,*APT] #g 
,ON ,\R ,KN[L$GE ( ,G5]AL ,PR9CIPLES 

#aiabaiab 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,B]TR& ,RUSSELL 

,TEXT 3 

 ,*,A,P,T,] ,V,I,I 

,O,N ,\,R ,K,N,[,L,$,G,E ,( ,G,5,],A,L ,P,R,9,C,I,P,L,E,S 

,W,E SAW 9 ! PREC$+ *APT] ?AT ! PR9CIPLE ( ,9DUCTION1  
:ILE NECESS>Y TO ! VALIDITY ( ALL >GUM5TS BAS$ ON EXP]I5CE1  
IS ITSELF NOT CAPABLE ( BE+ PROV$ BY EXP]I5CE1 & YET IS 
UNHESITAT+LY BELIEV$ BY EV]Y ONE1 AT LEA/ 9 ALL ITS CONCRETE 
APPLICATIONS4 ,9 !SE *>ACT]I/ICS ! PR9CIPLE ( 9DUCTION 
DOES NOT /& ALONE4 ,!RE >E A NUMB] ( O!R PR9CIPLES :I* 
CANNOT BE PROV$ OR DISPROV$ BY EXP]I5CE1 BUT >E US$ 9 >GUM5TS 
:I* />T FROM :AT IS EXP]I5C$4 

,SOME ( !SE PR9CIPLES HAVE EV5 GREAT] EVID5CE ?AN ! 
PR9CIPLE ( 9DUCTION1 & ! KN[L$GE ( !M HAS ! SAME DEGREE 
( C]TA9TY AS ! KN[L$GE ( ! EXI/5CE ( S5SE-DATA4 ,!Y 
CON/ITUTE ! MEANS ( DRAW+ 9F]5CES FROM :AT IS GIV5 9 
S5SATION2 & IF :AT WE 9F] IS TO BE TRUE1 IT IS JU/ AS 
NECESS>Y ?AT \R PR9CIPLES ( 9F]5CE %\LD BE TRUE AS IT IS 
?AT \R DATA %\LD BE TRUE4 ,! PR9CIPLES ( 9F]5CE >E APT TO 
BE OV]LOOK$ BECAUSE ( !IR V]Y OBVI\SNESS -- ! ASSUMPTION 
9VOLV$ IS ASS5T$ TO )\T \R REALIZ+ ?AT IT IS AN 
ASSUMPTION4 ,BUT IT IS V]Y IMPORTANT TO REALIZE ! USE ( PR9CIPLES 
( 9F]5CE1 IF A CORRECT !ORY ( KN[L$GE IS TO BE OBTA9$2 = 
\R KN[L$GE ( !M RAISES 9T]E/+ & DIFFICULT QUE/IONS4 

,9 ALL \R KN[L$GE ( G5]AL PR9CIPLES1 :AT ACTUALLY 
HAPP5S IS ?AT FIR/ ( ALL WE REALIZE SOME P>TICUL> APPLICATION 
( ! PR9CIPLE1 & !N WE REALIZE ! P>TICUL>ITY IS 
IRRELEVANT1 & ?AT !RE IS A G5]ALITY :I* MAY EQUALLY TRULY BE 
AFFIRM$4 ,?IS IS ( C\RSE FAMILI> 9 SU* MATT]S AS TEA*+ 
>I?METIC3 'TWO & TWO >E F\R' IS FIR/ LE>N$ 9 ! CASE ( 
SOME P>TICUL> PAIR ( C\PLES1 & !N 9 SOME O!R P>TICUL> 
CASE1 & SO ON1 UNTIL AT LA/ IT BECOMES POSSIBLE TO SEE ?AT IT IS 
TRUE ( ANY PAIR ( C\PLES4 ,! SAME ?+ HAPP5S ) 
LOGICAL PR9CIPLES4 ,SUPPOSE TWO M5 >E DISCUSS+ :AT DAY ( ! 
MON? IT IS4 ,ONE ( !M SAYS1 ',AT LEA/ Y\ WILL ADMIT ?AT 
IF YE/]DAY WAS ! #a#e? TO-DAY MU/ ! #a#f?4' ',YES'1 SAYS 
! O!R1 ',I ADMIT ?AT4' ',& Y\ KN['1 ! FIR/ CONT9UES1 '?AT 
YE/]DAY WAS ! #a#e?1 BECAUSE Y\ D9$ ) ,JONES1 & Y\R DI>Y 
WILL TELL Y\ ?AT WAS ON ! #a#e?4' ',YES'1 SAYS ! SECOND2 
'!RE=E TO-DAY IS ! #a#f?' 

