,! ,POLITICAL ,!ORY ( ,AN>*ISM 

#aiga 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,APRIL ,C>T] 

,TEXT 3 

,ACKN[L$GM5TS 

,I AM V]Y GRATEFUL TO ,GE(FREY ,O/]GA>D1 ,NIGEL ,Y\NG1 ,M>G>ET ,LESLIE & TO MY SI/] ,FAY = 5C\RAGEM5T1 CRITICISM & ADVICE ON ?IS MANUSCRIPT AT V>I\S /AGES4 ,!IR COMM5TS HAVE SAV$ ME FROM MANY ]RORS2 ?OSE REMA9+ >E MY [N RESPONSIBILITY4 

,AU?OR'S ,NOTE 

,?IS BOOK WAS CONCEIV$ & WRITT5 AS A BRIEF /UDY 9 POLITICAL !ORY1 PRIM>ILY = /UD5TS ( POLITICS4 ,ITS MA9 AIM IS TO EXPLORE AN>*I/ IDEAS 9 RELATION TO A NUMB] ( IMPORTANT !MES 9 POLITICAL ?\<T4 

,! BOOK ASSUMES NO PRIOR KN[L$GE ( AN>*I/ HI/ORY & PHILOSOPHY1 & WILL !RE=E COV] GR\ND FAMILI> TO ?OSE ALREADY V]S$ 9 ! LIT]ATURE ON AN>*ISM4 ,ON ! O!R H& IT DOES ASSUME SOME KN[L$GE ( G5]AL POLITICAL !ORY1 AL?\< ! SPECIFIC CONNECTIONS BETWE5 AN>*I/ & O!R !ORI/S >E SPELT \T AS CLE>LY AS POSSIBLE4 ,IT ALSO EXPLORES ! RELEVANCE ( AN>*I/ IDEAS TO CONTEMPOR>Y POLITICS & POLITICAL DISC\RSE4 

#a ,! ,POLITICAL ,!ORY OL ,AN>*ISM 

,! ,LEVIA?AN 

,?IS *APT] EXAM9ES SOME ( ! KEY CONCEPTS & !MES ( AN>*ISM & !IR RELATION TO OR?ODOX POLITICAL !ORY4 ,! DISCUSSION C5T]S R\ND ,HOBBES'S ,LEVIA?AN4 ,BECAUSE ,HOBBES /AT$ ) EXCEPTIONAL CL>ITY & 9CISIV5ESS SOME ( ! KEY PROBLEMS ( POLITICS1 & DID SO AT A HI< LEVEL ( AB/RACTION :I* GIVES HIS PHILOSOPHY A RELATIVELY TIMELESS QUALITY1 IT IS POSSIBLE TO DRAW ON HIS ?\<T = ! PURPOSES ( G5]AL ANALYSIS4 

,HOBBES IS ALSO P>TICUL>LY RELEVANT TO A DISCUSSION ( AN>*ISM4 ,AS A PHILOSOPH] ( RIGOR\S 'REALISM' HE CONTRA/S /RONGLY ) ! ',UTOPIAN' ELEM5TS 9 AN>*I/ ?\<T2 & ! ,LEVIA?AN1 :I* IS A CLASSIC /ATEM5T ( ! NE$ = /RONG GOV]NM5T1 P]SUASIVELY EQUATES AN>*Y ) VIOL5CE & DISORD]4 ,BUT 9T]E/+LY ,GODW91 ! FIR/ PHILOSOPH] ( AN>*ISM1 IS 9 ! DIRECT L9E ( 9TELLECTUAL DESC5T FROM ,HOBBES'S 9DIVIDUALISM & RATIONALISM4 ,IT IS1 !RE=E1 POSSIBLE TO PO9T TO ! COMPLEXITY ( POLITICAL IDEAS1 BY TRAC+ H[ ,HOBBES'S !ORY CAN G5]ATE ITS [N OPPOSITE -- A CONSI/5T 9DIVIDUALI/ AN>*I/ !ORY1 :IL/ AT ! SAME TIME LAY+ ! !ORETICAL F\NDATIONS = AN AN>*I/ 9V]SION ( ITSELF4 

,AN>*I/ IDEAS CAN BE L9K$ ) ,HOBBES'S !ORY AT ?REE LEVELS4 ,FIR/1 AT ! MO/ OBVI\S LEVEL1 AN AN>*I/ VISION ( A PEACEFUL SOCIETY FREE FROM ! ILLS ( GOV]NM5T1 IS A REV]SE IMAGE ( ,HOBBES'S PICTURE ( ! /ATE ( W> :I* RESULTS :5 GOV]NM5T BREAKS D[N1 OR 9 ! ABS5CE ( ANY C5TRAL P[]4 ,SECONDLY1 !RE >E 9T]E/+ CONNECTIONS TO BE MADE BETWE5 ,HOBBES'S PSY*OLOGY & CONCEPTION ( ! 9DIVIDUAL1 & AN>*I/ ATTITUDES4 ,?IRDLY1 ,HOB-BESIAN PROPOSITIONS AB\T ! ,/ATE1 ! ROLE ( LAW1 & ! NATURE ( CRIME1 ILLUM9ATE ! C5TRAL CONC]NS ( AN>*ISM4 ,!RE >E LIMITATIONS 9 ! ,HOBBESIAN ACC\NT ( SOCIETY :I* TAKES ! PSY*OLOGICAL MAKE-UP ( ! 9DIVIDUAL AS ! BASIS = ANALYSIS1 & SELF-9T]E/ -- EV5 ! 5LI<T5$ SELF-9T]E/ LEAD+ TO VIRTU\S BEHAVIOR ,GODW9 5VISAGES -- AS ! MOTIVE =CE HOLD+ SOCIETY TOGE!R4 ,BUT ! EMPHASIS ( MANY LAT] AN>*I/S ON ! POSITIVE ROLE ( SOCIAL GR\PS 9 9FLU5C+ & B9D+ TOGE!R 9DIVIDUALS PROVIDES A P>TIAL SOLUTION = SOME ( ! DIFFICULTIES 9H]5T 9 ?IS POSITION4 .<#a#d.> 

,AN>*Y MEANS LIT]ALLY ')\T GOV]NM5T'1 & ! L[E/ COMMON D5OM9ATOR ( AN>*I/ ?\<T IS ! CONVICTION ?AT EXI/+ =MS ( GOV]NM5T >E PRODUCTIVE ( W>S1 9T]NAL VIOL5CE1 REPRESSION & MIS]Y4 ,?IS CRITIQUE ( GOV]NM5T EXT5DS TO LIB]AL DEMOCRATIC GOV]NM5TS AS WELL AS TO ! MORE FREQU5TLY CRITICIZ$ DICTATOR%IPS4 ,HOBBES WAS1 LIKE ! AN>*I/S1 MORE 9T]E/$ 9 GOV]NM5T AS A G5]AL PH5OM5ON ?AN 9 DI/+UI%+ BETWE5 DIFF]5T TYPES ( GOV]NM5T4 ,:ILE HE ?\<T MON>*IAL GOV]NM5T W\LD BE MORE EFFICI5T & LESS OP5 TO CORRUPTION ?AN O!R =MS1 HE WAS PRIM>ILY CONC]N$ TO EXPLA9 9 AB/RACT T]MS :Y GOV]NM5T IS NECESS>Y4 

,! ,SOCIAL ,CONTRACT 

,HOBBES'S AB/RACT JU/IFICATION = GOV]NM5T RE/S ON ! LEGALI/IC FICTION ( ! SOCIAL CONTRACT4 ,! CONTRACT IS 5VISAG$ BETWE5 9DIVIDUALS DRIV5 TO SET UP A GOV]NM5T BECAUSE ( ! MIS]IES !Y 5DURE 9 ! '/ATE ( NATURE'1 :]E !RE IS NO /ABLE SOCIAL ORGANIZATION4 ,! /ATE ( NATURE IS SOMETIMES 5VISAG$ 9 A QUASI-HI/ORICAL WAY3 ONCE UPON A TIME1 BE=E GOV]NM5T EXI/$1 M5 LIV$ 9 SMALL SCATT]$ GR\PS -- SOMETIMES P]HAPS JO9$ TOGE!R 9 B&S = HUNT+ OR W> -- & TRI$ TO LIVE (F ! L&4 ,BUT NO ONE C\LD CULTIVATE ! L& 9 PEACE1 OR BE SECURE 9 HIS POSSESSIONS1 BECAUSE AT ANY TIME HE MI<T BE ATTACK$ BY M>AUD]S & DRIV5 (F OR KILL$4 ,!RE=E1 EV]YONE HAD TO BE READY TO FI<T (F ATTACK]S2 & M5 W]E LIKELY TO ATTACK BO? = ! SAKE ( POSSESSIONS & ! P[] :I* POSSESSIONS BR+2 OR ?R\< %E] LOVE ( FI<T+ & ! GLORY TO BE WON FROM SUCCESS 9 BATTLE4 ,EV5 IF ONLY A M9ORITY W]E LIKELY TO ACT 9 ?IS FA%ION1 EV]YONE WAS =C$ ?R\< FE> TO TAKE DEF5SIVE MEASURES1 & MI<T1 9 L9E ) ! FAMILI> LOGIC ( DEF5SE1 FEEL IMPELL$ TO LAUN* PREV5TIVE ATTACKS AGA9/ !IR MORE ?REAT5+ NEI<BORS4 

,HOBBES IS NOT CLAIM+ TO DESCRIBE AN ACTUAL HI/ORICAL SITUATION -- EV5 ?\< 9 ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY HI/ORICAL & AN?ROPOLOGICAL EVID5CE W\LD NOT HAVE ?R[N AS MU* D\BT AS !Y DO N[ ON ! REALISM ( HIS PICTURE ( A PRE-SOCIAL /AGE4 ,HE IS EXPLOR+ ! LOGIC ( A SITUATION 9 :I* HUMAN NATURE PR$ISPOSES M5 TO ACT 9 C]TA9 WAYS1 & !RE IS NO SUP]IOR P[] TO PREV5T !M W>R+ ) ONE ANO!R4 ,SO 9 ! /ATE ( NATURE !RE IS NO ECONOMIC PROSP]ITY -- BECAUSE ECONOMIC ADVANCE DEP5DS ON SECURITY & COOP]ATION2 NO SCI5TIFIC KN[L$GE1 'NO >TS2 NO LETT]S2 NO SOCIETY2 & :I* IS WOR/ ( ALL1 CONT9UAL FE> & DANG] ( VIOL5T DEA?' 7,LEVIA?AN1 #h#b74 ,?IS IS AN EXTREME PICTURE ( :AT .<#a#e.> LIFE W\LD BE LIKE )\T ANY GOV]NM5T AT ALL4 ,SUP]IMPOS$ ON ?IS >E IMAGES ( A P>TIAL '/ATE ( NATURE' RESULT+ FROM ! BREAKD[N ( C5TRAL GOV]NM5T1 OR CIVIL W> -- ! REALI/IC DANG]S ,HOBBES IS TRY+ TO AV]T4 

,HOBBES IS AW>E ?AT ! /ATE ( NATURE 9 :I* !RE IS NO ORGANIZ$ SOCIETY IS A LOGICAL FICTION2 IT IS ! BASIS = ! SECOND FICTION1 ! SOCIAL CONTRACT4 ,9DIVIDUALS :O HAVE BE5 DRIV5 BY FE> & GUID$ BY REASON TO SEEK A RATIONAL SOLUTION TO !IR DIFFICULTIES >E 5VISAG$ AS COM+ TOGE!R TO DRAW UP :AT AM\NTS TO A PEACE TREATY1 & SIMULTANE\SLY SETT+ UP A SOV]EIGN TO 5SURE ! TREATY IS1 9 FUTURE1 KEPT4 ,! >TICLES ( ! TREATY1 & ! OBLIGATIONS ( ! P>TIES TO IT1 >E SPELT \T 9 FULL ON ! ANALOGY ( O!R LEGALLY B9D+ CONTRACTS1 = EXAMPLE 9 ! COMM]CIAL SPH]E4 ,HOBBES IS ABLE ?R\< ?IS ANALOGY TO >GUE A D\BLE CASE4 ,FIR/1 HE %[S ?AT IT IS 9 ! 9T]E/ ( ! 9DIVIDUAL TO LIVE UND] /RONG GOV]NM5T1 & !RE=E HE %\LD ACT 9 SU* A WAY AS TO MA9TA9 ! EXI/+ GOV]NM5T 7I4E4 KEEP ! T]MS ( ! 'SOCIAL CONTRACT'74 ,SECONDLY1 BY DRAW+ ON ! SOPHI/ICAT$ CONCEPTS & S5SE ( MORAL OBLIGATION EVOLV$ 9 LEGAL PRACTICE & FAMILI> TO HIS READ]S1 ,HOBBES IS ABLE TO SUGGE/ :Y GOV]NM5T IS NOT ONLY NECESS>Y & USEFUL1 BUT HAS LEGITIMATE AU?ORITY4 

,HOBBES IS ! MO/ BRILLIANT & ORIG9AL ( ! CONTRACT !ORI/S1 BUT ! CONCEPTION ( ! SOCIAL CONTRACT IS COMMON TO MANY O!R SEV5TE5? C5TURY WRIT]S4 ,IT WAS C>RI$ OV] 9TO ! EI<TE5? C5TURY1 BUT BY ! TIME ( ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION IT HAD LO/ MU* ( ITS ORG9AL RELEVANCE AS A POLITICAL ANALOGY2 & IT HAD ALSO LO/ ITS LOGICAL CL>ITY AS A RESULT ( BE+ M]G$ 9 POLITICAL DISC\RSE ) ! ,:IG 9T]PRETATION ( ,BRITI% HI/ORY1 & BE+ ID5TIFI$ ) ! SETTLEM5T ( #a#f#h#h4 ,MOREOV]1 BY ?IS TIME CONTRACT !ORY (T5 SEEM$ DESIGN$ TO JU/IFY EXI/+ POLITICAL PRACTICES1 :I* /RUCK MANY RE=M]S & RADICALS AS CORRUPT1 UNJU/ & FREQU5TLY ABSURD4 ,AS A RESULT ! CONTRACT T5D$ TO LOOK LIKE A =M ( 9TELLECTUAL MY/IFICATION1 DESIGN$ TO DELUDE ! PEOPLE 9TO =GO+ !IR RI<TS4 ,! !ORETICAL F\NDATIONS ( ! CONTRACT !ORY W]E UND]M9$ BY ,HUME4 ,B5?AM ATTACK$ ! FICTION ( ! CONTRACT 9 ! NAME ( UTILIT>IANISM2 ,TOM ,PA9E D]ID$1 9 DEF5SE ( POPUL> SOV]EIGNTY1 ! IDEA ( A CONTRACT :I* VE/$ 9 ! ,GOV]NM5T CONT9U+ RI<TS2 & ,WILLIAM ,GODW9 DISMISS$ ! NOTION ( AN 'ORIG9AL CONTRACT' 9 ! C\RSE ( CON/RUCT+ A RATIONAL AN>*I/ PHILOSOPHY4 

,BUT ! IDEA ( ! CONTRACT DID NOT SIMPLY DISAPPE>2 AS IS FREQU5T ) POLITICAL CONCEPTIONS1 IT UND]W5T A S]IES ( TRANS=MATIONS1 IFLE NOTION ( 9DIVIDUAL CONS5T TO GOV]NM5T1 :I* IS 9TR9SIC TO TNE SOCIAL CONTRACT1 HAS 9H]5TLY RADICAL IMPLICATIONS1 AS ,HOBBES .<#a#f.> WAS UNEASILY AW>E2 & AS ,LOCKE C>EFULLY DEMON/RAT$ 9 HIS DEF5SE ( REBELLION4 ,!SE RADICAL POSSIBILITIES W]E DEVELOP$ 9 ?REE DIRECTIONS4 ,! UTILIT>IAN !ORY ( DEMOCRACY RETA9$ ! IMPLICIT CONTRACTUAL NOTIONS ( UTILITY AS A CRIT]ION ( ! PURPOSE ( GOV]NM5T1 & ( 9DIVIDUAL CONS5T AS A CRIT]ION ( LEGITIMACY1 :IL/ AB&ON+ ! LEGAL FICTION ( ! CONTRACT4 ,9 ! RADICAL DEMOCRATIC !ORY PROPAGAT$ BY ,PA9E ! HI/ORICAL FICTION WAS TRANSMUT$ 9TO A PRES5T & RECURR+ R5EWAL ( ! CONTRACT BETWE5 ! GOV]N$ & !IR *OS5 GOV]NM5T2 & SOV]EIGNTY WAS TRANSF]R$ FROM ! 'SOV]EIGN' MON>* TO ! PEOPLE4 ,! AN>*I/ CONCEPTION DEVELOP$ BY ,GODW9 W5T A /AGE FUR!R ?AN ,PA9E4 ,GODW9 ?\<T ( CONTRACTS NOT BETWE5 ?AT FICTITI\S 5TITY1 ! 'PEOPLE'1 & ! GOV]NM5T2 BUT BETWE5 SPECIFIC 9DIVIDUALS4 ,:]EAS ,HOBBES'S SOCIETY IS BAS$ ON A S+LE COMPACT 9 ! ASSUM$ PA/1 ,GODW9'S SOCIETY IS TO BE BUILT ON A S]IES ( MUTUAL & CON/ANTLY R5EW$ COMPACTS BETWE5 FREELY CONTRACT+ 9DIVIDUALS2 P]MAN5T CONTRACTS LIKE M>RIAGE >E AN 9FR+EM5T ( FRE$OM4 ,?IS CONCEPTION ( CONTRACTS BAS$ ON ! PR9CIPLE ( JU/ICE1 IMPLICIT 9 ,GODW91 WAS BUILT SY/EMATICALLY 9TO ! SOCIAL !ORY ( ,PR\D-HON1 :O CONTRA/$ VOLUNT>Y CONTRACT ) LAW 5=C$ BY SUP]IOR P[]4 

,! IMPACT ( ,HOBBES'S !ORY LIES P>TLY 9 ! IMAGE HE EVOKES ( ! VIOL5CE1 *AOS & FE> :I* 5SUE :5 !RE IS NO GOV]NM5T TO 5=CE LAW & ORD]4 ,IF HIS ASSUMPTIONS >E REV]S$1 & ONE >GUES ?AT M5 >E BY NATURE -- :5 UNCORRUPT$ BY ! P]V]T+ 9FLU5CE ( GOV]NM5T & EVIL SOCIETIES -- COOP]ATIVE1 PEACE-LOV+ & ACTIVAT$ BY SPONTANE\S SYMPA?Y T[>DS O!RS1 !N ! LOGIC ( ! SITUATION IS ALSO REV]S$4 ,GOV]NM5T CEASES TO BE A PROTECTOR ( 9DIVIDUALS1 & A GU>ANTOR ( !IR LIVES & PROP]TY4 ,9/EAD1 ! ,/ATE IS SE5 AS ! *IEF ?REAT TO ! LIB]TY1 SECURITY & PROSP]ITY ( ! 9DIVIDUAL1 :OM IT CIRCUMSCRIBES ) LAWS & REGULATIONS1 JAILS = 9FR+EM5T ( !SE RULES1 CONSCRIPTS TO FI<T 9 W>S1 EXECUTES = ANY TREASON TO ! ,/ATE1 & ROBS ?R\< EXORBITANT TAXES4 ,HOBBES CONC$$ ?AT GOV]NM5TS MI<T H>M !IR SUBJECTS1 BUT >GU$ ! WOR/ A GOV]NM5T C\LD DO TO PEOPLE IS 'SC>CE S5SIBLE 9 RESPECT ( ! MIS]IES1 & HORRIBLE CALAMITIES1 ?AT ACCOMPANY A CIVIL W>1 OR ?AT DISSOLUTE CONDITION ( MA/]LESS M51 )\T SUBJECTION TO LAWS1 & A CO]CIVE P[] TO TIE !IR H&S FROM RAP9E & REV5GE' 7,LEVIA?AN1 #a#b74 ,AN>*I/S LIKE ,GODW9 & ,TOL/OY BELIEV$ ?AT GOV]NM5TS >E RESPONSIBLE = ! GREATE/ CRIMES1 & PROMOTE DEVA/AT+ W>S BETWE5 ,/ATES4 ,IT IS ( C\RSE AN OV]-SIMPLIFICATION TO SAY ?AT AN>*I/S BELIEVE M5 >E ALWAYS NATURALLY COOP]ATIVE & PEACEABLE1 JU/ AS IT IS MISLEAD+ TO SUGGE/ ,HOBBES ?\<T ALL M5 >E NECESS>ILY COMPETITIVE .<#a#g.> & VA+LORI\S4 ,BUT ,HOBBES'S EMPHASIS L$ HIM TO ! CONCLUSION ?AT GOV]NM5T IS A NECESS>Y EVIL4 ,! AN>*I/S CONCLUDE ?AT GOV]NM5T IS A GREAT & UNNECESS>Y EVIL1 & ?AT AN>*Y 9 ! LIT]AL S5SE ( NO GOV]NM5T NE$ NOT MEAN AN>*Y 9 ! POPUL> S5SE ( VIOL5CE & DISORD]4 

,HOBBES & ,GODW9 

,BUT AP>T FROM ! BASIC IMAGE ( ,HOBBES'S /ATE ( NATURE 9 REV]SE1 !RE >E MORE DIRECT & SUBTLE L9KS BETWE5 ,HOBBES & ONE /R& ( ! AN>*I/ TRADITION -- ?AT IS ! 9DIVIDUALI/ & RATIONALI/ TRADITION REPRES5T$ ESPECIALLY BY ,WILLIAM ,GODW94 ,HOBBES'S !ORY CONTA9S ! +R$I5TS ( A CONSI/5T !ORY ( AN>*ISM1 & !SE >E PRES5T 9 ,GODW9'S WRIT+S4 ,! MO/ BASIC ELEM5T COMMON TO BO? IS ! !ORETICAL FRAMEWORK -- ! ASSUMPTION ?AT SOCIAL ANALYSIS />TS ) ! 9DIVIDUAL1 & HIS P]SONAL NE$S & DESIRES1 RA!R ?AN ) SOCIETY1 ! ,/ALE1 OR ! PATT]N ( HI/ORY4 ,GODW9 CONSID]S IT OBVI\S ?AT 'SOCIETY IS NO?+ MORE ?AN AN AGGREGATE ( 9DIVIDUALS'4 ,! 9DIVIDUAL IS = PURPOSES ( ANALYSIS AB/RACT$ FROM SOCIETY4 ,! IMPORTANCE ( $UCATION 9TO SOCIETY IS RECOGNIZ$ BY ,HOBBES1 & EV5 MORE SO BY ,GODW92 BUT POLITICAL CONCLUSIONS >E BAS$ ON D$UCTIONS FROM HUMAN NATURE1 :I* IS SE5 AS MORE FUNDAM5TAL ?AN ANY SPECIFIC SOCIAL OR CULTURAL 9FLU5CE4 ,/EMM+ FROM ?IS 9DIVIDUALI/ POSITION >E ,HOBBES'S & ,GODW9'S VIEWS ON FRE$OM1 EQUALITY1 RATIONALITY1 & ! NATURE ( ! ,/ATE4 

,HOBBES DEF9ES FRE$OM AS ! ABS5CE ( EXT]NAL CON/RA9TS ON ! 9DIVIDUAL4 ,! UND]LY+ ASSUMPTION IS ?AT FRE$OM TO DO :AT ONE LIKES IS = ! 9DIVIDUAL A FUNDAM5TAL GOOD1 & ?\< SOME SOCIAL RE/RA9TS MAY BE NECESS>Y = ! SAKE ( PEACE1 !Y >E 9EVITABLY IRKSOME TO ! 9DIVIDUAL4 ,ONCE ,HOBBES'S OV]RID+ EMPHASIS ON /RONG GOV]NM5T 9 ! 9T]E/S ( PREV5T+ CIVIL DISORD] HAS BE5 REPLAC$ BY A MORE SANGU9E RELIANCE ON A NATURAL H>MONY ( 9T]E/S -- = EXAMPLE1 ?R\< ! ME*ANISM ( ! M>KET -- !N ! LOGICAL CONSEQU5CE IS LAISSEZ-FAIRE LIB]ALISM1 9 :I* !RE IS A RESIDUAL ,HOBBESIAN BELIEF 9 ! ROLE ( ! ,/ATE 9 MA9TA9+ 9T]NAL PEACE & PROVID+ DEF5SE AGA9/ EXT]NAL 5EMIES1 BUT ! RE/RICTIVE SPH]E ( ! ,/ATE IS R$UC$ TO A M9IMUM4 ,IF ?IS BR& ( LIB]ALISM IS TAK5 TO ITS LOGICAL EXTREME1 :AT RESULTS IS A K9D ( LAISSEZ-FAIRE AN>*ISM PO/ULAT+ A NATURAL H>MONEY ( 9DIVIDUAL MT]E/S 9 ALL SPH]ES ( SOCIAL LIFE4 

,HOBBES NOT ONLY CREATES A CONCEPTION ( 9DIVIDUAL FRE$OM ULTIMATELY SUBV]SIVE ( HIS [N BELIEF 9 ! OV]RID+ RI<TS ( GOV]NM5T2 .<#a#h.> HE ALSO ESP\SES A RADICAL EGALIT>IANISM4 ,!RE >E ?REE REASONS = HIS EMPHASIS ON ! BASIC EQUALITY ( ALL M54 ,ONE IS ! SPECIFIC POLITICAL DESIRE TO D5Y TO ! NOBILITY A PRIVILEG$1 & H5CE DISRUPTIVE1 /ATUS 9 ! REALM3 ALL M5 >E EQUALLY OBLIG$ TO OBEY ! SOV]EIGN4 ,SECONDLY1 ! BASIC EQUALITY ( M5 9 ! /ATE ( NATURE IS A NECESS>Y PO/ULATE IF ALL M5 >E TO HAVE AN EQUAL 9C5TIVE TO LIVE UND] A SOV]EIGN4 ,IF 9 A /ATE ( NATURE SOME M5 ?R\< SUP]IOR /R5G? OR 9TELLIG5CE C\LD SECURE P]MAN5T P[] & SECURITY1 !N ! LOGIC ( ! SITUATION W\LD DICTATE !IR REMA9+ 9 A /ATE ( AN>*Y4 ,HOBBES DOES NOT >GUE :AT IS OBVI\SLY UNTRUE1 ?AT M5 ALL HAVE EXACTLY ! SAME DEGREE ( /R5G? OR SAME DEGREE ( 9TELLIG5CE1 BUT ?AT !SE 9H]5T DIFF]5CES >E NOT SIGNIFICANT1 S9CE M5 CONT9U\SLY COMPETE ) ONE ANO!R4 ,ABOVE ALL1 M5 >E EQUAL 9 !IR VULN]ABILITY TO VIOL5T DEA?4 ,?IS VULN]ABILITY IS MORE SIGNIFICANT ?AN ACCID5TAL P]SONAL ATTRIBUTES OR >TIFICIAL SOCIAL TRAPP+S4 ,H]E ,HOBBES TAKES UP HIS ?IRD & MO/ RADICAL >GUM5T = EQUALITY4 ,HE REFUSES TO ACCEPT ?AT IT IS P>T ( ! ORD] ( ! UNIV]SE 7OR ORDA9$ BY ,GOD7 ?AT SOME SECTIONS ( HUMANITY >E 'NATURALLY' SUP]IOR TO O!RS2 ! >I/OCRACY >E NOT SUP]IOR BY NATURE1 BUT BY SOCIAL CONV5TION2 & WOM5 >E NOT 9F]IOR BY NATURE1 BUT BY FAMILY CONV5TION4 

,HOBBES IS UND]M9+ ) HIS CRITICAL RATIONALITY ! SOCIAL TRADITIONS ( >I/OCRACY & ( ! PATRI>*AL FAMILY4 ,AS ,BURKE LAT] SAW :5 TRY+ TO MA9TA9 ! VALUES ( TRADITION -- & APPEAL+ TO ! ,GOD-GIV5 ORD] ( ! UNIV]SE :I* 5%R9ES ! TRADITIONAL ORD] ( SOCIETY -- AB/RACT & CRITICAL REASON+ 9 POLITICS IS 9H]5TLY RADICAL1 9 ! S5SE ( DE/ROY+ ! PREVI\SLY UNQUE/ION$ BELIEFS & HABITS ( ?\<T :I* MA9TA9 & %ELT] SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS4 ,ONCE EGALIT>IANISM HAS BE5 POSIT$1 9 H[EV] AB/RACT T]MS1 !N ! WAY IS OP5 = PURSU+ ! LOGIC ( IDEAS TO MORE RADICAL POLITICAL CONCLUSIONS4 ,GODW9 TAKES UP ! CONCEPT ( EQUALITY4 ,HE TOO ACCEPTS ?AT M5 >E NOT ID5TICAL 9 !IR PHYSICAL OR M5TAL P[]S4 ,BUT HE >GUES 9 HIS ,9QUIRY ,CONC]N+ ,POLITICAL ,JU/ICE3 ,!RE IS NO SU* DISP>ITY AMONG ! HUMAN RACE1 AS TO 5ABLE ONE MAN TO HOLD SEV]AL O!R M5 9 SUBJECTION1 EXCEPT SO F> AS !Y >E WILL+ TO BE SUBJECT' 7,VOL4 ,I1 #a#d#e74 ,MORE IMPORTANTLY1 ALL M5 & WOM5 >E MORALLY EQUAL4 ,!RE=E1 JU/ICE DEM&S !Y %\LD BE SOCIALLY & ECONOMICALLY EQUAL4 

,! ROLE ( RATIONALITY 9 ,HOBBES'S PHILOSOPHY IS COMPLEX4 ,9 HIS PSY*OLOGY ,HOBBES /RESSES ?AT RATIONALITY IS ! S]VANT ( ! PASSIONS3 ',= ! ?\<TS >E TO ! DESIRES1 AS SC\TS1 & SPIES1 TO RANGE ABROAD1 & F9D ! WAY TO ! ?+S DESIR$' 7,LEVIA?AN1 #d#f74 ,EV5 :5 M5 DECIDE TO LEAVE ! /ATE ( NATURE1 FE> IS ! SPUR4 .<#a#i.> ,ON ! O!R H&1 MAN'S REASON IS A CRUCIAL BRIDGE BETWE5 ! /ATE F NATURE & CIVIL SOCIETY -- ! CONTRACT ASSUMES BO? A SOPHI/ICAT$ RATIONAL AW>5ESS ( :AT IS NECESS>Y1 & ! TEMPOR>Y DOM9ANCE ( A RATIONAL S5SE ( LONG T]M SELF-9T]E/4 ,?IS EXCESSIVE RELIANCE ON REASON 9 ! =MATION ( ! SOCIAL CONTRACT /EMS FROM ! EXIG5CIES ( ! CONTRACT FICTION1 & IS DROPP$ :5 ,HOBBES COMES TO CONSID] H[ F> M5 CAN BE RELI$ ON TO KEEP ! CONTRACT4 ,H[EV]1 ,HOBBES'S POSITION IS FUR!R COMPLICAT$ BY ! RATIONALI/ ME?OD & COMMITM5T ( ! ,LEVIA?AN4 ,ITS BRILLIANCE & P]SUASIVE P[] IS P>TLY DUE TO ,HOBBES'S ME?OD ( RIGOR\SLY LOGICAL D$UCTION FROM A PRIORI PR9CIPLES ON ! MODEL ( HIS ADMIR$ GEOMETRY4 ,HOBBES HIMSELF IS COMMITT$ TO BELIEF 9 ! P[] ( REASON 9 ! DEVELOPM5T ( SCI5CE3 BO? NATURAL & SOCIAL SCI5CE4 

,FAI? 9 ! P[] ( SCI5CE 5TAILS A BELIEF 9 ! KEY ROLE ( REASON 9 MAN'S CONTROL OV] HIS NATURAL & SOCIAL 5VIRONM5T1 & IS ASSOCIAT$ ) ! !ORY ( PROGRESS1 & ) ! OPTIMISM :I* *>ACT]IZ$ ! RATIONALI/ TEMP] ( ! ,5LI<T5M5T4 ,GODW9 PUTS HIS TRU/ 9 REASON AS ! BASIS = A CIVILIZ$ SOCIETY1 & AS ! GU>ANTOR ( PROGRESS T[>DS A BETT] ONE4 ,BUT :IL/ ,HOBBES PRESUM$ REASON CAN %[ US H[ TO CREATE A /ABLE SOCIETY ?R\< POLITICAL SCI5CE1 BUT CANNOT GUIDE POLITICAL LIFE1 ,GODW9 RELIES ON REASON TO DIRECT ! PASSIONS CONT9U\SLY1 & TO PRESCRIBE DAY TO DAY RULES ( BEHAVIOR 9 ACCORDANCE ) ! PR9CIPLES ( JU/ICE4 ,REASON -- :I* 9 ,GODW9 HAS TAK5 ON ,PLATONIC OV]TONES TOTALLY ABS5T FROM ,HOBBES -- WILL BE ! BASIS = CONTRACTS BETWE5 FREE & MUTUALLY ASS5T+ 9DIVIDUALS4 

,! ME?OD ( ,POLITICAL ,JU/ICE IS ALSO SIMIL> TO ?AT ( ! ,LEVIA?AN4 ,GODW9 HIMSELF DEF9$ IT 9 A PREFACE TO ,! ,5QUIR] AS A PROCESS ( A PRIORI REASON+ BY 'LAY+ D[N ONE OR TWO SIMPLE PR9CIPLES :I* SEEM SC>CELY TO BE EXPOS$ TO ! HAZ>D ( REFUTATION1 & !N DEVELOP+ !M1 APPLY+ !M TO A NUMB] ( PO9TS1 & FOLL[+ !M 9TO A V>IETY ( 9F]5CES'1 SO CON/RUCT+ A TOTAL SY/EM :I* %\LD 'OV]BE> & ANNIHILATE ALL OPPOSITION' 7,H4 ,S4 ,SALT1 $41 ,POLITICAL ,JU/ICE1 #a#b74 

,IT FOLL[S FROM BO? ! 9DIVIDUALISM & RATIONALISM ( ! ,HOBBESIAN K9D ( APPROA* ?AT ! ,/ATE IS SE5 AS PRIM>ILY A CO]CIVE ORGANIZATION4 ,! ,/ATE EXI/S TO S]VE ! 9T]E/S ( 9-IVIDUALS1 & TO MA9TA9 LAW & ORD] AMONG UNRULY 9DIVIDUALS K REQUIRES ! USE ( =CE4 ,! SOV]EIGN 5=CES ! SOCIAL CONTACT TO MA9TA9 ! SECURITY ( ! COMMONWEAL?2 = 'COV5ANTS ,)\T ! SWORD >E BUT WORDS1 & ( NO /R5G? TO SECURE A MAN AT ALL 7,LEVIA?AN1 #a#i74 ,! AN>*I/S AGREE ?AT ! ,/ATE IS DI/IGUI%$ ABOVE ALL BY ITS CO]CIVE P[]4 ,?IS MEANS ?AT GOV]NM5T .<#b.> 'EV5 9 ITS BE/ /ATE IS AN EVIL' = ,GODW94 ,LAT] AN>*I/S HAVE /RESS$ ?IS PO9T ) GREAT] PASSION4 ,= ,TOL/OY ! GUILLOT9E HAS SUP]S$$ ! SWORD AS ! SYMBOL ( GOV]NM5T4 ,= ,EMMA ,GOLDMAN ! MA*9]Y ( GOV]NM5T COMPRISES '! CLUB1 ! GUN1 ! H&CUFF1 OR ! PRISON' 7,AN>*ISM & ,O!R ,ESSAYS1 #e#d74 

,PRIMACY ( ! ,9DIVIDUAL 

,AT ?IS PO9T ,I WI% TO DROP ! DETAIL$ COMP>ISON BETWE5 ,HOBBES & ,GODW9 & TO TAKE UP SOME MORE T5U\S BUT 9T]E/+ L9KS BETWE5 ,HOBBES & V>I\S /R&S ( ! AN>*I/ TRADITION4 ,E>LI] 9 ! DISCUSSION IT WAS 9DICAT$ ?AT ! ,HOBBESIAN ASS]TION ( ! PRIMACY ( ! 9DIVIDUAL IS AT LEA/ POT5TIALLY SUBV]SIVE ( ! ,/ATE4 ,HOBBES IS PREP>$ TO SUBORD9ATE ! 9T]E/S ( ! 9DIVIDUAL TO ,/ATE P[]1 BUT ONLY = /RICTLY LIMIT$ & PRACTICAL REASONS -- TO 9CREASE G5]AL SECURITY4 ,HOBBES IS NOT PREP>$ TO SACRIFICE 9DIVIDUAL 9T]E/S TO ANY SOCIAL GR\P+1 TO ANY POLITICAL CAUSE1 MORAL IDEAL OR RELIGI\S FAI?4 ,! ,GREAT ,LEVIA?AN IS NEV] 9 ANY S5SE SACR$4 ,HOBBES DOES NOT APPEAL TO ! DIV9ITY ( K+S4 ,NOR DOES HE MAKE ANY ( ! MOD]N APPEALS TO ! IDEA ( ! NATION1 ! MO!RL&1 ! CAUSE1 OR ! JU/ W>4 ,9DE$ ANY K9D ( UNCONDITIONAL LOYALTY OR FANATICAL DEVOTION >E ALI5 TO ,HOBBES4 ,IF ! GOV]NM5T IS LOS+ ITS GRIP1 !N ! 9DIVIDUAL IS 5C\RAG$ TO USE BIS COMMON S5SE & TO LOOK AFT] HIMSELF4 

,HOBBES IS OPPOS+ TWO K9DS ( LOYALTY & IDEALISM3 AN >I/OCRATIC & H]OIC CODE ( HONOR :I*1 BECAUSE IT IS H]OIC1 IS ALSO V]Y DE/RUCTIVE ( PEACE & QUIET2 & RELIGI\S OR POLITICAL IDEALISM & DEVOTION TO A CAUSE1 A MORE CONTEMPOR>Y PH5OM5ON4 ,! FIR/ ATTITUDE WAS REPRES5T$ BY ! ,ROYALI/S2 ! SECOND BY ! ,PURITANS & ! ,P>LIAM5T>IANS 9 ! ,CIVIL ,W>4 ,HOBBES'S CRITIQUE ( MISGUID$ 5?USIASM IS BAS$ ON A /RONG S5SE ( ! POLITICAL NECESSITY ( ORD]4 ,BUT IT IS ALSO BAS$ ON AN ASSUMPTION ?AT FE> IS A NATURAL -- & !RE=E HEAL?Y & S5SIBLE -- EMOTION4 ,HOBBES US$ TO JOKE AB\T HIS [N TIMID DISPOSITION4 ,9 HIS [N WORDS1 AT ! \TBREAK ( ! ,CIVIL ,W> HE WAS '! FIR/ ( ALL ?AT FL$'4 ,:5 ,CROMWELL HAD WON1 ,HOBBES WAS ONE ( ! FIR/ ,ROYALI/S TO MAKE HIS PEACE ) ! NEW GOV]NM5T4 ,?IS PRUD5TIAL CONC]N = ONE'S [N SAFETY TAKES 9 ,HOBBES ! =M ( POLITICAL OB$I5CE TO ANY /RONG GOV]NM5T1 & IMPOSES A POLITICAL OBLIGATION TO MA9TA9 ?IS OB$I5CE UNLESS ! GOV]NM5T CEASES TO BE EFFECTIVE4 

,BUT IF ?IS ATTITUDE IS EXT5D$1 AS IT WAS = EXAMPLE BY ,HOBBES'S .<#b#a.> CONTEMPOR>Y ,AN?ONY ,AS*AM1 :O WROTE A TREATISE ON ,! ,CONFUSIONS & ,REVOLUTIONS ( ,GOV]NM5T1 !N IT MAY BECOME A TOTALLY POLITICAL POSITION1 IF NOT AN ANTI-POLITICAL ONE4 ,AS*AM ADDRESS$ HIMSELF TO ! MASS ( ORD9>Y PEOPLE3 '! ,ANVILL ON :I* ALL SORTS ( ,HAMM]S DIS*>GE !MSELVES' 7SEE ,IR5E ,COLTMAN1 ,PRIVATE ,M5 & ,PUBLIC ,CAUSES1 #a#i#i74 ,ALL POLITICS BECOME 9 ?IS VIEW A DANG]\S & TR\BLESOME 9T]RUPTION ( DAY TO DAY LIFE4 ,& ?IS P]SONAL DAY TO DAY LIFE IS ALL ?AT MATT]S TO ! 9DIVIDUAL4 ,SO IF CONT5D+ POLITICIANS />T FI<T+ OV] ONE'S T]RITORY1 !N ONE PROTECTS ONESELF AS BE/ ONE CAN1 & CO-OP]ATES ) :OEV] IS W9N+ AT A P>TICUL> TIME4 ,?IS ATTITUDE MAKES CONNECTIONS ) A POPUL> REVOLT AGA9/ ! H]OISM & AMBITIONS ( ! UPP] CLASSES2 & ) ELEM5TS 9 ! 9TELLECTUAL AN>*I/ TRADITION -- ! APPEAL TO ! COMMONS5SE & NATURAL 9/9CTS ( ! MAN 9 ! /REET AGA9/ ! 9FLAT$ CLAIMS ( ! ,/ATE1 & ! PROPAG&A & RITUAL ( W>4 ,! 9SI/5CE ?AT ! 9DIVIDUAL'S FIR/ GOOD IS HIS [N CAN BE CONV]T$ BACK 9TO A SUBV]SIVE K9D ( 'POLITIES'4 ,ALEX ,COM=T 9 A REVIEW ( ,H]B]T ,M>CUSE SALUTES ! IDEA ?AT 'PIG-POLITICS IS TO BE OV]?R[N1 NOT BY A REVOLUTION>Y CLIQUE OR AN IRRATIONAL MOB1 BUT BY ! WEAPON ( 0,IRI% DEMOCRACY0 -- ! )DRAWAL1 RESI/ANCE & 5NUI ( ! ORD9>Y P]SON -- 9 O!R WORDS BY RATIONAL1 DOGG$ HUMAN BLOODYM9D$NESS' 7,! ,GU>DIAN1 #bb ,MAY1 #a#i#f#i1 #i74 

,HOBBES'S DETAIL$ PSY*OLOGICAL !ORY L9KS UP ) ANO!R AN>*I/ ATTITUDE -- A LIB]T>IAN APPROA* TO ! PLEASURES ( LIFE1 &1 9 P>TICUL>1 SEX4 ,HOBBES TAKES ! IMPORTANCE ( M5'S DESIRES & PASSIONS = GRANT$1 & AVOIDS ANY CONDEMNATION ( !M4 ,!RE IS NO HI]>*Y ( HI<] & L[] PASSIONS2 NO PURITANISM OR ASCETICISM4 ,MAN IS A K9D ( MA*9E PROPELL$ ONW>D BY A SUCCESSION ( DESIRES4 ,?IS VIEW1 :I* HAS ITS 9H]5T LIMITATIONS -- VIZ4 ,B5?AM'S FAM\S 'QUANTITY ( PLEASURE BE+ EQUAL1 PU%P9 IS AS GOOD AS POETRY' -- IS SUBV]SIVE BO? ( SOCIAL TABOOS & ( A SOCIAL MORALITY :I* DEM&S SUPPRESSION & PUNI%M5T ( VISE4 

,BELIEF 9 ! NATURALNESS ( M5'S DESIRES CAN BE DEVELOP$ 9TO A POSITIVE PLEA TO 5C\RAGE 9DIVIDUALS TO SATISFY !IR DESIRES & F9D HAPP9ESS4 ,! ,FR5* ,UTOPIAN SOCIALI/ ,*>LES ,F\RI] CON/RUCT$ A PICTURE ( A COMMUNITY :I* W\LD 5SURE H>MONY ?R\< GIV+ SCOPE TO DIFF]5T HUMAN PASSIONS4 ,9/EAD ( SUPPRESS+ & P]V]T+ !SE DESIRES1 AS HE BELIEV$ E>LY N9ETE5?-C5TURY SOCIETY DID1 ,F\RI]'S COMMUNITIES W\LD PROVIDE CREATIVE \TLETS = !M 9 ! =M ( USEFUL WORK & 9 FREE P]SONAL RELATION%IPS4 ,9 SPITE ( ECC5TRICITIES ( DETAIL1 ,F\RI]'S PSY*OLOGICAL APPROA* HAS CONNECTIONS ) MOD]N LIB]T>IAN ATTITUDES4 ,!SE .<#b#b.> ATTITUDES HAVE H[EV] BE5 GREATLY 9FLU5C$ BY ! PSY*OLOGY ( ,FREUD1 ESPECIALLY AS DEVELOP$ BY NEO-,FREUDIANS :O HAVE QUE/ION$ ,FREUD'S [N PESSIMI/IC CONCLUSIONS4 ,SOCIAL & EV5 POLITICAL EVILS MAY 9 ?IS VIEW BE TRAC$ TO ! H>MFUL REPRESSION ( NATURAL DRIVES -- ! WORD 'REPRESSION' TAK+ ON A D\BLE SIGNIFICANCE4 ,?IS APPROA* 9VOLVES REJECTION ( TRADITIONAL 9/ITUTIONS1 CONV5TIONAL MORAL CODES1 & RELIGI\S CONCEPTIONS ( S94 ,9 ITS ICONOCLASM1 ?\< NOT 9 ITS TONE1 MOD]N LIB]T>IANISM /ILL HAS C]TA9 CONNECTIONS ) ,HOBBESIAN SKEPTICISM4 

,LAW & ,GOV]NM5T 

,A MORE DIRECT AGREEM5T BETWE5 ,HOBBES & AN>*I/ ?9K]S IS 9 !IR VIEW ( LAW4 ,HOBBES IS ONE ( ?OSE !ORI/S :O DEF9ES LAW PURELY AS ! WILL ( ! SOV]EIGN4 ,! AU?ORITY ( ! LAW /EMS FROM ! FACT ?AT ! SOV]EIGN HAS WILL$ IT1 NOT BECAUSE IT CORRESPONDS TO ! LAWS ( NATURE OR PR9CIPLES ( NATURAL JU/ICE4 ,IF ! LEGITIMACY ( ! SOV]EIGN'S AU?ORITY IS D5I$1 SO IS ! LEGITIMACY ( ! LAW2 & IF ONE BELIEVES 9 9DEP5D5T /&>DS ( JU/ICE & MORALITY -- AS AN>*I/S DO -- EXI/+ LAWS MAY BE JUDG$ MORALLY UNJU/4 ,MOREOV]1 IF GOV]NM5T ITSELF IS AN EVIL1 !N ! LAWS PROMULGAT$ BY GOV]NM5TS >E NOT ONLY CO]CIVE RE/RICTIONS ON 9DIVIDUAL LIB]TY -- :I* ,HOBBES W\LD ACCEPT1 BUT AN 9TOL]ABLE =M ( CO]CION4 

