM 9 :I* COLONIZ$ PEOPLES SEEK TO DEF9E !IR ID5TITY & A*IEVE NATIONAL 9DEP5D5CE4 ,DESPITE ! POPUL>ITY ( ,MAOI/ DOCTR9ES 9 ! #a#i#fS1 ! ,*9ESE ,COMMUNI/ REVOLUTION WAS AN 9SURRECTION>Y V>IANT ( ,L59ISM1 & AFT] ,MAO'S DEA? IT BEGAN TO LOSE ITS HOLD EV5 9 ,*9A ITSELF4 ,NEI!R ,CA/RO'S REVOLUTION 9 ,CUBA NOR ! ,S&9I/AS' 9 ,NIC>AGUA PRODUC$ MAJOR IDEOLOGICAL *ANGES 9 ! WORLD1 DESPITE ! IMPACT !IR UPRIS+S HAD ON ,LAT9 ,AM]ICA4 ,9DE$1 !IR ECLIPSE BY MOVEM5TS LIKE ! ,%9+ ,PA? 9 ,P]U & !IR 9CREAS+ CLI5TAGE TO ,EURO-,AM]ICAN P[]S REVEAL ?AT !IR IMPACT ON SOCIAL DEVELOPM5T G5]ALLY IS MORE LIMIT$ ?AN #a#i#fS RADICALS 9 ! ,WE/ C\LD HAVE ANTICIPAT$ 9 !IR DAY4 

,! POSSIBLE *>GE ?AT ,I AM 0,EUROC5TRIC',TEAVES ME S+UL>LY UNTR\BL$4 ,! FACT IS ?AT ! AU!NTIC C5T] ( ! REVOLUTION>Y ]A WAS ! ,EUROPEAN CONT95T1 9CLUD+ ,RUSSIA1 & ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES 7:OSE REVOLUTION BELONGS V]Y MU* 9 ! ,EUROPEAN TRADITION74 ,TO ! EXT5T ?AT REVOLUTIONS 9 ! 0,?IRD ,WORLD0 HAD C]TA9 UNIV]SAL FEATURES & S\<T OR PR(ESS$ TO E/ABLI% A RADICALLY NEW SOCIAL DISP5SATION = HUMANITY AS A :OLE1 !Y EMULAT$ ! GREAT ,EUROPEAN REVOLUTIONS DISCUSS$ 9 ?IS BOOK4 ,!IR NATIONALI/IC & ANTI-IMP]IALI/IC ASPECTS MAY BE UND]/&ABLE 9 ! CONTEXT 9 :I* !Y OCCURR$2 BUT !SE REVOLUTIONS %\LD NOT BE MY/IFI$1 NOR %\LD !IR JU/IFIABLE CLAIMS TO FRE$OM FROM IMP]IALISM BE VIEW$ AS COMP>ABLE TO ! UNIV]SAL APPEALS TO HUMANITY ?AT M>K$ ! GREAT REVOLUTIONS ?AT OCCURR$ 9 ,EUROPE4 

,SIGNIFICANTLY1 EA* ( ! CLASSICAL REVOLUTIONS FOLL[$ ! O!RS T[>D A MORE RADICALLY SOPHI/ICAT$ HI/ORICAL LEVEL 9 :I* AN ALMO/ UTOPIAN 9T]NATIONALI/ \TLOOK & A BROAD] DEF9ITION ( FRE$OM SUP]S$$ ANY E>LI] NATIONALI/IC OR 0PATRIOTIC0 CLAIMS4 ,9DE$1 ! ,SPANI% ,REVOLUTION ( #a#i#c#f-#c#i *ALL5G$ EV5 DOME/IC HI]>*IES AS WELL AS CLASSES1 (T5 ASSUM+ AN EXPLICITLY LIB]T>IAN =M4 ,BY CONTRA/1 EI!R ! 0,?IRD ,WORLD0 REVOLUTIONS DEVOLV$ 9TO E/ABLI%$ NATION-/ATES ORI5T$ T[>D 9DU/RIALIZATION1 OR !IR IDEOLOGIES L+]$ ON MA9LY AS E*OES ( ! OLD] ,EUROPEAN REVOLUTIONS4 ,! REVOLUTIONS ?AT HELP$ =M NEW NATION-/ATES 9 ,9DIA1 ,*9A1 ,S\!A/ ,ASIA1 ,AFRICA1 & ,C5TRAL ,AM]ICA HAVE LITTLE ( ! 9T]NATIONALI/ *>ACT] ?AT M>K$ ! ,FR5* & ,RUSSIAN REVOLUTIONS4 ,EV5 ! ,AM]ICAN ,REVOLUTION SAW ITSELF AS A UTOPIAN BEACON TO AN OPPRESS$ WORLD1 DESPITE ATTEMPTS BY MANY RADICAL HI/ORIANS TO R$UCE IT TO A M]E 0W> = 9DEP5D5CE40 