,N[ SU* AN >GUM5T IS NOT H>D TO FOLL[2 & IF IT IS 
GRANT$ ?AT ITS PREMISES >E TRUE 9 FACT1 NO ONE D5Y ?AT ! 
CONCLUSION MU/ ALSO BE TRUE4 ,BUT IT DEP5DS = ITS TRU? UPON AN 
9/ANCE ( A G5]AL LOGICAL PR9CIPLE4 ,! LOGICAL PR9CIPLE IS AS 
FOLL[S3 ',SUPPOSE IT KN[N ?AT IF ?IS IS TRUE1 !N ?AT 
IS TRUE4 ,SUPPOSE IT ALSO KN[N ?AT ?IS IS TRUE1 !N IT 
FOLL[S ?AT ?AT IS TRUE4' ,:5 IT IS ! CASE ?AT IF ?IS IS TRUE1  
?AT IS TRUE1 WE %ALL SAY ?AT ?IS 'IMPLIES' ?AT1 ?AT ?AT 
'FOLL[S FROM' ?IS4 ,?US \R PR9CIPLE /ATES ?AT IF ?IS IMPLIES 
?AT1 & ?IS IS TRUE1 !N ?AT IS TRUE4 ,9 O!R WORDS1 'ANY?+ 
IMPLI$ BY A PROPOSITION IS TRUE'1 OR ':ATEV] FOLL[S FROM A TRUE 
PROPOSITION IS TRUE'4 

,?IS PR9CIPLE IS REALLY 9VOLV$ -- AT LEA/1 CONCRETE 
9/ANCES ( IT >E 9VOLV$ -- 9 ALL DEMON/RATIONS4 ,:5EV] ONE 
?+ :I* WE BELIEVE IS US$ TO PROVE SOME?+ ELSE1 :I* WE 
CONSEQU5TLY BELIEVE1 ?IS PR9CIPLE IS RELEVANT4 ,IF ANY ONE ASKS3 
',:Y %\LD ,I ACCEPT ! RESULTS ( VALID >GUM5TS BAS$ ON TRUE 
PREMISES8' WE CAN ONLY ANSW] BY APPEAL+ TO \R PR9CIPLE4 ,9 
FACT1 ! TRU? ( ! PR9CIPLE IS IMPOSSIBLE TO D\BT1 & ITS 
OBVI\SNESS IS SO GREAT ?AT AT FIR/ SI<T IT SEEMS ALMO/ TRIVIAL4 
,SU* PR9CIPLES1 H[EV]1 >E NOT TRIVIAL TO ! PHILOSOPH]1 = 
!Y %[ ?AT WE MAY HAVE 9DUBITABLE KN[L$GE :I* IS 9 NO WAY 
D]IV$ FROM OBJECTS ( S5SE4 

,! ABOVE PR9CIPLE IS M]ELY ONE ( A C]TA9 NUMB] ( 
SELF-EVID5T LOGICAL PR9CIPLES4 ,SOME AT LEA/ ( !SE PR9CIPLES 
MU/ BE GRANT$ BE=E ANY >GUM5T OR PRO( BECOMES POSSIBLE4 ,:5 
SOME ( !M HAVE BE5 GRANT$1 O!RS CAN BE PROV$1 ?\< !SE 
O!RS1 SO LONG AS !Y >E SIMPLE1 >E JU/ AS OBVI\S AS ! 
PR9CIPLES TAK5 = GRANT$4 ,= NO V]Y GOOD REASON1 ?REE ( !SE 
PR9CIPLES HAVE BE5 S+L$ \T BY TRADITION UND] ! NAME ( ',LAWS 
( ,?\<T'4 

,!Y >E AS FOLL[S3 

7#a7 ,! LAW ( ID5TITY3 ',:ATEV] IS1 IS4' 

7#b7 ,! LAW ( CONTRADICTION3 ',NO?+ CAN BO? BE 
& NOT BE4' 

7#c7 ,! LAW ( EXCLUD$ MIDDLE3 ',EV]Y?+ MU/ 
EI!R BE OR NOT BE4' 