,AN 9DIVIDUALI/ CRITIQUE ( ! 9TR9SIC EVIL ( CO]CIVE LAW IS USUALLY BACK$ BY ANO!R AN>*I/ >GUM5T3 ?AT LAWS >E L>GELY DESIGN$ TO PROTECT PROP]TY1 & !RE=E >E A BA/ION = ! PRIVILEGES ( WEAL?4 ,PR\DHON SUMM$ UP ! IDEA ?AT ! LAWS PROTECT+ PROP]TY >E A =M ( 9JU/ICE 9 HIS CELEBRAT$ SLOGAN ',PROP]TY IS ,!FT'4 ,?IS CONCEPTION HAD ALREADY BE5 PUT =W>D =CIBLY BY ,GODW93 

,! FRUITFUL S\RCE ( CRIMES CONSI/S 9 ?IS CIRCUM/ANCE1 ONE MAN'S POSSESS+ 9 ABUNDANCE ?AT ( :I* ANO!R MAN IS DE/ITUTE444 ,ACCUMULAT$ PROP]TY HAS FIX$ ITS EMPIRE 7,H4 ,S4 ,SALT1 $41 ,POLITICAL ,JU/ICE1 #e#h-#i74 

,IF ! EXI/+ LAWS >E UNJU/1 !N BREAK+ ! LAW MAY BE A NATURAL IF UNWISE RESPONSE TO 9JU/ICE 7AS ,GODW9 SAW IT71 OR A QUITE LEGITIMATE =M ( REBELLION1 AS SOME LAT] AN>*I/S1 :O (T5 T5D$ TO ROMANTICIZE CRIM9ALS1 CLAIM$4 ,AN 9TELLECTUALIZ$ VIEW ( ! CRIM9AL AS A REBEL AGA9/ AN UNJU/ & REPRESSIVE SOCIETY GA9S SOME COLOR & DEP? FROM ! FOLK TRADITIONS 9 :I* COMMON .<#b#c.> PEOPLE HAVE SOMETIMES RESPECT$ ROBB]S & B&ITS AS H]OIC PROTECTORS & AV5G]S ( ! POOR4 

,A SECOND ELEM5T 9 ! AN>*I/ OPPOSITION TO LAWS1 & ! LAW C\RTS1 POLICE =CES1 & PRISONS :I* 5=CE !M1 IS ! CONVICTION ?AT ! EVILS /EMM+ FROM JUDICIAL & PUNITIVE 9/ITUTIONS >E F> GREAT] ?AN ! RESULTS ( OCCASIONAL CRIME4 ,?IS BELIEF IS P>TLY A RESPONSE TO ! SUFF]+ ( M5 & WOM5 S5T TO JAIL4 ,EMMA ,GOLDMAN WROTE 9 AN ESSAY ON ',PRISONS'3 

,!RE IS NOT A S+LE P5AL 9/ITUTION OR RE=MATORY 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES :]E M5 >E NOT TORTUR$ 'TO BE MADE GOOD'1 BY MEANS ( ! BLACK-JACK1 ! CLUB1 ! /RAIT-JACKET1 ! WAT]-CURE1 ! 'HUMM+ BIRD' 7AN ELECTRICAL CONTRIVANCE RUN ALONG ! HUMAN BODY71 ! SOLIT>Y1 ! BULL-R+1 & />VATION DIET444 ,BUT PRISON WALLS R>ELY ALL[ ! AGONIZ$ %RIEKS ( ! VICTIMS TO ESCAPE -- PRISON WALLS >E ?ICK1 !Y DULL ! S\ND 7,AN>*ISM & ,O!R ,ESSAYS1 #h#c-#d74 

,! RELAT$ AN>*I/ >GUM5T -- ?AT PRISONS 9CREASE CRIME -- ,EMMA ,GOLDMAN ILLU/RATES FROM ,OSC> ,WILDE'S ,BALLAD ( ,READ+ ,JAIL3 

,! VILE/ DE$S1 LIKE POISON WE$S1 

,BLOOM WELL 9 PRISON AIR2 

,IT IS ONLY :AT IS GOOD 9 ,MAN 

,?AT WA/ES & WI!RS !RE4 

,! ?IRD >GUM5T H]E1 :I* IS MORE ORIG9AL TO AN>*I/S1 IS ?AT ! :OLE SY/EM ( LAW 5=CEM5T CREATES 'CRIM9ALS' AMONG ?OSE :O 5=CE ! LAW4 ,KROPOTK9 COMM5T$ ON '! TORR5T ( DEPRAVITY LET LOOSE 9 HUMAN SOCIETY BY ! 09=M+0 :I* IS C\NT5ANC$ BY JUDGES1 & PAID 9 H>D CA% BY GOV]NM5TS'1 & ! CORRUPTION 5TAIL$ 9 A SY/EM :I* DEM&S M5 BECOME EXECUTION]S & JAIL]S 7,LAW & ,AU?ORITY1 #b#b-#c74 0,WILDE OBS]V$ 9 ,! ,S\L ( ,MAN UND] ,SOCIALISM ?AT 9 READ+ HI/ORY ONE IS SICK5$ 'NOT BY ! CRIMES ?AT ! WICK$ HAVE COMMITT$1 BUT BY ! PUNI%M5TS ?AT ! GOOD HAVE 9FLICT$' :I* >E 9 FACT F> MORE BRUTALIZ+ = ! COMMUNITY 7#c#f74 

,?IS TYPE ( ANALYSIS CAN BE EXT5D$ TO A MORE C5TRAL ATTACK ON ! USES & ABUSES ( P[] TO 5COMPASS GOV]NM5T AS A :OLE1 IT MAY BE >GU$ ?AT COMPETITION = P[] & POSITION 9 GOV]NM5T 5C\RAGES ?OSE P]SONALITIES SEEK+ DOM9ANCE & PRE/IGE1 SO ! VA/ P[] & RESPONSIBILITY 9H]5T 9 GOV]NM5T MAY E PUT 9 ! H&S ( ?OSE 9TR9SICALLY LEA/ FITT$ = ?IS ROLE1 ECONDLY1 EV5 IF 9ITIALLY M5 GO 9TO POLITICS ) A S5SE ( SOCIAL ESPONSIBILITY1 ! NATURE ( ! POLITICAL SY/EM & ! MEANS NECES-"9Y TO A*IEVE ONE'S GOALS MAY OV] TIME CORRUPT POLITICAL .<#b#d.> PRACTITION]S4 ,A FUR!R REF9EM5T ( ?IS ANALYSIS RE/S ON AN EXAM9ATION ( ! ROLE ( BUREAUCRACY 9 ]OD+ ANY S5SE ( DIRECT RESPONSIBILITY = GOV]NM5TAL OR JUDICIAL ACTIONS1 BY CREAT+ AN IMM5SE PSY*OLOGICAL DI/ANCE BETWE5 ?OSE :O MAKE DECISIONS & ?OSE :O C>RY \T ORD]S -- BETWE5 ! HEAD ( ,/ATE & ! SOLDI] 9 ! FIELD1 BETWE5 ! JUDGE & ! HANGMAN4 ,?IS AN>*I/ CONC]N HAS BE5 EXPRESS$ MO/ 9SI/5TLY BY CONTEMPOR>Y AN>*I/ WRIT]S FAC$ ) ! PH5OM5A ( TW5TIE? C5TURY TE*NOLOGY & ! 5ORM\S EXT5SION ( ,/ATE BUREAUCRACY4 ,PAUL ,GOODMAN RECOGNIZES ! SCOPE ( ! PROBLEM 9 A PAMPHLET ON ,DRAW+ ,! ,L9E4 ,HE QUOTES FROM A S]GEANT WRIT+ AB\T A BOMB$ >EA 9 ,G]MANY3 

,9 MOD]N W> !RE >E CRIMES NOT CRIM9ALS 444 ,H]E1 AS 9 MANY CASES1 ! GUILT BELONG$ TO ! MA*9E4 ,SOME:]E 9 ! APP>ATUS ( BUREAUCRACY1 MEMOR&A1 & CLEAN EFFICI5T DIRECTIVES1 A CRIME HAS BE5 COMMITT$ 7#e74 

,GOODMAN GOES ON TO ATTACK ?IS APPROA* & TO >GUE ?AT 9DIVIDUAL RESPONSIBILITY MU/ BE ACCEPT$3 

,= EV]Y ONE KN[S MOM5TS 9 :I* HE CON=MS AGA9/ HIS NATURE1 9 :I* HE SUPPRESSES HIS BE/ SPONTANE\S IMPULSE1 & C[>DLY TAKES LEAVE ( HIS HE>T 7#e-#f74 

,! BEHAVIOR :I* CONT9UES TO MAKE W> CRIMES POSSIBLE CAN BE IMPUT$2 :Y IS ! S]GEANT /ILL A S]GEANT8 

,EXAM9+ ! IMPACT ( BUREAUCRACY IS AN EX]CISE 9 SOCIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS & !RE=E 5T]S 9TO A REALM \TSIDE ! CONC]NS ( ,HOBBESIAN1 OR 9DE$ ,GODW9IAN1 POLITICAL !ORY1 :I* MAKES ITS D$UCTIONS ON ! BASIS ( PURELY 9DIVIDUAL PSY*OLOGY4 ,! LIMITATIONS ( ! 9DIVIDUALI/ SOCIAL !ORY /EMM+ FROM ,HOBBES >E ! LIMITATIONS ( ,HOBBES HIMSELF4 ,:AT IS MISS+ IS ! NECESS>Y DEP5D5CE ( ! 9DIVIDUAL ON A WID] SOCIAL GR\P1 & ! UND]/&+ ?AT A DEVELOP$ S5SE ( 9DIVIDUALITY IS 9 ITSELF A SOCIAL PRODUCT4 ,! ,HOBBESIAN CONCEPTION ( FRE$OM AS ! ABS5CE ( EXT]NAL RE/RA9TS ON ! 9DIVIDUAL W\LD ONLY BE POSSIBLE 9 A SOCIETY ) A HI<LY DEVELOP$ S5SE ( 9DIVIDUALITY & ALL[+ A CONSID]ABLE DEGREE ( P]SONAL FRE$OM4 

,SOCIETY & ! ,9DIVIDUAL 

,! MISS+ DIM5SION ( 'SOCIETY' SUGGE/S A POSSIBLE SOLUTION TO ! ,HOBBESIAN DILEMMA ( EI!R AN>*IC COMPETITIVE 9DIVIDUALS OR ELSE A CO]CIVE ,LEVIA?AN TO KEEP !M 9 ORD]4 ,SOCIETY MAY CREATE .<#b#e.> ! K9D ( 9DIVIDUALS :O HAVE /RONGLY 9T]NALIZ$ VALUES & CAN LIVE CO-OP]ATIVELY & FREELY )\T ! ?REAT ( =CE4 ,SECONDLY1 ! T]M 'SOCIETY' SUGGE/S ?AT PEOPLE ALREADY LIVE 9 SOME K9D ( SOCIAL UNIT1 SO SOCIAL ORGANIZATION IS NOT JU/ IMPOS$ >TIFICIALLY BY CONTRACT & MA9TA9$ BY =CE4 ,9/EAD !RE MAY BE 'NATURAL' SOCIAL UNITS ALREADY EXI/+ & MA9TA9+ AN UN=C$ COOP]ATION4 

,?IS SOLUTION ( LOOK+ TO 'SOCIETY' WAS 9 FACT SEIZ$ ON BY SOME AN>*I/S1 = 9/ANCE ,KROPOTK94 ,D>W9'S !ORY ( EVOLUTION HAD RESULT$ 9 A REVIVAL ( ,HOBBESIAN SOCIAL !ORY /RESS+ 9DIVIDUALISM & ! ROLE ( COMPETITION4 ,TO COMBAT ?IS ,KROPOTK9 DREW ON AN?ROPOLOGY & HI/ORY TO %[ ?AT CLOSELY KNIT COMMUNITIES ANT$ATE 9DIVIDUAL COMPETITION4 ,9 ?IS N9ETE5?-C5TURY S5SE SOCIETY IS USUALLY OPPOS$ TO ! ,/ATE4 ,9 ,HOBBES 'SOCIETY'1 9 SO F> AS ! CONCEPT 5T]S 9TO HIS PICTURE AT ALL1 IS DEF9$ BY ! ,/ATE4 ,BUT = AN>*I/S & MANY SOCIALI/S1 SOCIETY BECOMES ! OPPOSITE ( ! ,/ATE4 ,SOCIETY IS ! REPOSITORY ( ALL ! GOOD ASPECTS ( SOCIAL LIFE & ORGANIZATION -- COOP]ATION1 SYMPA?Y1 AFFECTION1 9ITIATIVE & SPONTANEITY4 ,:ILE ! ,/ATE 9CORPORATES ALL ! BAD ASPECTS ( SOCIAL 9T]ACTION -- CO]CION1 =CE & DOM9ATION2 & POLITICS T5DS TO BE SE5 AS ! >5A ( =CE1 FRAUD & TRICK]Y4 ,! ,/ATE IS AN 9CUBUS -UPON SOCIETY -- A DI/ORT+ FACTOR4 

,BUT !RE >E PROBLEMS 9 TURN+ TO SOCIETY4 ,! CONCEPT ( SOCIETY 9 ITSELF IS EMPTY1 & IT MAY BE MADE ! REPOSITORY ( DIFF]+ SETS ( IDEAS OR DIFF]+ IMAGES4 ,CONS]VATIVE !ORI/S1 LIKE ,BURKE1 CAN DRAW ON SOCIETY AS A PRODUCT ( NATIONAL HI/ORY & TRADITION TO DEF5D ! EXI/+ ,/ATE & SOCIAL ORD]4 ,OR ,UTOPIAN ?9K]S CAN DRAW UP PICTURES ( SOCIAL CONDITION+ 9 AN IDEAL SOCIETY :I* IS TOO N>R[LY & RIGIDLY DEF9$ TO ALL[ = A TRULY AN>*I/ FRE$OM OR 9DIVIDUALISM4 ,MOREOV]1 ACTUAL SOCIETIES1 F> FROM FILL+ ! BILL1 MAY BE SAID TO ACTIVELY FO/] COMPETITION & AGGRESSION1 OR TO PROMOTE ATTITUDES :I* SUPPORT ! EXI/+ ,/ATE2 :ILE PRES5T SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS & GR\P+S MAY SUBORD9ATE ! 9DIVIDUAL FUR!R TO ! ,/ATE RA!R ?AN PROVIDE ! BASIS = AN ALT]NATIVE SOCIAL ORD]4 ,SO 'SOCIETY' IS ! ANSW] TO ! KEY PROBLEM ( H[ TO A*IEVE ORGANIZ$ COOP]ATION AMONG 9DIVIDUALS -- BEYOND ! LEVEL ( SMALL GR\PS -- )\T RESORT+ TO CO]CION & ! SANCTIONS ( =CE1 L>GELY AT AN IDEAL & AB/RACT LEVEL4 ,NEV]!LESS IT PROVIDES AN IMPORTANT !ORETICAL ADVANCE ON ! ,GODW9 MODEL ( POLITICAL ANALYSIS1 & MAY PROVIDE AN ADVANCE 9 PRACTICE IF ! AN>*I/ SOCIETY IS SE5 AS A GOAL TO WORK T[>DS -- I4E4 IF L9K$ TO SOCIAL ACTIVISM4 

,= ONE LIMITATION 9 A !ORETICAL APPROA* BAS$ ON 9DIVIDUAL SELF-9T]E/ IS ?AT 9 ITS IMM$IATE POLITICAL APPLICATION IT T5DS .<#b#f.> EI!R T[>D PASSIVE OB$I5CE -- AS IT IS MEANT TO 9 ,HOBBES2 OR 9 AN>*I/ V]SIONS T[>DS PASSIVE DISOB$I5CE & A PURELY P]SONAL OPT+ \T1 :I* IS NOT LIKELY TO FUR!R ! AN>*I/ AIMS ( PREV5T+ 9JU/ICE OR *ANG+ SOCIETY4 ,9 ,GODW9 4!RE IS ! MORE CON/RUCTIVE ALT]NATIVE ( SOCIAL *ANGE ?R\< P]SUASION & $UCATION4 ,BUT A ME?OD :I* RELIES ON 9FLU5C+ 9DIVIDUALS NOT ONLY 9VOLVES A P]HAPS EXCESSIVE FAI? 9 REASON1 BUT IGNORES ! SOCIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE ( 9/ITUTIONS & ! POLITICAL IMPORTANCE ( P[]4 

,ACTIVISM 9 ! AN>*I/ TRADITION HAS (T5 BE5 ASSOCIAT$ ) ! 9DIVIDUAL H]OIC GE/URE ( 'PROPAG&A BY DE$'1 OR ASSASS9ATION1 :I* ,L59 DUBB$ CONTEMPTU\SLY1 9 ,:AT ,IS ,TO ,BE ,DONE81 AS ! 'SPONTANEITY' ( ! 9TELLECTUALS1 & CRITICIZ$ = ITS POLITICAL IRRELEVANCE4 ,MANY AN>*I/S W]E UNHAPPY AB\T ! IMAGE ( AN>*ISM :I* ACTS ( T]RORISM PROPAGAT$1 & ! T5D5CY = ?IS ME?OD SOMETIMES TO REB\ND 9 ASSASS9ATION ATTEMPTS AGA9/ SOME ( ! LEAD+ AN>*I/S4 ,SOME1 LIKE ,TOL/OY1 OBJECT$ TO VIOL5CE 9 PR9CIPLE1 & O!RS1 LIKE ,KROPOTK91 GAVE SUPPORT L>GELY \T ( LOYALTY TO AN>*I/ COMRADES4 

,O!R AN>*I/S DID NOT OBJECT TO VIOL5CE AS SU* BUT ADOPT$ A MORE ,M>XI/ POSITION1 ?AT ! ONLY EFFECTIVE VIOL5CE WAS ! COMB9$ & ORGANIZ$ =CE ( ! WORK+ CLASS4 ,MALATE/A WAS SPOKESMAN = ?IS VIEW4 ,ORGANIZATION IS NECESS>ILY CRUCIAL = ANY MOVEM5T RELY+ ON MASS ACTION1 & TRY+ TO BUILD UP SUPPORT AMONG WORK]S 9 ! TEE? ( OPPOSITION & REPRESSION BY EMPLOY]S & POLICE4 ,JOE ,HILL1 SONG WRIT] = ! ,WOBBLIES1 ON ! EVE ( HIS EXECUTION = MURD] 9 #aiae 7IT WAS WIDELY BELIEV$ HE WAS FRAM$7 S5T AN APPROPRIATE F>EWELL TELEGRAM URG+ ',DON'T WA/E TIME M\RN+1 ORGANIZE'4 ,BUT = AN>*I/S ! NECESSITY ( ORGANIZATION1 & ! DEM&S ( A G5]AL /RATEGY = A MOVEM5T1 BO? SEEM 9 DANG] ( UND]M9+ ! AN>*I/S' [N IDEALS4 ,PROBLEMS ( ORGANIZATION )9 ! REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5T >E ALSO C5TRAL TO ! DISAGREEM5TS BETWE5 AN>*I/S & SOCIALI/S4 

,! IMPORTANCE ( ORGANIZATION BE>S ON ! O!R KEY DISAGREEM5T BETWE5 AN>*I/S & SOCIALI/S -- ! ROLE ( GOV]NM5T AFT] A SOCIALI/ REVOLUTION4 ,SOCIALI/S HAVE NOT 9 G5]AL ! SAME 9TR9SIC DI/RU/ ( GOV]NM5T :I* *>ACT]IZES AN>*I/S1 & MANY SOCIALI/S ACCEPT ! CONCEPT ( POPUL> SOV]EIGNTY )9 ! RADICAL DEMOCRATIC TRADITION ESP\S$ BY ,PA9E4 ,AN>*I/S RETA9 A DEEP DI/RU/ ( 'DEMOCRATIC' GOV]NM5TS4 ,PR\DHON >GU$ 9 #ahdh ?AT UNIV]SAL SUFFRAGE WAS A =M ( C\NT]-REVOLUTION2 & HIS SLOGAN ?AT DEMOCRACY IS A =M ( DICTATOR%IP WAS BE+ REPEAT$ BY /UD5TS 9 ,P>IS 9 ,MAY #a#i#f#h4 ,= AN>*I/S ! LEGALI/IC TRAPP+S ( ELECTIONS OR PLEBISCITES -- ! 'M&ATE' & ! EXPRESSION ( ! .<#b#g.> 'WILL ( ! PEOPLE' -- >E AS FICTITI\S AS ! 'ORIG9AL SOCIAL CONTRACT'1 @5D HAVE1 LIKE ! CONTRACT CONCEPT1 BE5 ADAPT$ TO ! USES ( @5LITICAL PROPAG&A4 ,9DE$1 9 ! NAME ( POPUL> SOV]EIGNTY ! @5V]NM5T MAY >ROGATE TO ITSELF P[]S NOT DREAM$ ( 9 ,HOBBES'S PHILOSOPHY4 

#b ,AN>*ISM & ! ,/ATE 

,/ATE & ,GOV]NM5T 

,OPPOSITION TO ! ,/ATE IS C5TRAL TO AN>*ISM4 ,BUT :AT IS MEANT BY ! ,/ATE 9 POLITICAL !ORIZ+ IS FREQU5TLY AMBIGU\S1 P>TLY BECAUSE !RE >E SUB/ANTIVE !ORETICAL ISSUES AT /AKE4 ,SOME ATTEMPT AT DEF9ITION MU/1 H[EV]1 BE MADE1 & !RE >E TWO DI/9CTIONS :I* HAVE CONSID]ABLE IMPORTANCE4 ,!SE >E ! DI/9CTION BETWE5 ,/ATE & ,GOV]NM5T -- ?\< MANY AN>*I/S HAVE US$ ! WORDS 9T]*ANGEABLY2 & ! DI/9CTION BETWE5 ,/ATE & ,SOCIETY -- :I* IS N[ COMMONLY REFLECT$ 9 \R ?\<T & LANGUAGE4 

,! ,/ATE IS USUALLY ASSOCIAT$ ) ITS MA9 ORGANS -- ! ADM9I/RATIVE BUREAUCRACY1 ! POLICE & ! >MY2 FROM AN AN>*I/ VIEWPO9T ! JUDICI>Y & ! ,*UR* MAY ALSO BE SE5 AS ADJUNCTS ( ,/ATE P[]4 ,! MA9 AN>*I/ ANALYSIS ( ! ,/ATE WAS =MULAT$ 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY4 ,NICOLAS ,WALT] REC5TLY COMM5T$ 9 ! J\RNAL ,AN>*Y 3 

,! AN>*I/ LIT]ATURE ( ! PA/ WEI<S HEAVILY ON ! PRES5T1 & MAKES IT H>D = US TO PRODUCE A NEW LIT]ATURE = ! FUTURE4 ,& YET1 ?\< ! WORKS ( \R PR$ECESSORS >E NUM]\S1 MO/ ( !M >E \T ( PR9T1 & ! RE/ >E MO/LY \T ( DATE 7,NO4 #a1 ,JUNE #a#i#f#i1#a#f#a74 

,CONTEMPOR>Y AN>*I/ WRIT+ DOES NOT DEAL 9 DETAIL ) ! NATURE ( POLITICAL P[] OR ! MOD]N ,/ATE2 & :]E IT DOES DISCUSS !SE QUE/IONS ! EMPHASIS IS PRIM>ILY PSY*OLOGICAL4 ,9 HIS AN?OLOGY ON AN>*ISM1 ,IRV+ ,L\IS ,HOR[ITZ1 AFT] LOCAT+ BUREAUCRACY AS AN ISSUE C5TRAL TO AN>*ISM1 HAS TO FALL BACK ON A NON-AN>*I/ SOCIOLOGI/ = A CONTEMPOR>Y EXAM9ATION ( ?IS PH5OM5ON4 ,BUT REC5T POLITICAL TR5DS >E IMPORTANT TO AN UND]/&+ ( A R5EW$ 9T]E/ 9 AN>*ISM1 & 9 ASSESS+ ! CURR5T VALIDITY ( AN>*I/ PR9CIPLES3 SO SOME ATTEMPT IS MADE 9 ?IS *APT] TO RELATE AN>*I/ IDEAS TO MOD]N REALITIES4 

,9 ITS CRITIQUE ( ! ,/ATE AN>*ISM HAS P>ALLELS ) ! TRADITION ( LIB]AL CON/ITUTIONALISM1 :I* IS ASSOCIAT$ 9 ! EI<TE5? C5TURY ) ,:IG !ORY 9 ,5GL& & ) ,MONTESQUIEU 9 ,FRANCE1 & EVOLV$ 9TO ONE /R& ( N9ETE5?-C5TURY LIB]ALISM4 .<#b#i.> ,CON/ITUTIONALISM ALSO %>ES ) AN>*ISM A DEEP DI/RU/ ( DEMOCRATIC GOV]NM5T & DEMOCRATIC IDEOLOGY :5 CONJO9$ TO ,/ATE P[]2 ?IS L9K IS V]Y CLE> 9 ! WORK ( ! CONTEMPOR>Y ,FR5* !ORI/ ,B]TR& ,DE ,J\V5EL1 :O DRAWS ON ! WRIT+S ( ,PR\DHON ,ONE ( ! GREATE/ WRIT]S 9 ! CON/ITUTIONALI/ TRADITION1 ,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE1 TRI$ TO ADAPT ITS LEAD+ IDEAS TO CON=M ) ! NEW DEMOCRATIC SPIRIT1 & HIS RESULTANT EMPHASIS ON ! VALUE ( DEC5TRALISM & VOLUNT>Y ASSOCIATION BR+S HIM AT SOME LEVELS CLOSE TO ,KROPOTK94 

,A USEFUL />T+ PO9T = DISCUSSION ( ! ,/ATE IS ,KROPOTK9'S ATTEMPT TO DISPEL CONFUSION AB\T T]M9OLOGY4 ,KROPOTK9 REM>KS 9 HIS PAMPHLET ON ,! ,/ATE ?AT3 

,/ATE & GOV]NM5T REPRES5T TWO IDEAS ( A DIFF]5T K9D4 ,! ,/ATE NOT ONLY 9CLUDES ! EXI/5CE ( A P[] PLAC$ ABOVE SOCIETY1 BUT ALSO A T]RITORIAL CONC5TRATION & A CONC5TRATION ( MANY OR EV5 ALL FUNCTIONS ( ! LIFE ( SOCIETY 9 ! H&S ( A FEW 7#a74 

,KROPOTK9 >GUES ?AT TO UND]/& ! ,/ATE ONE MU/ UND]/& ITS HI/ORICAL ORIG9S & DEVELOPM5T2 ?IS HI/ORICAL ANALYSIS ALSO REVEALS H[ ! ,/ATE DIFF]S FROM ,SOCIETY4 ',M5 HAVE LIV$ 9 SOCIETIES = ?\S&S ( YE>S BE=E HAV+ KN[N ! ,/ATE4' ,= ,EUROPEAN NATIONS ! ,/ATE 'H>DLY DATES FROM ! SIXTE5? C5TURY'4 ,KROPOTK9 SUGGE/S ?AT ! ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE HAD ALL ! *>ACT]I/ICS ( A ,/ATE1 & ?AT ! IMAGES ( LAW & SOV]EIGNTY D]IV$ FROM ,ROME1 :I* 9FLU5C$ ! BUREAUCRATIC & LEGAL EVOLUTION ( ! NEW ,EUROPEAN ,/ATES1 HAVE DOM9AT$ ! ATTITUDES ( LAWY]S & !ORI/S EV] S9CE4 ,:AT MAKES ! ,/ATE IS '! ,TRIPLE ,ALLIANCE1 CON/ITUT$ AT LA/1 ( ! MILIT>Y *IEF1 ! ,ROMAN JUDGE1 & ! PRIE/1 =M+ A MUTUAL 9SURANCE = DOM9ATION' 7#b#e74 ,9 ! MOD]N ,/ATE !SE ROLES >E EXT5D$1 BUT = AN>*I/S ITS SALI5T *>ACT]I/ICS REMA9 AN ORGANIZ$ USE ( =CE TO COMPEL OB$I5CE1 A SY/EM ( P5AL LAWS & ADM9I/RATIVE CODES OP]AT$ BY EXP]TS1 & A SET ( BELIEFS & C]EMONIES :I* 5%R9E ! ,/ATE P[] M ! HE>TS ( ITS SUBJECTS4 ,KROPOTK9'S ANALYSIS IS CLOSE TO ?AT ( ! SOCIOLOGI/ ,MAX ,WEB]1 :O DEF9$ ! MOD]N ,/ATE 9 T]MS 8T JURISDICTION OV] A SPECIFIC T]RITORIAL >EA1 A BUREAUCRATIC ADM9I/RATION1 & A MONOPOLY ( LEGITIMATE =CE )9 ITS BORD]S4 

,9 AN E>LY WORK ON ,AN>*ISM ! ,G]MAN JURI/1 ,PAUL ,ELTZBA*]1 DEF9$ ! ,/ATE AS 'A LEGAL RELATION BY VIRTUE ( :I* A SUPREME AU?ORITY EXI/S 9 A C]TA9 T]RITORY' 7#a#h74 ,! FACT ?AT IT IS EGAL RELATION%IP EXCLUDES = ,ELTZBA*] PURELY >BITR>Y DOM9ATION ?R\< CONQUE/ 7A CONQU]$ C\NTRY IS P]HAPS A COLONY1 BUT NOT A ,/ATE7 & ALSO AN AN>*I/ ,UTOPIA GOV]N$ ONLY BY MORAL .<#c.> 

LAWS4 ,! ROLE ( T]RITORIAL B\ND>IES MEANS ?AT NEI!R A ,*UR*1 :OSE MEMB]%IP IS D5N$ BY FAI?1 NOR A NOMADIC TRIBE1 9 :I* MEMB]%IP IS DEF9$ BY K9%IP1 >E ,/ATES1 ?\< BO? MAY HAVE =MS ( GOV]NM5T4 ,ELTZBA*] ASSUMES 9 HIS JURI/IC DEF9ITION :AT ,KROPOTK9 EMPHASIZES 9 A SOCIOLOGICAL & HI/ORICAL APPROA* -- ?AT A ,/ATE IMPLIES A T]RITORY ( A C]TA9 SIZE & A CONC5TRATION ( P[]4 ,H5CE ! ANCI5T CITIES ( ,GREECE1 OR M$IEVAL CITY REPUBLICS1 W]E NOT ,/ATES 9 ,KROPOTK9'S S5SE4 ,! HI/ORICAL PH5OM5ON WE N[ ID5TIFY AS ! ,/ATE IS PRIM>ILY REPRES5T$ 9 ! ,EUROPEAN TRADITION BY ! NATIONAL K+DOMS :I* EM]G$ \T ( ! PLURALITY ( ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES4 

,! ,EVOLUTION ( ! ,/ATE 

,9 ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES SOME MON>*IES DID 9DE$ HAVE !IR NATIONAL T]RITORIES & MADE CLAIMS TO SOV]EIGN P[] )9 !M4 ,BUT !SE MON>*IES W]E P>T ( ,EUROPEAN ,*RI/5DOM1 !IR SUBJECTS MEMB]S ( ! ,CA?OLIC ,*UR*2 & ! MON>*S !MSELVES W]E B\ND BY RELIGI\S ALLEGIANCE TO RESPECT $ICTS FROM ,ROME1 & POLITICALLY RE/RICT$ BY ! C\NT]VAIL+ CLAIMS ( ! ,POPE TO E/ABLI% ! RULE ( A ,UNIV]SAL ,*UR*4 ,MOREOV]1 ! ,*UR* CLAIM$ 9DEP5D5T JURISDICTION OV] ITS [N AFFAIRS )9 ! T]RITORIAL REALM ( ! ,K+4 ,AS ,]NE/ ,B>K] /RESSES 9 A LECTURE ON ! ,/ATE1 ! CL]GY W]E ONLY ONE ( ! ?REE M$IEVAL ,E/ATES LIMIT+ ! ,K+'S P[]S4 ,! SECOND COMPRIS$ ! FEUDAL NOBLES1 ':O 9DIVIDUALLY ACT$ AS SOV]EIGNS1 SO F> AS !Y C\LD1 9 !IR LOCAL FIEFS1 & COLLECTIVELY =M$ A B>ONAGE READY TO DISPUTE AU?ORITY AT ! C5T] AS A BODY ( RIVAL K+S' 7,PR9CIPLES ( ,SOCIAL & ,POLITICAL ,!ORY1 #a#c74 ,?IRDLY !RE W]E ! 'COMMONS'1 :O 'LOCALLY S\<T AUTONOMY = !IR MUNICIPAL GOV]NM5TS & !IR V>I\S M]*ANT & CRAFT GILDS1 & C5TRALLY1 IF !Y W]E JO9$ TOGE!R 9 AN ASSEMBLY ( 0! ,COMMONS0 MI<T JO9 ! B>ONAGE 9 *ALL5G+ ! K+'4 ,B>K] CONCLUDES ?AT '!RE WAS LITTLE ( A NATIONAL ,/ATE -- 9DE$ !RE WAS LITTLE ( ANY SORT ( ,/ATE -- 9 ! T]RITORIAL RCGNUM ( ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES4 ,IT WAS A P>ADISE ( ,E/ATES RA!R ?AN ! PATT]N ( A ,/ATE' 7#a#b74 ,B]TR& ,DE ,J\V5EL 9 HIS BOOK ON ,P[]1 :I* HE ID5TIFIES ) ,/ATE P[]1 ATTACKS ! MISCONCEPTION ?AT MON>*Y C\LD CLAIM A DIV9E ABSOLUTISM 9 ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES4 ,WE %\LD REMEMB] ?AT3 

,P[] 9 M$IEVAL TIMES WAS %>$ 4 4 4 LIMIT$ 7BY O!R AU?ORITIES :I* W]E1 9 !IR [N SPH]E1 AUTONOM\S71 & ?AT1 ABOVE ALL1 IT WAS NOT SOV]EIGN 7#c#e74 .<#c#a.> 

,F> FROM BE+ SOV]EIGN 9 ! S5SE ( BE+ ABSOLUTE & ABOVE ! LAW1 ,P[] WAS 'TI$ D[N1 NOT ONLY 9 !ORY BUT 9 PRACTICE1 BV ! ,LEX ,T]RE 7! CU/OMS ( ! C\NTRY71 :I* WAS ?\<T F AS A ?+ IMMUTABLE' 7#c#e74 

,! GRADUAL EM]G5CE ( A T]RITORIAL /ATE 9 :I* ! GOV]NM5T C\LD CLAIM SOV]EIGN P[] )9 ITS BORD]S IS CLOSELY RELAT$ TO ! DEVELOPM5T ( A /&+ >MY4 ,! EXI/5CE ( A P]MAN5T >MY SIMULTANE\SLY 9CREAS$ ! DEM&S MADE BY GOV]NM5TS ON !IR SUBJECTS1 ESPECIALLY 9 ! REALM ( TAXATION1 & !IR P[] TO QUELL REBELLION AGA9/ !SE DEM&S4 ,EXT]NAL W>S MI<T ALSO BE US$ BY MON>*S TO KEEP !IR SUBJECTS QUIET AT HOME4 ,HOBBES COMM5TS ?AT3 

K+S & P]SONS ( SOV]EIGN AU?ORITY1 BECAUSE ( !IR 9DEP5D5CY1 >E 9 CONT9UAL JEAL\SIES1 & 9 ! /ATE & PO/URE ( GLADIATORS2 HAV+ 444 !IR =TS1 G>RISONS & GUNS ON ! FRONTI]S ( !IR K+DOMS2444 ,BUT BECAUSE !Y UPHOLD !REBY1 ! 9DU/RY ( !IR SUBJECTS2 !RE DOES NOT FOLL[ FROM IT1 ?AT MIS]Y1 :I* ACCOMPANIES ! LIB]TY ( P>TICUL> M5 7,LEVIA?AN1 #h#c74 

,HOBBES'S ,LEVIA?AN CAN 9DE$ BE SE5 AS ONE ( ! CLE>E/ /ATEM5TS ( ! NEW ,ABSOLUTISM1 9 :I* ! SOV]EIGN P[] IS NOT H9D]$ BY ANY RIVAL BODIES 9 ! ,/ATE1 ! SOV]EIGN'S WILL IS ABOVE ! LAW 7:I* IT CREATES7 & ! SOV]EIGN RULES )9 HIS T]RITORY ?R\< HIS COMM& ( ORGANIZ$ =CE4 ,HOBBES EXPLA9S ?AT ! ONLY WAY ! P>TICIPANTS 9 ! SOCIAL CONTRACT CAN ]ECT A COMMON P[] TO DEF5D !M IS3 

TO CONF] ALL !IR P[] & /R5G? UPON ONE MAN1 OR UPON ONE ASSEMBLY ( M51 ?AT MAY R$UCE ALL !IR WILLS1 BY PLURALITY ( VOICES1 UNTO ONE WILL444 7#a#a#b74 

,9 ?IS WAY ,HOBBES SEES ! MULTITUDE BE+ UNIT$ 9 ONE 'P]SON'1 :O COMB9ES ! P[] ( ALL 9DIVIDUALS UND] ! DIRECTION ( A UNIFY+ WILL TO CREATE '?AT GREAT LEVIA?AN1 OR RA!R TO SPEAK MORE REV]5TLY ( ?AT MORTAL GOD1 TO :I* WE [E UND] ! IMMORTAL ,GOD \R PEACE & DEF5SE'4 

,HOBBES W\LD V]Y MU* PREF] ?AT ! 'SOV]EIGN' :O 'REPRES5TS ! ,/ATE BO? AT HOME AS AU?OR ( ALL GOV]NM5T ACTS1 & ABROAD AS HEAD ( ,/ATE1 %\LD BE A MON>*1 UPON :OM ALL ! ATTRIBUTES ( SOV]EIGNTY COALESCE4 ,?IS CONCEPTION WAS SUMM$ UP BY ! ,ROI ,SOLEIL :5 HE SAID ',L'ETAT1 CE/ MOI'4 ,BUT ,HOBBES 9SI/$ ?AT LOGICALLY HIS !ORY APPLI$ EQUALLY TO A GOV]N+ ASSEMBLY1 :O C\LD CLAIM TO REPRES5T & SO EMBODY ! WILLS ( ! PEOPLE4 ,?IS PO9T IS IMPORTANT1 AS ,DE ,J\V5EL BR+S \T4 ,O!R !ORI/S .<#c#b.> MORE OR LESS CONTEMPOR>Y ) ,HOBBES W]E CLAIM+ ?AT ! ,K+'S RI<T TO RULE D]IV$ FROM DIV9E AU?ORITY4 ,BUT ,HOBBES MADE ! REAL S\RCE ( AU?ORITY ! PEOPLE4 ,! SOV]EIGN MON>* IS AT ! SAME TIME ! REPRES5TATIVE ( ! PEOPLE2 HIS WILL REPRES5TS !IR WILLS1 & ! ABSOLUT5ESS ( HIS P[] /EMS FROM ?IS DELEGATION ( AU?ORITY4 ,:51 AS 9 ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 ! 'PEOPLE' OR ! 'NATION' CLAIM !IR SOV]EIGNTY & OV]?R[ ! TYRANNY ( PR9CES1 !N !Y ELECT A POPUL> ASSEMBLY TO REPRES5T !IR WILL -- ! CONCEPTS ( ! ,REVOLUTION>IES D]IV$ 9 P>T FROM ,HOBBES VIA ,R\SSEAU4 ,BUT A GOV]NM5T RUL+ ?R\< ! 'WILL ( ! PEOPLE'1 & SO B\ND NEI!R BY BELIEF 9 ! ET]NAL LAWS ( ,GOD1 NOR BY ! PREVI\S CU/OM>Y LAWS ( ! C\NTRY1 MAY BECOME ! MO/ >BITR>Y DESPOTISM1 AGA9/ :I* !RE IS NO APPEAL4 ,& ! PEOPLE MAY DISCOV] ?AT !Y >E NO BETT] (F ?AN BE=E1 9DE$ !Y MAY BE WORSE (F4 ,DE ,J\V5EL COMM5TS3 

,H[ V]Y /RANGE6 ,:5 !IR MA/]S W]E K+S1 ! PEOPLES NEV] /OPP$ COMPLA9+ AT HAV+ TO PAY W> TAXES4 ,!N1 :5 !Y HAVE OV]?R[N !SE MA/]S & TAK5 TO TAX+ !MSELVES1 ! CURR5CY 9 :I* !Y PAY IS NOT M]ELY A P>T ( !IR 9COMES BUT !IR V]Y LIVES 6 7,P[]1 #b74 

,IF ! DESPOTISM 9H]5T 9 ! UNIT>Y & SECUL> ,/ATE CAN SOMETIMES BE SE5 EV5 MORE CLE>LY 9 AN ]A ( 'DEMOCRACY' ?AN K+%IP1 SO ALSO CAN ! \TL9ES ( ,/ATE P[]4 ,IT IS PROBABLY ONLY 9 A P]IOD ( DEMOCRATIC ASPIRATION & OV]?R[ ( GOV]NM5TS ?AT ! IDEA ( A '/ATE MA*9]Y' SEP>ATE FROM GOV]NM5T C\LD TAKE %APE4 ,:IL/ E>LI] K+S1 AS ,KROPOTK9 /RESSES1 HAD !IR [N GR[+ BUREAUCRACIES1 & !IR >MIES & P]SONAL SPIES1 ! FOCAL POSITION ( ! MON>* AS ! C5T] ( ALLEGIANCE1 & LIV+ SYMBOL ( ! ,/ATE1 9FLU5C$ LANGUAGE & IMAG]Y AB\T ! NATURE ( GOV]NM5T4 ,BUT :5 9 A P]IOD ( YE>S SUCCESSIVE M9I/RIES ( DIFF]+ POLITICAL HUES MI<T BE 9 (FICE1 OR EV5 MORE RADICAL *ANGES 9 GOV]NM5T -- FROM CON/ITUTIONAL MON>*Y1 = EXAMPLE1 TO P>LIAM5T>Y REPUBLIC TO DICTATOR%IP -- C\LD OCCUR )\T GREATLY ALT]+ DAY TO DAY ADM9I/RATION & POLICIES1 !N PEOPLE BEGAN TO NOTICE ! SPECIFIC ORGANS ( ! ,/ATE4 ,!SE FEATURES HAVE BE5 P>TICUL>LY VISIBLE 9 ,FRANCE1 & W]E NOT$ BY ?REE N9ETE5?-C5TURY ?9K]S ( M>K$LY DIFF]5T POLITICAL T5D5CIES3 ,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE1 ,M>X & ,KROPOTK94 

,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE COMM5TS AT ! 5D ( HIS BOOK ON ,! ,OLD ,REGIME & ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION ?AT1 AFT] ! FIR/ P]IOD ( REVOLUTION>Y 5?USIASM & ! SPIRIT ( FRE$OM IT G5]AT$1 ,NAPOLEON'S CAPTURE ( P[] L$ TO ! SALVAG+ ( ! 9/ITUTIONS ( ! OLD REGIME & !IR 9TEGRATION 9TO ! NEW4 .<#c#c.> 

,C5TRALIZATION WAS BUILT UP ANEW1 & 9 ! PROCESS ALL ?AT HAD ONCE KEPT IT )9 B\NDS WAS C>EFULLY ELIM9AT$ 444 ,NAPOLEON FELL BUT ! MORE SOLID P>TS ( HIS A*IEVEM5T LA/$ ON2 HIS GOV]NM5T DI$1 BUT HIS ADM9I/RATION SURVIV$1 & EV]Y TIME ?AT AN ATTEMPT IS MADE TO DO AWAY ) ABSOLUTISM ! MO/ ?AT C\LD BE DONE HAS BE5 TO GRAFT ! HEAD ( ,LIB]TY ONTO A S]VILE BODY 7,! ,OLD ,REGIME1 #b#i74 

,K>L ,M>X WRIT+ ON ,! ,EI<TE5? ,BRUMAIRE ( ,NAPOLEON ,BONAP>TE REA*$ V]Y SIMIL> CONCLUSIONS3 

,?IS EXECUTIVE P[]1 ) ITS 5ORM\S BUREAUCRATIC & MILIT>Y ORGANIZATION444 :I* 5ME%ES ! BODY ( ,FR5* SOCIETY LIKE A NET & *OKES ALL ITS PORES1 SPRANG UP 9 ! DAYS ( ! ABSOLUTE MON>*Y1 ) ! DECAY ( ! FEUDAL SY/EM1 :I* IT HELP$ TO HA/5 444 ,NAPOLEON P]FECT$ ?IS /ATE MA*9]Y441 ,ALL REVOLUTIONS P]FECT$ ?IS MA*9E 9/EAD ( SMA%+ IT 7,M>X & ,5GELS1 ,SELECT$ ,WORKS1 #a#g-#a74 

,:ILE ,KROPOTK9 ILLU/RATES HIS !SIS ON ! ,/ATE BY REF]5CE TO ! ,?IRD ,FR5* ,REPUBLIC1 :I* '9 SPITE ( ITS REPUBLICAN =M ( GOV]NM5T1 HAS REMA9$ MON>*ICAL 9 ITS ESS5CE'4 ,H[ HAS ?IS COME AB\T8 ,KROPOTK9 ANSW]S3 

,IT COMES FROM ,FRANCE HAV+ REMA9$ AS MU* A ,/ATE AS IT WAS ?IRTY YE>S AGO4 ,! HOLD]S ( P[] HAVE *ANG$ !IR NAME2 BUT ALL ! IMM5SE SCAFFOLD+ ( C5TRALIZ$ ORGANIZATION1 ! IMITATION ( ! ,ROME ( ! ,CAES>S :I* HAS BE5 ELABORAT$ 9 ,FRANCE1 HAS REMA9$ 7,! ,/ATE1 #d#b74 