,IT IS MY HOPE ?AT ?IS BOOK WILL REVIVE ! FLAGG+ 9T]E/ 9 ! GREAT REVOLUTIONS ?AT SO PR(\NDLY %AP$ MOD]N HI/ORY & 5C\RAGE ! READ] TO EXAM9E ! DYNAMICS ( ! CLASSICAL ,WE/]N REVOLUTIONS FROM ! /&PO9T ( MOVEM5TS FROM BEL[3 ! 9/ITUTIONAL =MS ?AT REVOLUTION>Y PEOPLES & !IR LEAD]S DEVELOP$ TO MANAGE SOCIETY & !IR 9T]ACTION ) ! REVOLUTION>Y P>TIES ?AT PR(ESS$ TO LEAD ! PEOPLE OR C]TA9 OPPRESS$ /RATA4 ,I WI% TO EXPLORE ! PROBLEMS ?AT ?IS 9T]ACTION PRODUC$1 ! LESSONS WE CAN LE>N1 & ! V>I\S !ORIES ?AT CLU/] >\ND ! NATURE & TRAJECTORY ( ! GREAT REVOLUTIONS !MSELVES4 ,!ORY WILL CLOSELY 9T]M+LE ) N>RATIVE1 & G5]ALIZATIONS ) SPECIFIC FACTS4 

,I W\LD LIKE NOT ONLY TO EVOKE ! ]A ( ! GREAT REVOLUTIONS 9 AN ADMITT$LY 9T]PRETIVE WAY--!IR LIMITS & POSSIBILITIES--BUT TO CONVEY ! ESPRIT REVOLUTIONNAIRE ?AT EXI/$ NOT ONLY DUR+ ! HI< PO9TS ( ! REVOLUTIONS !MSELVES BUT ?R\<\T ! REVOLUTION>Y ]A1 EV5 9 P]IODS ( RELATIVE QUIESC5CE4 ,I WILL ASK :AT IT MEANS TO BE A REVOLUTION>Y1 NOT M]ELY A 0RADICAL0 OR A 0PROGRESSIVE10 TO USE WORDS V]Y MU* 9 VOGUE TODAY4 ,9 VIEW ( ! FACT ?AT1 9 #a#i#h#i1 ! BIC5T5NIAL ( ! ,GREAT ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION WAS CELEBRAT$ MORE AS A PATRIOTIC EX]CISE ?AN AS AN EVOCATION ( ! GREAT WORLD-9SPIR+ REVOLUTION IT WAS1 ?IS TASK SEEMS P>TICUL>LY NECESS>Y TODAY4 ,I WI% TO LIFT1 AS BE/ ,I CAN1 ! *AUV9I/IC CL\DS ?AT OBSCURE ! HOPES ?AT ! GREAT REVOLUTIONS PRODUC$ 9 ! HE>TS ( ALL 5LI<T5$ HUMAN BE+S1 & ! IDEOLOGIES ?AT HAVE 9FLU5C$ !M OV] ! GREAT] P>T ( TWO C5TURIES4 

,AT ?IS TIME ( WRIT+ AN E]IE C\NT]-,5LI<T5M5T IS P]COLAT+ ?R\< ,WE/]N CULTURE1 ONE ?AT CELEBRATES EGOC5TRICITY AT ! EXP5SE ( SOCIAL COMMITM5T1 MY/ICISM AT ! EXP5SE ( NATURALISM1 9TUITIONISM AT ! EXP5SE ( RATIONALISM1 ATAVISM AT ! EXP5SE ( CIVILIZATION1 A PASSIVE-RECEPTIVE M5TALITY AT ! EXP5SE ( A MILITANT1 ACTIVI/ ONE1 & AN 5]VAT+ RELIGIOSITY AT ! EXP5SE ( A CRITICAL SECUL>ITY4 ,AS CAPITALISM EXP&S TO GLOBAL PROPORTIONS1 A M$IA-OR*E/RAT$ B>B>ISM IS PU%+ ! MOD]N HUMAN SPIRIT BACK 9TO AN ABSURD C>ICATURE ( M$IEVALISM--ALMO/ C5TURIES REMOV$ 9 SPIRIT & \TLOOK FROM ! REVOLUTION>Y ]A ?AT GAVE BIR? TO MOD]N IDEALS ( FRE$OM4 ,:E!R ?IS M>KS A DEF9ITIVE 5D ( ! REVOLUTION>Y ]A & ! ,5LI<T5M5T ?AT N\RI%$ IT1 ,I DO NOT KN[4 ,:AT ,I DO KN[ IS ?AT ,I1 = ONE1 DO NOT WANT TO BE P>T ( A HI/ORICAL P]IOD ?AT LACKS A REVOLUTION>Y SPIRIT TO GIVE MEAN+ TO LIFE4 ,?IS BOOK IS 9T5D$ TO EVOKE ?AT SPIRIT &1 IF POSSIBLE1 TO MAKE IT RELEVANT TO \R TIME4 

,FROM 3 ,!,AN>*I/,LIBR>Y4ORG4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,OCTOB] #b#b1 #bba 3 ,VOLUME #a1 ,9TRODUCTION -- ,ADD$4 
,OCTOB] #b#b1 #bba 3 ,VOLUME #a1 ,9TRODUCTION -- ,UPDAT$4 

 FILE G5]AT$ FROM 3  
HTTP3_/_/REVOLTLIB4COM_/