,!SE ?REE LAWS >E SAMPLES ( SELF-EVID5T LOGICAL 
PR9CIPLES1 BUT >E NOT REALLY MORE FUNDAM5TAL OR MORE SELF-EVID5T 
?AN V>I\S O!R SIMIL> PR9CIPLES3 = 9/ANCE4 ! ONE WE 
CONSID]$ JU/ N[1 :I* /ATES ?AT :AT FOLL[S FROM A TRUE 
PREMISE IS TRUE4 ,! NAME 'LAWS ( ?\<T' IS ALSO MISLEAD+1 = 
:AT IS IMPORTANT IS NOT ! FACT ?AT WE ?9K 9 ACCORDANCE ) 
!SE LAWS1 BUT ! FACT ?AT ?+S BEHAVE 9 ACCORDANCE ) !M2 
9 O!R WORDS1 ! FACT ?AT :5 WE ?9K 9 ACCORDANCE ) !M 
WE ?9K TRULY4 ,BUT ?IS IS A L>GE QUE/ION1 TO :I* WE 
RETURN AT A LAT] /AGE4 

,9 ADDITION TO ! LOGICAL PR9CIPLES :I* 5ABLE US TO PROVE 
FROM A GIV5 PREMISE ?AT SOME?+ IS C]TA9LY TRUE1 !RE 
>E O!R LOGICAL PR9CIPLES :I* 5ABLE US TO PROVE1 FROM A GIV5 
PREMISE1 ?AT !RE IS A GREAT] OR LESS PROBABILITY ?AT SOME?+ 
IS TRUE4 ,AN EXAMPLE ( SU* PR9CIPLES -- P]HAPS ! MO/ IMPORTANT 
EXAMPLE IS ! 9DUCTIVE PR9CIPLE1 :I* WE CONSID]$ 9 ! 
PREC$+ *APT]4 

,ONE ( ! GREAT HI/ORIC CONTROV]SIES 9 PHILOSOPHY IS ! 
CONTROV]SY BETWE5 ! TWO S*OOLS CALL$ RESPECTIVELY 'EMPIRICI/S' 
& 'RATIONALI/S'4 ,! EMPIRICI/S -- :O >E BE/ REPRES5T$ BY 
! ,BRITI% PHILOSOPH]S1 ,LOCKE1 ,B]KELEY1 & ,HUME -- MA9TA9$ 
?AT ALL \R KN[L$GE IS D]IV$ FROM EXP]I5CE2 ! RATIONALI/S 
-- :O >E REPRES5T$ BY ! CONT95TAL PHILOSOPH]S ( ! 
SEV5TE5? C5TURY1 ESPECIALLY ,DESC>TES & ,LEIBNIZ -- MA9TA9$ 
?AT1 9 ADDITION TO :AT WE KN[ BY EXP]I5CE1 !RE >E C]TA9 
'9NATE IDEAS' & '9NATE PR9CIPLES'1 :I* WE KN[ 9DEP5D5TLY 
( EXP]I5CE4 ,IT HAS N[ BECOME POSSIBLE TO DECIDE ) SOME 
CONFID5CE AS TO ! TRU? OR FALSEHOOD ( !SE OPPOS+ S*OOLS4 ,IT 
MU/ BE ADMITT$1 = ! REASONS ALREADY /AT$1 ?AT LOGICAL 
PR9CIPLES >E KN[N TO US1 & CANNOT BE !MSELVES PROV$ BY 
EXP]I5CE1 S9CE ALL PRO( PRESUPPOSES !M4 ,9 ?IS1 !RE=E1  
:I* WAS ! MO/ IMPORTANT PO9T ( ! CONTROV]SY1 ! 
RATIONALI/S W]E 9 ! RI<T4 