,BUREAUCRACY 

,FRANCE HAS PROV$ A USEFUL MODEL = G5]ALIZATIONS AB\T ! MOD]N ,/ATE1 & IT ALSO PROVIDES ILLU/RATIONS = A SPECIFIC CRITIQUE ( BUREAUCRACY4 ,9 !IR ANALYSIS ( ,FR5* BUREAUCRACY ,DE ,TOCQUE-VILLE & ,KROPOTK9 CONV]GE4 ,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE DRAWS ON HIS KN[L$GE ( ! ANCI5 REGIME TO DEVELOP HIS CASE -- ! DAMAG+ EFFECTS ( ! ADM9I/RATION ON ! ,FR5* ECONOMY1 ITS 9H]5T CUMB]-SOM5ESS & RIGIDITY1 ITS DISREG>D ( 9DIVIDUAL RI<TS & ( ! LAW1 & ITS 5]VAT+ 9FLU5CE ON SOCIAL ATTITUDES4 ,9 EI<TE5?-C5TURY ,FRANCE ,GOV]NM5T 9SPECTORS MADE PEASANTS TE> UP V9ES NOT PLANT$ 9 SOIL SPECIFI$ BY (FICIAL REGULATIONS2 ! ,CONTROLL] ,G5]AL 9 ,P>IS HAD TO DECIDE ! SITE ( A WORKH\SE HUNDR$S ( MUES AWAY1 OR REGULATE A VILLAGE FETE2 A PASSION = BUILD+ HI<WAYS 9 P]FECTLY /RAI<T L9ES L$ TO ! TE>+ D[N ( H\SES .<#c#d.> 9 ! WAY & CONFISCATION ( L& )\T JU/ COMP5SATION2 & ! ,ADM9I/RATION FREQU5TLY OV]/EPP$ ITS /ATUTORY P[]S2 WOR/ ( ALL LOCAL C\NCILORS BECAME ABJECTLY S]VILE BE=E C5TRAL AU?ORITY1 & EV]Y ,FR5*MAN BECAME ACCU/OM$ TO ! IDEA ?AT ! ONLY WAY TO GET ?+S DONE WAS TO PETITION ,P>IS4 

,LOOK+ AT ,FRANCE AT ! TURN ( ! C5TURY ,KROPOTK9 COMM5TS ?AT :5 A TREE BL[S D[N ON ! ,NATIONAL HI<WAY AB\T FIFTY DOCUM5TS HAVE TO BE EX*ANG$ BETWE5 ! ,HOME ,(FICE & ! ,TREASURY BE=E ! TREE CAN BE SOLD4 ',?IS IS UND] ! ,?IRD ,REPUBLIC1 = ,I DO NOT SPEAK ( ! B>B>\S ME?ODS ( ! ANCI5 REGIME ?AT LIMIT$ ITSELF TO FIVE OR SIX DOCUM5TS4' ,BUT ,KROPOTK9'S CONC]N1 LIKE ,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE'S1 GOES MU* DEEP]3 

,IF IT W]E ONLY ?IS1 IT W\LD BE BUT TW5TY ?\S& FUNCTION>IES TOO MANY1 & A ?\S& MILLION FRANCS MORE ADD$ TO ! BUDGET444 ,BUT !RE IS WORSE B5EA? ALL ?IS1 = ! PR9CIPLE KILLS EV]Y?+4 ,! PEASANTS ( A VILLAGE HAVE A ?\S& 9T]E/S 9 COMMON 444 ,BUT ! ,/ATE CANNOT ALL[ !M TO UNITE6 ,IT GIVES !M S*OOL & PRIE/1 POLICE & JUDGE2 !SE MU/ SUFFICE1 & %\LD O!R 9T]E/S >ISE1 !Y MU/ APPLY 9 ! REGUL> WAY TO ,*UR* & ,/ATE 7,! ,/ATE1 #c#f74 

,KROPOTK9 ADDS ?AT UNTIL #ahhc VILLAG]S W]E =BIDD5 BY LAW TO UNITE EV5 TO IRRIGATE !IR FIELDS4 

,! NOTABLE 9CREASE 9 ! SIZE ( C5TRAL ADM9I/RATION 9 ALL 'ADVANC$' C\NTRIES 9 ?IS C5TURY HAS /R5G!N$ ,KROPOTK9'S G5]AL CASE4 ,9DE$ SOME ( ! MORE OBVI\S PROBLEMS ( BUREAUCRACY HAVE BE5 ACKN[L$G$ 9 BO? LIB]AL & SOCIALI/ DEMOCRACIES4 ,ITALY'S OV]WEI<T$ CIVIL S]VICE1 = EXAMPLE1 HAS LONG BE5 AN 9CUBUS ON ! BODY POLITIC1 BUT S9CE #aide SUCCESSIVE GOV]NM5TS HAVE FAIL$ TO A*IEVE ANY CIVIL S]VICE RE=MS4 ',NE>LY EV]Y ,GOV]NM5T HAD APPO9T$ A SPECIAL ,M9I/] :OSE JOB WAS 0RE=M ( ! ,CIVIL ,S]VICE02 !Y HAD 9VE/IGAT$ & REPORT$ ) MORE OR LESS DILIG5CE BUT ) LITTLE EFFECT4 ,EV]Y SO (T5 A SC&AL W\LD BL[ UP TO SPUR !M ON' 7,MURIEL ,GR9DROD1 ,ITALY1 #a#e#e74 ,ITALY'S CIVIL S]VICE IS 9 P>T A PRODUCT ( 9]TIA & CORRUPTION1 & REFLECTS WID] SOCIAL & POLITICAL PROBLEMS4 ,AS ,H]B]T ,READ ONCE REM>K$3 'EV]Y C\NTRY HAS ! BUREAUCRACY IT DES]VES4' ,MAX ,WEB]1 ) ! EXAMPLE ( ,PRUSSIA BE=E HIM1 SAW 9 ! RATIONALIZATION & DIVISION ( FUNCTIONS A ME?OD CAPABLE ( MANAG+ L>GE SCALE ECONOMIC & GOV]NM5TAL 5T]PRISES ) CONSID]ABLE EFFECTIV5ESS4 

,BUT ! POT5TIAL EFFICI5CY ( BUREAUCRACY IS UND]M9$ BO? BY A G5]AL T5D5CY T[>DS EXCESS ( R$ TAPE1 & BY ! SPECIFIC PROBLEMS ( C5TRALIZ$ ECONOMIC PLANN+4 ,MOD]N 9DU/RIAL .<#c#e.> DEVELOPM5T APPE>S BO? TO REQUIRE ,/ATE 9T]V5TION & TO MULTIPLY ! DIFFICULTIES ( C5TRAL CONTROL -- A FACT :I* HAS L$ TO ! ,FR5* ATTEMPT AT REGIONALISM 9 ECONOMIC PLANN+4 ,9 ! ,SOVIET ,UNION '! PLANN]S' TASK HAS BECOME AB\T ONE ?\S& TIMES NIORE COMPLEX ?AN IT WAS :5 ! FIR/ ,FIVE ,YE> ,PLAN WAS LAUN*$ 9 #a#i#b#h4 ,9DE$1 ONE ,SOVIET EXP]T HAS E/IMAT$ ?AT IF ! PLANN+ SY/EM W]E ALL[$ TO CONT9UE UN*ECK$ ALONG ITS PRES5T L9ES1 BY #aih IT W\LD OCCUPY EV]Y ADULT MEMB] ( ! POPULATION' 7,]IK ,DE ,MAUNY1 ,RUSSIAN ,PROSPECT1 #i#f74 ,?IS TR5D HAS PROMOT$ ! LIMIT$ MEASURES ( DEC5TRALIZATION TO REGIONS & FACTORIES 9 ! MID-#a#i#eS1 & ! ,LIB]MAN RE=MS 9TRODUC+ ! PR(IT 9C5TIVE 9 ! #a#i#fS4 ',! ,LIB]MAN RE=M HAS AT LEA/ SL[$ D[N ! PAP] FLOOD4 ,UND] ! OLD SY/EM1 =TY TO FIFTY ( A FACTORY'S 09DICATORS0 7DIRECTIVES ON PRICES1 DELIV]Y DATES1 PRODUCTION S*$ULES & SO ON7 W]E H&$ D[N FROM ABOVE4 ,N[1 ONLY FIVE OR SIX >E H&$ D[N' 4 4 4 7IBID474 ,:E!R /RICTLY CONTROLL$ DEC5TRALIZATION & USE ( M>KET ME*ANISMS CAN DO MORE ?AN MITIGATE BUREAUCRATIC *AOS IS /ILL TO BE PROV54 ,BUT FROM AN AN>*I/ /&PO9T BO? APPROA*ES >E TOTALLY UNSATISFACTORY 9 PR9CIPLE1 & FAIL TO TAP RES\RCES ( 9ITIATIVE & RESPONSIBILITY :I* /EM FROM FREE COOP]ATION & P>TICIPATION 9 DECISIONMAK+4 

,! CRIT]IA = MEASUR+ A CONCEPT LIKE 'EFFICI5CY' 9 RELATION TO BUREAUCRATIC & ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION >E F> FROM UNAMBIGU\S -- & 9 ,KROPOTK9'S APPROA* !Y OV]LAP ) AN ASSESSM5T ( ! TOTAL QUALITY ( SOCIAL1 CULTURAL & P]SONAL LIFE4 ,IT MAY BE RELEVANT ?AT :]E A S]I\S MOVEM5T AWAY FROM BUREAUCRATIC C5TRALISM HAS OCCURR$ 9 SOCIALI/ C\NTRIES1 AS 9 ,YUGOSLAVIA1 & BRIEFLY 9 ,CZE*OSLOVAKIA 9 #a#i#f#h1 N>R[LY DEF9$ QUE/IONS ( ECONOMIC EFFICI5CY HAVE BE5 CLOSELY RELAT$ TO ISSUES ( POLITICAL & 9DU/RIAL DEMOCRACY1 LOCAL AUTONOMY & CULTURAL FRE$OM4 ,! AN>*I/S' MA9 CONC]N IS C]TA9LY ) ! WID] SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS ( BUREAUCRACY4 ,H]B]T ,READ NOT$ 9 #ai* 9 RELATION TO ! ,SOVIET ,UNION ?AT3 'S9CE ! REVOLUTION ( #aiag ! ,/ATE MA*9E HAS YE> BY YE> GR[N 9 SIZE & IMPORTANCE 444 9 ! V]Y PROCESS ( DEVELOP+ ! P[] ( ! ,/ATE NEW CLASSES >E BORN :I* USURP ?IS P[] & USE IT TO OPPRESS ! PEOPLE AT L>GE' 7,AN>*Y & ,ORD]1 #i#d74 

,ALEX ,COM=T REM>KS ?AT C5TRALIZ$ ADM9I/RATION MEANS A PROLIF]ATION ( NEW LAWS & REGULATIONS1 ?US 9CREAS+ ! QUANTITY ( ,/ATE DEF9$ 'CRIMES' 9 SOCIETY4 ,A SUFFICI5TLY CUMB]SOME BUREAUCRACY MAY NOT ONLY IMPOSE RULES PEOPLE WILL WANT TO BREAK1 8UT RULES :I* !Y >E ACTUALLY =C$ TO BREAK4 ,?IS IS ! SITUATION 9 ,ITALY4 ,9 #a#i#f#d1 = EXAMPLE1 A =M] DIRECTOR ( ! ,SUP]IOR .<#c#f.> ,9/ITUTE ( ,HEAL? WAS *>G$ ) IRREGUL>ITIES 9 HIS ADM9I/RATION4 ,HIS >RE/ PROMOT$ WIDESPREAD PROTE/S AMONG SCI5TI/S1 :O ALLEG$ ?AT '! ANTIQUAT$ CONDITION ( ,ITALIAN ADM9I/RATIVE REGULATIONS MAKES SCI5TIFIC RESE>* IMPOSSIBLE )\T SOME =M ( EVASION ( ! LAW'1 = EXAMPLE 9 PROC$URES = ORD]+ EQUIPM5T 7,! ,TIMES1 #a ,MAY #a#i#f#d1 #a#a74 ,SOVIET PLANN+ REGULATIONS HAVE SIMIL>LY =C$ MANAG]S TO IMPROVISE & CO-OP]ATE 9 DEFIANCE ( ! RULES 9 ORD] TO FULFILL !IR REQUIR$ QUOTAS4 ,! AU?ORITIES HAVE TURN$ A BL9D EYE1 BUT PUNI%$ SEV]ELY ?OSE :O HAVE TAK5 PRIVATE 5T]PRISE TOO F>4 ,]IK ,DE ,MAUNY NOTES 9 RELATION TO ! #a#i#f#c-#d ,%AK]MAN CASE ?AT1 AFT] READ+ ! TRIAL RECORDS ( ! COMPLEX TRANSACTIONS 9VOLV$ 9 BUILD+ UP AN ILLEGAL COMM]CIAL EMPIRE1 A ,RUSSIAN ACQUA9TANCE COMM5T$3 ',I W\LDN'T HAVE PUT HIM ON TRIAL -- ,I'D HAVE MADE HIM ,M9I/] ( ,F9ANCE6' 7,RUSSIAN ,PROSPECT1 #i74 

,COM=T IS LESS CONC]N$ ?AN ,READ AB\T ! P[] ( A BUREAUCRATIC CLASS1 BUT IS AFRAID ?AT ! EFFECT ( C5TRALIZATION ( FUNCTIONS & P[] IS TO PROVIDE OPPORTUNITIES = PSY*OPA?IC LEAD]%IP4 ',! GREAT] ! DEGREE ( P[]1 & ! WID] ! GAP BETWE5 GOV]NORS & GOV]N$1 ! /RONG] ! APPEAL ( (FICE TO ?OSE :O >E LIKELY TO ABUSE IT1 & ! LESS ! RESPONSE :I* CAN BE EXPECT$ FROM ! 9DIVIDUAL' 7,AU?ORITY & ,DEL9QU5CY 9 ! ,MOD]N ,/ATE1 #g#e74 ,9 ?IS CONNECTION IT IS RELEVANT TO NOTE ?AT ! NEW ,G]MAN ,/ATE CREAT$ 9 ! #a#h#fS C\LD BOA/ AN EFFICI5T CIVIL S]VICE1 AN EFFICI5T >MY & A BOOM+ ECONOMY3 :AT IT LACK$ WAS A TRADITION ( POLITICAL RESPONSIBILITY & CIVIL LIB]TY -- A LACK :I* MANIFE/$ ITSELF 9 ! SIGNAL FAILURE ( ! NUM]ICALLY /RONG ,SOCIAL ,DEMOCRATIC ,P>TY TO *ALL5GE EI!R ,/ATE REPRESSION OR ,G]MAN MILIT>ISM4 ,MAX ,WEB] SAW 9 ,BISM>K'S ,G]MANY A TYPE ( BUREAUCRATIC ABSOLUTISM1 9 :I* ! TOP (FICIALS T5D$ TO MA9TA9 A HI< DEGREE ( SECRECY1 & SO BECOME A P[]-SEEK+ CLIQUE :O W]E A LAW UNTO !MSELVES4 

,WEB] EMPHASIZ$ ?AT ! EFFECTS ( BUREAUCRACY 9 G5]AL ON ! MAJORITY ( ITS LESS] (FICIALS WAS TO 5C\RAGE TIMIDITY1 LONG+ = ORD]1 & N>R[NESS ( VISION4 ,:5 CONSID]+ ! IMPLICATIONS ( ! TR5D TO GR[+ BUREAUCRACY 9 ALL SPH]ES ( LIFE HE IS APPALL$3 

,IT IS HORRIBLE TO ?9K ?AT ! WORLD C\LD ONE DAY BE FILL$ ) NO?+ BUT ?OSE LITTLE COGS1 LITTLE M5 CL++ TO LITTLE JOBS & /RIV+ T[>DS BIGG] ONES 444 ,IT IS AS IF 9 POLITICS 444 WE W]E DELIB]ATELY TO BECOME M5 :O NE$ 'ORD]'1 & NO?+ BUT ORD]444 & ! GREAT QUE/ION IS 444 :AT CAN WE OPPOSE TO ?IS MA*9]Y 9 ORD] TO KEEP A PORTION ( MANK9D FREE FROM ?IS .<#c#g.> P>CEL+-\T ( ! S\L1 FROM ?IS SUPREME MA/]Y ( ! BUREAUCRATIC WAY ( LIFE 7QUOT$ 9 ,RE9H>D ,B5DIX1 ,MAX ,WEB]1 #d#f#d74 

,WEB]1 DEEPLY COMMITT$ TO A CODE ( >I/OCRATIC VALUES 79 :I* CONCEPTS ( FRE$OM & CITIZ5%IP HAD A CONS]VATIVE & PATRIOTIC CA/1 BUT W]E L9K$ TO ! CON/ITUTIONAL TRADITION7 WAS REPELL$ P>TLY BY ! PETT9ESS ( ?IS MODE ( LIFE1 AS ,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE WAS REPELL$ BY ! PICTURE ( 'DEMOCRATIC' UNI=MITY 9 A C5TRALIZ$ ,/ATE4 

,! ]OSION ( A S5SE ( 'CITIZ5%IP' AMONG BUREAUCRATIC (FICIALS MAY HAVE MORE DIRECTLY S9I/] IMPLICATIONS IF CONJO9$ TO DIVISION ( FUNCTIONS & ! P>CEL+ \T ( RESPONSIBILITY1 S9CE BUREAUCRATIC ANONYMITY MAY ALL[ M5 TO COMMIT ATROCITIES !Y W\LD NEV] CONDONE AS 9DIVIDUALS4 ,COM=T COMM5TS ?AT3 ',! ,POLICYMAK]'S ASSESSM5T ( ! ORD]S :I* HE GIVES IS BLUNT$ BY ! FACT ?AT HE IS SEP>AT$ FROM !IR PHYSICAL EXECUTION -- ?AT ( ! EXECUTIVE BY ! FACT ?AT IT IS NOT RESPONSIBLE = !M' 7,AU?ORITY & ,DEL9QU5CY 9 ! ,MOD]N ,/ATE1 #f#a74 ,CAMUS NOTES3 ',ONE ( ! ,DA*AU EXECUTION]S WEEPS 9 PRISON & SAYS1 0,I ONLY OBEY$ ORD]S4 ,! ,FUHR] & ,REI*SFUHR]1 ALONE1 PLANN$ ALL ?IS 4 4 4 ,GLUECKS RECEIV$ ORD]S FROM ,KALT5BRUNN] &1 F9ALLY1 ,I RECEIV$ ORD]S 4440' 7,! ,REBEL1 #a#e#a-#b74 

,! WOR/ P]V]SIONS ( BUREAUCRACY OCCUR H[EV] 9 CONJUNCTION ) TWO O!R ORGANS ( ,/ATE P[] DEPLOR$ BY AN>*I/S3 ! MILIT>Y E/ABLI%M5T & ! POLICE4 ,9 ! ECONOMIC & SOCIAL SPH]ES ( GOV]NM5T IT IS NECESS>Y TO DI/+UI% BETWE5 AN>*I/ CRITICISMS & COMMON LIB]AL-CONS]VATIVE COMPLA9TS AB\T BUREAUCRACY4 ,! AN>*I/ OBJECTION TO 'WELF>E S]VICES' ADM9I/]$ BY CIVIL S]VANTS1 = EXAMPLE1 IS NOT ?AT COMMUNITY WELF>E SAPS 9DIVIDUAL 9ITIATIVE & RESPONSIBILITY BUT ?AT (FICIALLY ADM9I/]$ WELF>E IS LIABLE TO BE GIV5 9FLEXIBLY1 (FICI\SLY & HE>TLESSLY -- OBJECTIONS 5VISAG$ BY ,KROPOTK94 ,NOR W\LD AN>*I/S SUBSCRIBE TO CRITIQUES ( BUREAUCRACY BAS$ PRIM>ILY ON JUDICIAL FE>S = ! 'RULE ( LAW' OR P>LIAM5T>Y FE>S AB\T ! LACK ( P>LIAM5T>Y CONTROL1 ?\< !Y MI<T WELL AGREE ?AT ABS5CE ( ADEQUATE JUDICIAL & P>LIAM5T>Y *ECKS 9CREAS$ ! DANG]S ( IRRESPONSIBLE USE ( P[]4 

,! SPIRIT ( ,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE'S ATTACK ON BUREAUCRATIC C5TRALISM IS1 H[EV]1 CLOS] TO AN>*I/ CONC]NS1 ?\< HIS ANSW] M>KS HIM %>PLY (F FROM AN>*ISM4 ,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE DISCOV]$ 9 ,AM]ICA & ,5GL& A POLITICAL ALT]NATIVE TO ,/ATE C5TRALIZATION1 :I* L$ NUN TO =MULATE A !ORETICAL DI/9CTION BETWE5 ! SPH]ES ( GOV]NM5T' & ( 'ADM9I/RATION'4 ,!RE >E1 HE SUGGE/S1 C]TA9 .<#c#h.> 9T]E/S COMMON TO A :OLE C\NTRY1 LIKE PASS+ G5]AL LAWS & SECUR+ DEF5SE3 !SE 9T]E/S MAY USEFULLY BE C5TRALIZ$4 ,!RE >E ALSO LOCAL 9T]E/S2 TO C5TRALIZE !SE IS TO CREATE A RIGID & UNWIELDY C5TRALIZ$ ADM9I/RATION4 ,9/EAD LOCAL AFFAIRS %\LD BE CONDUCT$ ?R\< ! POLITICAL 9ITIATIVE ( LOCAL CITIZ5S ?R\< MUNICIPAL GOV]NM5T & VOLUNT>Y ASSOCIATIONS4 ,:E!R ,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE'S DI/9CTION BETWE5 LOCAL & C5TRAL 9T]E/S1 & BETWE5 ! ROLE ( VOLUNT>Y ASSOCIATIONS & BUREAUCRATIC ORGANIZATIONS1 IS /ILL VALID1 & :E!R IT CAN BE MA9TA9$ 9 PRACTICE1 IS BE/ ANSW]$ 9 RELATION TO O!R FEATURES ( ,/ATE P[]1 & 9 ! LI<T ( HI/ORICAL DEVELOPM5TS S9CE HE WROTE4 

,POLICE 

,A SECOND FEATURE ( ! ,/ATE MA*9]Y ( GREAT IMPORTANCE = AN>*I/S IS A POLICE =CE4 ,:ILE ,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE IS COMMITT$ TO ! NE$ = A GOV]NM5T TO MA9TA9 ORD]1 HIS COMM5TS ON ! ROLE ( M\NT$ POLICE UND] ! ANCICN REGIME 9 ,FRANCE >E P]T95T3 

,TO ! M9D ( ! GREAT MAJORITY ( PEOPLE ONLY ! GOV]NM5T WAS CAPABLE ( MA9TA9+ ORD] 9 ! L& 444 ,! M\NT$ POLICEMAN WAS1 9 FACT1 ! EMBODIM5T ( LAW & ORD]1 NOT M]ELY ITS *IEF DEF5D] 444 ,NO ONE SEEM$ TO HAVE HAD ! FA9TE/ 9KL+ ?AT ! PROTECTOR MI<T ONE DAY BECOME ! MA/] 7,! ,OLD ,REGIME1 #f#i74 

,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE !N QUOTES ! REM>KS ( AN UNCOMPREH5D+ ,FR5* EMIGRE 9 ,5GL& ON ! ABS5CE ( A MILIT>Y POLICE3 ',IT IS ! LIT]AL TRU? ?AT ! AV]AGE ,5GLI%MAN CONSOLES HIMSELF = HAV+ BE5 ROBB$ ) ! REFLECTION ?AT HIS C\NTRY HAS NO M\NT$ POLICE6' ,IT HAD OBVI\SLY NEV] OCCURR$ TO HIM1 COMM5TS ,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE DRYLY1 ?AT '!SE 0ECC5TRICITIES0 W]E B\ND UP ) ! :OLE ,BRITI% CONCEPT ( FRE$OM'4 ,BUT N[ AN AN>*I/ >GU+ AGA9/ ! EXI/5CE ( A POLICE =CE IS LIKELY TO BE REG>D$ ) ! SAME 9CR$ULITY & CONDESC5SION AS ! EMIGRE !N REG>D$ ! ,5GLI%4 

,IT WAS 9 ,FRANCE UND] ,NAPOLEON ?AT ! ORGANIZATIONAL MODEL ( A MOD]N POLITICAL POLICE WAS FIR/ CREAT$4 ,UND] ,F\*E1 =M] ,REVOLUTION>Y ,M9I/] ( ,POLICE1 ! ,M9I/RY ( ,POLICE WAS REORGANIZ$ 9 #ahd & PROVID$ AN EFFICI5T 9/RUM5T ( SURVEILLANCE & REPRESSION TO MA9TA9 ,NAPOLEON 9 P[]4 ,F\*E'S DEP>TM5T DECL9$ 9 9FLU5CE AFT] ! FALL ( ,NAPOLEON1 BUT MANY ( ITS ME?ODS W]E RETA9$ BY SUCCE$+ REGIMES1 & ! POLITICAL .<#c#i.> POLICE WAS /R5G!N$ AGA9 BY ,L\IS ,NAPOLEON TO MA9TA9 HIS [N DICTATOR%IP AFT] #a#h#e#a4 ,AFT] HIS FALL ! POLICE UND] ! ,?IRD ,REPUBLIC *ANG$ ITS LEAD+ P]SONNEL1 BUT 'ITS FUNCTIONS ALT]$ LITTLE' 7SEE ,E4 ,K4 ,BRAM/$T1 ,DICTATOR%IP & ,POLITICAL ,POLICE1 #d#h74 ,GOV]NM5T M9I/]S W]E REPUT$ TO LIVE 9 FE> ( ! DOSSI]S ( ! POLICE4 ,9 ! E>LY YE>S ( ! ,F\R? ,REPUBLIC A PUBLIC SC&AL REVEAL$ ! BIZ>RE WORK+S ( ! RIVAL SECRET S]VICES ATTA*$ TO ! ,M9I/RY ( ! ,9T]IOR & ! ,PRIME ,M9I/]'S ,(FICE4 ,:IL/ ! =M] WAS HU%+ UP A SC&AL AB\T ! ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY1 ! SECOND 9 COMM& ( ! LATT] WAS ALLEG$LY TRY+ TO FRAME TWO ,SOCIALI/ ,M9I/]S :OM HE WANT$ TO HAVE %OT 7SEE ,PHILIP ,WILLIAMS1 ,POLITICS 9 ,PO/-,W> ,PRANCE1 #c#h#g74 ,NOR IS A SECRET POLICE EXCLUD$ BY A TRADITION ( LIB]ALISM4 ,9 #aife AN ,OBS]V] >TICLE E/IMAT$ !RE W]E POLICE DOSSI]S ON TWO MILLION POLITICAL SUSPECTS 9 ,BRITA94 

,HANNAH ,>5DT COMM5TS ?AT '! SECRET S]VICES HAVE RI<TLY BE5 CALL$ A /ATE )9 ! /ATE1 & ?IS NOT ONLY 9 DESPOTISMS BUT ALSO UND] CON/ITUTIONAL OR SEMICON/ITUTIONAL GOV]NM5TS' 7,! ,ORIG9S ( ,TOTALIT>IANISM1 #d#b#e74 ,! DANG]S 9H]5T 9 A SPECIFICALLY POLITICAL POLICE MAY ALSO BE SE5 AS 9H]5T 9 A NORMAL POLICE =CE4 ,ORTEGA Y ,GASSET URG$ 9 #aic 9 ,! ,REVOLT ( ! ,MASSES ?AT A CONCRETE EXAMPLE ( ! DANG]S ( ! MOD]N ,/ATE CRU%+ 9DIVIDUAL FRE$OM WAS '! 5ORM\S 9CREASE 9 ! POLICE =CE ( ALL C\NTRIES'4 ,HE GOES ON TO PR$ICT ?AT ! POLICE WILL NOT BE CONT5T TO MA9TA9 'LAW & ORD]' ON ! T]MS PEOPLE WANT1 BUT 'WILL 5D BY !MSELVES DEF9+ & DECID+ ON ! ORD] !Y >E GO+ TO IMPOSE' 7#i#d74 ,IT IS A M9OR ILLU/RATION ( ! L9K BETWE5 >I/OCRATIC LIB]ALISM & AN>*ISM ?AT ,AN>*Y USES A QUOTE FROM ?IS PASSAGE1 TOGE!R ) ,SEYM\R ,LIPSET'S EXAMPLE ( H[ POLICE 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES >E PUBLICLY ?REAT5+ TO DISOBEY ORD]S :I* REQUIRE POLICE L5I5CY T[>DS BLACK OR /UD5T DEMON/RATORS 7SEE ,SEYM\R ,LIPSET1 ',! ,POLITICS ( ! ,POLICE'1 ,NEW ,SOCIETY1 #f ,M>* #a#i#f#i1 & ,AN>*Y ,NO4 #i#h1 ,APRIL #a#i#f#i74 ,DE ,J\V5EL ALSO COMM5TS ) CONC]N ?AT3 ',! GR[? ( ! POLICE1 9 NUMB]S1 IMPORTANCE & DIGNITY1 IS A UNIV]SAL PH5OM5ON ( ! PRES5T TIME' 7,P[]1 #c#b74 

,! POLICE ROLE 9 MA9TA9+ PUBLIC ORD] NECESS>ILY T5DS TO HAVE POLITICAL OV]TONES4 ,BUT SUPPRESSION ( 'CRIME' CAN 9 ITSELF BE SE5 AS A =M ( POLITICAL REPRESSION DIRECT$ AGA9/ ! POOR -- ESPECIALLY :5 ! HI<E/ CRIME RATES OCCUR 9 ! POORE/ >EAS4 ,IT HAS BE5 E/IMAT$1 = EXAMPLE1 ?AT 9 COMMUNITIES 9 ,WE/]N ,SICILY EI<T \T ( T5 M5 HAVE SP5T OV] A YE> 9 JAIL1 & A FUR!R F\R P] C5T >E \TLAWS 7,GAV9 ,MAXWELL1 ,! ,T5 ,PA9S ( ,DEA?1 #h74 ,SLUM DWELL]S OR COLOR$ M9ORITIES (T5 FEEL ?AT !Y >E OBJECTS ( AUTOMATIC SUSPICION & FAIR GAME = ANY POLICEMAN4 .<#d.> ,D\BTS AB\T ! CATEGORY ( CRIME >E RE9=C$ BY ! FACT ?AT BO? ! 9VE/IGATIONS ( ! POLICE1 & ! RESE>*ES ( SOCIAL SCI5TI/S1 >E USUALLY DIRECT$ -- AS A REC5T ISSUE ( ,AN>*Y ON CRIM9OLOGY REM>K$ -- TO 'L[] WORK+-CLASS CRIM9ALS' RA!R ?AN TO 'GANGS' 9 ! BUS9ESS & F9ANCIAL WORLD 7,AN>*Y ,NO4 #i#h74 

,POLICE >E ALSO PLAC$ 9 A POSITION ( UNIQUE OPPORTUNITY & TEMPTATION TO COMMIT CRIMES !MSELVES4 ,ONE ( ! MO/ FREQU5T *>GES MADE AGA9/ POLICE IS ?AT ( VIOL5T ASSAULT -- WIDELY PUBLICIZ$ 9 C]TA9 CASES ( POLICE VIOL5CE AGA9/ DEMON/RATIONS1 = EXAMPLE 9 ,P>IS 9 ,MAY #aifh & 9 ,*ICAGO 9 ,AUGU/ #aifh AT ! ,DEMOCRATIC ,P>TY ,CONV5TION4 ,9 REC5T YE>S !RE HAS ALSO BE5 PUBLICITY 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES AB\T 9DISCRIM9ATE POLICE %OOT+ CAUS+ MANY DEA?S DUR+ 'RIOTS' 9 BLACK <ETTOS -- :I* CAN BE SE5 AS A =M ( SEMI-POLITICAL DEMON/RATION4 ,BUT ! MO/ S]I\S CASES ( POLICE VIOL5CE MAY BE HIDD5 FROM ! PUBLIC4 ,ALEX ,COM=T QUOTES FROM ,H4 VON ,H5TIG1 ,! ,CRIM9AL & ,HIS ,VICTIM3 ',! POLICE =CE & ! RANKS ( PRISON (FIC]S 4 4 4 AF=D LEGAL *ANNELS = PA9-9FLICT+1 P[]-WIELD+ BEHAVIOR1 & 4 4 4 CONF] UPON !IR HOLD]S A L>GE DEGREE ( IMMUNITY' 7,AU?ORITY & ,DEL9QU5CY 9 ! ,MOD]N ,/ATE1 #c#h74 ,A P>TICUL>LY EXTREME EXAMPLE IS ?AT ( ! POLICE DEA? SQUAD 9 ,BRAZIL3 9 ,DECEMB] #aifi A ,RIO DE ,JANEIRO DI/RICT POLICE *IEF SAID HE HAD EVID5CE ?AT MEMB]S ( ! POLICE W]E RESPONSIBLE = TORTUR+ & MURD]+ #ab PETTY CRIM9ALS 9 ! PREVI\S TWO YE>S 7,! ,TIMES1 #a ,DECEMB] #a#i#f#i1 #g74 ,?IRD DEGREE ME?ODS >E /&>D PRACTICE 9 MANY POLICE =CES -- 9 ,FRANCE = EXAMPLE SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS HAVE BE5 CO9$ = ! 9ITIAL POLICE 9T]ROGATION4 ,BRITA9 HAS A BETT] REPUTATION4 ,BUT ! DETECTIVE 9SPECTOR :O LOOK$ ON :ILE F\R M5 W]E BEAT5 ) A TRUN*EON & RH9O :IP BY TWO CON/ABLES 9 ,%EFFIELD 9 ,M>* #aifc TOLD AN ,9QUIRY '!SE ?+S GO ON FAIRLY FREQU5TLY1 DON'T !Y'1 & APP>5TLY ?\<T ! VICTIMS W]E UNLIKELY TO COMPLA91 OR TO BE BELIEV$ IF !Y DID 7,B5 ,:ITAK]1 ,! ,POLICE1 #a#d#h74 

,:]E ! LEVEL ( VIOL5T CRIMES IS EXCEPTIONALLY HI<1 OR GANG/]ISM P>TICUL>LY WELL 5TR5*$1 ! AN>*I/ CASE = ABOLI%+ ! POLICE MAY BE MO/ P]SUASIVE4 ,9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES1 = EXAMPLE1 AN (FICIAL ,COMMISSION ON ! ,CAUSES & ,PREV5TION ( ,VIOL5CE HAS /RESS$ ?AT POV]TY IS ! MA9 CAUSE ( ! CRIME RATE1 & URG$ ! NE$ TO COMPLETELY REBUILD ,AM]ICAN CITIES4 ,NOR DOES ! EXI/5CE ( A POLICE =CE SUFFICI5TLY REASSURE ! L>GE NUMB] ( H\SEHOLD]S :O FE> TO WALK \TDOORS AT NI<T1 OR HAVE 9VE/$ 9 !IR [N GUNS -- A TRULY ,HOBBESIAN PICTURE4 ,:IL/ 9 WE/]N ,SICILY RUL$ BY '! ,*UR*1 ! ,/ATE1 & ! ,MAFIA' = DECADES1 ! MO/ S]I\S *ALL5GE TO ! ,MAFIA HAS COME FROM M5 WORK+ = RADICAL SOCIAL *ANGE4 ,! ,MAFIA %OT =TY-?REE TRADE .<#d#a.> UNIONI/S2 & 'DAY LABOR]S CLAIM+ ! L&1 PEASANTS TAK+ P>T 9 ,COMMUNI/ GA!R+S W]E MET BY RIFLE FIRE' 7,! ,TIMES1 #bf ,FEBRU>Y #a#i#g1 #a#a74 ,BUT ! DIRECT ACTION MOVEM5T 9ITIAT$ BY ,DANILO ,DOLCI HAS SURVIV$ 9TIMIDATION & HELP$ TO UNCOV] ,MAFIA 9FLU5CE4 

,BUT 9 ,SICILY ! ,MAFIA IS SO CLOSELY L9K$ TO ! P[]S-?AT-BE ?AT POLITICAL RESI/ANCE IS APPROPRIATE2 & POV]TY 9 ! ,AM]ICAN <ETTOS IS SO CLOSELY L9K$ TO DISCRIM9ATION ?AT SOCIAL & ECONOMIC MEASURES >E RELEVANT4 ,:]E ! SOCIAL & POLITICAL OV]TONES ( CRIME >E LESS OBVI\S1 IMM$IATE POLITICAL & SOCIAL ACTION BECOMES LESS PLAUSIBLE AS AN ADEQUATE RESPONSE TO ! PROBLEM4 ,AN>*I/S ALSO CONFRONT ! DIFFICULTY ?AT1 AL?\< A L>GE PROPORTION ( CRIMES >E COMMITT$ BY 9DIVIDUALS OR SMALL GR\PS1 !RE >E ALSO HI<LY ORGANIZ$ & SOMETIMES 9T]NATIONAL CRIME SYNDICATES4 ,CRIME1 LIKE BIG BUS9ESS1 HAS T5D$ TO 9CREASE ITS ORGANIZATIONAL SCALE1 & IT POSES1 = AN>*I/S TRU/+ 9 SOCIAL *ANGE & COMMUNITY C>E ( 9DIVIDUALS1 A PROBLEM SIMIL> TO ?AT CREAT$ 9 ! ECONOMIC SPH]E BY TRU/S1 C>TELS & MONOPOLIES4 ,!RE MAY BE NO ALT]NATIVES TO ,GOV]NM5T REGULATION1 AS ,B5JAM9 ,TUCK] RELUCTANTLY CAME TO ACKN[L$GE 9 RELATION TO HIS POLICY ( FREE COMPETITION 7SEE ! ,PO/SCRIPT TO SIX? $ITION ( ,/ATE ,SOCIALISM & ,AN>*ISM74 

,:IL/ POLICE =CES >E SE5 PRIM>ILY AS ORGANS ( ! ,/ATE1 MANY ASPECTS ( POLICE BEHAVIOR /EM FROM ! VALUES ( EXI/+ SOCIETY4 ,9 ,BRITA91 = 9/ANCE1 ,AN>*Y HAS PO9T$ \T ?AT POLICE N[ HUNT D[N DRUG ADDICTS ) EXCEPTIONAL ZEAL4 ,! DIFFICULTY ( DIS5TANGL+ ! OP]ATIONS ( ! ,/ATE FROM ! 9FLU5CE ( ! SURR\ND+ SOCIETY IS APP>5T 9 MANY AN>*I/ WRIT+S4 ,!IR AW>5ESS ( ?IS RELATION%IP BETWE5 ! ,/ATE & PRES5T SOCIETY1 & 9 P>TICUL> ! 9FLU5CE ( A HI]>*ICAL CLASS /RUCTURE1 LEADS AN>*I/S TO /RESS ! NE$ = FUNDAM5TAL SOCIAL AS WELL AS POLITICAL *ANGE4 ,! IMPORTANCE ( ! SOCIAL & ECONOMIC CONTEXT IS P>TICUL>LY EVID5T 9 DISCUSSIONS ( ! ROLE ( LAW & ! OP]ATION ( ! LEGAL SY/EM4 

,! ,LAW 

,! AN>*I/ VIEW ( LAW HAS BE5 /AT$ ) GREAT CL>ITY & SIMPLICITY BY ,TOL/OY4 ,9 HIS ESSAY ',! ,SLAV]Y ( ,\R ,TIMES' HE >GUES ?AT ! ONE *>ACT]I/IC COMMON TO ALL LAW IS3 

?AT IF ANY MAN DOES NOT FULFILL !M1 ?OSE :O HAVE MADE !SE LAWS WILL S5D >M$ M51 & ! >M$ M5 WILL BEAT1 DEPRIVE ( FRE$OM1 OR EV5 KILL1 ! MAN :O DOES NOT OBEY ! LAW -- 7,ESSAYS FROM ,TULA1 #a#a74 

,SEV]AL PEASANTS SIMIL> TO ?OSE AB\T TO BE HANG$1 BUT >M$1 DRESS$ 9 CLEAN SOLDI]S' UNI=MS1 ) GOOD BOOTS ON !IR FEET1 & ) GUNS 9 !IR H&S1 ACCOMPANY ! CONDEMN$ M54 ,BESIDE !M WALKS A LONG-HAIR$ MAN1 WE>+ A /OLE & VE/M5TS ( GOLD OR SILV] CLO?1 & BE>+ A CROSS4 ,! PROCESSION /OPS4 ,! MANAG] ( ! :OLE BUS9ESS SAYS SOME?+2 ! SECRET>Y READS A PAP]2 & :5 ! PAP] HAS BE5 READ1 ! LONG-HAIR$ MAN1 ADDRESS+ ?OSE :OM O!R PEOPLE >E AB\T TO /RANGLE ) CORDS1 SAYS SOME?+ AB\T ,GOD & ,*RI/ 7,ESSAYS FROM ,TULA1 #a#g#d74 

,TOL/OY !N COMES TO ! F\R? ELEM5T 9 HIS ATTACK ON LAW 5=CEM5T -- ! WAY 9 :I* DIRECT RESPONSIBILITY IS EVAD$ BY SUBDIVID+ ! /AGES ( PASS+ ! S5T5CE & EXECUT+ ! V]DICT1 SO ?AT 'EA* MAY ?9K & SAY IT IS NOT HE :O IS RESPONSIBLE = !M' 7#a#g#e74 

,TOL/OY'S PICTURE IS A C>ICATURE1 BUT LIKE MO/ C>ICATURES IT S]VES TO BR+ 9TO PROM95CE FEATURES (T5 NOT NOTIC$4 ,!RE IS A FRI<T5+ GAP BETWE5 ! PR9CIPLES ( LEGAL !ORY & ! ACTUAL EXP]I5CE ( ! MA*9]Y ( JU/ICE4 ,?IS IS TRUE NOT ONLY ( ! ,KAFKAESQUE NATURE ( A JUDICIAL ORGANIZATION1 LIKE ?AT 9 ,ITALY1 :I* MAY KEEP A MAN 9 JAIL = TWO YE>S )\T TRIAL2 BUT ( ,5GLI% LAW1 :]E ! MAXIM ?AT A P]SON IS TO BE HELD 9NOC5T UNTIL PROV$ GUILTY FITS ODDLY ) A SY/EM 9 :I*1 IF POLICE REFUSE BAIL1 ! ACCUS$ MAY SP5D MON?S 9 /RICT CONF9EM5T1 BE=E A C\RT HAS CONVICT$ HIM4 

,JAMES ,BALDW9 HAS DESCRIB$ 9 HIS ESSAY ',EQUAL 9 ,P>IS' HIS F>CICAL BUT T]RIFY+ EXP]I5CE ( BE+ >RE/$ BY MI/AKE 9 .<#d#c.> ,P>IS = ! !FT ( A HOTEL %EET 7SEE ,NOTES ( A ,NATIVE ,SON74 ,! LEGAL MA*9]Y 9 :I* HE WAS CAU<T UP 9VOLV$ ! 9ITIAL 9T]ROGATION 'QUITE *ILL+LY CLIPP$ & EFFICI5T 7SO ?AT !RE WAS %ORTLY NO D\BT 9 ONE'S [N M9D ?AT ONE %\LD BE TREAT$ AS A CRIM9AL7'1 BE+ F+]PR9T$ & PHOTOGRAPH$1 MOV$ FROM A CELL TO A COMMUNAL %$ 9 ! ,PREFECTURE1 & !N DRIV5 9 A POLICE WAGON TO A PRISON \TSIDE ,P>IS1 :]E HE WAS LOCK$ 91 'DIVE/$ ( %OELACES1 BELT1 WAT*1 MONEY1 PAP]S1 NAILFILE1 9 A FREEZ+ CELL 9 :I* BO? ! W9D[ & TOILET W]E BROK51 ) SIX O!R ADV5TUR]S'4 ,H]E HE WAIT$ LIKE ! RE/ = ! UNKN[N DAY ( HIS TRIAL1 WAS TOLD /ORIES BY HIS CELL MATES ( M5 TAK5 TO BE TRI$ BE+ S5T TO ! GUILLOT9E BY MI/AKE -- '?\< ,I KNEW !Y W]E TEAS+ ME IT WAS SIMPLY NOT POSSIBLE = ME TO TOTALLY DISBELIEVE !M' -- & AFT] SEV]AL DAYS TAK5 TO C\RT1 :]E ! LACK ( AN 9T]PRET] MEANT HIS CASE HAD TO BE PO/PON$4 ,BALDW9 COMM5TS ON ! PROCE$+S3 

,IT SEEM$ TO ME ?AT ALL ! S5T5CES MET$ \T ?AT DAY W]E EXCESSIVE2 ?\<1 AGA91 IT SEEM$ ?AT ALL ! PEOPLE :O W]E BE+ S5T5C$ ?AT DAY HAD MADE1 OR CLE>LY W]E GO+ TO MAKE1 CRIME !IR C>E]4 ,?IS SEEM$ TO BE ! OP9ION ( ! JUDGE1 :O SC>CELY LOOK$ AT ! PRISON]S OR LI/5$ TO !M2 IT SEEM$ TO BE ! OP9ION ( ! PRISON]S1 :O SC>CELY BO!R$ TO SPEAK 9 !IR [N BEHALF2 IT SEEM$ TO BE ! OP9ION ( ! LAWY]S1 /ATE LAWY]S = ! MO/ P>T1 :O W]E DEF5D+ !M4 ,! GREAT IMPULSE ( ! C\RTROOM SEEM$ TO BE TO PUT !SE PEOPLE :]E !Y C\LD NOT BE SE5 444 7#a#c#a74 

,BALDW9'S ACC\NT IS NOT WRITT5 9 ! DIRECTLY POLEMICAL SPIRIT ( ,TOL/OY'S ATTACKS ON C\RTS & JAILS1 ?\< IT HAS 9 ?IS PASSAGE ,TOL/OYAN OV]TONES1 :I* >E EV5 CLE>] 9 A LAT] P>AGRAPH :]E HE DESCRIBES H[ HE W5T TO ,MASS ONE ,*RI/MAS DAY LOCK$ 9 A COLD CUBICLE & PE]+ ?R\< AN EYE HOLE AT 'AN OLD ,FR5*MAN1 HATT$1 OV]COAT$1 MUFFL$ & GLOV$1 PREA*+ 9 ?IS LANGUAGE :I* ,I DID NOT UND]/&1 TO ?IS R[ ( WOOD5 BOXES1 ! /ORY ( ,JESUS ,*RI/'S LOVE = M5'4 ,BUT IT IS AN UNUSUALLY VIVID ACC\NT ( :AT HAPP5S DAILY TO MANY LESS >TICULATE M5 CAU<T UP 9 DUE PROCESS ( LAW4 ,SOME ( ,BALDW9'S HELPLESSNESS >OSE FROM HIS IMP]FECT UND]/&+ ( ! LANGUAGE & IGNORANCE ( ,FR5* LAW4 ,! AV]AGE PRISON]1 H[EV]1 CONFRONT$ ) LEGAL J>GON & ! COMPLEXITIES ( LEGAL & C\RT PROC$URES1 IS PROBABLY 9 MU* ! SAME POSITION4 ,GODW9 COMM5T$ BITT]LY ON ,5GLI% LAW3 