,ON ! O!R H&1 EV5 ?AT P>T ( \R KN[L$GE :I* IS 
LOGICALLY 9DEP5D5T ( EXP]I5CE 79 ! S5SE ?AT 
EXP]I5CE CANNOT PROVE IT7 IS YET ELICIT$ & CAUS$ BY EXP]I5CE4 
,IT IS ON OCCASION ( P>TICUL> EXP]I5CES ?AT WE BECOME AW>E ( 
! G5]AL LAWS :I* !IR CONNECTIONS EXEMPLIFY4 ,IT W\LD C]TA9LY 
BE ABSURD TO SUPPOSE ?AT !RE >E 9NATE PR9CIPLES 9 ! S5SE 
?AT BABIES >E BORN ) A KN[L$GE ( EV]Y?+ :I* M5 KN[ 
& :I* CANNOT BE D$UC$ FROM :AT IS EXP]I5C$4 ,= ?IS 
REASON1 ! WORD '9NATE' W\LD NOT N[ BE EMPLOY$ TO DESCRIBE \R 
KN[L$GE ( LOGICAL PR9CIPLES4 ,! PHRASE 'A PRIORI' IS 
LESS OBJECTIONABLE1 & IS MORE USUAL 9 MOD]N WRIT]S4 ,?US1 :ILE 
ADMITT+ ?AT ALL KN[L$GE IS ELICIT$ & CAUS$ BY EXP]I5CE1 WE 
%ALL NEV]!LESS HOLD ?AT SOME KN[L$GE IS A PRIORI1 9 
! S5SE ?AT ! EXP]I5CE :I* MAKES US ?9K ( IT DOES NOT 
SUFFICE TO PROVE IT1 BUT M]ELY SO DIRECTS \R ATT5TION ?AT WE SEE 
ITS TRU? )\T REQUIR+ ANY PRO( FROM EXP]I5CE4 

,!RE IS ANO!R PO9T ( GREAT IMPORTANCE1 9 :I* ! 
EMPIRICI/S W]E 9 ! RI<T AS AGA9/ ! RATIONALI/S4 ,NO?+ 
CAN BE KN[N TO EXI/ EXCEPT BY ! HELP ( EXP]I5CE4 
,?AT IS TO SAY1 IF WE WI% TO PROVE ?AT SOME?+ ( :I* WE HAVE 
NO DIRECT EXP]I5CE EXI/S1 WE MU/ HAVE AMONG \R PREMISES ! 
EXI/5CE ( ONE OR MORE ?+S ( :I* WE HAVE DIRECT EXP]I5CE4 
,\R BELIEF ?AT ! ,EMP]OR ( ,*9A EXI/S1 = EXAMPLE1 RE/S UPON 
TE/IMONY1 & TE/IMONY CONSI/S1 9 ! LA/ ANALYSIS1 ( 
S5SE-DATA SE5 OR HE>D 9 READ+ OR BE+ SPOK5 TO4 ,RATIONALI/S 
BELIEV$ ?AT1 FROM G5]AL CONSID]ATION AS TO :AT MU/ 
BE1 !Y C\LD D$UCE ! EXI/5CE ( ?IS OR ?AT 9 ! ACTUAL 
WORLD4 ,9 ?IS BELIEF !Y SEEM TO HAVE BE5 MI/AK54 ,ALL ! 
KN[L$GE ?AT WE CAN ACQUIRE A PRIORI CONC]N+ EXI/5CE 
SEEMS TO BE HYPO!TICAL3 IT TELLS US ?AT IF ONE ?+ 
EXI/S1 ANO!R MU/ EXI/1 OR1 MORE G5]ALLY1 ?AT IF ONE 
PROPOSITION IS TRUE ANO!R MU/ BE TRUE4 ,?IS IS EXEMPLIFI$ BY 
PR9CIPLES WE HAVE ALREADY DEALT )1 SU* AS 'IF ?IS IS 
TRUE1 & ?IS IMPLIES ?AT1 !N ?AT IS TRUE'1 ( 'IF?IS 
& ?AT HAVE BE5 REPEAT$LY F\ND CONNECT$1 !Y WILL PROBABLY BE 
CONNECT$ 9 ! NEXT 9/ANCE 9 :I* ONE ( !M IS F\ND'4 ,?US 
! SCOPE & P[] ( A PRIORI PR9CIPLES IS /RICTLY 
LIMIT$4 ,ALL KN[L$GE ?AT SOME?+ EXI/S MU/ BE 9 P>T 
DEP5D5T ON EXP]I5CE4 ,:5 ANY?+ IS KN[N IMM$IATELY1 ITS 
EXI/5CE IS KN[N BY EXP]I5CE ALONE2 :5 ANY?+ IS PROV$ TO 
EXI/1 )\T BE+ KN[N IMM$IATELY1 BO? EXP]I5CE & A 
PRIORI PR9CIPLES MU/ BE REQUIR$ 9 ! PRO(4 ,KN[L$GE IS 
CALL$ EMPIRICAL :5 IT RE/S :OLLY OR P>TLY UPON 
EXP]I5CE4 ,?US ALL KN[L$GE :I* ASS]TS EXI/5CE IS EMPIRICAL1  
& ! ONLY A PRIORI KN[L$GE CONC]N+ EXI/5CE IS 
HYPO!TICAL1 GIV+ CONNECTIONS AMONG ?+S ?AT EXI/ OR MAY EXI/1  
BUT NOT GIV+ ACTUAL EXI/5CE4 

,A PRIORI KN[L$GE IS NOT ALL ( ! LOGICAL K9D WE 
HI!RTO CONSID]+4 ,P]HAPS ! MO/ IMPORTANT EXAMPLE ( 
NON-LOGICAL A PRIORI KN[L$GE IS KN[L$GE AS TO E?ICAL 
VALUE4 ,I AM NOT SPEAK+ ( JUDGM5TS AS TO :AT IS USEFUL OR AS TO 
:AT IS VIRTU\S1 = SU* JUDGM5TS DO REQUIRE EMPIRICAL PREMISES2 
,I AM SPEAK+ ( JUDGM5TS AS TO ! 9TR9SIC DESIRABILITY ( 
?+S4 ,IF SOME?+ IS USEFUL1 IT MU/ BE USEFUL BECAUSE IT SECURES 
SOME 5D1 ! 5D MU/1 IF WE HAVE GONE F> 5\<1 BE VALUABLE ON 
ITS [N ACC\NT1 & NOT M]ELY BECAUSE IT IS USEFUL = SOME FUR!R 
5D4 ,?US ALL JUDGM5TS AS TO :AT IS USEFUL DEP5D UPON JUDGM5TS 
AS TO :AT HAS VALUE ON ITS [N ACC\NT4 

,WE JUDGE1 = EXAMPLE1 ?AT HAPP9ESS IS MORE DESIRABLE ?AN MIS]Y1  
KN[L$GE ?AN IGNORANCE1 GOODWILL ?AN HATR$1 & SO ON4 ,SU* 
JUDGM5TS MU/1 9 P>T AT LEA/1 BE IMM$IATE & A 
PRIORI4 ,LIKE \R PREVI\S A PRIORI JUDGM5TS1 !Y MAY 
BE ELICIT$ BY EXP]I5CE1 & 9DE$ !Y MU/ BE2 = IT 
SEEMS NOT POSSIBLE TO JUDGE :E!R ANY?+ IS 9TR9SICALLY 
VALUABLE UNLESS WE HAVE EXP]I5C$ SOME?+ ( ! SAME K9D4 ,BUT 
IT IS FAIRLY OBVI\S ?AT !Y CANNOT BE PROV$ BY 
EXP]I5CE2 = ! FACT ?AT A ?+ EXI/S OR DOES NOT EXI/ CANNOT 
PROVE EI!R ?AT IT IS GOOD ?AT IT %\LD EXI/ OR ?AT IT IS BAD4 
,! PURSUIT ( ?IS SUBJECT BELONGS TO E?ICS1 :]E ! 
IMPOSSIBILITY ( D$UC+ :AT \<T TO BE FROM :AT IS HAS TO 
E/ABLI%$4 ,9 ! PRES5T CONNECTION1 IT IS ONLY IMPORTANT TO 
REALIZE ?AT KN[L$GE AS TO :AT IS 9TR9SICALLY ( VALUE IS A 
PRIORI 9 ! SAME S5SE 9 :I* LOGIC IS A PRIORI1  
NAMELY 9 ! S5SE ?AT ! TRU? ( SU* KN[L$GE CAN BE NEI!R 
PROV$ NOR DISPROV$ BY EXP]I5CE4 