,LAW WAS ORIG9ALLY DEVIS$1 ?AT ORD9>Y M5 MI<T KN[ :AT !Y HAD TO EXPECT2 & !RE IS NOT1 AT ?IS DAY1 A LAWY] EXI/+ .<#d#d.> 9 ,GREAT ,BRITA91 VA9-GLORI\S 5\< TO PRET5D ?AT HE HAS MA/]$ ! CODE 444 ,IT IS A LABYR9? )\T 5D2 IT IS A MASS ( CONTRADICTIONS ?AT CANNOT BE DIS5TANGL$ 7,9QUIRY ,CONC]N+ ,POLITICAL ,JU/ICE1 ,VOL4 ,I,I1 #d#b74 

,TOL/OY UND]L9ES 9 HIS NOVEL ,RESURRECTION1 WRITT5 AFT] HIS CONV]SION TO AN>*ISM1 H[ FOLL[+ ! LETT] ( ! LAW & ! =MALITIES ( PROC$URE MAY PREV5T G5U9E JU/ICE BE+ DONE1 & ! >BITR>Y ELEM5T 9 JUDGM5TS & 9 S5T5C+ POLICY4 ,BUT ! HE>T ( HIS CASE IS A CONVICTION ?AT ! WAY ! 'LAW' TREATS PEOPLE IS HUMANLY 9TOL]ABLE4 ,JAMES ,BALDW9 REC\NTS AT ! 5D ( HIS /ORY ( HIS PRISON EXP]I5CES 9 ,P>IS ?AT :5 HE F9ALLY CAME BE=E ! C\RT1 HAV+ MADE CONTACT ) AN ATTORNEY FRI5D VIA AN EX-CELL MATE & BE5 S5T A LAWY]1 '! /ORY ( ! DRAP DE LIT1 F9ALLY TOLD1 CAUS$ GREAT M]RIM5T 9 ! C\RTROOM'4 ,HE ADDS1 ',I WAS *ILL$ BY !IR M]RIM5T4 ,IT C\LD ONLY REM9D ME ( ! LAU<T] ,I HAD (T5 HE>D AT HOME 4 4 4 ,?IS LAU<T] IS ! LAU<T] ( ?OSE :O CONSID] !MSELVES TO BE AT A SAFE REMOVE FROM ALL ! WRET*$1 = :OM ! PA9 ( LIV+ IS NOT REAL4' ,DURKHEIM'S APHORISM AB\T SOCIALISM -- ?AT IT 'IS NOT A SCI5CE1 A SOCIOLOGY 9 M9IATURE -- IT IS A CRY ( GRIEF1 SOMETIMES ( ANG] 4 4 4' 7,SOCIALISM1 #d#a71 IS P]HAPS MORE DIRECTLY RELEVANT TO AN>*ISM4 ,BUT ,DURKHEIM'S CONCEPT ( SCI5CE LEADS HIM TO OV]LOOK ! FACT ?AT JUXTAPOS+ EXP]I5C$ REALITY ) !ORETICAL AB/RACTIONS & 'OBJECTIVE' FACTS LIKE LEGAL CODES IS CRUCIAL TO A S]I\S SOCIOLOGY OR !ORY ( POLITICS4 ,! AN>*I/ IS1 9 ATTACK+ ! PRESUPPOSITIONS ( LAW1 SPEAK+ = L>GE NUMB]S ( PEOPLE1 9 P>TICUL> ! POOR & 9>TICULATE1 :O1 AS ,BALDW9 COMM5TS1 HAVE = ! MO/ P>T NEV] TRU/$ LEGALITY4 

,!RE IS AN ALMO/ 9ESCAPABLE S5SE 9 :I* ACCEPT$ !ORIES ( POLITICS & LAW ACT AS IDEOLOGICAL JU/IFICATIONS = ! EXI/+ SOCIAL HI]>*Y4 ,!Y >E L>GELY ACCEPT$ BY ?OSE AT ! TOP :O MAKE & ADM9I/] ! LAWS1 & PROVIDE !M ) ! PR9CIPLES !Y NE$ 9 ! PROCESS2 & !SE !ORIES >E (T5 MUTELY OR OP5LY REJECT$ BY ?OSE AT ! BOTTOM1 :O SEE ! 'LAW' FROM ! P]SPECTIVE ( ! POLICE CELL & ! JAIL -- TO :AT EXT5T ?OSE AT ! BOTTOM CON/ITUTE A MAJORITY1 & :E!R !Y COMPRISE ! WORK+ CLASS1 DOES1 H[EV]1 V>Y CONSID]ABLY4 ,! ANALYSIS ( JURISPRUD5CE AS AN IDEOLOGY ( ! RUL+ CLASS1 PUT =W>D 9 SIMPLE & POPUL> T]MS BY ,M>X & ,5GELS 9 ,! ,COMMUNI/ ,MANIFE/O1 IS EMBRAC$ BY ,TOL/OY ON ! BASIS ( HIS [N OBS]VATION4 ,BUT ?IS VIEW CANNOT BE ACCEPT$ AS IT /&S = A NUMB] ( REASONS1 ONE ( :I* WAS GIV5 BY ,5GELS 9 A LETT] WRITT5 9 #ahi TRY+ TO EXPLA9 ! ,M>XI/ POSITION ON IDEOLOGY 7,M>X & ,5GELS1 ,SELECT$ .<#d#e.> ,CORRESPOND5CE1 #e#d-#e74 ,5GELS >GUES ?AT 9 ! MOD]N ,/ATE LAW CANNOT SIMPLY BE A REFLECTION ( ECONOMIC RELATION%IPS1 OR TOO BLATANTLY AN 9/RUM5T ( ! RUL+ CLASS1 BECAUSE AS A LEGAL SY/EM IS ELABORAT$ IT DEVELOPS A LIFE & LOGIC ( ITS [N1 & IS CON/RA9$ BY ! DEM&S ( 9T]NAL CONSI/5CY4 ,A LEGAL SY/EM HAS1 !RE=E1 AN 9T]NAL DYNAMIC T[>DS ! REALIZATION ( PR9CIPLES ( EQUITY & JU/ICE EMBODI$ )9 A LEGAL CODE4 

,IF WE PURSUE ! IMPLICATIONS ( ,5GELS'S QUALIFICATIONS AB\T LAW AS PURE IDEOLOGY WE BEG9 TO >RIVE AT A V]Y /RONG CASE = SEEK+ TO MA9TA9 ! ROLE ( LAW 9 SOCIETY1 AT BO? A !ORETICAL & IMM$IATELY PRACTICAL LEVEL4 ,! EXI/5CE ( AN ELABORATE SET ( PROC$URES MAY BE AN IMPORTANT MEANS ( SEEK+ R$RESS = ?OSE ABUSES AN>*I/S ATTACK4 ,PROC$URAL RULES HELP CON/RA9 ALL ?OSE 9VOLV$ 9 ADM9I/]+ ! LAW1 & MA9TA9+ ! RULES MAY BECOME A MATT] ( PR(ESSIONAL PRIDE4 ,9 ADDITION1 BECAUSE ANY P>TICUL> JUDICIAL SY/EM EMBODIES G5]AL PR9CIPLES LIKE PROTECT+ 9DIVIDUAL RI<TS1 IT G5]ATES PR9CIPLES TO :I* RE=M]S CAN APPEAL 9 SEEK+ TO 9CREASE 9DIVIDUAL RI<TS OR TO REPEAL UNJU/ LAWS4 ,! JUDICI>Y MAY ALSO PROVIDE A C]TA9 BULW>K ( RESI/ANCE AGA9/ A GOV]NM5T :I* SEEKS TO EX]CISE >BITR>Y & DICTATORIAL P[]S4 ,9 ,S\? ,AFRICA = A LONG P]IOD ! IMP>TIALITY ( JUDGES 9 ADM9I/]+ ! LAW HELP$ TO MITIGATE ! ,GOV]NM5T'S DRIVE AGA9/ OPPON5TS ( ITS AP>!ID POLICY4 ,9 ,GREECE ! EXT5T ( JUDICIAL RESI/ANCE WAS 9DICAT$ :5 ! REGIME DECID$ 9 ,MAY #aifh TO DEPOSE TW5TY-ONE JUDGES1 A MOVE ,GREECE'S ,SUPREME ,ADM9I/RATIVE ,C\RT DECL>$ ILLEGAL :5 ! JUDGES APPEAL$4 

,AS BO? ,S\? ,AFRICA & ,GREECE %[1 /RICT APPLICATION ( ! LAW CAN HELP MA9TA9 DESPOTIC LAWS & CRUEL P5ALTIES IF ! REGIME MAKES REPRESSIVE LAWS1 & CAN BYPASS SAFEGU>DS 9 ! EXI/+ LAW BY ALL[+ DET5TION ( PRISON]S = LONG P]IODS )\T TRIAL1 OR BY SETT+ UP SEP>ATE TRIBUNALS TO TRY POLITICAL PRISON]S4 ,BUT ! TRA9+ & PR(ESSIONAL /ATUS ( LAWY]S1 MAGI/RATES & JUDGES MAKES !M LESS AM5ABLE TO S]V+ A DICTATOR%IP ?AN EI!R ! ADM9I/RATIVE BUREAUCRACY OR POLICE1 & TO REG>D ! JUDICI>Y 9 ALL CIRCUM/ANCES SIMPLY AS AN ORGAN ( ! ,/ATE IS A RA!R DANG]\S SIMPLIFICATION4 ,MEMB]S ( ! JUDICI>Y ALSO 9H]IT A SET ( VALUES ON :I* TO BASE A WID] POLITICAL RESI/ANCE4 ,! PR(ESSOR ( ,P5AL ,LAW AT ,A!NS ,UNIV]SITY1 DISMISS$ 9 A POLITICAL PURGE 9 #aifi & LAT] >RE/$1 SAID 9 A F>EWELL LECTURE ON ! SPIRIT & ESS5CE ( LAW3 

,! FUNDAM5TAL VALUE T[>DS :I* IT IS ORI5T$ IS FRE$OM 444 ,IF ! LAWY] =GETS ?IS1 HE BECOMES A M]E TE*NICIAN1 AN 9/RUM5T ( OPPRESSION 9 ! H&S ( ! /RONG444 ,MY .<#d#f.> SEP>ATION FROM Y\ N[ IS ! PRICE ,I MU/ PAY = ADH]+ TO ! VALUES ,I HAVE V5]AT$ ALL MY LIFE 7,! ,GU>DIAN1 #bd ,FEBRU>Y #a#i#f#i1 #c74 

,?AT ! MODEL ( LEGALITY & JU/ICE 5%R9$ 9 LAWS & C\RTS HAS G5U9E MEAN+ IS DEMON/RAT$ BY \R ABILITY TO RECOGNIZE 'MOCK]IES ( JU/ICE'1 :I* FL\T NOT ONLY ! PR9CIPLES BUT ! PROC$URES ( FAIR TRIAL4 ,H]B]T ,READ COMM5TS ?AT ,JU/ICE1 9 H] ANCI5T P]SONIFICATION1 IS BL9D & HOLD+ A PAIR ( SCALES4 ,?\< ! IDEA ( RETRIBUTION1 REPRES5T$ BY ! SWORD ( ,JU/ICE1 HAS COME TO DOM9ATE1 ! ORIG9AL CONCEPTION IS RETA9$ 9 '! V]Y PRECI\S 9DEP5D5CE ( ! JUDICI>Y4 ,?AT 9DEP5D5CE MAY BY N[ BE MORE 9 NAME ?AN 9 SUB/ANCE1 BUT AT ANY RATE IT IS A RECOGNITION ( DI/9CT VALUES' 7,AN>*Y & ,ORD]1 #a#h#h74 ,READ !N REV]TS TO A MORE FAMILI> AN>*I/ POSITION1 NOT+ ?AT ! 9DEP5D5CE ( ! JUDICI>Y IS SYMBOLIZ$ BY ITS WIGS & G[NS & RITUALS :I* CREATE 'A %ELL ( CU/OM & =MALITY'1 :I* EXCLUDES ALL DIRECT HUMAN RESPONSE & HUMAN VALUES4 

,AN>*I/S CAN QUITE CONSI/5TLY RECOGNIZE ! POSSIBLE VALUE ( JUDICIAL 9DEP5D5CE )9 EXI/+ ,/ATES1 BUT MA9TA9 ?AT 9 A NEW & BETT] SOCIETY ! DEF5SIVE ROLE ( ! JUDICI>Y AGA9/ ! ,/ATE W\LD BE UNNECESS>Y4 ,9 ! REVOLUTION>Y TRADITION /EMM+ FROM ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION ABOLITION ( ! OLD C\RTS IS USUALLY SE5 AS A NECESS>Y /AGE 9 A*IEV+ A NEW SOCIETY4 ,BUT D5IAL ( JUDICIAL 9DEP5D5CE HAS PROV$ TO HAVE ITS DANG]S 9 PRACTICE4 ,DE ,J\V5EL QUOTES ,FAGUET1 ,LE ,LIB]ALISME3 

',! SUBORD9ATION ( ! MAGI/RACY TO ! GOV]NM5T IS ONE ( ! TRIUMPHS ( ! ,REVOLUTION4 ,AT ! MOM5T ( PROCLAIM+ ! RI<TS ( MAN1 IT DE/ROY$ !IR CA/LE & P>ALYZ$ !IR DEF5D]S4' 7,P[]1 #a#i#g74 

,MORE REC5T EXP]I5CE 9 SOCIALI/ C\NTRIES HAS %[N ?AT ONCE APPLICATION ( ! LAW IS 'LEGITIMATELY' SUBJECT TO POLITICAL DIRECTION1 IT IS ALSO DIRECTLY VULN]ABLE TO ! PRESSURES :I* >ISE 9 ! POLITICAL PROCESS ITSELF4 ,FROM AN AN>*I/ /&PO9T1 H[EV]1 ! HI/ORY ( ! C\NTRIES :]E ,COMMUNI/ ,P>TIES HAVE COME TO P[] RE9=CES !IR BELIEF 9 ! NECESSITY ( ABOLI%+ ! ,/ATE & AVOID+ ! CREATION ( A NEW GOV]NM5T AU?ORITY4 

,AU?ORITY & ,GOV]NM5T 

,! AN>*I/ ATTITUDE TO LAW IS V]Y CLOSELY RELAT$ TO ! WID] QUE/ION ( ! ROLE ( GOV]NM5T 9 SOCIETY1 & ! MEAN+ ( LEGITIMATE AU?ORITY4 ,IT IS ON !SE ISSUES ?AT AN>*I/S T5D TO P>T .<#d#g.> COMPANY ALTOGE!R ) ! CON/ITUTIONAL !ORI/S4 ,LAW COMB9ES AU?ORITY -- EMBODI$ 9 C]TA9 P]SONS1 D5OT$ BY RITUALS1 & (T5 HALL[$ BY AGE -- ) A /RICTLY DEF9$ USE ( =CE DESIGN$ TO PROTECT SOCIETY4 ,LEGITIMATE GOV]NM5TS LIKEWISE D]IVE ! AU?ORITY VE/$ 9 !M FROM ADH]5CE TO C]TA9 PROC$URES 9 OBTA9+ P[]1 & FROM US+ !IR P[] ONLY 9 MODES DEF9$ BY CU/OM OR ! CON/ITUTION4 ,AS 9 ! CASE ( LAW C\RTS1 ! AU?ORITY ( GOV]NM5TS IS USUALLY 5HANC$ BY RITUAL C]EMONIES & 9SIGNIA ( (FICE -- ?IS WAS ESPECIALLY TRUE ( MON>*S :O CAME TO ! ?RONE ?R\< ! PAGEANTRY ( A CORONATION & SP5T !IR LIVES AMID ! ETIQUETTE ( C\RTS4 ,9 ,EUROPE K+S W]E CR[N$ BY BI%OPS1 & ! RITUAL ( !IR (FICE WAS (T5 9T]WOV5 ) *UR* RITUALS4 ,IT IS P>TLY BECAUSE ! SPIRITUAL AU?ORITY ( ! ,*UR* HAS SO (T5 RE9=C$ ! TEMPORAL AU?ORITY ( ! RUL] ?AT AN>*I/S T5D TO BE SO ANTAGONI/IC TO ! ,*UR* AS ! H&MAID ( E>?LY P[]S4 

,BUT OPPOSITION TO RELIGION IS CLOSELY RELAT$ TO A G5]AL OPPOSITION TO REGALIA1 SYMBOLS1 C]EMONIES & BELIEFS :I* 5C\RAGE PEOPLE TO V5]ATE GOV]NM5T4 ,TOL/OY1 = 9/ANCE1 IS ALWAYS ANXI\S TO /RIP ! ,EMP]OR ( HIS CLO!S & REVEAL ! NAK$ VIOL5CE UND]NEA?4 ,HE SEIZES ON AN >TICLE WRITT5 = A ,BUDAPE/ PAP]1 ,OHNE ,/AAT1 :I* L$ TO ! PROSECUTION ( ITS AU?OR1 ,EUG5 ,S*MITT1 = SAY+ ?AT ',GOV]NM5TS1 JU/IFY+ !IR EXI/5CE ON ! GR\ND ?AT !Y 5SURE A C]TA9 K9D ( SAFETY TO !IR SUBJECTS1 >E LIKE ! ,CALABRIAN ROBB]-*IEF :O COLLECT$ A REGUL> TAX FROM ALL :O WI%$ TO TRAVEL 9 SAFETY ALONG ! HI<WAYS' 7,ESSAYS FROM ,TULA1 #a#b#d-#e74 ,?IS IS P]FECTLY TRUE1 ,TOL/OY COMM5TS1 EXCEPT ?AT ! ROBB]-*IEF IS MORALLY SUP]IOR TO GOV]NM5TS :O PLUND] NOT ! RI* BUT ! POOR1 :O1 UNLIKE ! BRIG&1 NEV] TAKE P]SONAL RISKS1 & :O DO NOT RELY ON VOLUNT>Y RECRUITS TO !IR B&1 BUT (T5 5ROLL !IR SOLDI]S BY =CE4 

,TOL/OY'S OBJECTIONS TO SYMBOLS & C]EMONIES 9 BO? GOV]NM5T & ! ,*UR* IS ALSO A RATIONALI/ OBJECTION TO ! P>APH]NALIA & SUP]/ITIONS CLUTT]+ UP M5'S M9DS1 & OBSCUR+ ! CLE> & SIMPLE SOLUTIONS ( REASON & COMMON S5SE4 ,GODW9 ATTACKS ! MY/IQUE ( (FICE = SIMIL> REASONS4 ,BUT ,GODW9 HIMSELF P>TLY SUGGE/S 9 ,POLITICAL ,JU/ICE ! POT5TIAL VALUE ( SU* SYMBOLS ( AU?ORITY3 

,9 ! RIOTS 9 ! YE> #a#g#h1 ! MACE ( ! H\SE ( LORDS WAS PROPOS$ TO BE S5T 9TO ! PASSAGES1 BY ! T]ROR ( ITS APPE>ANCE TO QUIET ! CONFUSION2 BUT IT WAS OBS]V$ ?AT1 IF ! MACE %\LD BE RUDELY DETA9$ BY ! RIOT]S1 ! :OLE W\LD BE ?R[N 9TO AN>*Y 7,VOL4 ,I,I1 #e#d-#e74 .<#d#h.> 

,?IS PASSAGE IS REM9ISC5T ( ,MADAME ,DE ,/AEL'S COMM5TS ON ! ,CON/ITU5T ,ASSEMBLY1 :I* BELIEV$ '!RE WAS SOME MAGIC 9 ITS DECREES'4 

,BUT ITS PRON\NCEM5TS CAN BE COMP>$ TO ! RIBBON :I* HAD BE5 DRAWN ?R\< ! G>D5 ( ! ,TUIL]IES TO KEEP ! PEOPLE AT SOME DI/ANCE FROM ! PALACE 444 7QUOT$ 9 ,B]TR& DE ,J\V5EL1 ,! ,PURE ,!ORY ( ,POLITICS1 #c#f74 

,:5 PEOPLE CEAS$ TO RESPECT ?IS B>RI] IT BECAME MEAN+LESS4 ,:5 ,NAPOLEON BROKE UP ! ,ASSEMBLY ) SOLDI]S & PUBLICLY HUMILIAT$ ITS MEMB]S1 HE EXPOS$ ! FRAGILITY ( CONV5TIONS PROTECT+ P>LIAM5T>Y IMMUNITY4 ,DE ,J\V5EL COMM5TS WRYLY1 ',9DE$ ! LAW IS A M]E RIBBON' 7#c#g74 

,SYMBOLS & C]EMONIALS HAVE ALWAYS SURR\ND$ GOV]NM5T1 AS ,DE ,J\V5EL /RESSES1 NOT ONLY 9 NATION ,/ATES BUT 9 TRIBAL COMMUNITIES1 ANCI5T CITY REPUBLICS & FEUDAL K+DOMS4 ,!Y IMPRESS UPON ?OSE HOLD+ P[] ! GRAVITY & RESPONSIBILITIES ( !IR (FICE2 !Y 5C\RAGE PEOPLE TO RESPECT AU?ORITY2 & !Y DISC\RAGE USURP]S FROM SEEK+ TO SEIZE P[]4 ,! EXI/5CE ( RESPECT$ PROC$URES = ! TRANSF] ( P[] IS EXCEPTIONALLY H>D TO A*IEVE4 ,UND] K+S ! PROBLEM WAS AT LA/ P>TIALLY RESOLV$ BY MAK+ ! ?RONE H]$IT>Y4 ,ELECTORAL & P>LIAM5T>Y RITUALS N[ FULFILL ! ROLE 9 LIB]AL DEMOCRACIES ( D5OT+ ! LEGITIMACY ( GOV]NM5T1 & 5SUR+ A PEACEFUL TRANSITION ( P[]4 ,:]E NO SU* PROC$URES EXI/1 OR >E NOT G5]ALLY RESPECT$1 P[] BECOMES ! PRIZE ( ! MO/ RU?LESS CONSPIRATOR1 ! MAN CONTROLL+ ! >MY OR POLICE OR P>TY APP>ATUS1 OR :OEV] IS PREP>$ TO FOM5T CIVIL W>4 

,PR\DHON 9 AN 9T]E/+ PASSAGE 9 ,! ,F$]ATIVE ,PR9CIPLE RECOGNIZES ! G5]AL VALUE ( OA?S & C]EMONIES P]=M$ 9 PUBLIC 9 B9D+ 9DIVIDUALS TO P]=M ! DUTIES ( ! ROLE1 OR (FICE1 !Y >E AB\T TO UND]TAKE4 ,PR\DHON1 UNLIKE MO/ AN>*I/S1 SEES A POSITIVE VALUE 9 A M>RIAGE C]EMONY4 ,HE SUPPORTS = ! SAME REASONS ! TAK+ ( OA?S BY WITNESSES & >BITRATORS1 &1 BY EXT5SION ( HIS REASON+1 PUBLIC OA?S BY PUBLIC (FICIALS4 ,PR\DHON MAKES1 H[EV]1 A %>P DI/9CTION BETWE5 A CONTRACT AMONG 9DIVIDUALS1 OR AN UND]TAK+ TO SOCIETY AS A :OLE1 & AN OA? ( FEALTY OR SUBMISSION TO HI<] AU?ORITY4 ,:IL/ AN>*I/S MI<T ADMIT ! VALUE ( CU/OM & RITUAL TO PROMOTE A S5SE ( RESPONSIBILITY1 !Y NATURALLY REJECT ! VALUE ( C]EMONY DESIGN$ TO PROMOTE RESPECT & OB$I5CE TO GOV]NM5T4 ,ALEX ,COM=T COMM5TS 9 ,AU?ORITY & ,DEL9QU5CY 9 ! ,MODEM ,/ATE ?AT ',OB$I5CE 9 MOD]N SOCIETIES IS MORE (T5 A HIDE\S VISE ?AN A ,*RI/IAN VIRTUE' 7#h#c72 ELSE:]E HE /ATES ?AT ',EV]Y ATROCITY ( ! W> WAS .<#d#i.> ! DIRECT CONSEQU5CE ( SOMEBODY OBEY+ :5 HE %\LD HAVE ?\<T' 7,>T & ,SOCIAL ,RESPONSIBILITY1 #h#c74 ,C]EMONIALS ( LEGITIMACY MAY ALSO BL9D PEOPLE TO QUITE ILLEGITIMATE USURPATIONS OR ABUSES ( P[]1 AS ,PR\DHON CONT9U\SLY TRI$ TO %[ 9 HIS CRITIQUE ( UNIV]SAL SUFFRAGE4 ,! AN>*I/ SUSPICION ( ! MY/IQUE SURR\ND+ P[] IS RE9=C$ BY ! S5SE ?AT IT MAY BE A SECUL>IZ$ \TLET = RELIGI\S EMOTION4 ,H]B]T ,READ DREW ATT5TION TO ! FACT ?AT AFT] TW5TY YE>S ( SOCIALISM 9 ,RUSSIA1 '! DEIFICATION ( ,L59 7SACR$ TOMB1 EFFIGIES1 CREATION ( A LEG5D -- ALL ! ELEM5TS >E !RE7 IS A DELIB]ATE ATTEMPT TO CREATE AN \TLET = RELIGI\S EMOTIONS' 7,AN>*Y & ,ORD]1 #d#e74 ,/AL91 :IL/ HE WAS ALIVE1 HAD /ATUES ( HIMSELF ]ECT$ ?R\<\T HIS DOMA9 9 A MANN] REM9ISC5T ( ! ,ROMAN ,EMP]ORS -- A FEATURE ( :AT HAS BE5 APTLY T]M$ ! P]SONALITY CULT4 

,REVOLUTION>IES HAVE ALWAYS FELT ! NE$ ( !IR [N SYMBOLISM4 ,9 #aief 9 ,HUNG>Y ! GIANT-SIZ$ /ATUE ( ,/AL9 WAS SMA%$ FROM ITS P$E/AL4 ,9 #ahga ! ,P>IS ,COMMUNE TO 'M>K ! NEW ]A ( HI/ORY IT WAS CONSCI\S ( 9ITIAT+ 444 PULL$ D[N ?AT COLOSSAL SYMBOL ( M>TIAL GLORY1 ! ,V5DOME COLUMN' 7,M>X1 ,! ,CIVIL ,W> 9 ,FRANCE1 ,SELECT$ ,WORKS1 #b#i#g74 ,AN>*I/S !MSELVES (T5 SYMBOLIZE !IR ALLEGIANCE BY BLACK & R$ FLAGS4 ,SYMBOLISM1 C]EMONIAL & IMAG]Y APPE> TO BE 9TR9SIC TO POLITICAL ACTIVITY1 ?\< !Y MAY NOT ALWAYS BE FLAMBOYANT4 ,9 ! REPUBLICAN & CON/ITUTIONALI/ /R& ( ,EUROPEAN ?\<T !RE HAVE ALWAYS BE5 TWO DOM9AT+ & CONTRA/+ IMAGES3 ON ! ONE H& AN 'ORI5TAL' DESPOTISM1 9 :I* A MAN CLAIM+ GODLIKE P[]S T[]S OV] HIS ABJECT SUBJECTS & RULES ACCORD+ TO P]SONAL CAPRICE ?R\< >BITR>Y VIOL5CE2 ON ! O!R A POLITY ( EQUALS1 9 :I* FREE CITIZ5S FE> NO ONE BUT RESPECT ! LAWS1 & %>E ) !IR PE]S ! RISKS1 RESPONSIBILITIES & PRIVILEGES ( GOV]N+4 ,!SE IMAGES >E BO? CAPTUR$ 9 A SPEE* ,%AKESPE>E PUTS 9TO ! M\? ( ,CASSIUS AT A TIME :5 REPUBLICANISM IS CRUMBL+ BE=E ,CAES>ISM4 ,CASSIUS IS URG+ ,BRUTUS TO RESI/ ,CES>'S AMBITIONS3 

,:Y1 MAN1 HE DO? BE/RIDE ! N>R[ WORLD 

,LIKE A ,COLOSSUS2 & WE PETTY M5 

,WALK UND] HIS HUGE LEGS1 & PEEP AB\T 

,TO F9D \RSELVES DI%ONORABLE GRAVES 444 

,:5 C\LD !Y SAY1 TILL N[1 ?AT TALK'D ( ,ROME 

,?AT H] WIDE WALLS 5COMPAS'D BUT ONE MAN8 

7,JULIUS ,CES>1 ,ACT ,I1 ,SC5E ,I,I47 

,?IS IMAGE ( REPUBLICAN LIB]TY HAS BO? ITS >I/OCRATIC & DEMOCRATIC 9T]PRETATIONS4 ,DE ,J\V5EL1 :O /RESSES ! =M]1 COMM5TS ?AT ',BRUTUS' DAGG]1 SO DE> TO ! ,JACOB9 HE>T1 WAS .<#e.> WIELD$ BY AN >I/OCRATIC H&' 7,P[]1 #b#g#g74 ,! CON/ITUTIONALI/ ?9K]S HAVE T5D$ TO SUP]IMPOSE ! >I/OCRATIC V]SION ( REPUB-LICANISM UPON FEUDAL ,EUROPE1 9 :I* FRE$OM WAS GU>ANTE$ BY CU/OM>Y LAWS1 9DEP5D5T LOCAL COMMUNES & GUILDS1 & A PR\D >I/OCRACY ( PE]S PREP>$ TO FI<T = !IR PRIVILEGES1 OR LIB]TIES1 AGA9/ ! 9CURSIONS ( ROYAL P[]4 ,!ORI/S :O ACCEPT ?IS PICTURE T5D TO /RESS ! SIGNIFICANCE ( RULE ( LAW1 BALANCE ( P[]S & ( F$]ALISM AS MEANS ( CURB+ DESPOTIC GOV]NM5T1 ,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE 9H]ITS ?IS CON/ITUTIONALISM1 BUT HAS BO? ! S5SITIVITY TO DEMOCRATIC VALUES & ! SOCIAL REALISM TO SEEK TO TRANS=M !SE MODELS 9TO A PICTURE COMPATIBLE ) MOD]N SOCIETY4 ,9 ,AM]ICA HE F9DS A POSSIBLE ANSW] -- A F$]AL CON/ITUTION1 FUR!R DEC5TRALIZ$ BY ! EXI/5CE ( VIGOR\S LOCAL GOV]NM5TS ABLE TO ADM9I/] !IR [N AFFAIRS1 & ROOT$ 9 ! CU/OM ( ! T[N MEET+2 A G5]AL HABIT ( CREAT+ VOLUNT>Y ASSOCIATIONS = SOCIAL PURPOSES2 A FREE & LOCALIZ$ PRESS2 & A WIDESPREAD RESPECT = ! LAWS & ! CON/ITUTION4 

,9 ! PICTURE ( A LIB]AL SOCIETY ESP\S$ BY ,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE & LAT] CON/ITUTIONAL !ORI/S P>LIAM5T>Y 9/ITUTIONS HAVE A ROLE QUITE DI/9CT FROM ?AT ( DEMOCRATIC REPRES5TATION4 ,9 ITS HI/ORICAL EVOLUTION 9 ,5GL&1 P>LIAM5T ACT$ AS A *ECK ON >BITR>Y P[]1 & A PUBLIC =UM = GRIEVANCES1 :ILE EXT5D+ TO ITS MEMB]S A PRIVILEGE & IMMUNITY :I* 5ABL$ !M TO ATTACK ! ADM9I/RATION4 ,! *ANGE FROM GOV]NM5T BY ! K+ TO GOV]NM5T BY ! LEAD]S ( ! MAJOR P>TY HAS NOT SUB/ANTIALLY ALT]$ ! ROLE ( P>LIAM5T AS A :OLE1 ?\< ! FACT ?AT VOT]S MAY ?R[ \T ! RUL+ P>TY CAN1 ) QUALIFICATIONS1 BE SE5 AS AN ADDITIONAL *ECK ON MISUSE ( P[]4 ,9 ,AM]ICA ! CON/ITUTION 5%R9$ ?IS FUNCTION ( ! LEGISLATURE AS A *ECK ON ! ELECT$ PRESID5T ?R\< DIVISION ( P[]S4 ,9 A SOCIETY EQUIPP$ ) ! TRADITIONS & 9/ITUTIONAL SAFEGU>DS ( P]SONAL LIB]TY1 A REPRES5TATIVE ASSEMBLY MAY BE SE5 AS AN ADD$ BULW>K ( LIB]TY AGA9/ ! ,/ATE4 

,IF DEMOCRATIC CONCEPTS >E GRAFT$ ONTO A P>LIAM5T>Y 9/ITUTION ONE !ORY ( REPRES5TATION :I* EM]GES IS ?AT ( ! REPRES5TATION ( 9T]E/S -- ! PREVAIL+ NOTION 9 EI<TE5?-C5TURY ,5GL&4 ,REPRES5TATION ( 9DIVIDUAL OR GR\P 9T]E/S BY A P>LIAM5T>Y ADVOCATE PREP>$ TO PLEAD A CASE IS QUITE COMPATIBLE ) ! CON/ITUTIONAL NATURE ( P>LIAM5T 9 PR9CIPLE 7?\< 9 PRACTICE P[]FUL PRESSURE GR\PS MAY H>NESS GOV]NM5T P[] TO !IR [N 5DS74 ,?IS CONCEPT ( REPRES5TATION IS NOT NECESS>ILY 'DEMOCRATIC' & IS QUITE DI/9CT FROM ! IDEA ?AT AN ELECT$ ASSEMBLY REPRES5TS ! 'WILL ( ! PEOPLE'1 :I*1 :E!R ?IS 'WILL' IS VIEW$ 9DIVIDUALLY OR COLLECTIVELY1 IS IMPOSSIBLE -- EXCEPT 9 .<#e#a.> ,HOBBES'S PURELY =MAL S5SE4 ,IT IS ?IS MY?-MAK+ CONCEPTION ( REPRES5TATION1 & ! RELAT$ IDEA ( SOV]EIGNTY1 ?AT ,PR\DHON ATTACK$1 >GU+ ?AT GOV]NM5T BY ! GRACE ( ! PEOPLE WAS REPLAC+ GOV]NM5T BY ! GRACE ( ,GOD1 & ! IDOL ( ! PEOPLE BE+ 5?RON$ 9 PLACE ( ! IDOL ( ! K+4 ,MOREOV]1 SAID ,PR\DHON1 ! SUPPOS$ DELEGATE ( ! SOV]EIGN PEOPLE WILL ALWAYS BECOME ! MA/]4 ,:E!R P>LIAM5T>Y ASSEMBLIES USURP1 ?R\< ! RITUAL ( ELECTIONS1 ! 9T]PRETATION ( ! G5]AL WILL1 OR A DICTATOR USURPS IT FROM P>LIAM5T ?R\< ! MAGIC ( A PLEBISCITE1 ! CONCEPT ( 'SOV]EIGN WILL' PROVIDES A JU/IFICATION = C5TRALIZ$ P[] & = SWEEP+ ASIDE ALL B>RI]S TO ! EX]CISE ( ?IS P[]4 ,SO 'DEMOCRACY' MAY ?REAT5 LIB]TY4 ,IT WAS AN ALT]NATIVE TO ! ,FR5* !ORY ( DEMOCRATIC SOV]EIGNTY ?AT ,DE ,TOC-QUEVILLE S\<T1 & BELIEV$ HE HAD F\ND1 9 ,AM]ICA4 ,PR\DHON LIKEWISE BITT]LY COMP>$ ! ,FR5* PEOPLE1 HEMM$ 9 LIKE A PRISON] 9 A CELL1 ) ! ,AM]ICANS :O 'HAVE NO POLICE1 NO C5TRALIZATION1 NO >MY2 :O HAVE NOT ANY GOV]NM5T 9 ! S5SE ATTA*$ TO ?IS T]M 9 ANTIQUITY' 7,LA ,REVOLUTION ,SOCIAH1 #b#d74 ,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE W\LD NOT1 H[EV]1 HAVE 5TIRELY ACCEPT$ ?IS PICTURE4 ,9 ! CONTEXT ( F$]ALISM1 DEC5TRALISM & CON/ITUTIONAL LIB]TY HE ADMIRES A /RONG GOV]NM5T1 :I* HE BELIEV$ ! ,AM]ICANS POSSESS$4 

,AS ALL P]SONS MU/ HAVE REC\RSE TO C]TA9 GRAMMATICAL =MS :I* >E ! F\NDATIONS ( HUMAN LANGUAGE1 9 ORD] TO EXPRESS !IR ?\<TS2 SO ALL COMMUNITIES >E OBLIG$ TO SECURE !IR EXI/5CE BY SUBMITT+ TO A C]TA9 AM\NT ( AU?ORITY1 )\T :I* !Y FALL 9TO AN>*Y 7,DEMOCRACY 9 ,AM]ICA1 ,VOL4 #a1 #g74 

,ELSE:]E ,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE UND]L9ES ?AT P[] 9 ITSELF IS NOT NECESS>ILY H>MFUL3 ',M5 >E NOT CORRUPT$ BY ! EX]CISE ( P[]1 OR DEBAS$ BY ! HABIT ( OB$I5CE2 BUT BY ! EX]CISE ( A P[] :I* !Y BELIEVE TO BE ILLEGITIMATE1 & BY OB$I5CE TO A RULE :I* !Y CONSID] TO BE USURP$ & OPPRESSIVE' 7,VOL4 ,I1 #i74 

,IT IS 9T]E/+ TO CONTRA/ ,KROPOTK9 ON ! SOCIETY 5VISAG$ BY AN>*ISM3 ',IT SEEKS ! MO/ COMPLETE DEVELOPM5T ( 9DIVIDUALITY COMB9$ ) ! HI<E/ DEVELOPM5T ( VOLUNT>Y ASSOCIATION 9 ALL ITS ASPECTS 444 ,A SOCIETY TO :I* PRE-E/ABLI%$ =MS1 CRY/ALLIZ$ BY LAW1 >E REPUGNANT4' ,LAT] 9 ! SAME PAMPHLET1 ,AN>*ISM3 ,ITS ,PHILOSOPHY & ,IDEAL1 HE COMM5TS3 

,F> FROM LIV+ 9 A WORLD ( VISIONS & IMAG9+ M5 BETT] ?AN !Y >E1 WE SEE !M AS !Y >E2 & ?AT IS :Y WE AFFIRM ?AT ! BE/ ( M5 IS MADE ESS5TIALLY BAD BY ! EX]CISE ( AU?ORITY & ?AT ! !ORY ( ! 'BALANC+ ( P[]S' & .<#e#b.> 'CONTROL ( AU?ORITIES' IS A HYPOCRITICAL =MULA1 9V5T$ BY ?OSE :O HAVE SEIZ$ P[]1 TO MAKE ! 'SOV]EIGN PEOPLE'1 :OM !Y DESPISE1 BELIEVE ?AT ! PEOPLE !MSELVES >E GOV]N+ 7#g-#h74 

,9 ?IS PASSAGE ,KROPOTK9 ATTACKS BO? ! CON/ITUTIONALI/ & DEMOCRATIC !ORIES ( GOV]NM5T1 :I* HAVE T5D$ TO M]GE 9 PRACTICE2 HIS REJECTION ( ! APPROA* TO GOV]NM5T ESP\S$ BY ,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE IS COMPLETE4 

,BO? ,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE & ,KROPOTK9 DEVELOP$ !IR POLITICAL IDEAS \T ( HI/ORICAL S*OL>%IP 7:I* UNIT$ !M 9 ADMIRATION = ! M$IEVAL CITIES7 & AN AW>5ESS ( SOCIAL DIV]SITY4 ,! MO/ APPROPRIATE WAY TO ASSESS !IR RESPECTIVE POSITIONS IS TO CONSID] HI/ORICAL DEVELOPM5TS S9CE !Y WROTE4 ,TW5TIE?-C5TURY EXP]I5CE TO DATE SUGGE/S ?AT :ILE ,KROPOTK9'S OPTIMISM = ! EVOLUTION ( AN>*I/ SOCIETY WAS UNF\ND$1 ,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE'S HOPE = LIMIT$ GOV]NM5T 9 A FREE & CON/ITUTIONAL SOCIETY HAS NOT BE5 FULFILL$ EI!R1 LEA/ ( ALL 9 ,AM]ICA4 ,HIS DI/9CTIONS BETWE5 VOLUNT>Y ASSOCIATION & BUREAUCRATIC CONTROL1 & BETWE5 LOCAL & C5TRAL ADM9I/RATION1 HAVE BECOME BLURR$ DUE TO 9/ITUTIONAL1 ECONOMIC1 TE*NOLOGICAL & POLITICAL DEVELOPM5TS4 

,MOD]N ,SOCIETY 

,BUREAUCRATIC MODES ( ORGANIZATION >E1 AS ,WEB] PR$ICT$1 AFFECT+ MANY NON-GOV]NM5TAL SPH]ES -- 9DU/RY1 UNIV]SITIES1 SCI5TIFIC RESE>*1 & COMMUNICATIONS M$IA4 ,HOR[ITZ 9CLUDES 9 HIS COLLECTION ( WRIT+S ,! ,AN>*I/S1 AN ESSAY BY ,ROB]T ,PRE/HUS ON ! DEAD5+ EFFECT ( GIANT ORGANIZATIONS ON RESE>* & CREATIVITY1 & ! IRON+ \T ( 9DIVIDUALITY 9 FAVOR ( AN ORGANIZATION MAN4 ',BUREAUCRATIZATION PLAYS ITS P>T REL5TLESSLY AS ! TR5D T[>DS SP5D+ ONE'S WORK LIFE 9 A S+LE ORGANIZATION 4 4 4 ,9 SUM1 BIG ORGANIZATIONS TYPICALLY SEEK CONTROL1 DISCIPL9E1 & /&>DIZATION' 7#e#e#e74 ,PRE/HUS H[EV] IS SO F> FROM BE+ AN AN>*I/ ?AT HE IS MA9LY CONC]N$ ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES MAY BE FALL+ BEH9D ! ,SOVIET ,UNION 9 ! >MS RACE4 ,9 A MORE RADICAL ANALYSIS ,JOHN ,MC,D]MOTT >GU$ 9 ,! ,NATION 7#a#d ,APRIL1 #a#i#f#i7 ?AT RAPID TE*NICAL PROGRESS HAS MEANT ! DEVELOPM5T ( GIANT 9/ITUTIONS APPLY+ ?IS KN[L$GE4 ,?IS DEVELOPM5T HAS BE5 PIONE]$ 9 ! SPH]E ( DEF5SE1 BUT APPLIES TO ALL ASPECTS ( ,AM]ICAN LIFE3 ECONOMIC CORPORATIONS1 UNIV]SITIES & F\NDATIONS AS WELL AS GOV]NM5T AG5CIES4 ,! RESULT1 ,MC,D]MOTT SUGGE/S1 HAS BE5 TO R5D] ALMO/ MEAN+LESS ! OLD DI/9CTIONS BETWE5 PUBLIC & PRIVATE1 9DU/RIAL & $UCATIONAL1 MILIT>Y & CIVILIAN4 ,HE GIVES AS EXAMPLES 3 .<#e#c.> 

,A COMPANY LIKE ,R,C,A MANAGES MISSILE TRACK+ SY/EMS1 DOES RESE>* 9 L9E> ALGEBRA1 $ITS & M>KETS NEW NOVELS1 PLANS NEW $UCATIONAL SY/EMS1 & EXP]IM5TS ) ELECTRONIC MUSIC4 ,! ,UNIV]SITY ( ,MI*IGAN1 ANO!R GR[+ CORPORATE1 TEA*ES /UD5TS AT ,ANN ,>BOR1 ADVISES WELF>E MO!RS 9 ,DETROIT1 & PACIFIES PEASANTS 9 ,?AIL& 444 ,AM]ICA BELIEVES 9 PROGRESS4 ,H5CE IT GIVES FREE RE9 TO ?OSE V]Y L>GE ORGANIZATIONS :I* HAVE MA/]$ TE*NOLOGY1 CALL+ ?IS PLURALISM 7#d#e#h-#i74 

,!RE HAS ALSO BE5 A MAJOR EXPANSION ( C5TRALIZ$ ADM9I/RATION = L>GELY ECONOMIC REASONS3 ! DEPRESSION ( ! 9T]-W> YE>S1 ! SUBSEQU5T 9FLU5CE ( ,KEYNESIAN ECONOMIC !ORY1 & ! SCALE ( MOD]N TE*NOLOGY HAVE PROMOT$ ,/ATE 9T]V5TION 9 ! ECONOMY EV5 BY GOV]NM5TS IDEOLOGICALLY AV]SE TO 'PLANN+'4 ,DEVELOPM5T ( WELF>E PROGRAMS HAS ALSO T5D$ TO /R5G!N C5TRAL ADM9I/RATION1 EV5 IF DETAIL$ APPLICATION HAS BE5 DELEGAT$ TO LOCAL AG5CIES4 ,GOV]NM5T 9VOLVEM5T IS L9K$ TO A C5TRALIZ+ T5D5CY )9 ! BUS9ESS WORLD ITSELF4 ,PAUL ,GOODMAN COMM5TS1 9 ,PEOPLE OR ,F]SONNEL ON ! SITUATION 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES3 

,! W>R+ TRU/S HAVE SETTL$ 9TO A SY/EM ( SEMI-MONOPOLIES1 ) FIX$ PRICES1 = MUTUAL SECURITY4 ,! FREE M>KET HAS TURN$ 9TO A SYN!TIC CREATURE ( ADV]TIS+4 ,GOV]NM5T HAS 5T]$ 9TO COLOSSAL ALLIANCES3 9 REAL E/ATE1 ) MUNICIPALITIES & PROMOT]S2 9 AGRICULTURE1 ) GIANT CROPP]S & GROC]Y *A9S2 9 SCI5CE & $UCATION1 ) ! UNIV]SITIES & HI<-TE*NOLOGY CORPORATIONS2 9 HI<WAYS1 ) AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTUR]S & OIL M5 7#d#e74 

,AUTOMATION & CYB]NETICS SUGGE/ ?AT 9 ! FUTURE !RE WILL BE EV5 GREAT] PRESSURES T[>DS C5TRAL PLANN+ 9 ORD] TO AVOID MASS UNEMPLOYM5T4 ,?IS POSSIBILITY ( ,/ATE PLANN+ = MASS WELF>E & LEISURE 9 A SOCIETY DOM9AT$ BY TE*NOLOGY ?REAT5S BO? 9DIVIDUAL FRE$OM & MODELS ( SOCIAL ACTION AT A LEVEL SO F> MO/LY EXPLOR$ 9 ! REALMS ( SCI5CE FICTION RA!R ?AN POLITICAL !ORY4 ,! SOME:AT 9COH]5T CONCEPT ( 'MASS SOCIETY' ATTEMPTS TO *>T ! E>LY /AGES ( ?IS PROCESS1 = EXAMPLE 9 RELATION TO ! MASS M$IA4 