,ALL PURE MA!MATICS IS A PRIORI1 LIKE LOGIC4 ,?IS 
/R5U\SLY D5I$ BY ! EMPIRICAL PHILOSOPH]S1 :O MA9TA9$ ?AT 
EXP]I5CE WAS AS MU* ! S\RCE ( \R KN[L$GE ( >I?METIC AS 
( \R KN[L$GE ( GEOGRAPHY4 ,!Y MA9TA9$ ?AT BY ! REPEAT$ 
EXP]I5CE ( SEE+ TWO ?+S & TWO O!R ?+S1 & F9D+ 
?AT ALTOGE!R !Y MADE F\R ?+S1 WE W]E L$ BY 9DUCTION TO 
! CONCLUSION ?AT TWO ?+S & TWO O!R ?+S W\LD ALWAYS MAKE 
F\R ?+S ALTOGE!R4 ,IF1 H[EV]1 ?IS W]E ! S\RCE ( \R 
KN[L$GE ?AT TWO & TWO >E F\R WE %\LD PROCE$ DIFF]5TLY1 9 
P]SUAD+ \RSELVES ( ITS TRU?1 FROM ! WAY 9 :I* WE DO 
ACTUALLY PROCE$4 ,9 FACT1 A C]TA9 NUMB] ( 9/ANCES >E NE$$ 
TO MAKE US ?9K ( TWO AB/RACTLY1 RA!R ?AN ( TWO CO9S OR TWO 
BOOKS OR TWO PEOPLE1 OR TWO ( ANY O!R SPECIFI$ K9D4 ,BUT AS SOON 
AS WE >E ABLE TO DIVE/ \R ?\<TS ( IRRELEVANT P>TICUL>ITY1 WE 
BECOME ABLE TO SEE ! G5]AL PR9CIPLE ?AT TWO & TWO 
>E F\R2 ANY ONE 9/ANCE IS SE5 TO BE TYPICAL & ! 
EXAM9ATION ( O!R 9/ANCES BECOMES UNNECESS>Y4"9 

--------------- 

  
"9 ,CF4 ,A4 ,N4 ,:ITEHEAD1 ,9TRODUCTION 
TO ,MA!MATICS 7,HOME ,UNIV]SITY ,LIBR>Y74 

 --------------- 

,! SAME ?+ IS EXEMPLIFI$ 9 GEOMETRY4 ,IF WE WANT TO 
PROVE SOME PROP]TY ( ALL TRIANGLES1 WE DRAW SOME ONE 
TRIANGLE & REASON AB\T IT2 BUT WE CAN AVOID MAK+ USE ( ANY 
PROP]TY :I* IT DOES NOT %>E ) ALL O!R TRIANGLES1 & ?US1  
FROM \R P>TICUL> CASE1 WE OBTA9 A G5]AL RESULT4 ,WE DO NOT1 9 
FACT1 FEEL \R C]TA9TY ?AT TWO & TWO >E F\R 9CREAS$ BY FRE% 
9/ANCES1 BECAUSE1 AS SOON AS WE HAVE SE5 ! TRU? ( ?IS 
PROPOSITION1 \R C]TA9TY BECOMES SO GREAT AS TO BE 9CAPABLE ( 
GR[+ GREAT]4 ,MOREOV]1 WE FEEL SOME QUALITY ( NECESSITY 
AB\T ! PROPOSITION 'TWO & TWO >E F\R'1 :I* IS ABS5T FROM 
EV5 ! BE/ ATTE/$ EMPIRICAL G5]ALIZATIONS4 ,SU* 
G5]ALIZATIONS ALWAYS REMA9 M]E FACTS3 WE FEEL ?AT !RE MI<T BE 
A WORLD 9 :I* !Y W]E FALSE1 ?\< 9 ! ACTUAL WORLD !Y 
HAPP5 TO BE TRUE4 ,9 ANY POSSIBLE WORLD1 ON ! CONTR>Y1 WE FEEL 
?AT TWO & TWO W\LD BE F\R3 ?IS IS NOT A M]E FACT1 BUT A 
NECESSITY TO :I* EV]Y?+ ACTUAL & POSSIBLE MU/ CON=M4 

,! CASE MAY BE MADE CLE>] BY CONSID]+ A G5U9ELY 
EMPIRICAL G5]ALIZATION1 SU* AS ',ALL M5 >E MORTAL4' ,IT IS PLA9 
?AT WE BELIEVE ?IS PROPOSITION1 9 ! FIR/ PLACE1 BECAUSE !RE 
IS NO KN[N 9/ANCE ( M5 LIV+ BEYOND A C]TA9 AGE1 & 9 ! 
SECOND PLACE BECAUSE !RE SEEM TO BE PHYSIOLOGICAL GR\NDS = 
?9K+ ?AT AN ORGANISM SU* AS A MAN'S BODY MU/ SOON] OR LAT] 
WE> \T4 ,NEGLECT+ ! SECOND GR\ND1 & CONSID]+ M]ELY \R 
EXP]I5CE ( M5'S MORTALITY1 IT IS PLA9 ?AT WE %\LD NOT BE 
CONT5T ) ONE QUITE CLE>LY UND]/OOD 9/ANCE ( A MAN DY+1  
:]EAS1 9 ! CASE ( 'TWO & TWO >E F\R'1 ONE 9/ANCE DOES 
SUFFICE1 :5 C>EFULLY CONSID]$1 TO P]SUADE US ?AT ! SAME MU/ 
HAPP5 9 ANY O!R 9/ANCE4 ,ALSO WE CAN BE =C$ TO ADMIT1 ON 
REFLECTION1 ?AT !RE MAY BE SOME D\BT1 H[EV] SLI<T1 AS TO 
:E!R ALL M5 >E MORTAL4 ,?IS MAY BE MADE PLA9 BY ! 
ATTEMPT TO IMAG9E TWO DIFF]5T WORLDS1 9 ONE ( :I* !RE >E 
M5 :O >E NOT MORTAL1 :ILE 9 ! O!R TWO & TWO MAKE FIVE4 
,:5 ,SWIFT 9VITES US TO CONSID] ! RACE ( ,/RULDBUGS :O NEV] 
DIE1 WE >E ABLE TO ACQUIESCE 9 IMAG9ATION4 ,BUT A WORLD :]E TWO 
& TWO MAKE FIVE SEEMS QUITE ON A DIFF]5T LEVEL4 ,WE FEEL ?AT SU* 
A WORLD1 IF !RE W]E ONE1 W\LD UPSET ! :OLE FABRIC ( \R 
KN[L$GE & R$UCE US TO UTT] D\BT4 

,! FACT IS ?AT1 9 SIMPLE MA!MATICAL JUDGM5TS SU* AS 
'TWO & TWO >E F\R'1 & ALSO 9 MANY JUDGM5TS ( LOGIC1 WE CAN 
KN[ ! G5]AL PROPOSITION )\T 9F]R+ IT FROM 9/ANCES1  
AL?\< SOME 9/ANCE IS USUALLY NECESS>Y TO MAKE CLE> TO US :AT 
! G5]AL PROPOSITION MEANS4 ,?IS IS :Y !RE IS REAL UTILITY 9 
! PROCESS ( D$UCTION1 :I* GOES FROM ! G5]AL TO ! 
G5]AL1 OR FROM ! G5]AL TO ! P>TICUL>1 AS WELL AS 9 ! 
PROCESS ( 9DUCTION1 :I* GOES FROM ! P>TICUL> TO ! 
P>TICUL>1 OR FROM ! P>TICUL> TO ! G5]AL4 ,IT IS AN OLD 
DEBATE AMONG PHILOSOPH]S :E!R D$UCTION EV] GIVES NEW 
KN[L$GE4 ,WE CAN N[ SEE ?AT 9 C]TA9 CASES1 LEA/1 IT DOES DO 
SO4 ,IF WE ALREADY KN[ ?AT TWO & TWO ALWAYS MAKE F\R1 & WE KN[ 
?AT ,BR[N & ,JONES >E TWO1 & SO >E ,ROB9SON & ,SMI?1 WE CAN 
D$UCE ?AT ,BR[N & ,JONES & ,ROB9SON & ,SMI? >E F\R4 ,?IS IS 
NEW KN[L$GE1 NOT CONTA9$ 9 \R PREMISES1 BECAUSE ! G5]AL 
PROPOSITION1 'TWO & TWO >E F\R1 NEV] TOLD US !RE W]E SU* 
PEOPLE AS ,BR[N & ,JONES & ,ROB9SON & ,SMI?1 & ! P>TICUL> 
PREMISES DO NOT TELL US ?AT !RE W]E F\R ( !M1 :]EAS ! 
P>TICUL> PROPOSITION D$UC$ DOES TELL US BO? !SE ?+S4 