,F\R?LY1 !RE IS WIDESPREAD CONC]N ?AT REPRES5TATIVE ASSEMBLIES >E UNABLE TO EX]T ANY REAL *ECK ON ! ACTIONS ( GOV]NM5T OR ! ORGANS ( ! ,/ATE1 & ?AT ! ELECTORATE IS APA!TIC AB\T ELECTIONS & P>LIAM5T>Y POLITICS4 ,ONE S*OOL ( ?\<T ASSOCIAT$ ) ,S*UMPET] HAS RE9T]PRET$ DEMOCRATIC !ORY TO SQU>E ) PRES5T REALITY1 9 EFFECT ACCEPT+ ,PR\DHON'S VIEW ?AT 'DEMOCRACY' .<#e#d.> ONLY MEANS *OOS+ EV]Y FEW YE>S BETWE5 SETS ( RUL]S4 ,?IS CONCEPT ( DEMOCRACY BAS$ ON COMPET+ ELITES 5C\RAGES ! !ORY -- ADVANC$1 = EXAMPLE1 BY ,LAZ>SFELD & HIS COLLEAGUES ON ! BASIS ( !IR VOT+ /UDIES 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES -- ?AT APA?Y IS A SIGN ( POLITICAL WELL-BE+1 S9CE IT D5OTES SATISFACTION & PROMOTES /ABILITY4 

,BUT 9 ! REPUBLICAN TRADITION ( POLITICAL ?\<T POLITICAL ACTIVITY HAS ALWAYS BE5 ASSOCIAT$ ) FRE$OM1 & 9ACTIVITY ) DESPOTISM -- ALBEIT P]HAPS A MILD & EV5 5LI<T5$ DESPOTISM4 ,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE SUGGE/S 9 RELATION TO ! CITIES ( ! ANCI5 REGIME1 ?AT %AM RITUALS W]E REJECT$ :5 !IR REALITY HAD BE5 LO/3 

,NOT SO EASILY HOODW9K$ AS MANY HAVE IMAG9$1 ! 'COMMON PEOPLE' CEAS$ TO TAKE ANY ACTIVE P>T 9 LOCAL GOV]NM5T444 ,9 T[NS :]E A SEMBLANCE ( FREE ELECTIONS HAD BE5 RETA9$ .<! ORD9>Y CITIZ5.> WAS PRESS$ TO ! VOT+ URNS1 BUT HE USUALLY PREF]R$ TO /AY AT HOME4 ,EV]Y /UD5T ( HI/ORY KN[S ?AT ?IS PH5OM5ON IS A COMMON ONE2 RUL]S :O DE/ROY M5'S FRE$OM COMMONLY BEG9 BY TRY+ TO RETA9 ITS =MS 444 7,! ,OLD ,REGIME1 #d#e74 

,H]B]T ,READ COMM5TS ON ! APA?Y ( VOT]S 9 P>LIAM5T>Y DEMOCRACIES ?AT IT IS DUE TO '?IS V]Y PROCESS ( C5TRALIZATION & COLLECTIVIZATION :I* IS TAK+ PLACE 9DEP5D5TLY' 7,AN>*Y & ,ORD]1 #a#d74 

,W> & ! ,/ATE 

,! T5D5CIES T[>DS GIANT-SIZ$ ORGANIZATION1 ,/ATE CO-ORD9ATION ) BIG BUS9ESS1 DOM9ANCE ( TE*NOLOGY & ! ]OSION ( TRADITIONAL POLITICAL SAFEGU>DS >E EPITOMIZ$ & PROMOT$ BY A FIF? FACTOR -- W> & NATIONAL DEF5SE4 ,! TWO ,WORLD ,W>S HAVE HAD A LA/+ IMPACT ON ! ,/ATE4 ,EV5 MORE SIGNIFICANT IS ! 5TR5*M5T ( MAJOR MILIT>Y E/ABLI%M5TS 9 A TIME ( NOM9AL PEACE -- A DEVELOPM5T P>TICUL>LY NOTICEABLE 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES1 REM>KABLY FREE FROM MILIT>Y PRESSURES PRIOR TO ! ,FIR/ ,WORLD ,W> & EV5 ! ,SECOND4 ,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE HIMSELF NOT$ ?AT ,AM]ICA WAS 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY FAVOR$ BY BE+ SECURE FROM MILIT>Y ATTACK1 & SO FREE FROM MILIT>Y BURD5S & ! ?REAT ( MILIT>Y AMBITIONS4 ,HE ALSO SAW ! IMPORTANCE ( W> 9 HA/5+ C5TRALIZATION3 

,NO PROTRACT$ W> CAN FAIL TO 5DANG] ! FRE$OM ( A DEMOCRATIC C\NTRY 444 ,W> DOES NOT ALWAYS GIVE OV] C\NTRIES TO MILIT>Y GOV]NM5T1 BUT IT MU/ 9V>IABLY & IMMEASURABLY .<#e#e.> 9CREASE ! P[]S ( CIVIL GOV]NM5T2 IT MU/ ALMO/ COMPULSORILY CONC5TRATE ! DIRECTION ( ALL M5 & ! MANAGEM5T ( ALL ?+S 9 ! H&S ( ! ADM9I/RATION 7,DEMOCRACY 9 ,AM]ICA1 ,VOL4 ,I,I1 #b#f#h-#i74 

,R&OLPH ,B\RNE1 BE/ KN[N AMONG AN>*I/S = HIS UNF9I%$ ESSAY ON ! ,/ATE1 CO9$ ! PHRASE 'W> IS ! HEAL? ( ! ,/ATE'4 

,! NATION 9 W>-TIME ATTA9S A UNI=MITY ( FEEL+1 A HI]>*Y ( VALUES CULM9AT+ AT ! UNDISPUT$ APEX ( ! ,/ATE IDEAL1 :I* C\LD NOT POSSIBLY BE PRODUC$ ?R\< ANY O!R AG5CY ?AN W> 7QUOT$ 9 ,H4 ,W4 ,MORTON1 ',R&OLPH ,B\RNE VS4 ! ,/ATE'1 ,AN>*Y1 ,NO4 #c#a1 ,SEPTEMB] #a#i#f#c1 #b#f#e74 

,IF ! EFFECTS ( COLD W> >E LESS />TL+1 !Y >E ALSO MORE PROLONG$4 ,MASSIVE 9VE/M5T 9 >MAM5TS1 A MAJOR BUREAUCRACY ADM9I/]+ ! 9/RUM5TS ( DE/RUCTION & ! EXT5SIVE ACTIVITIES ( ! ,C5TRAL ,9TELLIG5CE ,AG5CY1 :I* TAKES 9 'BUS9ESS FIRMS & 9/ITUTIONS SEEM+LY PRIVATE' & 'MANY DOME/IC ACTIVITIES1 FROM BROADCA/+ /ATIONS & A /EAM%IP COMPANY TO ! UNIV]SITY CAMPUS' 7,DAVID ,WISE & ,?OMAS ,B4 ,ROSS ,! ,9VISIBLE4 ,GOV]NM5T1 #d-#e71 HAVE DOM9AT$ ,AM]ICAN POLITICS = TW5TY YE>S & %[ NO SIGN ( DIM9I%+4 ,! ROLE ( LAW AS A *ECK ON ,/ATE P[] OR SAFEGU>D ( 9DIVIDUAL FRE$OM & CON/ITUTIONAL LIB]TIES IS ALSO LEA/ EFFECTIVE 9 RELATION TO MILIT>Y POLICIES :I* DEM& ! PR$OM9ANCE ( 'SECURITY'4 ,9 ,BRITA9 CAMPAIGN]S = NUCLE> DIS>MAM5T & 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES PROTE/]S AGA9/ ! ,VIETNAM ,W> HAVE TRI$ UNSUCCESSFULLY TO *ALL5GE 9 ! C\RTS ! ASSUMPTION ?AT GOV]NM5T POLICY PROMOTES NECESS>ILY ! 9T]E/ & SECURITY ( ! ,/ATE4 ,MOREOV]1 MILIT>Y REQUIREM5TS MAY PROMOTE LEGISLATION ) V]Y ILLIB]AL IMPLICATIONS1 LIKE ! ,EM]G5CY ,LAWS REC5TLY PASS$ 9 ,WE/ ,G]MANY4 ,ALL5 ,DULLES COMM5T$ ?AT ! ,AM]ICAN #aidg ,NATIONAL ,SECURITY ,ACT HAD 'GIV5 ,9TELLIG5CE A MORE 9FLU5TIAL POSITION 9 \R GOV]NM5T ?AN ,9TELLIG5CE 5JOYS 9 ANY O!R GOV]NM5T ( ! WORLD' 7,! ,9VISIBLE ,GOV]NM5T1 #d74 

,! W>-MAK+ P[]S ( ! ,/ATE HAVE ALWAYS GREATLY PREOCCUPI$ AN>*I/S4 ,GODW9 OBS]V$ ?AT W> HAS 'BE5 F\ND ! 9SEP>ABLE ALLY ( POLITICAL 9/ITUTIONS'4 ,BUT 9 ?IS C5TURY W> HAS BECOME A DOM9ANT !ME 9 AN>*I/ WRIT+4 ,READ COMM5TS3 

,W> 9CREASES 9 9T5SITY & EFFECT AS SOCIETY DEVELOPS ITS C5TRAL ORGANIZATION 444 ?IS PROBLEM ( W> & PEACE 444 HAS BE5 AN OBSESSION ) MY G5]ATION4 ,!RE IS NO PROBLEM :I* LEADS SO 9EVITABLY TO AN>*ISM 7,AN>*Y & ,ORD]1 #a#b-#a74 .<#e#f.> 

,GE(FREY ,O/]GA>D WRIT+ 9 ,AN>*Y CLAIMS ?AT '! OMNIPRES5T ?REAT ( NUCLE> ANNIHILATION N[ CLE>LY V9DICATES ! ANTI-/ATISM ( ! AN>*I/S & ! SYNDICALI/S4 ,= W> IS A FUNCTION ( ! /ATE & ! /ATE SY/EM 9TO :I* MANK9D IS POLITICALLY DIVID$' 7,NO4 #b#h1 ,JUNE #a#i#f#c1 #a#h#d74 

,DE ,J\V5EL TOO RELATES ,/ATE C5TRALIZATION TO MOD]N W>4 ,WRIT+ ,P[] UND] ! IMPRESSION ( ! HORRORS ( ! ,SECOND ,WORLD ,W> HE QUOTES ,MONTESQUIEU'S W>N+ ON ! DANG] ( L>GE >MIES3 ',& SOON HAV+ SOLDI]S WILL RESULT 9 HAV+ NO?+ BUT SOLDI]S1 & WE %ALL BECOME LIKE ! ,T>T>S' 7#a#h74 ,HE GOES ON TO DOCUM5T ! DEVELOPM5T ( TOTAL W> FROM ! TIME ( ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 :I* U%]$ 9 CONSCRIPTION TO ! TOTAL MOBILIZATION ( :OLE POPULATIONS 9 ! ,SECOND ,WORLD ,W>4 ,ALEX ,COM=T1 ALSO WRIT+ IMM$IATELY AFT] ! LA/ ,W>1 COMM5TS 9 ,>T & ,SOCIAL ,RESPONSIBILITY ?AT 'B>B>IAN SOCIETY IS ROOT$ TODAY 9 OB$I5CE1 CON=MITY1 CONSCRIPTION 444' 7#h#c74 

,CON/ITUTIONALI/ ,!ORY & ,AN>*ISM 

,! L9K BETWE5 CON/ITUTIONALI/ !ORY & AN>*I/ !ORY EXI/S NOT ONLY AT AN ANALYTICAL LEVEL BUT 9 !IR COMMON ADH]5CE TO C]TA9 VALUES3 ! VALUE ( LOCAL COMMUNITY REALIZ$ ?R\< A WIDE RANGE ( 9DEP5D5T ASSOCIATIONS2 ! VALUE ( 9DIVIDUAL FRE$OM USUALLY SE5 9 T]MS ( SOCIAL ACTIVITY & AS 9SEP>ABLE FROM A S5SE ( RESPONSIBILITY TO SOCIETY2 &1 SOMETIMES1 A S5SE ( BELONG+ TO A M9ORITY1 OR '>I/OCRACY'1 & A RELAT$ S5SE ( PESSIMISM AB\T A*IEV+ MORE ?AN 9TEGRITY 9 ACTION4 ,PAUL ,GOODMAN NOTES ! AN>*I/ ELEM5TS 9 ! ?\<T ( ,MADISON1 WRIT+ ON ! EXP]IM5TAL VALUES ( DEC5TRALISM2 & QUOTES ,JEFF]SON3 ',A LITTLE REBELLION N[ & !N IS A GOOD ?+ 4 4 4 ,?IS TRU? %\LD R5D] REPUBLICAN GOV]NORS SO MILD 9 !IR PUNI%M5T ( REBELLIONS AS NOT TO DISC\RAGE !M' 7,PEOPLE OR ,P]SONNEL1 #c#c74 ,GOODMAN ALSO SUGGE/S ?AT AFT] ! ,AM]ICAN ,REVOLUTION SOCIETY REMA9$ ORGANIZ$ 9 FAIRLY AUTONOM\S COMMUNITIES & ASSOCIATIONS :I*1 9 RELATION TO ,/ATE OR ,F$]AL ,GOV]NM5T 'EXI/$ 9 A VIRTUAL COMMUNITY-AN>*Y' 7#c#b74 ,!Y W]E NOT1 H[EV]1 NONPOLITICAL2 ! 9DEP5D5T ELITE ESPECIALLY 'REG>D$ !MSELVES AS A B& ( CITIZ5-FRI5DS BORN TO MAKE 9/ITUTIONS1 CON/ITUTIONS OR :ATEV]' 7#c#c74 ,IT IS ?IS IMAGE ( PLURALISM1 REPRODUC$ ) QUALIFICATIONS BY ,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE 9 #ahc 9 ,DEMOCRACY 9 ,AM]ICA1 :I* HAS CONT9U+ APPEAL = MANY 9 ! AN>*I/ TRADITION4 ,COL9 ,W>D QUOT+ ,G4 ,D4 ,H4 ,COLE EXPRESSES SYMPA?Y ) PLURALI/IC IDEAS & SUGGE/S !IR RELEVANCE TO MOD]N ,WE/]N ,SOCIETY 7,AN>*Y1 ,NO4 #a#d1 ,APRIL #a#i#f#b74 .<#e#g.> ,! CONNECTION BETWE5 ?IS CONCEPTION ( PLURALISM & ! 'PLURALISM' ( BIG CORPORATIONS & PRESSURE GR\P POLITICS1 (T5 5DORS$ 9 ,AM]ICAN POLITICAL SCI5CE1 IS PURELY RHETORICAL4 

,RI*>D ,DR9NON 9 HIS BIOGRAPHY ( ,EMMA ,GOLDMAN1 9 ! C\RSE ( :I* HE NOTES ! SWIT* 9 ,AM]ICA FROM 'VIGILANTE AU?ORIT>IANISM'1 HO/ILE TO ALL RADICAL AGITATION1 TO 'BUREAUCRATIC AU?ORIT>IANISM'1 DEMON/RAT$ BY ! GR[+ P[] ( ! ,BUREAU ( ,9VE/IGATION AFT] ! ,FIR/ ,WORLD ,W>1 /RESSES ! AN>*I/ EMPHASIS ON 9DIVIDUAL FRE$OM4 ,DR9NON COMM5TS3 

,FROM ! /&PO9T ( ! G5]AL ,WE/]N LIB]AL TRADITION1 ! AN>*ISM = :I* ,EMMA /OOD IS P]HAPS SUP]IOR E?ICALLY TO ANY O!R POLITICAL !ORY4 ,NO O!R !ORY MAKES SO PRIM>Y AN APPEAL TO ! 9DIVIDUAL RESPONSIBILITY & 9TELLIG5T SELF-EXPRESSION ( MAN 444 ,EMMA ,GOLDMAN HAD ! E>LY & RELATIVELY R>E 9SI<T ?AT RESPONSIBLE 9DIVIDUAL FRE$OM IS ! T\*/ONE ( SUPREME IMPORTANCE 9 ! MOD]N WORLD 7,REBEL 9 ,P>ADISE1 #a#a#a74 

,! PRIMACY ( ! VALUE ( 'FRE$OM' IS ALSO SUGGE/$ BY ,GEORGE ,MOLN> 9 A REVIEW ( ,WOODCOCK'S SURVEY ( AN>*ISM4 ,MOLN> CONCLUDES 3 

,AN>*ISM HAS C]TA9 FEATURES 9 COMMON ) SOCIALISM1 POPULISM1 ETC4 ,IT IS DI/+UI%$ FROM !M BY BE+ ! ONLY RADICAL MOVEM5T :OSE PR9CIPAL AV[$ CONC]N WAS ) FRE$OM 444 ,FRE$OM IS NOT SOME?+ TO :I* ! WORLD CAN BE CONV]T$2 IT IS ( ITS NATURE A M9ORITY 9T]E/ 7,AN>*Y1 ,NO4 #b#h1 ,JUNE #a#i#f#c1 #a#f#i74 

,! CRUCIAL DI/9CTION BETWE5 ALL =MS ( LIB]ALISM & ALL =MS ( AN>*ISM IS REFLECT$ 9 ! PHRASE 'RADICAL MOVEM5T'4 ,LIB]ALS :O FEEL ATTA*$ TO ! CON/ITUTIONAB/ TRADITION T5D 9 PRACTICE TO SUPPORT EXI/+ P>LIAM5T>Y & P>TY POLITICS1 P>TLY ON ! GR\NDS ?AT ! LIKELY ALT]NATIVES >E V]Y MU* WORSE4 ,!Y RELY ON ! 'RULE ( LAW' AS ONE ( ! MA9 BULW>KS ( FRE$OM1 & SO DEPLORE ALL =MS ( UNCON/ITUTIONAL & ILLEGAL ACTION4 ,!IR ADH]5CE TO PLURALISM LEADS !M TO OPPOSE ,/ATE 9T]V5TION 9 ! ECONOMIC SPH]E DESIGN$ TO RE-PLACE OR CLOSELY CONTROL EXI/+ BUS9ESS CORPORATIONS1 SO ! OPPOSITION TO SOCIALISM 5TAIL$ 9 ,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE'S VIEWS IS N[ EV5 MORE PRON\NC$4 ,& A DI/RU/ ( PROPOSALS = SWEEP+ SOCIAL *ANGE OR ( 'FANATICAL' UTOPIANISM LEADS MANY MOD]N CON/ITUTIONALI/S TO ADOPT 9 RELATION TO MOD]N SOCIETY AN 9H]5TLY CONS]VATIVE /ANCE4 ,SOME ( ! VALUES & IDEAS HELD BY AN>*I/S MAY L9K UP ) 'CONS]VATIVE' IDEOLOGY -- ,GOODMAN COMM5TS ?AT ! 'G5TLEM5 ( ! ,RI<T1 .<#e#h.> :O 9V5T$ ! PROTECTIVE T>IFF & ! TRU/S1 N[ COMPLA9 9 ,POPULI/ T]MS ?AT LIB]TY IS 5CROA*$ ON' 7,PEOPLE OR ,P]SONNEL1 #d#h74 ,BUT ! 9T]PRETATION IS TOTALLY DIFF]5T4 

,AN>*I/S :O MAY ACCEPT SOME ( ,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE'S KEY VALUES RE9T]PRET !M 9 A RADICAL /YLE ( POLITICS4 ,LOCAL COMMUNITY IS SE5 NOT SIMPLY AS A DESIRABLE 9T]M$I>Y BETWE5 ! 9DIVIDUAL & ! ,/ATE1 BUT AS ! BASIS = A SOCIETY TOTALLY FREE ( ANY ,/ATE ORGANIZATION4 ,! LOCAL COMMUNITY IS ALSO SE5 AS A BASE = DIRECT ACTION = SOCIAL *ANGE -- H\S+ ! HOMELESS1 EXP]IM5T+ 9 WORK]S' CONTROL1 CREAT+ LOCAL ASSOCIATIONS TO BUILD A BETT] 5VIRONM5T4 ,AN>*I/ FRE$OM IS L9K$ TO A CONCEPT ( CITIZ5%IP :I* DEM&S DIRECT RESI/ANCE TO ! ,/ATE1 & CIVIL DISOB$I5CE AS ! FULFILLM5T ( RESPONSIBLE CITIZ5%IP4 ,& AN>*I/S1 DESPITE !IR DISILLUSIONM5T ) ! ,/ATE SOCIALISM 9AUGURAT$ BY ,M>XI/ P>TIES 9 P[]1 USUALLY ALLY !MSELVES ) ! IDEALS & GOALS ( ! SOCIALI/ MOVEM5T4 

,9 VIEW ( ! TR5DS :I* HAVE 9 ?IS C5TURY T5D$ TO DE/ROY G5U9E SOCIAL PLURALISM BAS$ ON LOCAL 9DEP5D5CE & VOLUNT>Y 9ITIATIVE1 TO R$UCE ! ROLE ( LAW 9 PROTECT+ 9DIVIDUAL FRE$OM1 & TO EXT5D ! P[] ( ! POLICE & MILIT>Y ORGANS ( ! ,/ATE1 ,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE'S IDEAL ( LIB]TY & COMMUNITY DOES APPE> TO DEM& 9 ,WE/]N SOCIETY RESI/ANCE TO ! W>-MAK+ P[]S ( ! ,/ATE 9 P>TICUL>1 & A RE/RUCTUR+ ( ! 9/ITUTIONS ( MOD]N SOCIETY4 ,! CASE = A 'RADICAL' RE9T]PRETATION ( CON/ITUTIONALI/ VALUES APPE>S P>TICUL>LY /RONG 9 ! C\NTRY ,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE HOP$ W\LD ESCAPE ! ILLS ( C5TRALIZATION -- ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES4 ,?\< IF WE >E LOOK+ AT ,AM]ICA 9 CONCRETE T]MS1 & NOT SIMPLY TREAT+ IT AS A MODEL ( ! TR5DS 9 ,WE/]N SOCIETY1 IT IS IMPORTANT TO RECOGNIZE ! DEGREE TO :I* ! ,S5ATE OR ! ,SUPREME ,C\RT MAY /ILL ACT TO OPPOSE ! ADM9I/RATION1 & ! SIGNIFICANT >EAS ( LIB]TY :I* EXI/ 7= EXAMPLE FRE$OM = POLITICAL PROPAG&A 9 ! >M$ =CES7 ALONGSIDE /RIK+ ILLIB]AHSM4 ,SECONDLY1 ! %E] SIZE & GREAT P[] /ATUS ( ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES >E CLE>LY RELEVANT4 ,AN EXTREME AN>*I/ CASE = 'REVOLUTION' IS LESS P]SUASIVE 9 SMALL] C\NTRIES LIKE ! ,SC&9AVIAN LIB]AL DEMOCRACIES2 ?\< ! GREAT] DEGREE ( DEMOCRACY1 LIB]TY & EQUALITY !IR CITIZ5S 5JOY CON/ITUTE A /RONG >GUM5T 9 FAVOR ( ! G5]AL AN>*I/ PLEA = DEC5TRALISM4 

,! NATION ,/ATE IS N[ APP>5TLY UND]GO+ FUR!R TRANS=MATION1 ESPECIALLY 9 ,WE/]N ,EUROPE :]E IT HAS EXI/$ LONGE/4 ,ECONOMIC & TE*NICAL FACTORS >E BREAK+ D[N NATIONAL FRONTI]S 9 FAVOR ( L>G] ECONOMIC UNITS1 & TE*NICAL DEVELOPM5TS 9 W>F>E HAVE GREATLY R$UC$ ! MILIT>Y SIGNIFICANCE ( NATIONAL B\ND>IES4 ,!SE CONSID]ATIONS DO NOT1 H[EV]1 9VALIDATE ! .<#e#i.> AN>*I/ CRITIQUE ( ! ,/ATE2 ON ! CONTR>Y !Y SUGGE/ ?AT BO? AN>*I/ PROPOSALS = CONF$]ATION BAS$ ON ! P[] ( LOCAL COMMUNITIES1 & ! AN>*I/ SKEPTICISM AB\T ! M]ITS OR 9EVITABILITY ( 9DU/RIAL & TE*NICAL 'PROGRESS'1 HAVE GREAT CONTEMPOR>Y RELEVANCE4 ,IF IT CAN BE >GU$ P]SUASIVELY ?AT ! AN>*I/ CRITIQUE ( ! ,/ATE & MOD]N SOCIETY IS BECOM+ MORE1 RA!R ?AN LESS1 RELEVANT1 IT REMA9S TO CONSID] ! NATURE ( ! ALT]NATIVE AN>*I/ SOCIETY4 

#c ,AN>*ISM & ,SOCIETY 

,! ,P>IS ,COMMUNE 

,! AN>*I/ ALT]NATIVE TO ,/ATE CONTROL BAS$ ON REPRESSION IS A SELF-REGULAT+ SOCIAL ORD]4 ,:AT AN AN>*I/ SOCIETY W\LD BE LIKE HAS BE5 9DICAT$ PRIM>ILY BY ,PR\DHON1 ,BAKUN9 & ,KROPOTK91 :O DESPITE SIGNIFICANT DIFF]5CES %>E C]TA9 COMMON VALUES1 & :O ALL ?REE DEF9E !IR POSITION TO SOME EXT5T 9 OPPOSITION TO ,M>XI/ SOCIALISM4 ,ANY COMP>ISON ) ,M>XISM IS R5D]$ DIFFICULT BY ! 9H]5T DIV]SITY ( ! AN>*I/ TRADITION1 9CLUD+ ! V]Y DIV]G5T 9T]PRETATIONS ( ,PR\DHON & ,BAKUN9 AVAILABLE1 & ! 9CREAS+ COMPLEXITY ( ,M>XISM AS IT HAS EVOLV$4 ,BUT S9CE AN>*ISM HAS BE5 5GAG$ 9 A CONSCI\S CRITIQUE ( ,M>XISM = OV] A C5TURY1 COMP>ISON IS CLE>LY RELEVANT4 ,BO? />T (F ) A COMMON COMMITM5T TO ABOLI% CAPITALISM & ! CAPITALI/ ,/ATE2 BO? REJECT P>LIAM5T>Y LIB]ALISM2 & BO? ASPIRE TO CREATE A SOCIETY FREE FROM 9EQUALITY & EXPLOITATION4 ,:]E !Y (T5 DIFF] IS 9 !IR ATTITUDES TO NATIONALISM1 9DU/RIALIZATION & DEMOCRACY1 & SO 9 !IR CONCEPTIONS ( HI/ORICAL PROGRESS4 ,! CRUCIAL PO9T ( DIFF]5CE IS ON ! ROLE ( ,/ATE P[] 9 ! TRANSITIONAL P]IOD AFT] A SOCIALI/ REVOLUTION4 ,ULTIMATELY !Y ALSO DISAGREE ON ! ROLE ( GOV]NM5T & ( LAW1 & 9 !IR UND]/&+ ( 'POLITICS'4 

,MANY ( ! DIFF]5CES BETWE5 ,M>XI/S & AN>*I/S EM]GE 9T]E/+LY 9 !IR VIEWS ( ! #ahga ,P>IS ,COMMUNE1 ADOPT$ BY BO? AS A SYMBOL ( ! NEW SOCIALI/ SOCIETY -- FOCUS+ ON ! ,COMMUNE MEANS COMP>+ AN>*ISM ) ! MO/ LIB]T>IAN ELEM5T 9 ,M>XI/ ?9K+ AB\T PO/-REVOLUTION>Y ORGANIZATION4 ,= ,M>XI/S ! ,COMMUNE SYMBOLIZES A TYPE ( P>TICIPATORY DEMOCRACY :I* DRAWS ON ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION>Y IDEA ( POPUL> SOV]EIGNTY1 BUT SEEKS TO REALIZE IT ?R\< A COMB9ATION ( RADICAL DEC5TRALISM & POPULI/ DEVICES4 ,! ,COMMUNE :I* ROSE PHO5IXLIKE \T ( ! DE/RUCTION ( ,L\IS ,NAPOLEON'S ,EMPIRE WAS 9 ,M>X'S EYES ! ANTI!SIS ( ! PREVI\S IMP]IAL P[] -- '! C5TRALIZ$ /ATE P[] ) ITS UBIQUIT\S ORGANS ( /&+ >MY1 POLICE1 BUREAUCRACY1 CL]GY & JUDICATURE'4 ,! MODEL ( COMMUNAL GOV]NM5T 9 ,P>IS WAS 9T5D$ TO BE A PATT]N = ! RE/ ( ! C\NTRY1 'EV5 ! SMALLE/ HAMLET'1 TO FOLL[4 ,! ,COMMUNE GU>D$ .<#f#a.> ITSELF AGA9/ ! DOM9ATION ( ! ORGANS ( ! NEW '/ATE' OV] SOCIETY BY :AT ,5GELS CALL$ 'TWO 9FALLIBLE MEANS'3 

,9 ! FIR/ PLACE1 IT FILL$ ALL PO/S -- ADM9I/RATIVE1 JUDICIAL & $UCATIONAL -- BY ELECTION ON ! BASIS ( UNIV]SAL SUFFRAGE ( ALL CONC]N$1 SUBJECT TO ! RI<T ( RECALL AT ANY TIME BY ! SAME ELECTORS4 ,&1 9 ! SECOND PLACE1 ALL (FICIALS1 HI< OR L[1 W]E PAID ONLY ! WAGES RECEIV$ BY O!R WORK]S 7,M>X & ,5GELS1 ,SELECT$ ,WORKS1 #b#f#a-#b74 

,! ,M>XI/ COMMITM5T TO RADICAL POPUL> SOV]EIGNTY ALSO 5TAILS CONTEMPT = CON/ITUTIONALI/ DEVICES LIKE BALANCE ( P[]S1 SEP>ATION ( FUNCTIONS & ! H$G+ ( C5TRAL P[] ?R\< LOCAL AUTONOMY OR F$]ALISM4 ,M>X COMM5D$ ! ,COMMUNE = ABOLI%+ ! DI/9CTION BETWE5 LEGISLATURE & EXECUTIVE1 BETWE5 POLICYMAK+ & ADM9I/RATION3 ',! ,COMMUNE WAS TO BE A WORK+1 NOT A P>LIAM5T>Y1 BODY1 EXECUTIVE & LEGISLATIVE AT ! SAME TIME' 7#b#i#a74 ,HE ATTACK$ ! VIEW ?AT ! ,COMMUNE WAS A REV]SION TO ! M$IEVAL COMMUNE1 COMM5T+ ?AT ! LOCAL COMMUNES :I* W]E AN 9H]ITANCE FROM FEUDALISM HAD BE5 9 ,FRANCE CONV]T$ EFFECTIVELY 9TO A 'SUB/RATUM' ( MOD]N ,/ATE P[]1 & ?AT 9 ,PRUSSIA ! MUNICIPAL CON/ITUTION HAD DEGRAD$ ! T[N GOV]NM5TS TO 'M]E SECOND>Y :EELS 9 ! POLICE-MA*9]Y ( ! ,PRUSSIAN ,/ATE' 7#b#i#c74 ,HE ALSO D5I$ ?AT ! ,COMMUNE REPRES5T$ 'AN ATTEMPT TO BREAK UP 9TO A F$]ATION ( SMALL /ATES1 AS DREAM$ ( BY ,MONTESQUIEU & ! ,GIROND9S'1 OR 'AN EXAGG]AT$ =M ( ! ANCI5T /RUGGLE AGA9/ OV]C5TRALIZATION' 7#b#i#c74 ,CON/ITUTIONALI/ !ORI/S' ADMIRATION = ,5GL&1 :]E ! LOGIC ( /ATE C5TRALIZATION HAS BE5 IMP$$1 IS D]ID$2 CORRUPT LOCAL GOV]NM5T 9 ! T[NS & 'VIRTUALLY H]$IT>Y MAGI/RATES 9 ! C\NTIES' SIMPLY 'COMPLETE ! GREAT C5TRAL ,/ATE ORGANS'4 

,F$]ALISM & ,NATIONALISM 

,M>X WAS NECESS>ILY COMMITT$ TO ABOLI%+ 9/ITUTIONS :I* EMBODI$ ! PRACTICES ( A PREVI\S REGIME1 & RI<TLY EMPHASIZ$ ! DI/9CTIVELY NEW *>ACT] ( ! ,COMMUNE4 ,BUT HIS OPPOSITION TO 'F$]ALISM' RAISES QUE/IONS AB\T ! DIRECTION ( REVOLUTION>Y *ANGE4 ,IT IS ON ?IS PO9T AN>*I/S HAVE ALWAYS TAK5 ISSUE ) ,M>XI/S1 & IT IS RELEVANT ?AT ,M>X'S PAMPHLET ON ,! ,CIVIL ,W> 9 ,FRANCE IS 9 A S5SE 'CLAIM+' ! ,COMMUNE = ! ,FIR/ ,9T]NATIONAL1 & IMPLICITLY DISCR$IT+ ! ,PR\DHONI/ CLAIMS TO IT AS AN EMBODIM5T ( !IR [N !ORIES ( CONF$]ATION4 ,M>X /RESSES ?AT '! UNITY ( ! NATION WAS NOT TO BE BROK5'1 & '! FEW .<#f#b.> BUT IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS :I* /ILL W\LD REMA9 = A C5TRAL GOV]NM5T W]E NOT TO BE SUPPRESS$1 AS HAS BE5 9T5TIONALLY MIS/AT$ 4 4 4' 7#b#i#b74 ,L59 TAKES UP ?IS QUE/ION 9 ,! ,/ATE & ,REVOLUTION3 

,TO CONFUSE ,M>X'S VIEWS ON ! 'DE/RUCTION ( ! /ATE P[] -- ! P>ASITIC EXCRESC5CE' ) ,PR\DHON'S F$]ALISM IS POSITIVELY MON/R\S6 444 ,F$]ALISM AS A PR9CIPLE FOLL[S LOGICALLY FROM ! PETTY-B\RGEOIS VIEWS ( AN>*ISM4 ,M>X WAS A C5TRALI/ 7#h#i-#i#a74 

,PR\DHON TOO WAS SCORNFUL AB\T CON/ITUTIONALI/ DEVICES LIKE ! BALANCE ( P[] & ! SEP>ATION ( ! LEGISLATURE & ! EXECUTIVE1 :5 !SE >E A DISGUISE = AN UND]LY+ DRIVE TO MAXIMIZE ! P[] ( ! ,/ATE ITSELF1 AS 9 ! #ahdh ,CON/ITUTION 9 ,FRANCE4 ,HE ALSO DEPLORES ! USE MADE BY ,R\SSEAU ( ! DI/9CTION BETWE5 FRAM+ & EXECUT+ ! LAWS1 S9CE ,R\SSEAU IS L$ TO POSIT ! NE$ = A P]MAN5T EXECUTIVE :I* BY ITS V]Y NATURE WILL T5D TO USURP P[] FROM ! PEOPLE LEGISLAT+ AS A BODY4 ,H[EV]1 ,PR\DHON ALSO HAILS ! PR9CIPLE ( ! BALANCE & SEP>ATION ( P[]S AS A GREAT 9V5TION IF ITS POT5TIAL IMPLICATIONS CAN BE EXT5D$ TO DEMOLI% UNIFI$ & C5TRALIZ$ ,/ATE P[]4 ,HE SUGGE/S ?AT ! BALANCE ( P[] AT ! C5T] ( ! ,/ATE %\LD BE REPLAC$ BY A F$]ATIVE CONTRACT 9 :I* EA* COMMUNE1 CANTON1 PROV9CE & REGION RETA9S MORE P[] ?AN IT SURR5D]S TO ! HI<] LEVEL2 & ?AT ! DIVISION ( P[] %\LD BE EXT5D$ TO FUNCTIONAL SEP>ATION ( P[]S BETWE5 DIFF]5T BRAN*ES ( 9DU/RY4 

,PR\DHON'S F$]ALISM /EMS NOT ONLY FROM A G5]AL BELIEF 9 LOCAL AUTONOMY BUT ALSO FROM ACUTE DI/RU/ ( NEW NATIONALISMS4 ,HE >GUES ?AT MANY NATIONALI/ MOVEM5TS ASPIR+ TO CREATE NEW NATION ,/ATES >E BAS$ ON ! HI/ORICAL CLAIMS ( OLD K+DOMS OR EMPIRES1 & SO EMBODY A DESIRE T[>DS NATIONALI/ DOM9ATION4 ,HIS BOOK ON ,! ,F$]ATIVE ,PR9CIPLE IS P>TICUL>LY CRITICAL ( ,ITALIAN NATIONALISM = ITS LACK ( CONC]N = ! ECONOMIC EMANCIPATION ( ! PEASANTS1 & ITS WILL+NESS TO SUBORD9ATE REPUBLICAN PR9CIPLES TO ! REAL POLITIK DEM&S ( NATIONAL UNIFICATION UND] ! ,PI$MONTESE ,K+4 ,PR\DHON TRIES TO DI/+UI% BETWE5 IMP]IALI/IC =MS ( NATIONALISM1 & A CONCEPT ( NATIONALITY BAS$ ON CULTURE1 TRADITION & GEOGRAPHICAL FACTORS1 :I* W\LD FAVOR REGIONALISM 9 ,ITALY RA!R ?AN A UNIFI$ ,/ATE4 ,PR\DHON'S [N BR& ( >D5T PATRIOTISM IS ROOT$ FIR/ 9 HIS REGIONAL LOYALTY TO ! ,FRANCE-,COMTE4 ,HIS BELIEF 9 REGIONAL 'NATIONALISM' IS ALSO 5TIRELY CONSI/5T ) HIS ADVOCACY ( CONF$]ATION4 ,NEV]!LESS1 HIS PATRIOTISM1 ALLI$ TO HIS 9S5SITIVITY TO ! NATIONALI/ ASPIRATION ( O!RS1 L$ SOME ( .<#f#c.> HIS CONTEMPOR>IES TO ACCUSE HIM (1 9 EFFECT1 PROMOT+ ! NATIONAL 9T]E/S ( ,FRANCE4 ,:ILE ,M>X COMM5T$ ?AT ,PR\DHON'S ATTACK ON ,POLI% NATIONALISM 9 ITS /RUGGLE AGA9/ ,RUSSIA L$ TO HIS WRIT+ '= ! GREAT] GLORY ( ! CZ>'4 ,PR\DHON MAY NOT HAVE BE5 GUILTY ( ANY GREAT] NATIONALI/ BIAS ?AN ,M>X HIMSELF2 BUT :]EAS ! LATT] IS SUPREMELY AW>E ( ! IMM$IATE POLITICAL IMPLICATIONS ( HIS POSITION1 ,PR\DHON SEEMS MORE 9T]E/$ 9 EXT5D+ HIS PR9CIPLES TO LOGICAL 7?\< NOT ALWAYS CONSI/5T7 CONCLUSIONS4 ,DESPITE ! DIFFICULTIES ,PR\DHON'S DI/RU/ ( NATIONALI/ MOVEM5TS CREAT$ = HIM1 9 RETROSPECT HIS EMPHASIS ON ! DANG]S ( NATIONALISM1 :I* HE SAID W\LD PROMOTE AUTOCRACY 9T]NALLY & W>S BETWE5 NATION ,/ATES1 SEEMS MORE PR(\ND ?AN ! EASY 5DORSEM5T ( NATIONALISM BY MANY LIB]ALS & RADICALS4 

,PR\DHON'S DISLIKE ( NATIONALISM REFLECT$ HIS FE> NOT ONLY ( ANY T5D5CY TO POLITICAL C5TRALIZATION1 BUT ALSO ( A TR5D T[>DS C5TRALIZATION ( ECONOMIC P[]4 ,M>X ON ! O!R H& 9SI/$ ON ! NECESSITY ( RETA9+ ?AT 'UNITY ( GREAT NATIONS :I*1 IF ORIG9ALLY BR\<T AB\T BY POLITICAL =CE1 HAS N[ BECOME A P[]FUL COEFFICI5T ( SOCIAL PRODUCTION' 7,SELECT$ ,WORKS1 #b#i#c74 ,9 ?IS VIEW ! NATION ,/ATE IS ONE /AGE 9 ?AT HI/ORICAL DEVELOPM5T :I* IS CREAT+ ! NECESS>Y CONDITIONS = SOCIALISM1 AS IT PROMOTES ! PROGRESS ( 9DU/RIALIZATION4 ,5GELS COMM5TS ?AT 'BY F> ! MO/ IMPORTANT DECREE ( ! ,COMMUNE 9/ITUT$ AN ORGANIZATION ( L>GE-SCALE 9DU/RY & EV5 ( MANUFACTURE :I* WAS NOT ONLY TO BE BAS$ ON ! ASSOCIATION ( ! WORK]S 9 EA* FACTORY1 BUT ALSO TO COMB9E ALL !SE ASSOCIATIONS 9 ONE GREAT UNION' -- AN ORGANIZATIONAL =M :I* W\LD HAVE L$ TO COMMUNISM4 ,!RE=E '! ,COMMUNE WAS ! GRAVE ( ! ,PR\DHON S*OOL ( SOCIALISM' 7,SELECT$ ,WORKS1 #b#f74 

,9DU/RIALIZATION 

,IF ,M>XI/ SUPPORT = NATIONAL UNITY IS RELAT$ TO ACCEPTANCE ( ! NE$ = FULL & RAPID 9DU/RIALIZATION1 ,PR\DHON'S EMPHASIS ON REGIONALISM IS C]TA9LY CONSI/5T ) HIS G5]AL PREF]5CE = A PEASANT ECONOMY & MODE ( LIFE4 ,A KEY DI/9CTION BETWE5 ,M>XISM & AN>*ISM IS 9 !IR VIEW ( 9DU/RIALIZATION4 ,?IS CONTRA/ IS COMPLICAT$ H[EV] BY ! FACT ?AT AN>*I/S >E !MSELVES DIVID$4 ,AN>*I/ ATTITUDES TO 9DU/RIAL DEVELOPM5T FALL 9TO BROADLY ?REE CATEGORIES3 OPPOSITION TO 9DU/RY AS A DEHUMANIZ+ PROCESS2 ACCEPTANCE ( IT AS A NECESS>Y MEANS ( CREAT+ SOCIAL WEAL?2 & A CONDITIONAL WILL+NESS TO USE 9DU/RIAL TE*NIQUES1 COMB9$ ) PROPOSALS = DIRECT+ 9DU/RIAL GR[? SO ?AT IT IS .<#f#d.> COMPATIBLE ) DEC5TRALISM1 & MA9TA9S CLOSE L9KS ) AGRICULTURE4 ,TOL/OY IS ! MO/ EXTREME EXPON5T ( ! FIR/ POSITION4 ,9 HIS VIEW FACTORY WORK1 & ITS CONCOMITANT DIVISION ( LABOR1 IS ! ANTI!SIS ( ! HEAL?Y LABOR ( ! PEASANT2 & MASS PRODUCTION IS ONLY NECESS>Y 9 A SOCIETY CORRUPT$ BY LUXURY4 ,TOL/OY ALSO DISMISSES ! SOCIALI/ BELIEF ?AT :5 ! WORK]S HAVE BECOME MA/]S ( ! MEANS ( PRODUCTION !Y WILL ADOPT ! LIV+ /&>DS 5JOY$ BY ! B\RGEOISIE4 ,WORK]S FRE$ FROM ! ECONOMIC COMPULSION TO DO ! JOBS DEM&$ BY MOD]N 9DU/RY W\LD REFUSE TO BE 5SLAV$ TO MA*9ES1 & W\LD ONLY ACCEPT A DIVISION ( LABOR :I* PRODUC$ OBVI\S COMMUNAL ADVANTAGES4 ,ABOLITION ( WAGE SLAV]Y1 LIKE ! ABOLITION ( S]FDOM1 MI<T REQUIRE ! LOSS ( C]TA9 ECONOMIC & CULTURAL REF9EM5TS N[ 5JOY$ BY A FEW 7SEE ',! ,SLAV]Y ( ,\R ,TIMES' 9 ,ESSAYS FROM ,TULA74 

,PR\DHON SEEKS TO PROMOTE AN AN>*ISM BAS$ ON AN 9DEP5D5T PEASANTRY & SMALL FAMILY WORK%OPS1 :IL/ ACCEPT+ ! NE$ = L>GE-SCALE 9DU/RY1 :I* IS TO BE [N$ & RUN BY WORK]S' CO-OP]ATIVES4 ,BO? AGR>IAN 9DEP5D5CE & 9DU/RIAL CO-OP]ATIVES >E TO BE PROMOT$ BY ECONOMIC MEASURES3 VIRTUALLY FREE CR$IT LEAD+ TO FREE COMPETITION2 & A SY/EM ( MUTUAL EX*ANGE1 DESIGN$ TO ELIM9ATE ! MIDDLEM5 BETWE5 PRODUC]S & CONSUM]S1 BAS$ ON USE ( LABOR *ECKS4 ,A ,PEOPLE'S ,BANK WAS ! 9/ITUTION HE HOP$ C\LD PROMOTE BO?4 ,HE TRI$ TO 9AUGURATE SU* A ,BANK 9 #a#h#d#i1 :I* WAS CLOS$ D[N = POLITICAL REASONS BE=E ITS ECONOMIC VIABILITY C\LD BE TE/$4 ,M>X COMM5T$ ON ,PR\DHON'S IDEAS 9 A LETT] TO ,J4 ,B4 ,S*WEITZ] 7#b#d ,JANU>Y1 #a#h#f#e73 

,PR\DHON'S DISCOV]Y ( ',CR$IT GRATUIT' & ! 'BANQUE DE PEUPLE' BAS$ UPON IT1 W]E HIS LA/ ECONOMIC 'DE$S'444 ,?AT UND] C]TA9 ECONOMIC & POLITICAL CONDITIONS ! CR$IT SY/EM CAN S]VE TO HA/5 ! EMANCIPATION ( ! WORK+ CLASS 444 IS QUITE UNQUE/IONABLE1 SELF EVID5T4 ,BUT TO REG>D 9T]E/-BE>+ CAPITAL AS ! MA9 =M ( CAPITAL :ILE TRY+ TO USE A SPECIAL =M ( CR$IT1 ! ALLEG$ ABOLITION ( 9T]E/1 AS A BASIS = A TRANS=MATION ( SOCIETY1 IS A ?OR\<LY PETTY-B\RGEOIS FANTASY 7,SELECT$ ,CORRESPOND5CE1 #a#i-#a74 

,?IS CRITIQUE IS NOT 5TIRELY FAIR1 S9CE ,PR\DHON DID RECOGNIZE ! NE$ = SOME SOCIAL RE=MS -- = EXAMPLE1 R$I/RIBUTION ( L& BY ! LOCAL COMMUNES4 ,PR\DHON'S WRIT+S DO1 H[EV]1 CONVEY A T5D5CY TO RELY ON ECONOMIC =MULAS4 ,!SE HAD SOME 9FLU5CE 9 ,AM]ICA1 :]E SOCIAL CONDITIONS 5C\RAG$ A DEM& = FREE CR$IT4 ,BUT HIS MA9 LEGACY TO ! AN>*I/ MOVEM5T HAS BE5 HIS .<#f#e.> EMPHASIS ON BYPASS+ ! POLITICAL PROCESS1 & CONC5TRAT+ ON ! 9DEP5D5T ECONOMIC ACTION ( ! WORK]S4 

,PR\DHON HAS ALSO HELP$ TO PROMOTE A TRADITION ( POSITIVE SUPPORT = AGRICULTURAL AS OPPOS$ TO 9DU/RIAL VALUES4 ,H]B]T ,READ WRIT+ ALMO/ A C5TURY LAT] CONFESSES3 

,I AM BY BIR? & TRADITION A PEASANT444 ,I DESPISE ?IS F\L 9DU/RIAL EPO* -- NOT ONLY ! PLUTOCRACY :I* IT HAS RAIS$ TO P[]1 BUT ALSO ! 9DU/RIAL PROLET>IAT :I* IT HAS DRA9$ FROM ! L& & PROLIF]AT$ 9 HOVELS ( 9DIFF]5T BRICK 7,AN>*Y & ,ORD]1 #e#h-#i74 

,9DU/RIALIZATION MU/1 H[EV]1 BE 5DUR$ 9 AN ATTEMPT TO GET TO ! O!R SIDE1 :5 MAN CAN 'RETURN TO ! L& NOT AS A PEASANT BUT AS A LORD'4 ,ELSE:]E ,READ /RESSES ?AT IT IS RETROGRESSIVE TO =SAKE ! 9V5TIONS ( MOD]N TE*NOLOGY1 LIKE ! AIRPLANE & ! TELEGRAPH1 & ?AT 'LIB]TY IS ALWAYS RELATIVE TO MAN'S CONTROL OV] NATURAL =CES'4 ,AS A RESULT HE 5DORSES )\T QUALIFICATIONS AN>*O-SYNDICALISM4 ,! SYNDICALI/ IS = ,READ '! AN>*I/ 9 HIS PRACTICAL RA!R ?AN HIS !ORETICAL ACTIVITY'4 ,! SYNDICALI/ ANSW] TO ! ORGANIZATION ( ! ECONOMY & ADM9I/RATION ( SOCIETY IS SUMM>IZ$ AS FOLL[S3 

,! SYNDICALI/444 PROPOSES TO LIQUIDATE ! BUREAUCRACY FIR/ BY F$]AL DEVOLUTION4 ,!REBY HE DE/ROYS ! IDEALI/IC CONCEPT ( ! ,/ATE 444 ,HE NEXT DE/ROYS ! MONEY MONOPOLY & ! SUP]/ITI\S /RUCTURE ( ! GOLD /&>D1 & SUB/ITUTES A M$IUM ( EX*ANGE BAS$ ON ! PRODUCTIVE CAPACITY ( ! C\NTRY -- SO MANY UNITS ( EX*ANGE = SO MANY UNITS ( PRODUCTION4 ,HE !N H&S OV] TO ! SYNDICATES ALL O!R ADM9I/RATIVE FUNCTIONS -- FIX+ ( PRICES1 TRANSPORT1 & DI/RIBUTION1 HEAL? & $UCATION4 ,9 ?IS MANN] ! ,/ATE BEG9S TO WI!R AWAY 7,AN>*Y & ,ORD]1 #a#a74 

,?IS PICTURE [ES A GOOD DEAL TO ,PR\DHON1 :OSE CO-OP]ATIVES =E%AD[$ ! LAT] CONCEPT ( TRADE UNION CONTROL1 & :O HAD ALREADY 9 #ahea 5VISAG$ A SIMIL> ROLE = PR(ESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS :5 SUGGE/+ ?AT $UCATION %\LD BE ORGANIZ$ DIRECTLY BY P>5TS & TEA*]S4 ,PR\DHON ASSUM$ H[EV] AN ADM9I/RATIVE FUNCTION = ! LOCAL COMMUNES1 ?\< HE DOES NOT SUGGE/ A DETAIL$ GEOGRAPHICAL ADM9I/RATIVE SY/EM UNTIL HIS LAT]1 & LESS AN>*I/1 WORK ON ,! ,F$]ATIVE ,PR9CIPLE4 ,! ROLE ( ! LOCAL COMMUNITY 9 RELATION TO 9DU/RIAL ORGANIZATION HAS BE5 ONE ( ! ISSUES T5D+ TO DIVIDE AN>*I/S & SYNDICALI/S4 

,BAKUN9 & ,MALATE/A REPRES5T ?AT W+ ( AN>*ISM :I* UNHESITAT+LY ACCEPTS 9DU/RIALISM & TE*NOLOGY4 ,MALATE/A TAKES .<#f#f.> = GRANT$ ! NE$ = DIVISION ( LABOR & ! TE*NICAL DIRECTION ( COLLECTIVE UND]TAK+S ON A L>GE SCALE4 ,HE ALSO FAVORS1 9 PR9CIPLE1 9T]NATIONAL CONTROL ( CRUCIAL RAW MAT]IALS 7COAL1 M9]ALS1 OIL71 BUT URGES ?AT 9 PRACTICE A C\NTRY :I* A*IEV$ A SOCIALI/ REVOLUTION W\LD HAVE TO BECOME SELF-SUFFICI5T1 OR DO )\T !SE RAW MAT]IALS1 UNTIL SOCIALISM WAS E/ABLI%$ EV]Y:]E4 ,BAKUN9'S COMMITM5T TO PROPAGATE AN>*ISM AMONG ! PEASANTS ( ,ITALY & ,SPA9 HAS MEANT ?AT HIS AN>*ISM IS ASSOCIAT$ MORE CLOSELY ) ! PEASANT COMMUNE ?AN ! 9DU/RIAL COLLECTIVE 7SEE1 = EXAMPLE1 ,G]ALD ,BR5AN1 ,! ,SPANI% ,LABYR9?1 *APT] ,V,I,I ON ',! ,AN>*I/S'1 :I* EMPHASIZES ?IS ELEM5T 9 ,BAKUN9'S APPROA* EXCLUSIVELY74 ,NEV]!LESS1 ,BAKUN9 FULLY 5DORS$ ,M>X'S ECONOMIC !ORY & ,M>X'S BELIEF 9 9CREAS+ WORLD ECONOMIC 9T]DEP5D5CE4 ,DANIEL ,GU]91 WRIT+ ON AN>*ISM FROM A SYNDICALI/ /&PO9T1 CONCLUDES HIS REC5T BOOK ,L',AN>*ISME AS FOLL[S3 

,CON/RUCTIVE AN>*ISM1 :I* F\ND ITS MO/ ACCOMPLI%$ EXPRESSION 9 ! WRIT+S ( ,BAKUN91 RELIES ON ORGANIZATION1 SELF-DISCIPL9E1 9TEGRATION1 A C5TRALIZATION :I* IS NOT CO]CIVE BUT F$]AL4 ,IT DEP5DS ON L>GE-SCALE MOD]N 9DU/RY1 ON MOD]N TE*NOLOGY1 ON ! MOD]N PROLET>IAT1 ON 9T]NATIONALISM ON A WORLD SCALE 7#a#h#a74 

,BAKUN9 CONTRA/S ECONOMIC & POLITICAL C5TRALIZATION4 ,9 ,SWITZ]L&1 = EXAMPLE1 ! 9CREASE 9 POLITICAL C5TRALIZATION AFT] #ahdh PRODUC$ NO PROGRESS EXCEPT 9 ! ECONOMIC DOMA93 'LIKE ! 9TRODUCTION ( A S+LE CURR5CY1 A S+LE /&>D ( WEI<TS & MEASURES1 L>GE SCALE PUBLIC WORKS1 COMM]CIAL TREATIES1 ETC' 7,! ,POLITICAL ,PHILOSOPHY ( ,BAKUN91 #b#e#f74 ,HE D5IES ?AT ECONOMIC & POLITICAL C5TRALIZATION >E 9SEP>ABLE4 ',ECONOMIC C5TRALIZATION1 ! ESS5TIAL CONDITION ( CIVILIZATION1 CREATES LIB]TY2 BUT POLITICAL C5TRALIZATION KILLS IT' 7IBID474 

,O!R AN>*I/S1 H[EV]1 HAVE BELIEV$ ?AT LOCAL AUTONOMY REQUIRES ECONOMIC DEVOLUTION4 ,KROPOTK9'S ,FIELDS1 ,FACTORIES & ,WORK%OPS IS A DETAIL$ ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE A DEC5TRALI/ USE ( MOD]N TE*NOLOGY SUITABLE TO AN AN>*I/ IDEAL ( SOCIETY4 ,HE SEEKS TO COMB9E CRAFTSMAN%IP ) ! B5EFITS ( SCI5TIFIC 9V5TION1 & TO CREATE ORGANIC L9KS BETWE5 9DU/RY & ! L& 9 ORD] TO PRES]VE RURAL VALUES4 ,HE ALSO AIMS TO ABOLI% EXCESSIVE DIVISION ( LABOR -- BETWE5 9DIVIDUAL WORK]S1 & BETWE5 REGIONS & C\NTRIES SPECIALIZ+ 9 ONE TYPE ( 9DU/RY OR AGRICULTURE4 ,! IDEA IS3 

,EA* NATION H] [N AGRICULTURALI/ & MANUFACTUR]2 EA* 9DIVIDUAL WORK+ 9 ! FIELD & 9 SOME 9DU/RIAL >T2 EA* .<#f#g.> 9DIVIDUAL COMB9+ SCI5TIFIC KN[L$GE ) ! KN[L$GE ( A H&ICRAFT -- SU* IS1 WE AFFIRM1 ! PRES5T T5D5CY ( CIVILIZ$ NATIONS 7#f74 

,SMALL 9DU/RIES CAN USE NEW TE*NICAL DEVELOPM5TS TO R$UCE MANUAL LABOR & 9CREASE ! \TPUT & QUALITY ( GOODS4 ,KROPOT-K9 SUGGE/S ?AT ! MA9 ADVANTAGES ( L>GE-SCALE 9DU/RY >E NOT 9 ! APPLICATION ( TE*NOLOGY BUT 9 ! COMM& BIG ORGANIZATIONS HAVE OV] ! M>KET1 BO? 9 PUR*AS+ RAW MAT]IALS & 9 SECUR+ \TLETS = !IR GOODS4 ,:ILE C]TA9 9DU/RIES LIKE IRON WORKS & M9+ 5T]PRISES REQUIRE HUNDR$S1 OR ?\S&S1 ( WORK]S TO BE ON ONE SPOT1 MANY FACTORIES EI!R COMPRISE SEV]AL DI/9CT 9DU/RIES UND] COMMON MANAGEM5T1 OR >E 'M]E AGGLOM]ATIONS ( HUNDR$S ( COPIES ( ! V]Y SAME MA*9E' 7#a#g#i74 ,!RE >E V]Y FEW TE*NICAL REASONS :Y ! MA*9ES %\LD NOT BE DI/RIBUT$ BETWE5 SEV]AL E/ABLI%M5TS1 OR :Y ! DIFF]5T PROCESSES ( PRODUCTION %\LD NOT BE SEP>AT$4 ,KROPOTK9 ALSO URGES ! POT5TIALITIES ( APPLY+ SCI5CE TO AGRICULTURE 9 ORD] TO 9CREASE PRODUCTION & CUT D[N ! TIME NE$$ ON AGRICULTURAL LABOR4 ,HE BACKS UP HIS PRESCRIPTIONS = AN ECONOMY F\ND$ LESS ON ! DIVISION ?AN ! '9TEGRATION' ( LABOR ) AN ANALYSIS ( H[ F> 9DU/RIAL TE*NOLOGY IS PROMOT+ NEW H&ICRAFTS & PETTY TRADES4 

,TE*NICALLY & ECONOMICALLY ,KROPOTK9'S RESE>* & SPECIFIC PROPOSALS HAVE NATURALLY BECOME \TDAT$1 A FACT :I* LEADS ,H]B]T ,READ 7?\< 9 AN 9TRODUCTION TO ,KROPOTK9'S WRIT+S HE SUGGE/S ! DETAILS ONLY REQUIRE UPDAT+7 TO OPT = 9DU/RIAL SYNDICALISM4 ,BUT O!R AN>*I/S HAVE 9SI/$ ON ! CONT9U+ RELEVANCE ( ,KROPOTK9'S APPROA*4 ,ALEX&] ,B]KMAN /RESSES 9 HIS ,A,B,C ( ,AN>*ISM1 WRITT5 9 #a#i#b#i1 ! IMPORTANCE ( ECONOMIC 9DEP5D5CE ?R\< SELF-SUFFICI5CY1 CIT+ ! E>LY EXP]I5CE ( ! ,BOL%EVIK ,GOV]NM5T TRY+ TO SECURE =EIGN CAPITAL4 ,HE ALSO SEES VALUE 9 9T]NAL DEC5TRALIZATION ( 9DU/RIAL & AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION IF !RE W]E ATTEMPTS TO DE/ROY ! REVOLUTION BY ECONOMIC PRESSURE4 ,= ! SAME REASON ,B]KMAN DEPLORES ANY ATTEMPT TO SUPPRESS EXI/+ SMALL-SCALE 9DU/RIES OR HOME MANUFACTUR]S4 ,BUT HIS MA9 REASON = FAVOR+ SU* DEVOLUTION IS HIS E/IMATION ( ITS LONG T]M SOCIAL EFFECTS 9 PROMOT+ CONTACT 'BETWE5 ! F>M & ! CITY' & A S5SE ( COMMUNITY4 ,HE REGRETS ?AT 'MO/ PEOPLE >E /ILL 9 ! ?RALLDOM ( ! ,M>XIAN DOGMA ?AT C5TRALIZATION IS MORE EFFICI5T & ECONOMICAL0'4 ,C5TRALIZATION NOT ONLY DEGRADES ! WORK] TO BE+ A COG 9 ! MA*9E1 BUT T5DS TO CONC5TRATE ! RUNN+ ( 9DU/RY 9 ! H&S ( A P[]FUL BUREAUCRACY 7#i#b74 ,PAUL ,GOODMAN WRIT+ S9CE ! LA/ ,W> HAS BE5 PO9T+ 9 A .<#f#h.> DIRECTION SIMIL> TO ,KROPOTK91 TO :OSE 9SPIRATION HE PAYS TRIBUTE4 ,:ILE EMPHASIZ+ ! G5]AL TR5D T[>DS C5TRALIZATION1 & ! DISPOSITION1 :5 'ORGANIZATION BEG9S TO CREAK' TO '5L>GE IT FUR!R BY ADD+ NEW BUREAUS & OV]SE]S'1 HE SUGGE/S !RE >E SOME EXAMPLES ( A CONTR>Y T5D5CY3 

,! MANAGEM5T ( A GIANT CORPORATION -- ,G5]AL ,MOTORS IS ! CLASSIC EXAMPLE -- CAN %REWDLY DECIDE TO DELEGATE A MEASURE ( AUTONOMY TO ITS CORPORATE P>TS1 BECAUSE MORE FLEXIBLE 5T]PRIS+ IS MORE PR(ITABLE 9 ! LONG RUN4 ,SIMIL>LY1 A HUGE PHYSICAL PLANT CAN BE GEOGRAPHICALLY DISP]S$1 & ! MANAGEM5T SOME:AT DEC5TRALIZ$1 TO SAVE ON LABOR CO/S 444 7,PEOPLE OR ,P]SONNEL1 #b#c74 

,GOODMAN IS1 H[EV]1 MORE CAUTI\S ?AN ,KROPOTK9 AB\T ! BLESS+S ( TE*NICAL 9V5TION1 & >GUES ! NE$ TO MAKE CONSCI\S *OICES AB\T \R USE ( TE*NOLOGY4 ,HE QUOTES ,JOHN ,ULLMAN1 A SCI5TI/1 TO ! EFFECT ?AT '! 9V5TION ( FLI<T 444 IS PROBABLY ON BALANCE A CURSE' 7,UTOPIAN ,ESSAYS & ,PRACTICAL ,PROPOSALS1 #b#g74 ,TE*NICAL ASSUMPTIONS T5D T[>D C5TRALIZATION1 & SO CREATE 9EFFICI5CY 3 

,= 9/ANCE1 IT CAN BE DEMON/RAT$ ?AT1 EXCEPT 9 HI<LY AUTOMAT$ FACTORIES :]E LABOR CO/ IS SMALL COMP>$ TO FIX$ CAPITAL1 OR 9 HEAVY M9+ ATTA*$ TO ITS SITE1 = ! MO/ P>T L>GE SCALE 9DU/RIAL PLANTS & CONC5TRATIONS ( 9DU/RY >E LESS EFFICI5T ?AN SMALL] ONES ?AT ASSEMBLE P>TS MA*9$ 9 SMALL %OPS2 IT IS *EAP] TO TRANSPORT ! P>TS ?AN ! WORK]S 7,UTOPIAN ,ESSAYS1 #c-#c#a74 

,AS UNIT CO/ ( PRODUCTION FALLS1 SO ! UNIT CO/ ( DI/RIBUTION RISES2 ?US 'IT IS LIKELY ?AT MU* ( ! VA/ TE*NOLOGY ( FOOD PROCESS+ & TRANSPORTATION IS 9EFFICI5T'4 ,GOODMAN PO9TS \T ALSO ?AT 9 AN AGE ( MA*9ES MO/ PEOPLE HAVE NO NOTION ( H[ !Y WORK1 SO '! MASS ( PEOPLE >E 9 BONDAGE TO A SY/EM ( S]VICE M5 = EV5 TRIVIAL REPAIRS' 7#c#b74 ,GOODMAN IS NOT AGA9/ ALL C5TRALIZATION4 ,HE SUGGE/S ?AT 9 C]TA9 >EAS :]E !RE >E NO DI/RICT LIMITS BUT SOME?+ MU/ BE DONE -- = 9/ANCE SMOG CONTROL1 OR RAPID DECISIONS MU/ BE TAK5 -- = EXAMPLE AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL1 OR :]E !RE IS A TEMPOR>Y EM]G5CY1 C5TRAL AU?ORITY IS NECESS>Y4 ,!RE >E ALSO GA9S1 AS ,BAKUN9 SAW1 9 C5TRAL DECISION ON /&>DIZATION ( CURR5CY OR WEI<TS & MEASURES4 ,9DE$ ,GOODMAN SUGGE/S ?AT 9 C]TA9 >EAS1 LIKE /&>DIZ$ BUILD+ MAT]IALS OR SP>E P>TS1 MORE 'C5TRALIZATION' IS REQUIR$ 7,PEOPLE OR ,P]SONNEL1 #i-#a#a74 ,NOR IS HE URG+ EFFICI5CY AS A KEY CRIT]ION3 ',A MORE HUMAN-SCAL$ PRODUCTION HAS OBVI\S POLITICAL & CULTURAL ADVANTAGES2 IT .<#f#i.> ALL[S = MORE FLEXIBLE PLANN+1 IT IS MORE CONDUCIVE TO SCI5TIFIC $UCATION & 9V5TION' 7,UTOPIAN ,ESSAYS1 #c#b74 

,GOODMAN IS SPEAK+ ( A SITUATION 9 :I* TE*NOLOGICAL CRIT]IA >E RELAT$ TO A P>TICUL> TYPE ( PR(IT-MOTIVAT$ ECONOMY1 9 A C\NTRY :]E !RE IS 7DESPITE >EAS ( EXTREME POV]TY7 AN UNPREC$5T$ DEGREE ( AFFLU5CE4 ,HE COMM5TS1 = EXAMPLE1 ON '! T5D5CY ( ! MANUFACTUR]S TO BUILD OBSOLESC5CE & NONREPAIR-ABILITY 9TO ! MA*9]Y'4 ,?\< ,AM]ICAN SOCIETY MAY BE SE5 AS A W>N+ AGA9/ UNCRITICAL PURSUIT ( 9DU/RIALIZATION & ITS LATE/ TE*NOLOGY1 A CRITIQUE ( ! LIFE /YLE ( A SOCIETY MOV+ 9TO ! AUTOMATION AGE HAS LITTLE DIRECT RELEVANCE TO C\NTRIES /RUGGL+ = A SUBSI/5CE LEVEL /&>D ( LIV+ = !IR PEOPLE1 MANY ( :OM HAVE NOT MOV$ 9TO ! BICYCLE AGE4 ,BUT !RE >E A FEW GR\PS 9 ! ,?IRD ,WORLD :I* FAVOR A ,KROPOTK9-/YLE APPROA* TO ECONOMIC GR[?1 ! MO/ OBVI\S EXAMPLE BE+ ! ,G&HIAN MOVEM5T 9 ,9DIA4 ,G&HI HIMSELF ALWAYS L9K$ HIS POLITICAL AGITATION = ,9DIAN 9DEP5D5CE TO A CON/RUCTIVE PROGRAM = BUILD+ UP ECONOMIC 9DEP5D5CE1 & PROMOT+ VILLAGE CRAFTS LIKE WEAV+ TO COMBAT DEP5D5CE ON ,5GLI% PRODUC$ COTTONS4 ,HIS APPROA* WAS NOT UNLIKE ,B]KMAN'S3 A PRACTICAL S5SE ( ! REQUIREM5TS ( REVOLUTION>Y *ANGE1 & A PR(\ND BELIEF 9 ! VALUES ( LOCAL COMMUNITY4 ,S9CE ,9DIAN SOCIETY1 LIKE ,RUSSIA 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 RE/$ PRIM>ILY ON ! GREAT MASS ( PEASANTS LIV+ 9 SEMI-FEUDAL CONDITIONS 9 ! VILLAGES1 ,G&HI1 LIKE ,TOL/OY1 LOOK$ TO ! TRADITION ( ! VILLAGE COMMUNE1 LAID MO/ /RESS ON H&ICRAFTS AS A =M ( SELF-HELP1 &1 LIKE ,TOL/OY1 SAW A P>TIAL SOLUTION TO POV]TY 9 VOLUNT>Y AB/95CE4 7,?IS VIEW WAS 5C\RAG$ BY HIS P]SONAL ASCETICISM1 :I*1 ALSO LIKE ,TOL/OY1 BUT MORE REALI/ICALLY1 HE ADOPT$ BO? = ITS MORAL VIRTUES1 & AS A MEANS ( ID5TIFICATION ) ! POORE/ PEASANTS47 ,G&HI'S VIEWS ON 9DU/RIALIZATION W]E AMBIGU\S1 & >E OP5 TO V>Y+ 9T]PRETATION1 BUT HE T5D$ TO DIFF] FROM ,TOL/OY 9 WELCOM+ 9DU/RY & TE*NOLOGY1 PROVID$ !Y W]E SOCIALLY APPLI$ TO EASE HUMAN LABOR1 BUT NOT TO ?R[ ! MASSES \T ( WORK2 & W]E ADOPT$ ON A HUMAN SCALE COMPATIBLE ) DEC5TRALI/ POLITICAL DEMOCRACY4 

,ONE ,M>XI/ CRITICISM ( ! ,G&HIAN APPROA* IS ?AT IT MISUND]/&S ! REQUIREM5TS ( ECONOMIC DEVELOPM5T4 ,A ,HUNG>IAN ECONOMI/ DISCUSS+ ,G&HI'S IDEAS COMM5TS ?AT ,G&HI'S 'DISLIKE ( MOD]N TE*NOLOGY & 9DU/RY & HIS BIAS AGA9/ T[NS' >E MI/AK51 AS 9DU/RY IS 9DISP5SABLE 9 EV]Y DEVELOP+ C\NTRY1 & ':]EV] !RE IS 9DU/RY URBANIZATION WILL BE 9EVITABLE' 7,! ,NEW ,HUNG>IAN ,QU>T]LY1 ,NO4 #c#g1 ,SPR+ #a#i#g1 #a#g74 ,BUT ,PR(ESSOR ,BOGN> CONC$ES ?AT ,G&HI WAS P>TIALLY RI<T3 TRADITIONAL TE*NOLOGY1 ESPECIALLY 9 ,9DIA :]E !RE IS AN 5ORM\S .<#g.> SURPLUS ( LABOR1 WILL BE NE$$ = G5]ATIONS2 & RAPID 9CREASE 9 AGRICULTURAL \TPUT IS VITAL TO /AVE (F FAM9E1 SO '! WEI<T ( AGRICULTURE IS SUB/ANTIALLY L>G] ?AN WAS ASSUM$ 9 TRADITIONAL 0PRO-9DU/RY0 ECONOMIC !ORIES'4 ,F9ALLY1 ,G&HI'S BELIEF ?AT 'RECURR+ GAPS 9 ! BALANCE ( ! ECONOMIC DEVELOPM5T ( SOCIETY' C\LD BE BRIDG$ BY R$UC+ CONSUMPTION 7AS WELL AS EXP&+ PRODUCTION7 ?\< IT 'RUNS C\NT] TO ! PROGRESS ( HUMAN SOCIETY & ! ECONOMY' NEV]!LESS MAKES SOME S5SE 9 A POOR1 D5SELY POPULAT$1 C\NTRY ) A HI< BIR? RATE4 

,! ,CITY V]SUS ! ,C\NTRY 

,CONFLICT+ ATTITUDES TO L>GE SCALE 9DU/RY >E CLOSELY RELAT$ TO ATTITUDES T[>DS CITIES4 ,TOL/OY TOTALLY REJECTS CITY LIFE1 :I* HE SEES AS WANTONLY DE/RUCTIVE ( ! BEAUTIES ( NATURE1 BAD = PEOPLE'S HEAL?1 & WORSE = !IR MORALS4 ,RESURRECTION />TS ) ?IS PASSAGE3 

,?\< M5 9 !IR HUNDR$S ( ?\S&S HAD TRI$ !IR H>DE/ TO DISFIGURE ?AT LITTLE CORN] ( ! E>? :]E !Y HAD CR[D$ !MSELVES TOGE!R1 PAV+ ! GR\ND ) /ONES SO ?AT NO?+ C\LD GR[444 FILL+ ! AIR ) ! FUMES ( COAL & GAS1 CUTT+ D[N ! TREES & DRIV+ AWAY EV]Y BEA/ & EV]Y BIRD -- SPR+1 H[EV]1 WAS /ILL SPR+1 EV5 9 ! T[N 7#a#i74 

,PR\DHON'S PEASANT BACKGR\ND & REGIONAL LOYALTY PR$ISPOS$ HIM TO DI/RU/ ! METROPOLITAN CULTURE ( ,P>IS4 ,P>IS1 MOREOV]1 BO? SYMBOLIZ$ & PROPAGAT$ ! C5TRALIZATION ( ALL BRAN*ES ( ,FR5* LIFE4 ,AS ,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE WROTE3 ',P>IS WAS BECOM+ MORE & MORE ! NATIONAL >BIT] ( TA/E1 SOLE C5T] ( AU?ORITY & ( ! >TS1 ! FOCAL PO9T ( ALL ?AT WAS MO/ VITAL 9 ,FRANCE 4 4 4' 7,! ,OLD ,REGIME1 #g#e74 ,PR\DHON IS V]Y AW>E ?AT ,FR5* ,REVOLUTIONS W]E TOO (T5 BO? MADE & DEFEAT$ 9 ,P>IS4 ,RA!R ?AN BLAM+ ! SUCCESS ( ,CAES>ISM 9 ! #a#h#eS ON ! CONS]VATISM ( ! PEASANTS1 HE BLAMES 9/EAD ! POLITICAL ORGANIZATION :I* ALL[$ ,P>IS TO DOM9ATE ,FRANCE1 & A POLITICAL CONCEPTION ( DEMOCRACY :I* 5%R9$ ?IS DOM9ATION ( ! ,PROV9CES BY A ,P>IS-BAS$ ,ASSEMBLY4 ,KROPOTK91 ON ! O!R H&1 COMB9$ RESPECT = A PEASANT MODE ( LIFE ) AN AW>5ESS ( ! LIB]AT+ & CULTURAL ROLE ( ! M$IEVAL CITIES1 :I* DEVELOP$ >EAS ( SELF-GOV]NM5T1 PROMOT$ TRADE & PROSP]ITY1 & 5C\RAG$ TE*NICAL & >TI/IC SKILLS4 ,KROPOTK9 ALSO RESPOND$ EAG]LY TO ! ,P>ISIAN REVOLUTION>Y TRADITION FROM #a<i TO #a#h#g#a1 & VALU$ ! RADICAL CONSCI\SNESS IT BR$4 .<#g#a.> 

,! IMPLICATIONS ( ! DEBATE AB\T ! VALUES ( RURAL V]SUS CITY LIFE HAVE *ANG$ ) ! IMPACT ( MOD]N TE*NOLOGY & 9DU/RY ON BO?1 & ON SOCIETY 9 G5]AL4 ,PAUL ,GOODMAN SUGGE/S ?AT 9 \R PRES5T ]A ( REGIM5TATION & URBAN ANOMIE1 !RE IS A GOOD DEAL ( VALIDITY 9 BO? 'A CONS]VATIVE & PEASANT CRITIQUE ( C5TRALIZ$ C\RT & T[N AS 9ORGANIC1 V]BAL & RITUALI/IC' 7,TOL/OY71 & 'A DEMOCRATIC URBAN CRITIQUE ( C5TRALIZ$ BUREAUCRACY & P[] 4 4 4' 7HE PUTS BO? ,PR\DHON & ,KROPOTK9 9TO ?IS CATEGORY74 ,GOODMAN ADDS3 '0,WE NE$ TO REVIVE BO? PEASANT SELF-RELIANCE & ! DEMOCRATIC P[] ( PR(ESSIONAL & TE*NICAL GUILDS 444' 7,PEOPLE OR ,P]SONNEL1 #a#b74 

,HE IS PRIM>ILY CONC]N$ ) REVIVIFY+ !SE VALUES )9 ,AM]ICAN CITIES4 ,TOGE!R ) ,P]CIVAL ,GOODMAN HE HAS MADE DETAIL$ PLANN+ PROPOSALS = REM$Y+ SOME ( ! ILLS ( ,NEW ,YORK & ,MANHATTAN -- ! H\S+ %ORTAGE1 BLI<T$ 9DU/RIAL >EAS & TRAFFIC-CONGE/$ /REETS -- :IL/ URG+ A DEGREE ( NEI<BORHOOD SELF-GOV]NM5T 9 RUNN+ S*OOLS1 PROMOT+ URBAN R5EWAL1 & POLIC+ LOCAL >EAS4 ,SPECIFIC PROPOSALS >E1 H[EV]1 L9K$ TO A WID] IDEAL = COMMUNITY PLANN+ & >*ITECTURE4 ,=M FOLL[S FUNCTION4 ,BUT IS ! FUNCTION GOOD8 ,DOES IT MAKE S5SE1 & DOES IT MAKE = BEAUTY1 :AT >E ITS CONSEQU5CES8 ,ONLY SU* E?ICAL QUE/IONS WILL PROVIDE ! BASIS = ADJU/+ MEANS TO 5DS ( COMMUNITY PLANN+ 7,COMMUNITAS #a#i74 

,AP>T FROM ACCEPT+ ?AT GR[? ( CITIES IS 9EVITABLE1 ,M>XI/ !ORY T5DS TO BE 9TR9SICALLY MORE FAVORABLE TO ! VALUES ( CITY LIFE4 ,M>X'S [N ATTITUDE IS DIAMETRICALLY OPPOS$ TO ,PR\DHON'S PEASANT & RURAL BIAS4 ,9 ! ,MANIFE/O ,M>X SALUT$ ! ,B\RGEOISIE = HAV+ 'RESCU$ A CONSID]ABLE P>T ( ! POPULATION FROM ! IDIOCY ( RURAL LIFE'4 ,9 HIS ANALYSIS ( ! ,EI<TE5? ,BRUMAIRE ( ,L\IS ,NAPOLEON1 :5 HE IS EXPLA9+ :Y ! PEASANTS DO NOT /RICTLY =M A COH]5T CLASS BECAUSE ( !IR ISOLATION FROM EA* O!R1 HE COMP>ES !M ) OV]TONES ( CONTEMPT TO 'A SACK ( POTATOES'4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 ,M>X1 & P>TICUL>LY ,5GELS1 W]E WELL AW>E ( ! HORRORS ( 9DU/RIAL SLUMS4 ,IF !Y MADE ! CONNECTION BETWE5 CITY LIFE & CIVILIZATION D5OT$ BY ! ,LAT9 WORD = CITY1 7CIVITAS71 !Y ALSO DREW ON ! CLASSICAL TRADITION 9 :I* CITIES W]E NOT ONLY C5T]S ( CULTURE & POLITICS1 BUT W]E 7LIKE ! M$IEVAL CITIES7 SMALL 9 SIZE1 ) ! C\NTRYSIDE EASILY ACCESSIBLE4 ,MOREOV]1 ,M>X RECOGNIZ$1 AT LEA/ 9 ! AB/RACT1 ?AT ! GAP BETWE5 ! CITY & ! C\NTRY WAS DAMAG+ TO ! 9HABITANTS ( BO?1 & PROPOS$ 9 ! ,MANIFE/O ?AT A ,COMMUNI/ SOCIETY W\LD 5D ! DI/9CTION BETWE5 T[N & C\NTRY4 .<#g#b.> 

,DEMOCRACY & ,EGALIT>IANISM 

,DIV]G+ ATTITUDES TO ! 9DU/RIAL & URBAN REVOLUTION >E CLOSELY CONNECT$ ) DIFF]+ ASSESSM5TS ( ! ]A ( 'DEMOCRACY' U%]$ 9 BY ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION4 ,ONE ( ! OV]TONES ( ! WORD 'DEMOCRATIC' HAS BE5 WILL+NESS TO ID5TIFY ) '! PEOPLE' OR '! MASSES'1 :OM ANTI-DEMOCRATS SEE AS '! MOB' OR ! 'IGNORANT MULTITUDE'4 ,PR\DHON'S ATTITUDE IS 9T]E/+LY AMBIVAL5T1 & NOT ALTOGE!R DISSIMIL> FROM ,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE'S4 ,! LATT] MOVES BETWE5 APPRECIATION ( ! P>TICUL> VIRTUES ( ! SPIRIT ( DEMOCRACY1 & REV]SION TO AN 9BORN S5SE ( ! SUP]IORITY ( >I/OCRATIC VALUES4 ,PR\DHON MOVES BETWE5 ACT+ AS A SOCIALI/ SPOKESMAN = ! WRONG$ WORK]S 7EV5 ,M>X COMM5D$ HIS C\RAGE 9 ADOPT+ ?IS ROLE 9 #a#h#d#h71 & A POSITIVE DISDA9 = ! %IFTLESS URBAN PROLET>IAT4 ,PR\DHON SEEMS TO DRAW ON ! REPUBLICAN TRADITION 9 :I* DEMOCRACY IS ASSOCIAT$ ) URBAN MOB RULE1 & ! RELAT$ DANG] ?AT ! MASSES1 LACK+ ! $UCATION OR ! ECONOMIC 9DEP5D5CE TO SU/A9 CIVIC LIB]TY1 WILL VE] T[>DS POPUL> DESPOTISM4 ,9DE$1 ,PR\DHON >GU$ 9 ,! ,F$]ATIVE ,PR9CIPLE ?AT HI/ORICALLY ! >I/OCRACY & B\RGEOISIE HAVE T5D$ TO PROTECT LIB]TY & F$]ALISM1 :IL/ ! MASSES HAVE SUPPORT$ A DESPOTIC & UNIT>Y ,/ATE4 ,9 ,! ,G5]AL ,IDEA ( ! ,REVOLUTION 9 ! ,N9ETE5? ,C5TURY HE COMM5TS ?AT IF HE ACCEPT$ TOTALLY ! 9NATE VIRTUES ( UNIV]SAL SUFFRAGE1 HE W\LD HAVE TO SUPPORT ,L\IS ,NAPOLEON AS ! *OICE ( ! PEOPLE4 ,PR\DHON DRAWS ! CONCLUSION ?AT ! PEOPLE >E BY CIRCUM/ANCE OBJECTIVELY BETT] PLAC$ TO SUPPORT LIB]TY :OLEHE>T$LY ?AN >E ! B\RGEOISIE1 :O SPONSOR LIB]ALISM1 BUT NECESS>ILY RELY ON AN EXPLOITATIVE ECONOMIC & POLITICAL SY/EM4 ,BUT ! PEOPLE AS A :OLE MU/ BE PROTECT$ FROM !IR [N FOLLY BY A F$]AL /RUCTURE :I* LIMITS ! EFFECTS ( !IR MI/AKES4 ,COMPLEM5T>Y TO ?IS ANALYSIS ,PR\DHON /RESSES ! 9H]5T DEFECTS 9 UNIV]SAL SUFFRAGE & ! REF]5DUM1 :I* RE/ ON ! FALLACY ( ! COLLECTIVE WILL1 & 9 PRACTICE WILL RESULT 9 MANIPULATION FROM ! TOP4 

,PR\DHON'S ATTITUDES T5D TO BE REFLECT$ BY ,H]B]T ,READ1 :O CAN ALSO DISPLAY CONTEMPT = ! MAJORITY ( ! PEOPLE4 ',SU* A MAJORITY1 AS ANY 9TELLIG5CE TE/ WILL IMM$IATELY REVEAL1 IS 9EVITABLY AN IGNORANT MAJORITY 4 4 4' 7,AN>*Y &4 ,ORD]1 #a#e74 ,READ RECOGNIZES ?IS ATTITUDE LEADS T[>DS ELITI/ POLITICS1 & ELSE:]E UNHESITAT+LY 5DORSES ! NE$ = G5U9E DEMOCRATIC P>TICIPATION 9 RUNN+ SOCIETY1 :ILE DESIR+ TO DISPOSE ( DEMOCRATIC %IBBOLE?S LIKE 'UNIV]SAL FRAN*ISE' :I* IS 'NO MORE ESS5TIAL TO DEMOCRACY ?AN DIV9E RI<T IS TO MON>*Y'4 

,! TONE ( ,KROPOTK9 IS MU* MORE CONSI/5TLY DEMOCRATIC4 ,HE .<#g#c.> NEV] WAV]S 9 HIS FAI? 9 ! CAPACITY ( ! PEOPLE -- NOT JU/ 9 A FUTURE SOCIETY1 BUT H]E & N[ IF !Y >E GIV5 HALF A *ANCE4 ,:]EAS ,PR\DHON DI/RU/S REVOLUTION :I* MAY UNLEA% 'AN>*Y' 9 ! PEJORATIVE S5SE1 ,KROPOTK9 WELCOMES REVOLUTIONS :I* LIB]ATE ! SUPPRESS$ CAPACITY = SELF-ORGANIZATION3 

,GIVE ! PEOPLE A FREE H&1 & 9 T5 DAYS ! FOOD S]VICE WILL BE CONDUCT$ ) ADMIRABLE REGUL>ITY4 ,ONLY ?OSE :O HAVE NEV] SE5 ! PEOPLE H>D AT WORK 444 CAN D\BT IT4 ,SPEAK ( ! ORGANIZ+ G5IUS ( ! ',GREAT ,MISUND]/OOD'1 ! PEOPLE1 TO ?OSE :O HAVE SE5 IT 9 ,P>IS 9 ! DAYS ( ! B>RICADES1 OR 9 ,LONDON DUR+ ! GREAT DOCK]S' /RIKE1 :5 HALF A MILLION ( />V+ FOLK HAD TO BE F$1 & !Y WILL TELL Y\ H[ SUP]IOR IT IS TO ! (FICIAL 9EPTNESS ( ,BUMBL$OM 7,! ,CONQUE/ ( ,BREAD1 #g#i74 

,?IS VIEW IS NOT ALTOGE!R ANTAGONI/IC TO ,PR\DHON'S BELIEF ?AT M5 MU/ ACQUIRE POLITICAL EXP]I5CE 9 LOCAL ORGANIZATION -- ,KROPOTK9 ADMITS PEOPLE MAY MAKE S]I\S MI/AKES 9 AN ELECTORAL CONTEXT1 :]E !Y LACK MEANS OR CRIT]IA = CLE> JUDGM5TS4 ,BUT ,KROPOTK9 IS HAPPY TO TAKE DEMOCRATIC RISKS -- ,PR\DHON'S CAUTION UND]LIES HIS G5]AL SKEPTICISM AB\T ! WISDOM ( ANY ATTEMPT TO SEIZE POLITICAL P[]4 

,KROPOTK9'S DEMOCRATIC & REVOLUTION>Y OPTIMISM IS E*O$ BY ,B]KMAN & ,MALATE/A1 ?\< ! LATT]1 :O HAD A /RONG S5SE ( ! POLITICAL DIFFICULTIES :I* W\LD BE 5C\NT]$ AFT] A REVOLUTION1 CRITICIZ$ ,KROPOTK9 = RADIAT+ EXCESSIVE OPTIMISM ON ! QUE/ION ( A SPE$Y SOLUTION TO ! PROBLEM ( ECONOMIC SC>CITY4 ,NOR IS IT SURPRIS+ ?AT A DEMOCRATIC COMMITM5T %\LD BE L9K$ TO ! TOTAL ECONOMIC EGALIT>IANISM ( ! COMMUNI/ AN>*I/S4 ,PR\DHON1 ON ! O!R H&1 OPPOS$ COMPLETE EQUALITY 9 ! ECONOMIC SPH]E4 ,HE BELIEV$ ?AT PRIVATE PROP]TY WAS AN 9C5TIVE TO H>D WORK2 HE ALSO WI%$ 9DIVIDUAL TAL5T & 9DU/RY TO BE REW>D$4 ,9 HIS PROPOS$ CO-OP]ATIVES ALL 9DIVIDUALS W\LD BE GIV5 V>I$ EXP]I5CE & EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES2 BUT SKILL & RESPONSIBILITY W\LD E>N HI<] SAL>IES4 ,PR\DHON1 LIKE MANY N9ETE5?-C5TURY LIB]ALS1 ALSO FE>$ ?AT A COMMUNALLY IMPOS$ EQUALITY W\LD LEAD TO A LOSS ( 9DIVIDUAL 9DEP5D5CE & LIB]TY1 & DEF5D$ ! RI<TS ( PRIVATE PROP]TY AS A NECESS>Y BULW>K ( P]SONAL LIB]TY4 0,:ILE RECOGNIZ+ ,/ATE [N]%IP ( L& MI<T BE PREF]ABLE TO ! EXI/+ SY/EM ( [N]%IP1 ,PR\DHON ATTACKS ! DO GMA ( 'ASSOCIATION'1 & ! PR9CIPLE ( 'FRAT]NITY'1 AS ,UTOPIAN GOALS HID+ A DESPOTIC T5D5CY TO =CE HUMANITY 9TO CON=MITY ) PR9CIPLES REPUGNANT TO HUMAN NATURE4 .<#g#d.> 

,CLASS ,RULE & ,ELITES 

,M>X CONDEMN$ ,PR\DHON = HIS '%AM CRITICISM' ( ,UTOPIAS 9 :I* '!RE IS ! ANTICIPATION & IMAG9ATIVE EXPRESSION ( A NEW WORLD'1 & REPLAC+ ?IS ,UTOPIAN COMMUNISM BY HIS [N 'PETTY-B\RGEOIS' ,UTOPIA 7,SELECT$ ,CORRESPOND5CE1 #b#b#c71 ,M>X IS MU* CLOS] TO ! AN>*I/ COMMUNI/S 9 HIS COMMITM5T TO EQUALITY & FRAT]NITY AS SOCIAL VALUES1 9 HIS HOPES = REVOLUTION1 & TRU/ 9 POPUL> ACTION4 ,BUT ,M>XISM P>TS COMPANY ) AN>*ISM ON TWO PO9TS ( POLITICAL IMPORTANCE4 ,?\< ,M>XISM HAS G5]ALLY ADOPT$ ! DEMOCRATIC LANGUAGE ( ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 IT HAS EQUALLY 9SI/$ ?AT '! PEOPLE' =M DI/9CT SOCIAL CLASSES1 & ?AT ! IMM$IATE AIM ( ! SOCIALI/ REVOLUTION IS ! CLASS RULE ( ! WORK]S4 ,M>XISM HAS ALSO BE5 PREP>$ TO ACCEPT ! VALIDITY ( UNIV]SAL SUFFRAGE AS A BASIS = DEMOCRATIC GOV]NM5T 9 A SOCIALI/ SOCIETY4 ',! WAY \T ( P>LIAM5T>IANISM'1 COMM5T$ ,L591 'IS NOT1 ( C\RSE1 ! ABOLITION ( REPRES5TATIVE 9/ITUTIONS & ! ELECTORAL PR9CIPLE1 BUT ! CONV]SION ( ! REPRES5TATIVE 9/ITUTIONS FROM TALK+ %OPS 9TO 0WORK+0 BODIES' 7,! ,/ATE & ,REVOLUTION1 #g#i74 ,!SE TWO ISSUES >E P>TICUL>LY SIGNIFICANT = ! ORGANIZATION ( SOCIETY DUR+ ! TRANSITION P]IOD FROM SOCIALISM TO TRUE COMMUNISM 5VISAG$ BY ,M>X4 ,BAKUN9 SUGGE/S ?AT BO? ! IDEA ( CLASS RULE1 & RELIANCE ON UNIV]SAL SUFFRAGE1 5HANCE ! DANG]S IMPLICIT 9 ! ,M>XI/ !ORY ?AT 9 ! TRANSITION P]IOD IT IS NECESS>Y TO RETA9 ! 9/RUM5TS ( ! ,/ATE -- ?IS TIME A ,/ATE GOV]N$ BY ! MAJORITY CLASS1 ! WORK]S1 & DIRECT$ AGA9/ ! M9ORITY ( ! PREVI\S RUL+ CLASS4 

,BAKUN9 IS P>TICUL>LY W>Y ( A !ORY ( CLASS RULE :I* SEEKS TO SUBORD9ATE ! PEASANTRY TO ! WORK]S3 ,T DO NOT BELIEVE ?AT EV5 UND] ! MO/ FAVORABLE CIRCUM/ANCES ! CITY WORK]S WILL HAVE SUFFICI5T P[] TO IMPOSE COMMUNISM OR COLLECTIVISM UPON ! PEASANTS2 & ,I HAVE NEV] WANT$ ?IS WAY ( REALIZ+ SOCIALISM1 BECAUSE ,I HATE EV]Y SY/EM IMPOS$ BY =CE' 7,! ,POLITICAL ,PHILOSOPHY ( ,BAKUN91 #d74 ,:5 DISCUSS+ :AT IS MEANT BY ! 'DICTATOR%IP ( ! PROLET>IAT'1 ,BAKUN9 ASKS3 