,BUT ! NEWNESS ( ! KN[L$GE IS MU* LESS C]TA9 IF WE 
TAKE ! /OCK 9/ANCE ( D$UCTION ?AT IS ALWAYS GIV5 9 BOOKS ON 
LOGIC1 NAMELY1 ',ALL M5 >E MORTAL2 ,SOCRATES IS A MAN1 !RE=E 
,SOCRATES IS MORTAL4' ,9 ?IS CASE1 :AT WE REALLY KN[ BEYOND 
REASONABLE D\BT IS ?AT C]TA9 M51 ,A1 ,B1 ,C1 W]E MORTAL1 S9CE1 9 
FACT1 !Y HAVE DI$4 ,IF ,SOCRATES IS ONE ( !SE M51 IT IS FOOLI% 
TO GO ! R\NDAB\T WAY ?R\< 'ALL M5 >E MORTAL' TO >RIVE AT 
! CONCLUSION ?AT PROBABLY ,SOCRATES IS MORTAL4 ,IF ,SOCRATES 
IS NOT ONE ( ! M5 ON :OM \R 9DUCTION IS BAS$1 WE %ALL /ILL 
DO BETT] TO >GUE /RAI<T FROM \R ,A1 ,B1 ,C1 TO ,SOCRATES1 ?AN TO GO 
R\ND BY ! G5]AL PROPOSITION1 'ALL M5 >E MORTAL'4 ,= ! 
PROBABILITY ?AT ,SOCRATES IS MORTAL IS GREAT]1 ON \R DATA1 ?AN ! 
PROBABILITY ?AT ALL M5 >E MORTAL4 7,?IS IS OBVI\S1 BECAUSE IF ALL 
M5 >E MORTAL1 SO IS ,SOCRATES2 BUT IF ,SOCRATES IS MORTAL1 IT DOES 
NOT FOLL[ ?AT ALL M5 >E MORTAL47 ,H5CE WE %ALL REA* ! 
CONCLUSION ?AT ,SOCRATES IS MORTAL ) A GREAT] APPROA* TO 
C]TA9TY IF WE MAKE \R >GUM5T PURELY 9DUCTIVE ?AN IF WE GO BY 
WAY ( 'ALL M5 >E MORTAL' & !N USE D$UCTION4 

,?IS ILLU/RATES ! DIFF]5CE BETWE5 G5]AL PROPOSITIONS 
KN[N A PRIORI1 SU* AS 'TWO & TWO >E F\R'1 & 
EMPIRICAL G5]ALIZATIONS SU* AS 'ALL M5 >E MORTAL'4 ,9 REG>D TO 
! =M]1 D$UCTION IS ! RI<T MODE ( >GUM5T1 :]EAS 9 
REG>D TO ! LATT]1 9DUCTION IS ALWAYS !ORETICALLY PREF]ABLE1  
& W>RANTS A GREAT] CONFID5CE 9 ! TRU? ( \R CONCLUSION1  
BECAUSE ALL EMPIRICAL G5]ALIZATIONS >E MORE UNC]TA9 ?AN ! 
9/ANCES ( !M4 

,WE HAVE N[ SE5 ?AT !RE >E PROPOSITIONS KN[N A 
PRIORI1 & ?AT AMONG !M >E ! PROPOSITIONS ( LOGIC & 
PURE MA!MATICS1 AS WELL AS ! FUNDAM5TAL PROPOSITIONS ( E?ICS4 
,! QUE/ION :I* MU/ NEXT OCCUPY US IS ?IS3 ,H[ IS IT POSSIBLE 
?AT !RE %\LD BE SU* KN[L$GE8 ,& MORE P>TICUL>LY1 H[ CAN 
!RE BE KN[L$GE ( G5]AL PROPOSITIONS 9 CASES :]E WE HAVE NOT 
EXAM9$ ALL ! 9/ANCES1 & 9DE$ NEV] CAN EXAM9E !M ALL1  
BECAUSE !IR NUMB] IS 9F9ITE8 ,!SE QUE/IONS1 :I* W]E FIR/ 
BR\<T PROM95TLY =W>D BY ! ,G]MAN PHILOSOPH] ,KANT 
7#a#g#b#d-#a#h#d71 >E V]Y DIFFICULT1 & HI/ORICALLY V]Y IMPORTANT4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,NOVEMB] #c1 #aiaa 3 ,*APT] #g -- ,PUBLICATION4 
,JANU>Y #a#f1 #bb 3 ,*APT] #g -- ,ADD$4 

 FILE G5]AT$ FROM 3  
HTTP3_/_/REVOLTLIB4COM_/