,:AT DOES IT MEAN3 '! PROLET>IAT RAIS$ 9TO A RUL+ CLASS' 8 ,WILL ! PROLET>IAT AS A :OLE BE AT ! HEAD ( ! GOV]NM5T8 444 ,?IS DILEMMA IS SOLV$ V]Y SIMPLY 9 ! ,M>XI/ !ORY4 ,BY A PEOPLE'S GOV]NM5T !Y MEAN ! GOV]N+ ( PEOPLE BY MEANS ( A SMALL NUMB] ( REPRES5TATIVES ELECT$ BY ! PEOPLE4 ,UNIV]SAL SUFFRAGE -- ! RI<T ( ! :OLE PEOPLE TO ELECT ITS SO-CALL$ REPRES5TATIVES & RUL]S ( ! ,/ATE -- ?IS IS ! LA/ WORD ( ! ,M>XI/S AS WELL AS ( ! DEMOCRATIC .<#g#e.> S*OOL4 ,& ?IS IS A FALSEHOOD BEH9D :I* LURKS ! DESPOTISM ( A GOV]N+ M9ORITY444 7#b#h#g74 

,HE COMM5TS ?AT 9 RESPONSE TO ! AN>*I/S' POLEMIC ! ,M>XI/S HAD CONC$$ ?AT ',AN>*ISM OR FRE$OM IS ! GOAL1 ! ,/ATE OR DICTATOR%IP IS ! MEANS4' ,H[EV] ,BAKUN9 MA9TA9S3 ',NO DICTATOR%IP CAN HAVE ANY O!R AIM BUT ?AT ( SELF-P]PETUATION4' ,!RE=E1 AS SOON AS ! WORK]S CAPTURE ! ,/ATE1 !Y \<T TO 'PROCE$ ) ITS DE/RUCTION"94 ,YET ACCORD+ TO ,M>X ! PEOPLE %\LD /R5G!N ! ,/ATE1 '& TRANSF] IT 9 ?IS =M 9TO ! H&S ( ITS B5EFACTORS1 GU>DIANS1 & TEA*]S1 ! *IEFS ( ! ,COMMUNI/ ,P>TY' 7#b#h#h74 

,AN>*I/S' E>LY EXP]I5CE ( ! ,BOL%EVIK REGIME 9 ,RUSSIA1 :]E A NUMB] ( PROM95T AN>*I/ EXILES HAD RETURN$ TO P>TICIPATE 9 ! BUILD+ ( SOCIALISM1 T5D$ TO CONFIRM !IR BELIEF 9 ,BAKUN9'S CRITIQUE4 ,! SYMBOL ( !IR F9AL DISILLUSIONM5T WAS ! ATTACK ON ,KRON/ADT 9 #a#i#b#a1 :5 ,L59 & ,TROTSKY TURN$ ! 'WORK]S'' >MY AGA9/ ! DISSID5T SAILORS & WORK]S DEM&+ FREE ,SOVIETS4 ,ALEX&] ,B]KMAN NOT$3 

,M>* #g -- ,DI/ANT RUMBL+ REA*ES MY E>S AS ,I CROSS ! ,NEVSKY 444 ,KRON/ADT HAS BE5 ATTACK$6 ,DAYS ( ANGUI% & CANNONAD+ 444 ,! PEOPLE ON ! /REETS LOOK B[$ ) GRIEF1 BEWILD]$ 4 4 4 

,M>* #ag -- ,KRON/ADT HAS FALL5 TODAY4 ,?\S&S ( SAILORS & WORK]S LIE DEAD 9 ITS /REETS4 ,SUMM>Y EXECUTION ( PRISON]S & HO/AGES CONT9UES4 

,M>* #ah -- ,! VICTORS >E CELEBRAT+ ! ANNIV]S>Y ( ! ,COMMUNE444 

7FROM ,! ,BOL%EVIK ,MY?1 #c#c74 

,BO? ,B]KMAN & ,EMMA ,GOLDMAN PRODUC$ SPECIFIC CRITIQUES ( ! E>LY EVOLUTION ( ,SOVIET ,SOCIALISM4 ,BAKUN9'S /YLE ( ANALYSIS IS1 H[EV]1 AT A LEVEL ( SU* G5]ALITY ?AT IT C\LD BE APPLI$ EQUALLY TO ,RUSSIA 9 ! #a#i#bS1 #a#i#cS OR #a#i#fS4 ,= ,BAKUN9 HIMSELF1 5GAG$ 9 A MOVEM5T /ILL F> FROM REA*+ ITS GOAL1 A DEGREE ( RHETORICAL G5]ALIZATION WAS 9EVITABLE4 ,BUT !RE IS A TEMPTATION 9H]5T 9 ?IS /YLE ( POLEMICAL AN>*ISM TO ALL[ OPPOSITION TO ! AB/RACTION ( '! ,/ATE' TO PRECLUDE CONCRETE UND]/&+ ( ANY P>TICUL> REGIME4 ,AS A RESULT IMPORTANT POLITICAL DIFF]5CES >E SWEPT ASIDE AS P]IPH]AL4 ',!RE IS ONLY ONE K9D ( FRE$OM3 TOTAL FRE$OM'1 WRITES A CONTRIBUTOR TO ,AN>*Y1 'IT CANNOT EXI/ )9 ! FRAMEWORK ( SOMEBODY'S /ATE1 NOT ?\< HIS NAME BE ,DUBCEK1 .<#g#f.> NOR ,JOHNSON NOR ,CA/RO NOR ,DE ,GAULLE' 7,AN>*Y1 ,NO4 #i#d1 ,DECEMB] #a#i#f#h1 #c#h#c74 ,H]B]T ,READ COMM5T+ ?AT 9 ! C\RSE ( ! ,CIVIL ,W> ! ,SPANI% ,GOV]NM5T HAD 'CREAT$1 9 ! =M ( A /&+ >MY & A SECRET POLICE1 ALL ! 9/RUM5TS ( OPPRESSION'1 SAYS !RE=E ,FRANCO'S VICTORY 'REGRETTABLE 9 ?AT IT LEAVES ! P[] ( ! ,/ATE 9 /ILL MORE RU?LESS H&S1 IS TO BE LOOK$ UPON ) A C]TA9 9DIFF]5CE 4 4 4' 7,AN>*Y & ,ORD]1 #e#a-#b74 

,ONE OBJECTION TO ,BAKUN9'S D5UNCIATION ( ',M>XISM' IS ?AT IT IS POSITIVELY MISLEAD+ AB\T ,M>X'S [N !ORY ( ! ,/ATE4 ,9 ! ,MANIFE/O ,M>X HAD C]TA9LY 5VISAG$ ,/ATE CONTROL ( CR$IT1 TRANSPORT & COMMUNICATIONS1 9DU/RY & L&4 ,! PROLET>IAT WILL1 AFT] W9N+ POLITICAL SUPREMACY1 'C5TRALIZE ALL 9/RUM5TS ( PRODUCTION 9 ! H&S ( ! ,/ATE1 I4E4 ( ! PROLET>IAT ORGANIZ$ AS ! RUL+ CLASS' 7,SELECT$ ,WORKS1 #e#b74 ,! DEF9ITION ( '! ,/ATE' H]E IS SUFFICI5TLY AMBIGU\S TO SUGGE/ ! AU?ORIT>IANISM ,BAKUN9 DETECT$4 ,BUT ,M>X'S OV]ALL POSITION IS ANTI-/ATI/ 9 EMPHASIS4 ,9 HIS E>LY WRIT+S HE REG>D$ ! ,/ATE AS ONE ASPECT ( ALI5ATION2 & 9 HIS LAT] YE>S HE ATTACK$ ,LASALLE'S ATTEMPT TO WOO SUPPORT FROM ,BISM>CK'S ,/ATE1 & WAS SCA?+ AB\T ! SLOGAN ( ! 'FREE /ATE' ADOPT$ 9 ! #ahge ,G]MAN ,SOCIAL ,DEMOCRATS' ,GO?A ,PROGRAM4 ,HIS PAMPHLET ON ! ,COMMUNE1 :I* HE DESCRIBES AS '! POLITICAL =M AT LA/ DISCOV]$ UND] :I* TO WORK \T ! ECONOMICAL EMANCIPATION ( ,LABOR' SUGGE/S NO PR$ISPOSITION TO IMPOSE A POLITICAL =M ON A WORK]S' REVOLUTION1 & 9DICATES A F> FROM AU?ORIT>IAN VIEW ( ! 'DICTATOR%IP' ( ! PROLET>IAT4 

,9DE$1 IT IS 9T]E/+ TO NOTE ?AT :]EAS !RE >E CONSID]ABLE DIFF]5CES BETWE5 ,M>X & ,PR\DHON1 ,BAKUN9 IS V]Y CLOSE TO ,M>X ON MANY ISSUES4 ,= EXAMPLE ,BAKUN9 TOO MA9TA9S ?AT :AT ! ,COMMUNE WANT$ 'WAS NOT ! DISSOLUTION ( ! NATIONAL UNITY ( ,FRANCE BUT ITS RESURRECTION'4 ,?IS UNITY IS ! ANTI!SIS ( A BUREAUCRATIC ,/ATE REGIME4 0,:]E ,BAKUN9 DIFF]S IS 9SI/+ SU* UNITY MU/ BE 'F$]ALI/' 9 *>ACT] 7SEE ,! ,POLITICAL ,PHILOSOPHY ( ,BAKUN91 #b#g#b74 ,L59 BAS+ HIMSELF ON ,M>X SPEAKS ( 'VOLUNT>Y C5TRALISM' & '! VOLUNT>Y AMALGAMATION ( ! COMMUNES 9TO A NATION'1 :I* IS NOT TO BE CONFUS$ ) A BUREAUCRATIC & MILIT>Y C5TRALISM IMPOS$ FROM ABOVE 7,! ,/ATE & ,REVOLUTION1 #i#a-#b74 ,IT IS BY NO MEANS CLE> H[ ?IS DIFF]S FROM ,BAKUN9'S [N PROGRAM ( SPONTANE\S F$]ATION1 S9CE 9 BO? =MULATIONS ! ORGANIZATIONAL IMPLICATIONS >E VAGUE4 ,MAX ,NOMAD >GUES 9 ,APO/LES ( ,REVOLUTION ?AT ,BAKUN9 US$ LIB]T>IAN SLOGANS PRIM>ILY AS A POLITICALLY USEFUL TACTIC 9 HIS /RUGGLE AGA9/ ,M>X'S LEAD]%IP ( ! ,FIR/ ,9T]NATIONAL4 ,NOMAD /RESSES ,BAKUN9'S [N PR$ISPOSITION TO RELY ON A REVOLUTION>Y ELITE TO ACT AS A VANGU>D1 .<#g#g.> & SUGGE/S ?AT ,BAKUN9 WAS =E%AD[+ ORGANIZATIONAL TACTICS LAT] ADOPT$ BY ,L594 ,NOMAD'S !SIS IS HI<LY POLEMICAL & C]TA9LY QUE/IONABLE4 ,HE ASSUMES ?AT ! EXI/5CE ( A CONSCI\S REVOLUTION>Y M9ORITY MU/ NECESS>ILY MEAN A DOM9ANT ELITE SEIZ+ P[] AFT] A REVOLUTION4 ,HE ALSO L9KS ,L59 & ,/AL9 9DISCRIM9ATELY AS ,BAKUN9'S UNWITT+ HEIRS4 ,BUT ,NOMAD DOES USEFULLY UND]L9E ?AT ,M>XI/S & AN>*I/S 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY FAC$ COMMON PROBLEMS ( H[ TO PUT !IR IDEALS 9TO PRACTICE1 ?AT AN>*ISM HAS REMA9$ PRIM>ILY A DOCTR9E ( ?OSE 9 OPPOSITION1 & ?AT AN>*I/ AW>5ESS ( ! TRAPS ( POLITICAL P[] IS NO GU>ANTEE ?AT !Y C\LD AVOID !M4 ,9DE$ ,NOMAD'S DESCRIPTION ( ,MAKHNO'S C>E] SUGGE/S ?AT 9 SOME CIRCUM/ANCES !Y C\LD NOT4 

,LEAV+ ASIDE ! QUE/ION ( ADAPT+ IDEALS TO POLITICAL REALITIES1 IT IS RELEVANT ?AT ! ,M>XI/ IDEAL ( A WORK]S' DEMOCRACY DOES DIV]GE SIGNIFICANTLY FROM ! AN>*I/ COMMUNI/ IDEAL1 EXEMPLIFI$ BY ,KROPOTK9'S COMM5TS ON ! ,P>IS ,COMMUNE4 ,KROPOTK9 SEES ! ,COMMUNE'S ADH]5CE TO ! PR9CIPLE ( GOV]NM5T NOT AS AN ILLU/RATION ( ! POLITICAL REALISM ( ! WORK]S 5GAG$ 9 A CONCRETE EXP]IM5T 9 SOCIALI/ ORGANIZATION1 BUT AS A SIGN ( L+]+ PREJUDICE 9 FAVOR ( ! 9/ITUTIONS ( ! OLD SOCIETY4 

,9 ! MID/ ( ! ,COMMUNE ! ANCI5T PR9CIPLE ( AU?ORITY CROPP$ UP & ! PEOPLE GAVE !MSELVES A ,C\NCIL ( ! ,COMMUNE1 ON ! MODEL ( MUNICIPAL ,C\NCILS ELSE:]E4 ,& YET IF WE ADMIT ?AT A ,C5TRAL ,GOV]NM5T TO REGULATE ! RELATIONS ( ,COMMUNES BETWE5 !MSELVES IS QUITE NE$LESS1 :Y %\LD WE ADMIT ! NECESSITY TO REGULATE ! MUTUAL RELATIONS ( ! GR\PS :I* MAKE UP EA* ,COMMUNE 8 7,! ,COMMUNE ( ,P>IS1 #a74 

,KROPOTK9 IS OPPOS+ ANY =M ( REPRES5TATIVE GOV]NM5T1 & RELY+ SOLELY ON ! FREE 9ITIATIVE ( 'GR\PS' & ON ! SPONTANE\S 9V5TIV5ESS ( 9DIVIDUALS4 

,SOCIAL ,ADM9I/RATION )\T ,GOV]NM5T 

,AS A COMM5T ON ! BE/ WAY ( RUNN+ A REVOLUTION ,KROPOTK9'S VIEWS >E P]T95T4 ,!RE IS AMPLE EVID5CE ( PRACTICAL IMPROVIZATION TO DEAL ) IMM$IATE CRISES1 & ! LIB]AT+ EFFECT A REVOLUTION MAY HAVE ON M5'S IMAG9ATIONS4 ,KROPOTK9'S MO/ P]SUASIVE CRITICISM ( ! ,COMMUNE'S CITY GOV]NM5T IS ?AT IT /ULTIFI$ ITS [N GOALS3 .<#g#h.> 

,P>IS S5T H] DEVOT$ SONS TO ! ,T[N ,HALL4 ,!RE1 %ELV$ 9 ! MID/ ( FILES & OLD PAP]S1 OBLIG$ TO RULE :]E !IR 9/9CTS PROMPT$ !M TO BE & DO AMONG ! PEOPLE1 OBLIG$ TO DISCUSS :]E IT WAS NE$FUL TO ACT1 & TO COMPROMISE :]E NO COMPROMISE WAS ! BE/ POLICY2 4 4 4 !Y SAW !MSELVES R$UC$ TO IMPOT5CE4 ,BE+ P>ALYZ$ BY !IR SEP>ATION FROM ! PEOPLE 444 !Y !MSELVES P>ALYZ$ ! POPUL> 9ITIATIVE 7#a74 

,C]TA9 P>ALLELS EXI/ BETWE5 ,KROPOTK9'S OBS]VATIONS ON ! ,COMMUNE'S GOV]NM5T & ! MORE OR LESS IRRELEVANT ROLE PLAY$ BY ! ,SPANI% ,GOV]NM5T DUR+ ! REAL MILIT>Y & SOCIAL /RUGGLES ( ! ,CIVIL ,W>4 ,AN>*I/S CAN 9DE$ PO9T TO NUM]\S 9/ANCES 9 :I* AN (FICIAL LEAD]%IP TI$ TO OR?ODOX PROC$URES ( POLITICAL ORGANIZATION1 & TO CONV5TIONAL CONCEPTS ( POLITICAL REALISM1 HAVE SL[$ D[N OR BETRAY$ A POPUL> /RUGGLE4 ,BUT IT IS F> FROM C]TA9 ?AT ! TOTAL 9=MALITY ( ORGANIZATION PROPOS$ BY ,KROPOTK9 IS APPROPRIATE TO DEAL+ ) LONG T]M PROBLEMS ( ECONOMIC CO-ORD9ATION1 OR ?AT ! DEGREE ( ACTIVISM & 9VOLVEM5T TYPICAL ( REVOLUTION CAN BE EXPECT$ FROM PEOPLE 9 DAY TO DAY LIFE1 OR ?AT IT IS EV5 TO BE WELCOM$ AS AN IDEAL4 

,IT IS IMPLICIT 9 ,KROPOTK9'S APPROA* H]E ?AT NOT ONLY ! ,/ATE MA*9E WILL WI!R AWAY1 BUT ALL =MS ( GOV]NM5TAL ORGANIZATION4 ,IF :AT GOV]NM5T MEANS IS AN ADM9I/RATIVE /RUCTURE1 !N BO? F$]ALI/ & SYNDICALI/ PROPOSALS CLE>LY 9VOLVE =MAL ORGANIZATION4 ,IF ,KROPOTK9'S AD HOC COOP]ATION BETWE5 GR\PS )9 A COMMUNE W]E TO CONT9UE IT W\LD C]TA9LY EVOLVE 9TO ORGANIZATIONAL R\T9ES -- ?\< ! WAY IT HAD EVOLV$ MI<T WELL AFFECT ITS DEGREE ( FLEXIBILITY & FRE$OM FROM AU?ORIT>IANISM4 ,BUT 'GOV]NM5T' HAS O!R CONNOTATIONS -- ( AN 'AU?ORITY' :I* MAY RESORT TO =CE4 ,GOV]NM5T 9 ?IS S5SE IS CLOSELY CONNECT$ TO ! LAW -- BO? DEP5D+ ULTIMATELY ON POLICE 5=CEM5T1 BUT CLAIM+ TO EMBODY SOCIAL VALUES & AIMS1 & MA9TA9$ BY ! PASSIVE ASS5T ( ! MAJORITY4 ,IF AN>*I/S DIFF] AB\T DETAILS ( ECONOMIC & ADM9I/RATIVE ORGANIZATION1 !Y >E UNANIM\S 9 DECL>+ = ! ABOLITION ( LAW & ! POLICE4 ,! UND]LY+ !ORETICAL MODEL :I* LEADS !M TO ?IS CONCLUSION IS NOT H[EV] ALWAYS ! SAME4 ,!RE >E AT LEA/ ?REE SOCIAL MODELS 9 :I* NATURAL H>MONY SUP]S$ES IMPOS$ & DI/ORT+ =MS ( 'ORD]'3 ! REIGN ( ECONOMICS1 9 :I* A HIDD5 H& WILL PROMOTE A NATURAL CO9CID5CE ( 9T]E/S2 ! REIGN ( REASON 9 ACCORDANCE ) NATURAL LAW OR HI/ORICAL EVOLUTION2 & ! TRADITIONAL COMMUNITY EXEMPLIFI$ BY PEASANT VILLAGES OR TRIBAL ORGANIZATION4 

,! IMPORTANCE ( ECONOMICS DOM9AT$ MU* N9ETE5?-C5TURY .<#g#i.> ?9K+4 ,! FASC9ATION ( ! NEW SCI5CE1 & ! EVID5CE ?AT ECONOMIC ACTIVITY 9VOLV$ A MULTIPLICITY ( OP]ATIONS :I* C\LD NOT BE FULLY COMPREH5D$ BY A S+LE 9TELLIG5CE1 & :I* C\LD !RE=E BE H>M$ BY CONSCI\S REGULATION1 CONTRIBUT$ TO ! IDEA ( SELF-REGULAT+ ECONOMIC H>MONY4 ,SO DID ! IMPACT ( E>LY 9DU/RIALIZATION & TE*NOLOGY1 :I* SEEM$ TO PO9T TO ! POT5TIALITY ( UNLIMIT$ WEAL?4 ,!Y ALSO SEEM$ TO BE CREAT+ CONDITIONS 9 :I* M5 BECAME NECESS>ILY DEP5D5T UPON ONE ANO!R1 & SO C\LD BE BR\<T TO FOLL[ !IR NATURAL ECONOMIC 9T]E/S BY VOLUNT>Y CO-ORD9ATION4 ,! FIR/ VISION [ES MU* TO ,ADAM ,SMI?1 ! SECOND TO ,SA9T-,SIMON1 :O RECOGNIZ$ ! NE$ = CONSCI\S PLANN+1 BUT BELIEV$ ! 'ADM9I/RATION ( ?+S'1 9 ACCORDANCE ) SCI5TIFIC PR9CIPLES1 W\LD REPLACE ! 'GOV]NM5T ( M5' BY ! >BIT>Y WILL ( O!R M54 ,PR\DHON SEEMS TO DRAW ON BO? IMAGES4 ,! ,/ATE WILL BE DISSOLV$ 9TO ,SOCIETY1 ACCORD+ TO ,PR\DHON1 :5 9DU/RIAL DIVISION ( LABOR SUP]S$ES CLASS DIVISIONS2 :5 ! COLLECTIVE =CE ( WORK]S' CO-OP]ATIVES REPLACES ?AT ( GOV]NM5T >MIES2 :5 COMM]CE PROMOTES ! REPLACEM5T ( LAW BY CONTRACT2 :5 'C5TRALIZATION' ( 9T]E/S ?R\< CR$IT TAKES ! PLACE ( OB$I5CE TO C5TRAL P[]2 & ?R\< FREE COMPETITION1 EQUALITY ( EX*ANGE1 & EQUILIBRIUM ( VALUES & PROP]TIES4 

,! IMPLICIT NATURAL LAW BASIS ( AN>*ISM HAS BE5 DEVELOP$ 9 ACCORDANCE ) ?REE DIFF]5T /R&S 9 POLITICAL !ORY2 BELIEF 9 5LI<T5$ RATIONALISM1 9 HI/ORICAL TELEOLOGY1 & 9 SCI5CE AS 4A--' GUIDE TO SOCIAL ACTION4 ,= ,GODW9 MORAL PR9CIPLES >E ACCESSIBLE TO ! REASON ( ALL RI<T-?9K+ M5 & >E SELF-EVID5T TRU?S :I* WILL CON/RA9 M5 TO ACCEPT !IR CONCLUSIONS ) A K9D ( MA!MATICAL RIGOR4 ,BAKUN9 ALSO APPEAL$ TO ! MORAL CONSCI5CE ( MANK9D BUT WAS 9FLU5C$ BY ,HEGELIANISM T[>DS A VIEW ( HI/ORY 9 :I* HUMAN CONSCI\SNESS DEVELOPS ?R\< A NECESS>Y DIALECTIC ) SOCIAL REALITY T[>DS A TRUE MORAL UND]/&+4 ,BAKUN9'S FAI? 9 REASON IS ALSO SUPPLEM5T$ BY A S5SE ( ! DIV]SITY ( SOCIETY3 ! ,ADAM ,SMI? VIEW ( ECONOMICS IS BROAD5$ 9TO A G5]AL VIEW ( ! COMPLEXITY ( SOCIAL ACTIVITY1 :I* CANNOT )\T REPRESSION BE FITT$ 9TO ! MOLD ( ANY GOV]NM5TAL DESIGN4 ,BAKUN9 >GUES ?AT NO 9DIVIDUAL OR GR\P CAN DEVISE A SOCIAL ORGANIZATION CAPABLE ( SATISFY+ ! MULTIPLE & DIV]SE 9T]E/S1 ASPIRATIONS1 & NE$S ( ! PEOPLE4 ',SU* AN ORGANIZATION W\LD EV] BE A PROCRU/EAN B$ 9TO :I* VIOL5CE1 MORE OR LESS SANCTION$ BY ! ,/ATE1 W\LD =CE ! UN=TUNATE SOCIETY' 7,! ,POLITICAL ,PHILOSOPHY ( ,BAKUN91 #b#i#i74 ,!RE=E1 ONLY POPUL> SPONTANE\S ORGANIZATION IS LIKELY TO REALIZE ?IS DIV]SITY & SATISFY REAL 9T]E/S & NE$S4 .<#h.> 

,KROPOTK9 ELABORAT$ ! VIEW ?AT AN>*ISM IS BAS$ ON ! SCI5TIFIC /UDY ( SOCIETY & NATURAL HI/ORY & SO A RATIONAL ATTEMPT TO LIVE 9 H>MONY ) NATURAL & SOCIAL 'LAWS'4 ,HE PO9T$ TO ! ROLE ( NATURAL 9/9CTS 9 CREAT+ A MORALITY ( SYMPA?Y BETWE5 M51 & TO ! ROLE ( TRADITION & SOCIAL HABIT 9 CREAT+ A SET ( L>GELY UNQUE/ION$ BELIEFS :I* GUIDE MAN'S BEHAVIOR4 ,= ,KROPOTK9 TRADITION & HABIT >E ANALOG\S TO ! 9/9CTUAL BEHAVIOR PATT]NS ( ANIMALS1 & HI/ORICAL EVOLUTION P>ALLELS NATURAL EVOLUTION4 ,HIS MORAL VIEWS CONFLICT ) ?OSE ( ,GODW91 :O LAYS GREAT /RESS ON SCRUPUL\S RATIONAL CALCULATION ( ! PA? ( DUTY4 ,KROPOTK9 /RESSES RA!R ! ROLE ( NATURAL 9/9CT 7= EXAMPLE1 TO PROTECT A *ILD71 SPONTANE\S SYMPA?Y1 & ! 9SPIRATIONAL =CE ( H]OIC OR DEVOT$ ACTIONS1 :I* SOCIETY TURNS 9TO LEG5DS & TEA*ES ITS *ILDR54 

,KROPOTK9'S APPROA* WAS /RONGLY 9FLU5C$ BY ! CONCRETE EXAMPLES ( ! PEASANT COMMUNES1 OR ! ,SIB]IAN TRIBAL COMMUNITIES1 ) !IR [N CU/OMS & VALUES4 ,! IMPORTANCE ( ?IS MODEL IS EV5 CLE>] 9 ,TOL/OY :5 HE COMES TO TALK AB\T :AT WILL REPLACE ORGANIZ$ =MS ( LAW & PUNI%M5T4 ,! ECONOMIC SOLUTION SUGGE/S ?AT CRIME WILL DISAPPE> :5 9DIVIDUAL 9T]E/S >E SATISFI$ -- IT HAS NO BUILT-9 ANSW] AS TO H[ 9T]M$IATE DIFFICULTIES %\LD BE MET4 ,! SOLUTION BAS$ ON NATURAL REASON OR CONSCI5CE ASSUMES CRIME IS AN ]ROR :I* REASON & SOCIAL PROGRESS CAN REM$Y1 & 9 ! 9T]IM ! ANSW] IS MORAL SUASION & ! CO]CION ( PUBLIC OP9ION -- TO :I* ,GODW9 EXPLICITLY APPEALS4 ,BUT ! SOLUTION BAS$ ON EXAMPLES ( PREVI\S OR EXI/+ COMMUNITIES 9CORPORATES CONCRETE PROC$URES4 ,TOL/OY COMM5TS3 

,:Y SUPPOSE ?AT !RE CANNOT BE TRIBUNALS )\T VIOL5CE8 ,TRIAL1 BY PEOPLE TRU/$ BY ! DISPUTANTS1 HAS ALWAYS EXI/$ & WILL EXI/1 & NE$S NO VIOL5CE 444 ,RUSSIAN COMMUNES MIGRAT+ TO DI/ANT REGIONS1 :]E \R ,GOV]NM5T LEAVES !M ALONE1 >RANGE !IR [N TAXATION1 ADM9I/RATION1 TRIBUNALS1 & POLICE1 & ALWAYS PROSP] UNTIL GOV]NM5T VIOL5CE 9T]F]ES 7,ESSAYS FROM ,TULA1 #a#a#f74 

,! ,ADM9I/RATION ( ,JU/ICE 

,PR\DHON ALSO LOOKS TO ! PA/ = HIS PRACTICAL PROPOSALS AB\T ! ADM9I/RATION ( JU/ICE 9 HIS BOOK ON ,! ,G5]AL ,IDEA ( ! ,REVOLUTION 9 ! ,N9ETE5? ,C5TURY1 BUT FOCUSES ON ! HI/ORY & !ORETICAL DEVELOPM5T ( ! LEGAL TRADITION ITSELF4 ,A DI/9CTION CAN BE MADE BETWE5 LAW :I* 9VOLVES RE/ITUTION = A WRONG1 .<#h#a.> BROADLY ! CATEGORY ( CIVIL LAW2 & LAW :I* 9VOLVES PUNITIVE RETRIBUTION1 P5AL LAW4 ,DURKHEIM DISCUSS$ ?IS DI/9CTION1 BUT CONSID]$ ?AT PUNI%M5T EXPRESS+ ! MORAL REPROBATION ( ! COMMUNITY WAS A NECESS>Y ASPECT ( SOCIAL COHESION2 & ?AT ! MORAL NORMS ( ANY SOCIETY W\LD ALWAYS T5D TO BE SO CON/RICT+ ?AT !Y W\LD PROMOTE 9DIVIDUAL DEVIANCE & REBELLION4 ,PR\D-HON1 H[EV]1 USES ?IS DI/9CTION TO >GUE ?AT ! CONCEPT ( REP>ATION 7TO 9DIVIDUALS OR TO SOCIETY7 %\LD BE EXT5D$ TO ! REALM ( P5AL LAW TO ELIM9ATE 5TIRELY ! IDEA ( V5GEANCE4 ,A SECOND & RELAT$ DI/9CTION IS BETWE5 >BITRATION -- NEUTRAL M$IATION BETWE5 CONFLICT+ P>TIES :O AGREE TO ACCEPT ! >BIT]'S DECISION1 & ! JUDGM5T ( LEGAL C\RTS REPRES5T+ IMPOS$ AU?ORITY4 ,PR\DHON SEEKS TO REPLACE JUDGES BY >BIT]S :O WILL BE ELECT$ BY BO? P>TIES TO A CASE4 

,PR\DHON'S SUGGE/IONS HAVE PREC$5TS 9 PRIMITIVE LAW1 :I* AS ,DE ,J\V5EL COMM5TS 'C\LD DO )\T MEANS ( CO]CION4 ,JUDGM5T WAS AN >BITRAL AW>D ACCEPT$ 9 ADVANCE4 ,MA9E NOT$ ! 5TIRE ABS5CE ( SANCTIONS 9 ! E>LIE/ SY/EMS ( ,LAW' 7,P[]1 #b#g#e-#f74 ,KROPOTK9 /RESSES 9 HIS PAMPHLET ON ,! ,/ATE ?AT COMMON LAW OR CU/OM>Y LAW PROVIDES A GREAT] PROTECTION = 9DIVIDUALS & GREAT] 9DEP5D5CE = COMMUNITIES4 ',CU/OM>Y LAW NATURALLY P]TA9S TO LOCAL LIFE & ,ROMAN LAW TO C5TRALIZATION ( P[]' 7#c#e74 ,KROPOTK9 DRAWS ON ,MA9E'S ,ANCI5T ,LAW TO DESCRIBE H[ JU/ICE WAS UND]/OOD & ADM9I/]$ 9 TRIBAL & VILLAGE COMMUNITIES1 & ADDS3 

ALL NOTIONS ( RI<T :I* WE F9D 9 \R CODES 7MUTILAT$ TO ! ADVANTAGE ( M9ORITIES71 & ALL =MS ( JUDICIAL PROC$URE1 9 SO F> AS !Y (F] GU>ANTEES TO ! 9DIVIDUAL1 HAD !IR ORIG9 9 ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY4 ,?US1 :5 WE IMAG9E WE HAVE MADE GREAT PROGRESS -- 9 9TRODUC+ ! JURY = EXAMPLE -- WE HAVE ONLY RETURN$ TO ! 9/ITUTION ( ! B>B>IANS1 AFT] HAV+ MODIFI$ IT TO ! ADVANTAGE ( ! RUL+ CLASSES 7#a#e74 

,KROPOTK9 WI%$ TO RE/ORE ! UNITY BETWE5 SOCIAL ATTITUDES & ! ADM9I/RATION ( JU/ICE ?AT EXI/$ UND] CU/OM>Y LAW1 BY ELIM9AT+ =MAL LEGAL CODES1 :I* T5D TO P]PETUATE A RIGID CLASS /RUCTURE BAS$ ON LEGAL DI/9CTIONS1 & TO CRY/ALLIZE SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS & ATTITUDES LONG AFT] SOCIETY ITSELF HAS BEGUN TO *ANGE4 ,KROPOTK9'S PO9T CAN BE AMPLY ILLU/RAT$ FROM ,5GLI% LAW -- = EXAMPLE1 ! HEAVY S5T5CES ATTA*$ TO CRIMES AGA9/ PROP]TY1 ! LONG CAMPAIGN REQUIR$ TO ALT] LEGISLATION ON HOMOSEXUALITY1 & ! P]PETUATION ON ! /ATUTE BOOKS ( CRUDELY DRAFT$ LEGISLATION UKE ! ,(FICIAL ,SECRETS ,ACT ( #aiaa 7:OSE REPRESSIVE POT5TIALITIES >\S$ CONC]N E>LY 9 #a#i#g74 .<#h#b.> 

,BUT IT IS CLE>LY IMPOSSIBLE SIMPLY TO TRANSPOSE A MODEL ( ADM9I/]+ JU/ICE APPROPRIATE TO A SMALL1 TRADITIONAL & TI<TLY KNIT COMMUNITY TO A L>GE1 MOBILE & ANONYM\S URBAN POPULATION4 ,& IT IS EV5 LESS POSSIBLE TO RELY1 AS ,GODW9 & ,PR\DHON SUGGE/1 ON ! APPLICATION ( G5]AL PR9CIPLES ( JU/ICE1 DISP5S+ BO? ) =MALLY DEF9$ RULES ( LAW & ) =MAL PROC$URES = ADM9I/]+ !M4 ,9=MAL JU/ICE PRESUPPOSES AN AGREEM5T ON MORAL & JUDICIAL PR9CIPLES1 & !IR PROC$URAL APPLICATION1 UNLIKELY EXCEPT 9 A SOCIETY ) ! COHESION & TRADITIONS :I* RATIONALISM T5DS TO DE/ROY4 ,SIMIL> PROBLEMS >ISE 9 RELATION TO ,KROPOTK9'S DESIRE TO CREATE A MORE FLEXIBLE SET ( LEGAL RULES AM5ABLE TO SOCIAL *ANGE4 ,UNLESS ONE CAN ASSUME SOCIAL HOMOG5EITY !RE MAY BE PASSIONATELY HELD DIVISIONS ON ISSUES ( MORAL & SOCIAL CONDUCT & APPROPRIATE P5ALTIES4 ,MOREOV]1 ,KROPOTK9 IS TAK+ = GRANT$ A /EADY 'PROGRESSION' 9 PUBLIC OP9ION1 :]EAS REC5T EXP]I5CE 9 ,BRITA9 SUGGE/S ?AT 'PROGRESSIVE' LEGAL & P5AL RE=MS >E SUPPORT$ ONLY BY A M9ORITY4 ,9DE$1 ONE /RONG >GUM5T 9 FAVOR ( LEGISLATION 9 >EAS LIKE RACIAL1 RELIGI\S OR SEXUAL DISCRIM9ATION IS ?AT ! EXI/5CE ( LAWS C>RY+ ! WEI<T ( LEGAL AU?ORITY WILL 9FLU5CE PUBLIC OP9ION 9 AN EGALIT>IAN DIRECTION4 

,NEV]!LESS1 IT IS 9T]E/+ TO NOTICE ?AT MOD]N !ORIES ( P5AL RE=M T5D TO AGREE ) N9ETE5?-C5TURY AN>*I/ WRIT]S :O CRITICIZ$ NOT ONLY ! B>B>ITY ( EXI/+ MODES ( PUNI%M5T1 BUT !IR SOCIAL EFFECTS & !IR IRRELEVANCE 9 PREV5T+ CRIME4 ,CONSID]ABLE D\BT HAS N[ BE5 CA/ BO? ON ! IDEA ( PUNI%M5T AS A =M ( SOCIAL RETRIBUTION & ON ! USES ( PUNI%M5T AS A DET]R5T4 ,:IL/ !RE IS A NEW DANG]1 AS AN>*I/S HAVE NOTIC$1 ?AT MOD]N PSY*OLOGY & SOCIOLOGY WILL BE US$ SIMPLY AS A MORE SUBTLE 9/RUM5T = MANIPULAT+ 'SOCIAL DEVIANTS'1 EXP]IM5TS 9 P5AL RE=M & DEVELOPM5TS 9 PSY*OLOGICAL !ORY DO HOLD \T POSSIBILITIES ( ALT]NATIVES TO ! PRES5T P5AL SY/EM4 ,SIMIL>LY !RE >E >EAS ( MOD]N LAW -- = EXAMPLE1 LEGISLATION TO PREV5T DISCRIM9ATION -- 9 :I* LAW IS US$ 9 A MORE FLEXIBLE & LESS PUNITIVE MANN]1 ) A GREAT] EMPHASIS ON >BITRATION1 & A GREAT] RELIANCE ON 9DIVIDUALS & LOCAL COMMUNITIES TO MAKE ! LAW EFFECTIVE4 ,DESPITE ANOMALIES 9VOLV$ 9 DRAFT+ & IMPLEM5T+ ?IS TYPE ( LAW1 IT PROVIDES A MODEL :I* MI<T BE EXT5D$4 ,:E!R JUDICIAL '>BITRATION' BETWE5 9DIVIDUALS IS1 AS ,PR\DHON SUGGE/$1 APPROPRIATE TO CRIMES LIKE VIOL5T ASSAULT IS MORE QUE/IONABLE4 ,KROPOTK9 9 HIS ACC\NT ( VILLAGE JU/ICE 9 FACT SUGGE/S ?AT ! VILLAGE COMMUNE MADE A COLLECTIVE 'JUDGM5T' :5 F9D+ ! APPROPRIATE S5T5CE = A CRIME UND] CU/OM>Y LAW4 

,AN>*I/S CONC]N$ TO PROMOTE A MORE FLEXIBLE1 SOCIALLY REALI/IC & HUMANE ADM9I/RATION ( LAW T5D TO LOOK TO ! LOCAL .<#h#c.> COMMUNITY BO? AS ! UNIT 9 :I* A WIDE RANGE ( LAWS %\LD BE IMPLEM5T$1 & AS ! UNIT 9 :I* ANY 5=CEM5T NECESS>Y %\LD BE C>RI$ \T4 ,PR\DHON URG$ ?AT EV]Y WORK%OP1 CORPORATION1 COMMUNE & LOCALITY %\LD ORGANIZE ITS [N POLICE JU/ AS IT %\LD ORGANIZE ITS MORE G5]AL ADM9I/RATION4 ,KROPOTK9 RECOGNIZ+ ?AT ! FAMILY UNIT :I* US$ TO B9D ITS MEMB]S TOGE!R 9 A COMMUNITY ( WELF>E IS DIS9TEGRAT+1 LOOKS TO NEW GEOGRAPHICAL & ECONOMIC COMMUNITIES TO PLAY A SIMIL> ROLE 9 DEAL+ ) 'MORAL' AS WELL AS 'MAT]IAL' TR\BLES1 = 9/ANCE LOOK+ AFT] 'CRIM9ALS'4 ,PAUL ,GOODMAN SUGGE/S ?AT 9 ,AM]ICA ! VIOL5CE ( MOD]N URBAN POLICE1 & !IR 9EFFECTIV5ESS 9 PREV5T+ CRIME1 PO9TS TO ! NE$ = SMALL] UNITS )9 CITIES TO RUN !IR [N POLICE -- A PROPOSAL :I* MAKES OBVI\S S5SE = <ETTO COMMUNITIES4 

,UTOPIAN ,?9K+ & ,HI/ORICAL ,PROGRESS 

,AN>*I/S T5D TO V>Y BETWE5 MAK+ SPECIFIC1 GRADUALI/IC PROPOSALS 9 >EAS LIKE POLICE & P5AL RE=M1 & UPHOLD+ A RADICAL & ABSOLUTE DEM& = ABOLI%+ EXI/+ C\RTS1 JAILS & POLICE =CES4 ,! =M] IS MORE IMM$IATELY RELEVANT1 & MORE LIKELY TO W9 CONV]TS AMONG NON-AN>*I/S4 ,BUT UNCOMPROMIS+ RADICALISM CAN BE JU/IFI$ AT ?REE LEVELS4 ,)\T A 'UTOPIAN' COMMITM5T TO QUE/ION ! UND]LY+ ASSUMPTIONS ( SOCIAL PRACTICES1 PROPOSALS = RE=M T5D TO BYPASS ! C5TRAL PROBLEMS1 & MAY AMELIORATE A SITUATION :I* \<T NEV] TO BE TOL]AT$4 ,SECONDLY1 AS ,KROPOTK9 9DICATES :5 DISCUSS+ N9ETE5?-C5TURY *ANGES 9 ! TREATM5T ( ! 9SANE1 !RE IS (T5 HI/ORICAL EVID5CE ?AT :AT SEEMS 'UTOPIAN' TO ONE G5]ATION IS ACCEPT$ AS OBVI\S GOOD S5SE BY !IR SUCCESSORS4 ,OSC> ,WILDE COMM5T$ ?AT ',A MAP ( ! WORLD ?AT DOES NOT 9CLUDE ,UTOPIA IS NOT WOR? EV5 GLANC+ AT1 = IT LEAVES \T ! ONE C\NTRY AT :I* ,HUMANITY IS ALWAYS L&+ 4 4 4 ,PROGRESS IS ! REALIZATION ( ,UTOPIAS' 7,! ,S\L ( ,MAN UND] ,SOCIALISM1 #d#c74 ,?IRDLY1 AS ,KROPOTK9 ALSO EMPHASIZ$1 MO/ PEOPLE >E PRISON]S ( !IR [N $UCATION1 & ( ! REIGN+ CONV5TIONAL WISDOM4 ,SO !IR WORLD VIEW %UTS \T L>GE /RET*ES ( HI/ORICAL EXP]I5CE1 ALI5 >EAS ( SOCIAL REALITY1 & A VISION ( FUTURE POSSIBILITIES4 ,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE1 ! LEA/ ,UTOPIAN ( !ORI/S1 RECOGNIZ$ ! SIGNIFICANCE ( ?IS SOCIAL BL9DNESS4 ,HE WROTE ( ! MID-EI<TE5?-C5TURY ,FR5* ',PHYSIOCRATS'3 

,IT IS A CURI\S FACT ?AT :5 !Y 5VISAG$ ALL ! SOCIAL & ADM9/RATIVE RE=MS SUBSEQU5TLY C>RI$ \T BY \R .<#h#d.> REVOLUTION>IES1 ! IDEA ( FREE 9/ITUTIONS NEV] CROSS$ !IR M9DS 444 POLITICAL LIB]TY 9 ! FULL S5SE ( ! T]M WAS SOME?+ ?AT PASS$ !IR IMAG9ATION OR WAS PROMPTLY DISMISS$ FROM !IR ?\<TS IF BY ANY *ANCE ! IDEA ( IT OCCURR$ TO !M 7,! ,OLD ,REGIME1 #a#e#i74 

,M>XISM ALSO RETA9S A ,UTOPIAN DIM5SION1 :I* IT 9H]ITS FROM ! HI/ORICAL OPTIMISM ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 & :I* IS 9TR9SIC TO ANY REVOLUTION>Y POLITICAL MOVEM5T4 ,BUT ,M>XISM LAYS MU* GREAT] /RESS ON ! REQUIREM5TS ( POLITICAL & SOCIOLOGICAL REALISM1 :I* DEM>CATE ! B\ND>IES ( ,UTOPIAN POSSIBILITY4 ',M5 MAKE !IR [N HI/ORY1 BUT !Y DO NOT MAKE IT JU/ AS !Y PLEASE2 !Y DO NOT MAKE IT UND] CIRCUM/ANCES *OS5 BY !MSELVES1 BUT UND] CIRCUM/ANCES DIRECTLY 5C\NT]$ & TRANSMITT$ FROM ! PA/' 7',! ,EI<TE5? ,BRUMAIRE ( ,L\IS ,BONAP>TE'1 ,SELECT$ ,WORKS1 #i#g74 ,M>XI/S ACCEPT ! NE$ = 9/ITUTIONALIZ$ SY/EMS ( LAW & GOV]NM5T 9 ANY =ESEEABLE SOCIALI/ FUTURE4 ,:ILE ,5GELS 5DORSES ,SA9T-,SIMON'S SLOGAN ?AT ! GOV]NM5T ( M5 WILL GIVE WAY TO ! ADM9I/RATION ( ?+S1 HE COMM5TS ELSE:]E 9 A HI<LY CRITICAL ANALYSIS ( ,BAKUN9 ?AT '9 ?IS SOCIETY !RE WILL ABOVE ALL BE NO AU?ORITY'4 ,HE ADDS 'H[ !SE PEOPLE PROPOSE TO RUN A FACTORY1 OP]ATE A RAILWAY OR /E] A %IP 4 4 4 !Y DO NOT ( C\RSE TELL US' 7,SELECT$ ,CORRESPOND5CE1 #c#c#f74 ,M>X & ,5GELS DID 5VISAGE ?AT ! SOCIALLY REPRESSIVE ASPECTS ( ! ,/ATE W\LD FULLY DISAPPE> :5 COMMUNISM HAD BE5 REALIZ$1 BUT LEFT ! ORGANIZATIONAL =MS ( SU* A SOCIETY OP54 ,9 ALL !IR SPECIFIC /ATEM5TS AB\T ! NATURE ( A PO/-REVOLUTION>Y SOCIALI/ SOCIETY !Y ASSUME DELEGATION ( AU?ORITY TO GOV]NM5T BODIES1 & A DEMOCRATICALLY ORGANIZ$ SY/EM ( LAW4 ,M>X COMM5T+ ON ! ,COMMUNE APPROV$ ! MEASURES :]EBY MAGI/RATES & JUDGES W]E TO BE 'ELECTIVE1 RESPONSIBLE1 & REVOCABLE' & ?US 'DIVE/$ ( ?AT %AM 9DEP5D5CE :I* HAS BUT S]V$ TO MASK !IR ABJECT SUBS]VI5CY TO ALL SUCCE$+ GOV]NM5TS 444' 7,SELECT$ ,WORKS1 #b#i#a-#b74 

,]NE/ ,B>K] HAS SUGGE/$ ?AT ,M>XISM REVIV$ ?R\< ,HEGEL ! ,GREEK CONCEPTION ( POLITICS1 9 :I* ,/ATE & ,SOCIETY >E NOT DI/+UI%$1 & ?AT ,M>X WI%$ TO DISSOLVE ! ,/ATE & REABSORB ITS ACTIVITIES 9TO ,SOCIETY4 ,?IS SUGGE/ION IS ILLUM9AT+ -- ?\< ,B>K] HIMSELF !N CONFUSES ! ISSUE BY ASSUM+ ,M>X EQUAT$ 'SOCIETY' ) ECONOMIC ACTIVITY4 ,A!NS PROVIDES A R>E MODEL ( DEMOCRATIC & EGALIT>IAN GOV]NM5T BAS$ ON PUBLIC DEBATE & ! POSSIBILITY ( ALL CITIZ5S HOLD+ (FICE3 DIRECT DEMOCRACY MAY BE SE5 AS MEANS ( DISSOLV+ A SEP>ATE ,/ATE P[] 9TO ,SOCIETY4 ,A!NS ALSO PROVIDES A MODEL ( LAW BE+ OP]AT$ 9 A DEMOCRATIC & POLITICAL MODE1 PROSECUTOR & DEF5DANT PLEAD+ .<#h#e.> !IR [N CASE BE=E A L>GE JURY ( FELL[ CITIZ5S4 ,! DEFECTS ( ?IS SY/EM ( LAW1 NOT$ BY CON/ITUTIONALI/ !ORI/S :O PREF] ! CLASSICAL MODEL ( ,ROME1 SPR+ FROM ITS DEMOCRATIC *>ACT]4 ,A!NS WAS NOT 9 ANY S5SE EXPLICITLY IDEALIZ$ BY ,M>X & ,5GELS4 ,IT WAS1 AS ,5GELS PO9TS \T1 BAS$ ON SLAV]Y1 DEGRAD$ ! /ATUS ( WOM51 & REPRES5T$1 9 HIS ANALYSIS1 ! MOVEM5T T[>DS PRIVATE PROP]TY & C5TRALIZ$ GOV]NM5T P[]1 9 PLACE ( ! EQUALITY1 COMMUNALISM & 9DEP5D5CE ( ! PREVI\S TRIBAL SOCIETIES4 ,MOREOV]1 A COMMUNISM LOOK+ TO ! FUTURE WAS IMPATI5T ( REVOLUTION>IES :O DRESS$ UP 9 ! CLO!S & SYMBOLS ( ANTIQUITY4 ,5GELS REG>D$ ,A!NS AS '! PROTOTYPE ( ! SELF-GOV]N+ ,AM]ICAN MUNICIPALITY'1 BUT NOT A SYMBOL ( REVOLUTION>Y POSSIBILITIES4 ,HE CONCLUDES HIS /UDY ( ! ',ORIG9 ( ! ,FAMILY1 ,PRIVATE ,PROP]TY & ! ,/ATE' ) A QUOTATION FROM ! AN?ROPOLOGI/ ,LEWIS ,MORGAN4 ,! =?COM+ SOCIETY WILL BE 'A REVIVAL1 9 A HI<] =M1 ( ! LIB]TY1 EQUALITY & FRAT]NITY ( ! ANCI5T G5TES' 7,SELECT$ ,WORKS1 #e#i#c74 

,IT IS1 H[EV]1 CRUCIAL TO ! ,M>XI/ APPROA* ?AT MOD]N COMMUNISM WILL BE ! PRODUCT ( AN HI/ORICALLY EVOLV$ SOCIAL CONSCI\SNESS1 DRAW+ ON ! B5EFITS ( ECONOMIC DEVELOPM5T & 9TELLECTUAL DEVELOPM5T1 9CLUD+ A NEW UND]/&+ ( ! SOCIAL P[]S :I* N[ APPE> TO M5 AS UNCONTROLLABLE & ALI5 =CES4 ,?IS UND]/&+ WILL 5ABLE M5 CONSCI\SLY TO CONTROL SOCIAL ACTIVITY4 ,! K9D ( CULTURE & CONSCI\SNESS 5VISAG$ IS NOT UNLIKE ! HUMANI/ CONFID5CE & CREATIVITY EVOLV$ 9 ! ,GREEK CITY /ATE1 BUT 9CORPORAT+ MOD]N SCI5CE & ! MU* RI*] S5SE ( 9DIVIDUALITY DEVELOP$ BY B\RGEOIS SOCIETY4 ,! CONCEPTION ( HUMANISM :I* ,M>XISM EMBODIES /EMS BO? FROM ! OPTIMISM ( ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 :I* PROMULGAT$ ! UNIV]SALITY ( ! 'RI<TS ( MAN'1 & FROM ! 9FLU5CE ( ,HELL5ISM ON ! ,G]MAN CULTURAL R5AISSANCE >\ND ! BEG9N+ ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY4 ,M>X DID1 H[EV]1 BELIEVE 9 HIS LAT] WRIT+S ?AT HI/ORICAL DEVELOPM5T HAD NOT ONLY EXACT$ A HEAVY PRICE 9 ! PA/1 BUT ?AT SOME PRICE MU/ BE PAID 9 ! FUTURE4 ,= EXAMPLE1 ! DEM&S ( 9DU/RIALISM MU/ LIMIT ! FREE SCOPE ( ! 9DIVIDUAL WORK] -- A LIMIT :I* AUTOMATION MAY N[ TRANSC5D2 OR DEVELOP+ SOPHI/ICATION DE/ROYS C]TA9 K9DS ( >T & CULTURE4 

,! AN>*I/ T5D5CY TO LOOK TO ! M$IEVAL GUILD OR T[N%IP1 OR TO PRES5T TRIBAL OR PEASANT SOCIETIES1 RA!R ?AN TO ! EVOLUTION ( EXI/+ TR5DS1 HAS BY COMP>ISON BO? /R5G?S & WEAKNESSES4 ,IT AVOIDS A FACILE OPTIMISM AB\T 'PROGRESS'1 & ! DANG] ( ID5TIFY+ PROGRESS ) TE*NOLOGY2 & IT ALSO *ALL5GES A CRUDE HI/ORICAL DET]M9ISM4 ,BUT :5 ,KROPOTK91 SEEK+ .<#h#f.> TO PROVE ! POSSIBILITY ( 'H>MONY 9 AN EV]-*ANG+ & FUGITIVE EQUILIBRIUM BETWE5 A MULTITUDE ( V>I$ =CES & 9FLU5CES' 7,AN>*ISM3 ,ITS ,PHILOSOPHY & ,IDEAL1 #h71 SAYS ?IS POPUL> T5D5CY CAN BE F\ND 9 '! CLAN1 ! VILLAGE1 ! GUILD & EV5 ! URBAN COMMUNE ( ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES 9 !IR FIR/ /AGES'1 HE IS DODG+ HI/ORICAL & SOCIOLOGICAL ISSUES4 ,KROPOTK9 BYPASSES ! FACT ?AT GR[? ( 9DIVIDUALISM IS USUALLY ASSOCIAT$ ) ! BREAKD[N ( M$IEVAL 9/ITUTIONS1 OR ! ESCAPE ( ! 9DIVIDUAL FROM ! CLAN4 ,HE ALSO APPEALS TO ! RULE ( CU/OM )\T EXAM9+ ITS POSSIBLY RE/RICTIVE EFFECTS ON 9DIVIDUALITY OR ! DEVELOPM5T ( 9TELLECTUAL CULTURE4 ,IF AN URBAN & 9DU/RIAL SOCIETY IS EXPECT$ TO REV]T TO ! FLEXIBLE RULES ( CU/OM1 9 PREF]5CE TO =MAL LAW OR GOV]NM5T ( ANY K9D1 !N ! REALISM ( ?IS APPROA* IS QUE/IONABLE4 ,IF ON ! O!R H& ONE IS AIM+ TO AVOID *ANG+ TRIBAL OR PEASANT SOCIETIES :]E !SE /ILL EXI/1 IDEALIZ+ CU/OM T5DS TO BECOME CONS]VATIVE4 ,TOL/OY RECOGNIZES ?AT TURN+ TO ! VILLAGE COMMUNE 5TAILS A REJECTION ( URBAN & 'CIVILIZ$' CULTURE1 SCI5CE & >T4 ,PR\DHON IS LESS WILL+ TO REJECT PHILOSOPHY & SCI5CE4 ,BUT LIKE ,TOL/OY HE ACCEPTS AS AN IDEAL A PEASANT MODE ( LIV+1 9CLUD+ ! PATRI>*AL FAMILY1 :I* ASSIGNS WOM5 TO !N-P]MAN5T PLACE 9 ! HOME4 

,! ,MEAN+ ( ,POLITICS 

,EV5 IF ONE GRANTS ! POSSIBILITY ( =M+ NEW COMMUNITIES 5D[$ ) A LIB]T>IAN CONSCI\SNESS1 AN AN>*I/ SOCIETY :I* AV[$LY RELIES ON SOCIAL CONTROL BY A LOCAL COMMUNITY TO REPLACE =MAL LAW & POLICE IS 9 DANG]1 AS ,GEORGE ,ORWELL ONCE PO9T$ \T1 ( APPEAL+ TO AN EXTREMELY CO]CIVE PUBLIC OP9ION4 ,MOREOV]1 :ATEV] ! VALUES ( COMMUNITY BY COMP>ISON ) ! ANONYMITY & 9HUMANITY ( L>GE CITIES1 LOSS ( ANONYMITY MAY ALSO MEAN A S]I\S LOSS ( P]SONAL FRE$OM4 ,IT IS TRUE ?AT A G5U9E & FAIRLY /ABLE COMMUNITY LIKE A VILLAGE MAY %[ MORE CONC]N = 9DIVIDUALS1 & MORE TOL]ANCE ( ECC5TRICITY1 ?AN A L>G] SOCIETY GOV]N$ BY G5]AL CODES & FA%IONS2 BUT ITS DISAPPROVAL IS ALSO MORE OV]:ELM+4 

,AN AN>*ISM :I* APPEALS PRIM>ILY TO ! ROLE ( ! LOCAL COMMUNITY T5DS T[>DS US+ ! FAMILY AS AN ATTRACTIVE IMAGE = SOCIAL ORGANIZATION4 ,! FAMILY HAS 9DE$ ALWAYS BE5 A FAVOR$ MODEL -- SOCIALI/S OV]?REW ! PATRI>*AL IMAGE ( ! FAMILY :I* JU/IFI$ PAT]NAL AU?ORITY 9 GOV]NM5T 9 FAVOR ( FRAT]NAL EQUALITY4 ,!RE >E1 H[EV]1 DIFFICULTIES 9 SEEK+ TO EXT5D ! AFFECTION & P]SONAL UND]/&+ POSSIBLE )9 A FAMILY CIRCLE .<#h#g.> TO A L>G] SOCIETY -- S9CE ! EXT5SION IS EI!R METAPHORICAL OR =C$4 ,?IS IS TRUE EV5 ( A SOCIETY V]Y SMALL BY MOD]N /&>DS1 = EXAMPLE1 CLASSICAL ,A!NS4 ,CONSCI\S DELIB]ATIONS AB\T A SOCIETY AS A :OLE DEAL 9 CATEGORIES ( PEOPLE & 9T]E/S1 & MU/ EXCLUDE ! UNIQUE P]SONALITY & CIRCUM/ANCES ( EA* P]SON AFFECT$ BY SOCIAL DECISIONS4 ,R\SSEAU SAW ?IS GAP BETWE5 P]SONAL & COMMUNAL 9T]E/1 BUT RESOLV$ IT 9 FAVOR ( PUBLIC DUTY1 :IL/ SUGGE/+ ?AT IDEALLY EA* P]SON 9 HIS CAPACITY AS CITIZ5 W\LD UND]/& & AGREE ! NE$ TO PROMOTE ! 'G5]AL WILL' BE=E HIS PRIVATE NE$S OR WI%ES4 ,IT IS ?IS IMP]SONAL ASPECT ( JUDICIAL & POLITICAL DECISIONS & PROC$URES ?AT EASILY PROMOTES 9HUMANITY1 ?AT CREATES A GAP BETWE5 PUBLIC & PRIVATE MORALITY1 & >\SES PASSIONATE PROTE/ AGA9/ ! >TIFICIALITIES ( LAW & GOV]NM5T4 ,IT IS ?IS S5SE ?AT !RE IS A SEP>ATE REALM ( PUBLIC AFFAIRS1 :I* CANNOT BE ASSIMILAT$ TO O!R ASPECTS ( PRIVATE LIFE1 :I* WE 9H]IT FROM ! CLASSICAL TRADITION1 & :I* PROVIDES A PRIM>Y DEF9ITION ( 'POLITICS' 7SEE ,HANNAH ,>5DT1 ,! ,HUMAN ,CONDITION74 ,PR\DHON P>TIALLY RECOGNIZ$ ! DI/9CTION BETWE5 A PRIVATE & PUBLIC SPH]E :5 HE URG$ ! DANG] ( TRY+ TO IMPOSE AN >TIFICIAL FRAT]NITY ON SOCIETY--BUT !N APPE>$ TO D5Y POLITICS 9 FAVOR ( ECONOMICS4 

,IT IS POSSIBLE1 H[EV]1 TO SEE 9 ,PR\DHON'S ESP\SAL ( ECONOMICS A RECOGNITION ( A BASIC DI/9CTION BETWE5 A 'SOCIAL PR9CIPLE' & A 'POLITICAL PR9CIPLE'4 ,! CONCEPT ( ECONOMIC ACTIVITY CAN EASILY BE EXT5D$ TO SOCIAL ACTIVITY -- ! ID5TIFICATION ( ! TWO WAS NOT UNCOMMON 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 & /ILL DOGS 9T]PRETATIONS ( ,M>XISM4 ,! ,G]MAN AN>*I/1 ,GU/AV ,L&AU]1 WRIT+ AT ! BEG9N+ ( ?IS C5TURY1 DREW A DI/9CTION BETWE5 SOCIAL & POLITICAL ACTION BAS$ ON ,PR\DHON'S AFFIRMATION ?AT SOCIAL REVOLUTION WAS QUITE DIFF]5T FROM POLITICAL REVOLUTION4 ,L&AU]'S IDEAS >E DEVELOP$ BY HIS FRI5D ,M>T9 ,BUB] 9 AN ESSAY ',SOCIETY & ! ,/ATE' 7REPR9T$ 9 ,PO9T+ ! ,WAY74 ,! DIFF]5CE BETWE5 ,/ATE & ,SOCIETY IS ! DIFF]5CE BETWE5 TWO K9DS ( RELATION%IP & TWO MODES ( BEHAVIOR :I* HAVE ALWAYS COEXI/$1 BUT HAVE (T5 NOT BE5 DI/+UI%$4 ,! SOCIAL PR9CIPLE 9VOLVES ACTION BY EQUALS CO-OP]AT+ TOGE!R1 & IS A PR9CIPLE ( COMMUNITY4 ',POLITICAL' ACTION 9VOLVES RELATION%IPS ( DOM9ATION & SUBORD9ATION1 & !RE=E ! USE ( =CE1 & IS TYPICAL ( ! ,/ATE4 ,BUB] GOES ON TO SUGGE/ ?AT POLITICAL ORGANIZATION GIVES M5 AT ! TOP MORE P[] ?AN !Y NE$ TO FULFILL A SPECIFIC FUNCTION1 & SO !Y EXT5D & CONSOLIDATE ?IS SURPLUS ( 'P[]' -- A P[] :I* 9 REALITY /EMS FROM ! SOCIAL GR\P AS A :OLE4 

,! AMBIGUITY ( T]M9OLOGY1 :I* CONFUSES MU* POLITICAL !ORIZ+1 IS H]E REVEAL$4 ,BECAUSE ! AN>*I/ PR9CIPLE ( 'SOCIAL .<#h#h.> ACTION' SEEMS V]Y CLOSE TO ! ,GREEK CONCEPTION ( 'POLITIES'1 REALIZ$ MO/ FULLY 9 DIRECT DEMOCRACY1 ,BUB] SUGGE/S ?AT ! ,GREEKS CONFUS$ ! SOCIAL & POLITICAL SPH]E4 ,?IS IS MISLEAD+4 ,:ILE ! POLIS COMPRIS$ BO? ! SOCIAL & POLITICAL COMMUNITY1 ! ,GREEKS MADE A V]Y CLE> DI/9CTION 9 PR9CIPLE BETWE5 COOP]ATIVE ACTION BETWE5 EQUALS -- 'POLITIES'1 & ! RELATION%IP ( =CE & DOM9ATION EPITOMIZ$ BY ! RULE ( A MA/] OV] SLAVES4 ,9 PRACTICE1 H[EV]1 POLITICS ( C\RSE T5D$ TO 9VOLVE =CE & DOM9ATION 9 V>I\S =MS4 ,! NOTION ( 'POLITICS' HAS BY N[ COME TO 9CLUDE POSITIVE RECOGNITION ( ! NECESSITY ( =CE & CO]CION1 ( MEET+ 'P[]' ) P[]1 & ( COMPROMISE ) SOCIAL REALITIES 9 8 V]Y IMP]FECT WORLD -- :I* IS :Y AN>*I/S REJECT 'POLITIES'1 & ,M>XI/S1 9 ! %ORT T]M AT LEA/1 DO NOT4 .<#h#i.> 

#d ,AN>*ISM & ! ,9DIVIDUAL 

,9 ! ,9TRODUCTION TO ?IS BOOK A BRIEF SKET* ( SOME BETT] KN[N AN>*I/ ?9K]S & MOVEM5TS 9DICAT$ ! EXTREME DIV]SITY ( ! AN>*I/ TRADITION4 ,9 ! SUCCE$+ ?REE *APT]S AN>*I/ IDEAS HAVE BE5 CONTRA/$ ) ! 9DIVIDUALI/ CONTRACT !ORY EMANAT+ FROM ,HOBBES2 ) ! CON/ITUTIONAL LIB]ALISM :I* F9DS AN IMPORTANT 9T]PRET] 9 ,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE2 & ) ! ,M>XI/ MOVEM5T 9 SOCIALI/ ?\<T4 ,!SE TRADITIONS >E 9 !MSELVES COMPLEX1 BUT AN>*ISM IS 9 MANY RESPECTS MU* LESS COH]5T4 ,GODW9'S BR& ( AN>*ISM CAN BE SE5 AS A LOGICAL EXT5SION ( LAISSEZ-FAIRE LIB]ALISM4 ,BUT MOD]N AN>*I/S HAVE FREQU5TLY CLAIM$ TO BE ! TRUE HEIRS ( ! IDEALISM & LIB]T>IANISM ( ! ,UTOPIAN SOCIALI/S & ! E>LY SOCIALI/ MOVEM5T2 ,BAKUN9 & ,MALATE/A1 = EXAMPLE1 >E 9DISPUTABLY IMPORTANT FIGURES 9 SOCIALI/ HI/ORY4 ,& :ILE AT SOME LEVELS AN>*ISM SEEMS FUR!R REMOV$ FROM CON/ITUTIONALISM1 AT O!RS1 AS ,PR\DHON 9 P>TICUL> ILLU/RATES1 !RE >E COMMON VALUES & A COMMON ADH]5CE TO ! REPUBLICAN H]ITAGE ( POLITICAL IDEAS4 

,9 ALL !SE GUISES AN>*ISM IS A POLITICAL DOCTR9E -- IF ONE ?AT DISPLAYS A T5D5CY TO LOGICAL EXTREMES & ,UTOPIAN COMMITM5T ALI5 TO ! USUAL CONCEPT ( :AT 'POLITICS' IS ALL AB\T4 ,!RE >E1 H[EV]1 )9 ! SPECTRUM ( AN>*ISM ELEM5TS :I* APPE> TO /& RI<T \TSIDE ! NORMAL POLITICAL SPH]E & ASS]T ! PRIMACY ( NONPOLITICAL VALUES -- 9DIVIDUALISM1 >TI/IC CREATIVITY1 MORAL COMMITM5T1 ROMANTICISM1 OR SIMPLY ! COMMON PLEASURES ( EV]YDAY LIV+4 ,BUT ON EXAM9ATION !SE APPROA*ES ALL HAVE RELEVANCE TO ANY ATTEMPT TO DEF9E ! SPH]E ( POLITICS & ! NATURE ( POLITICAL ACTIVITY4 ,9 ?IS *APT] !Y >E EXPLOR$ 9 RELATION TO ,HANNAH ,>5DT'S ATTEMPT TO SET LIMITS TO ! POLITICAL REALM2 & !IR RELEVANCE = AN AN>*I/ !ORY ( POLITICS4 

,! ,EGOI/ 

,ONE ?9K] :O HAS A RECOGNIZ$ PLACE 9 ! EVOLUTION ( AN>*I/ IDEAS & ATTITUDES1 BUT :O HAS SO F> SC>CELY BE5 M5TION$1 IS ,MAX ,/IRN]4 ,HE IS P]HAPS ! H>DE/ ?9K] TO UND]/&1 WRIT+ AS HE DOES 9 ! CONTEXT ( ,HEGELIANISM 9 ,G]MANY 9 ! #a#h#dS2 & ! EASIE/ TO DISMISS1 S9CE HE LEAVES BEH9D HIM NO POLITICAL .<#i.> MOVEM5T1 C>E] AS AN ACTIVI/1 OR 9DEP5D5T CLAIM TO FAME4 ,MOREOV]1 9 SUMM>Y 7EV5 BY AN>*I/S7 HIS IDEAS CAN EASILY S\ND RIDICUL\S1 UNATTRACTIVE1 OR BO?4 ,BUT ,/IRN]1 :O CAN BE SE5 AS A =]UNN] ( EXI/5TIALISM1 DOES HAVE C]TA9 V]Y IMPORTANT ?+S TO SAY4 

,! C5TRAL CONT5TION ( ,! ,EGO & ,HIS ,[N IS ?AT = EA* 9DIVIDUAL ! ONLY UNIV]SE ?AT EI!R DOES OR CAN G5U9ELY MATT] IS HIS [N4 ,! 9DIVIDUAL'S [N LIFE EXP]I5CE COMPRISES ALL ASPECTS ( HIS BE+ & P]SONALITY -- HIS S5SU\SNESS1 HIS NATURAL AFFECTIONS1 HIS WILL TO ASS]T HIS [N ID5TITY4 ,?IS CONCRETE 9DIVIDUAL IS1 H[EV]1 ALWAYS BE+ SACRIFIC$1 & SACRIFIC+ HIMSELF1 TO AB/RACTIONS & 5TITIES \TSIDE ( HIMSELF4 ,MO/ (T5 ! 9DIVIDUAL IS SACRIFIC$ TO ! DICTATES ( OR?ODOX RELIGION1 OR TO ?AT ,MOLO*1 ! ,/ATE4 ,BUT ,/IRN] IS EV5 MORE 9T]E/$ 9 EXPOS+ ! AB/RACTIONS ( CONTEMPOR>Y RADICALS1 :O ALSO OPPOSE ,*UR* & ,/ATE1 BUT SEEK TO CON/RA9 ! 9DIVIDUAL ) ! PR9CIPLES ( LIB]ALISM OR MORALITY4 ,HE ATTACKS TOO HIS CONTEMPOR>IES :O HAVE S\<T TO 5D ?AT =M ( ALI5ATION :I* >ISES :5 M5 D5Y !IR [N HI<E/ ATTRIBUTES1 & EMBODY !M 9 A ,GOD :OM !Y WOR%IP1 BUT HAVE ONLY SUCCE$$ 9 ABAS+ ! REAL 9DIVIDUAL BE=E A NEW IDOL1 ! AB/RACT ESS5CE ( ,MAN OR ,HUMANITY 7SEE ,LUDWIG ,FEU]BA*1 ,! ,ESS5CE ( ,*RI/IANITY74 ,?IS CRITICISM IS P]T95T TO ?AT ,M>XI/ VISION :OSE FULL RI*NESS IS TO BE REALIZ$ 9 ! FUTURE1 BUT :I* IS (T5 9 DANG] ( SACRIFIC+ TO ?IS 5D ?OSE M5 LIV+ & SUFF]+ H]E & N[4 

,/IRN] IS PRECLUD$ BY HIS COMMITM5T TO ! PREEM95CE ( ! 9DIVIDUAL SELF1 DI/RU/ ( 9TELLECTUAL AB/RACTIONS1 & BELIEF ?AT ! FUTURE CANNOT BE PR$ICT$ 9 ADVANCE ( EXP]I5CE1 FROM SY/EMATIC G5]ALIZATION ( ! SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS ( HIS POSITION4 ,HE IS ALSO P]HAPS MORE EXCIT$ BY ICONOCLASM4 ,BUT HE ?R[S \T C]TA9 ILLUM9AT+ IDEAS :I* HAVE DIRECT SOCIAL RELEVANCE4 ,HE NOTICES ?AT FANATICISM = AN IDEAL = :I* A MAN IS PREP>$ TO SACRIFICE HIMSELF MAY LEAD HIM TO IMMOLATE O!RS ON ! ALT> ( ?IS VIRTUE -- ,/IRN] CITES ,ROBESPI]RE4 ,SECONDLY ,/IRN]'S 'EGOISM' DOES NOT EXCLUDE RELATION%IPS ) O!R PEOPLE -- IT W\LD 9DE$ BE AN ATT5UAT$ 9DIVIDUALITY :I* ATTEMPT$ TO DO SO -- BUT POSITS A SPONTANE\S UNION BETWE5 9DIVIDUALS1 :I* IS ! ANTI!SIS ( ! =MALLY IMPOS$ TIES ( 'SOCIETY' 7= ,/IRN] 'SOCIETY' HAS CONNOTATIONS ( >TIFICIALITY NOT1 AS = ,KROPOTK91 ( NATURALNESS74 ,?IS UNION IS POT5TIALLY SUBV]SIVE ( A SOCIAL ORD] 5=C$ BY DISCIPL9E4 ,/IRN] ILLU/RATES HIS PO9T BY LOOK+ AT PRISONS3 

,?AT WE JO9TLY EXECUTE A JOB1 RUN A MA*9E1 EFFECTUATE ANY?+ 9 G5]AL -- = ?IS A PRISON WILL 9DE$ PROVIDE2 BUT ?AT ,I .<#i#a.> 

=GET ?AT ,I AM A PRISON]1 & 5GAGE 9 9T]C\RSE ) Y\ :O LIKEWISE DISREG>D IT1 BR+S DANG] TO ! PRISON1 & NOT ONLY CANNOT BE CAUS$ BY IT1 BUT MU/ NOT EV5 BE P]MITT$4 ,= ?IS REASON ! SA9TLY & MORAL-M9D$ ,FR5* *AMB] DECIDES TO 9TRODUCE SOLIT>Y CONF9EM5T1 & O!R SA9TS WILL DO ! LIKE 9 ORD] TO CUT (F 'DEMORALIZ+ 9T]C\RSE' 7,! ,EGO & ,HIS ,[N1 #b#a#h-#i74 

,?IS PASSAGE IS REM9ISC5T ( ,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE'S COMM5TS ON H[ A FEW W>D]S C\LD CONTROL ALL ! PRISON]S 9 ,S+ ,S+ JAIL BY ! DEVICE ( ISOLAT+ !M FROM EA* O!R1 & ! IMPLICATIONS ( ?IS DEVICE = IMPOS+ POLITICAL DESPOTISM4 ,/IRN] ALSO HAS AN ALMO/ REPUBLICAN BELIEF 9 ! ROLE ( C\RAGE & S5SE ( FRE$OM4 ',A ,N]O IS A 0BAD0 MAN ONLY 9 ! EYES ( ! 0GOOD0 444 ,9 OLD ,ROME !Y W\LD HAVE PUT HIM TO DEA? 9/ANTLY1 W\LD NEV] HAVE BE5 HIS SLAVES4 ,BUT ! CONTEMPOR>Y 0GOOD0 AMONG ! ,ROMANS OPPOS$ TO HIM ONLY MORAL DEM&S1 NOT !IR WILL' 7#e#d74 ,& SO = ,/IRN] TRUE 'FRE$OM' CANNOT BE GIV5 TO A SLAVE1 BUT CAN ONLY BE WON ?R\< HIS [N ACTIONS4 ,F9ALLY1 HE MAKES A DI/9CTION1 :I* ,H]B]T ,READ TAKES UP1 BETWE5 'REVOLUTION' -- :I* IS AN ORGANIZ$ POLITICAL ACT2 & '9SURRECTION' -- :I* HAS POLITICAL CONSEQU5CES BUT IS PRIM>ILY 'A RIS+ ( 9DIVIDUALS1 A GETT+ UP )\T REG>D = ! >RANGEM5TS ?AT SPR+ FROM IT'4 ,9SURRECTION IS 9SPIR$ BY 'EGOISM'1 ! DESIRE TO RISE & EXALT ONESELF4 

,! ,>TI/ 

,H]B]T ,READ ADOPTS ?IS IDEA ( SPONTANE\S UPRIS+ BECAUSE HE SEES IT AS A WAY ( ESCAP+ FROM ! REVOLUTION>Y TRAP -- OV]?R[+ ONE P[] /RUCTURE 9 ORD] TO REPLACE IT ) ANO!R4 ,BUT 9SURRECTION MAY ALT] SOCIAL ATTITUDES1 BY 'CREAT+ A NEW MORALITY OR NEW METAPHYSICAL VALUES'4 ,READ QUOTES ,CAMUS ON ! IDEA ( 'REBELLION' 7:I* IS CLOSE TO ,/IRN]'S 9SURRECTION74 ,REBELLION IS = ,CAMUS '! REFUSAL TO BE TREAT$ AS AN OBJECT & TO BE R$UC$ TO SIMPLE HI/ORICAL T]MS4 ,IT IS ! AFFIRMATION ( A NATURE COMMON TO ALL M51 :I* ELUDES ! WORLD ( P[]' 7,! ,REBEL1 #b#a#f74 ,READ GOES ON TO >GUE ?AT 'A P[] /RUCTURE IS ! =M TAK5 BY ! 9HIBITION ( CREATIVITY3 ! EX]CISE ( P[] IS ! D5IAL ( SPONTANEITY' 7,AN>*Y & ,ORD]1 #a#g74 ,READ !N TRANSLATES ,/IRN]'S 9SURRECTION 9TO T]MS MORE SOCIAL -- HE SEES REBELLION AS AN EXPRESSION ( UNITY & SOLID>ITY -- & MORE IDEAH/IC3 ',! SLAVE IS NOT A MAN )\T POSSESSIONS 4 4 4 BUT A MAN )\T QUALITIES1 A MAN )\T IDEALS = :I* HE IS WILL+ TO DIE' 7,AN>*Y & ,ORD]1 #a#h74 .<#i#b.> 

,IT IS ! NATURE ( IDEALS :I* ESPECIALLY 9T]E/S ,READ4 ,IDEALS PROVIDE A ,UTOPIAN CONSCI\SNESS :I* MAY 5ABLE M5 TO TRANSC5D ! B>RI]S ( !IR EXI/+ SOCIAL REALITY & PROMOTE HI/ORICAL *ANGE4 ,IDEALS MAY BE DANG]\S P>TLY BECAUSE ! IMAG9ATIVE CONCEPTION ( A ,UTOPIA :I* IS A TOTALITY MAY LEAD TO AU?ORIT>IAN BLUEPR9TS 9 :I* 9DIVIDUALITY IS SUBORD9AT$ TO ! REQUIREM5TS ( SYMMETRY & ORD]4 ,BUT SU* IDEALS >E NECESS>ILY CREATIVE CON/RUCTS1 & ,READ SEES ?IS ELABORATION ( SYMBOLS AS A PRIM>ILY ES!TIC ACTIVITY1 & '! CONCRETIZATION & VITALIZATION ( IDEALS IS ONE ( ! MA9 TASKS ( ! ES!TIC ACTIVITY 9 MAN' 7#b74 

,!RE=E1 ! IMAG9ATIVE EXPRESSION ( SOCIAL IDEALS IS PECULI>LY ! ROLE ( ! >TI/4 ,BUT IT IS F> FROM BE+ HIS EXCLUSIVE ROLE -- ! >TI/ CREATES SYMBOLS :I* >E 'AS MULTI=M AS ! FEEL+S ?AT MOTIVATE MAN'1 :ILE SOCIAL IDEALS ONLY REPRES5T COLLECTIVE FEEL+S4 ,:]E SOCIETY IS P]V]T$ BY P[] ! SOCIAL IDEALS >E ALSO P]V]T$1 & ! CONDITIONS = CREAT+ FRE$OM ]OD$ IF NOT EXT+UI%$4 ,9 A CORRUPT$ SOCIETY ! >TI/ FACES AN AGONIZ+ DILEMMA4 ,HE IS CUT (F FROM ! PUBLIC HE NE$S = HIS [N CREATIVE WORK2 & AT ! SAME TIME HAS A SPECIAL & (T5 DANG]\S RESPONSIBILITY TO PROVIDE ! CREATIVE IMPETUS :I* MAY BREAK D[N ! B>RI]S HEMM+ 9 HIS SOCIETY4 ,9 A V]Y P]SONAL /ATEM5T ( :Y HE HAD *OS5 TO BE AN AN>*I/ AT A TIME1 #a#i#c#h1 :5 ! CRIT]ION ( POLITICAL RESPONSIBILITY MI<T SUGGE/ ! NE$ = UNCONDITIONAL SUPPORT ( ! DEMOCRATIC FRONT AGA9/ FASCISM1 ,H]B]T ,READ EXAM9ES ! POSSIBLE WAYS 9 :I* >TI/S MAY RESPOND TO ! T5SIONS ( !IR POSITION4 

,HE CITES ,GAUGU91 :O TRI$ TO ESCAPE FROM ! COMM]CIALISM ( B\RGEOIS SOCIETY BY GO+ TO ,TAHITI1 ONLY TO DISCOV] ?AT ?IS P>ADISE HAD BE5 CORRUPT$ BY P>TICUL>LY DEGRAD$ REPRES5TATIVES ( B\RGEOIS 'CIVILIZATION'4 ,9 ! EXTREME1 AN >TI/ MAY ESCAPE BY RESORT+ TO SUICIDE1 LIKE ! POET ( ! ,RUSSIAN ,REVOLUTION1 ,VLADIMIR ,MAYAKOVSKY4 ,9 ,APRIL #aic ,MAYAKOVSKY KILL$ HIMSELF -- ,READ QUOTES 7#f#b7 ! POEM :I* ,MAYAKOVSKY LEFT BEH9D HIM3 

,AS !Y SAY 

'! 9CID5T IS CLOS$"94 

,LOVE BOAT 

SMA%$ AGA9/ MORES4 

,I'M QUITS ) LIFE4 

,NO NE$ ITEMIZ+ 

MUTUAL GRIEFS1 

WOES 

(F5SES4 

,GOOD LUCK & GOOD-BYE4 .<#i#c.> 

,READ SEES ONLY ONE ALT]NATIVE TO ESCAPE -- HE LABELS AS ESCAPE RETREAT 9TO ISOLATION & PRIVATE FANTASY1 :I* IS DE/RUCTIVE ( >T & ( ONESELF -- & ?AT IS3 ',TO R$UCE BELIEFS TO FUNDAM5TALS1 TO %$ EV]Y?+ TEMPORAL & OPPORTUNI/1 & !N TO /AY :]E Y\ >E & SUFF] IF Y\ MU/' 7#f#a74 

,! ,MORALI/ 

,>TI/S 9 ,RUSSIA HAVE FREQU5TLY FELT A SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY TO REBEL -- AMONG !M ,TOL/OY1 :O ALSO TURN$ TO AN>*ISM4 ,BUT ,TOL/OY F\ND LITTLE SOCIAL RELEVANCE 9 HIS >T -- EXCEPT AS A =M ( MORAL P>ABLE -- & WAS PREP>$ TO R5\NCE >T 9 G5]AL TOGE!R ) ALL ! O!R PRIVILEGES & PA/IMES ( >I/OCRATIC SOCIETY4 ,TOL/OY REJECT$ CULTURE 9 P>T AS AN EMANATION ( A SOCIETY F\ND$ ON EXPLOITATION1 & SO 9H]5TLY 'FALSE"94 ,HE WAS ALSO AW>E ( ALT]NATIVE VALUES EMB$D$ 9 ! PEASANTS' [N CULTURE4 ,TOL/OY'S POSITION AS AN >TI/ & 9TELLECTUAL WAS NATURALLY NOT AS SIMPLE AS ?IS 9T]PRETATION SUGGE/S1 & WAS L9K$ TO HIS G5]AL ASCETISM & MORAL !ORY 7= AN 9T]E/+ CRITICAL DISCUSSION1 SEE ,GEORGE ,ORWELL1 ',LE>1 ,TOL/OY & ! ,FOOL'74 ,BUT HIS ANSW] TO HIS DILEMMA WAS A LITTLE LIKE ,GAUGU9'S1 9 ! S5SE ?AT IT WAS A FLI<T T[>DS SIMPLICITY1 ?\< 9 POHTICAL T]MS ,TOL/OY /AY$ 9 ,RUSSIA & DEFI$ BO? ! C5SOR & ! POLICE4 ,TO ! DEGREE ?AT HE WAS TRY+ TO ESCAPE HE WAS DOOM$ TO FAILURE4 ,GEORG ,LUKACS HAS SUGGE/$ ?AT ! BE/ NOVELI/S TRANSC5D !IR [N EXPLICIT SOCIAL DOCTR9ES BECAUSE ( !IR >TI/IC COMMITM5T TO REPRODUCE ! DETAIL ( SOCIAL REALITY4 ,AS A RESULT NO:]E IS ',TOL/OY'S ,*RI/IAN PLEBEIAN DREAM ( BRO!RHOOD ) ! PEASANTS MORE P[]FULLY REFUT$ ?AN 9 4 4 4 ,RESURRECTION' 7,ESSAYS ON ,?OMAS ,MANN1 #a#f74 

,TOL/OY'S ATTEMPT TO ID5TIFY ) POPUL> CULTURE IS1 H[EV]1 EASI] TO GRASP SYMPA!TICALLY ?AN HIS PURSUIT ( A MORAL PURITY BAS$ ON A LIT]AL 9T]PRETATION ( ! ,*RI/IAN GOSPELS4 ,9DE$1 ,TOL/OY /&S 9 OPPOSITION TO MANY ELEM5TS 9 ! AN>*I/ TRADITION4 ,HIS EMPHASIS ON ! NE$ = SEXUAL PURITY IS FROM A ,/IRN]-ITE /&PO9T A =M ( SELF-CA/RATION4 ,JANKO ,LAVR9 SUGGE/S1 9 A G5]ALLY CRITICAL ASSESSM5T ( ,TOL/OY'S IDEAS1 7,TOL/OY3 AN ,APPROA*71 ?AT HIS EF=TS TO A*IEVE A G5]ALIZ$ LOVE ( MAN PURG$ ( ALL SEXUALITY MAY RESULT 9 A =M ( PECULI>LY SELFI% DOM9ATION1 SACRIFIC+ O!RS TO ONE'S [N SPIRITUAL WELF>E4 ,LAVR9 REF]S TO ,PR9CE ,NEKHLYUDOV 9 ,RESURRECTION1 :O IS OV]COME BY REMORSE :5 HE RECOGNIZES1 :ILE SITT+ ON A JURY1 ?AT ! DEF5DANT IS A S]VANT GIRL HE ONCE S$UC$4 ,! ,PR9CE !N TRIES TO SAVE H]1 & (F]S TO M>RY H]4 ,?\< ,MASLOVA IS /ILL ATTRACTIVE .<#i#d.> 5\< TO TURN EV]Y MALE HEAD 9 ! C\RTROOM1 ! ,PR9CE N[ FEELS NO FLICK] ( SEXUAL ATTRACTION1 &1 SAYS ,LAVR91 NO TRACE ( SPONTANE\S T5D]NESS & G5]OSITY 7,*APT] ,I,X1 ',A ,PURITAN'S ,PROGRESS'74 ,! G5]AL PO9T IS IMPLICIT 9 ,/IRN]1 & CAN BE ELABORAT$ FROM MOD]N PSY*OLOGY4 ,BUT ,TOL/OY'S APPROA*1 :I* 9CLUDES RECOGNITION ( ! 9ADEQUACY ( ! ,PR9CE'S CONV]SION1 IS AS IT IS WORK$ \T 9 ! NOVEL BO? PSY*OLOGICALLY SUBTLE & SOCIALLY AW>E4 ,IT IS CLE> FROM READ+ ,TOL/OY -- EV5 ! CONTORT$ ,KREUTZ] ,SONATA -- ?AT HE REJECTS SEX 9 P>T BECAUSE ( ITS DEGRAD+ SOCIAL USAGES 7= A SYMPA!TIC DEF5SE ( ,TOL/OY'S G5]AL POSITION1 SEE ,R4 ,V4 ,SAMPSON1 ,EQUALITY & ,P[]74 ,HE SEES >I/OCRATIC Y\NG M5 TAK+ PEASANT WOM5 \T ( MOM5T>Y LU/1 OR BECAUSE IT IS ! FA%IONABLE ?+ TO DO2 P[]FUL M5 DISPLAY+ !IR [N]%IP ( BEAUTIFUL WOM52 MO!RS DISPLAY+ !IR DAU<T]S 9 AN ATTEMPT TO MAKE A GOOD CAT*2 WOM5 DESP]ATELY CULTIVAT+ ! *>MS !Y KN[ >E !IR MA9 WEAPON 9 E/ABLI%+ P[] OV] M54 ,9 ,RESURRECTION ! ,PR9CE'S REALIZATION ?AT HE HAS CASUALLY RU9$ ,MASLOVA'S LIFE IS ! FIR/ /EP 9 HIS PROGRESSIVE DISCOV]Y ( ! REALITIES ( ,RUSSIAN SOCIETY4 

,MO/ IMPORTANT ( ALL1 ,TOL/OY TURNS TO ! ,GOSPELS BECAUSE HE IS1 LIKE ,READ1 LOOK+ = A ,UTOPIAN VISION & COMMITM5T1 ONE :I* WILL %ATT] ,CZ>ISM & AVOID ! DANG]S ( ORGANIZ$ & VIOL5T REVOLUTION4 ,9 AN ESSAY DISCUSS+ O!R AN>*I/S1 ',AN ,APPEAL TO ,SOCIAL ,RE=M]S'1 ,TOL/OY COMM5TS ?AT :ILE !Y RECOGNIZE ! IMPORTANCE ( SPIRITUAL WEAPONS 9 ABOLI%+ P[]1 !Y FAIL TO PROVIDE ! RELIGI\S BASIS :I* IS NECESS>Y TO CREATE ?IS SPIRITUAL =CE4 ,NOR DO !Y REALIZE ?AT ONLY A RELIGI\S LIFE-CONCEPTION WILL 5ABLE M5 TO LIVE 9 AN AN>*I/ SOCIETY & TO CO-OP]ATE )\T VIOL5CE4 ,?IS VIEW HAS BE5 L>GELY BORNE \T BY EXP]IM5TS 9 'COMMUNITY' LIV+2 ,READ NOTES AFT] READ+ ,9FIELD'S HI/ORICAL /UDY ( ,COOP]ATIVE ,COMMUNISM AT ,WORK ?AT ! MO/ SUCCESSFUL COMMUNITIES W]E RELIGI\S OR -- AS 9 ! CASE ( NON-RELIGI\S COOP]ATIVE SETTLEM5TS 9 ,PALE/9E -- DRAWN TOGE!R BY 'SOME C5TRAL EMOTIONAL IMPULSE1 COMP>ABLE TO ! RELIGI\S MOTIVE' 7,AN>*Y & ,ORD]1 #a#g74 ,B]DYAEV 9 A P]CEPTIVE CRITIQUE ( ,TOL/OY RECOGNIZES ! FULL SIGNIFICANCE ( ?IS RELIGI\S ELEM5T3 

,! PR9CIPLE ( NONRESI/ANCE ADVOCAT$ BY HIM AIMS AT REMA9+ )9 ! REALM ( DIV9ELY CREAT$ NATURE PRIOR TO1 & 9DEP5D5TLY (1 ANY RELATIONS ?AT MI<T EXI/ BETWE5 ! CITIZ5S ( A /ATE4 ,IT DRAWS ITS =CE FROM ?OSE DIM5SIONS :]E ! ,LAW ( ,GOD OP]ATES EV] AGA9/ ! ,LAW ( ! ,WORLD1 & IT PRES5TS A *ALL5GE TO MAN TO RETURN TO ?OSE DIM5SIONS 7,9TRODUCTION TO ,ESSAYS FROM ,TULA74 .<#i#e.> 

,TOL/OY SEES HIS GOSPEL AS ONE :I* HAS TO BE LIV$ H]E & N[4 ,! ANSW] TO W> IS NOT PEACE CONF]5CES1 BUT 9DIVIDUAL REFUSAL TO BE CONSCRIPT$ OR TO CO-OP]ATE ) ! W> MA*9E4 ,! WAY TO CREATE AN>*I/ SOCIETY IS NOT TO AWAIT '! REVOLUTION'1 BUT TO />T LIV+ IT4 ,?AT ,TOL/OY S]I\SLY TRI$ TO LIVE UP TO ?IS CONCEPTION JS A MEASURE ( HIS HONE/Y4 ,?AT ! ATTEMPT C\LD NOT FAIL TO BE 9COMPLETE & SLI<TLY ABSURD IS DUE NOT ONLY TO ! 9H]5T DIFFICULTY ( ADOPT+ A ,UTOPIAN /ANCE 9 A 'REALI/IC' & CYNICAL WORLD -- A DILEMMA ,READ WRYLY ACCEPTS 9 CALL+ HIMSELF AN AN>*I/ -- BUT TO ! FACT ?AT ,TOL/OY1 SOPHI/ICAT$ 9 EV]Y S5SE ( ?AT WORD1 *OSE AS HIS IDEAL A PEASANT SIMPLICITY4 

,HIS 9/9CT 9 L9K+ HIS SE>* = MORAL PURITY1 ASCETICISM1 A S5SE ( BRO!RHOOD & MESSIANIC VISION TO A PEASANT \TLOOK WAS1 H[EV]1 9 A WAY S\ND4 ,PEASANT SOCIETIES MAY BE ABLE TO FUZE AN IDEALI/IC & SIMPLE PROGRAM ) RELIGI\S F]VOR & PURE FAI?4 ,G]ALD ,BR5AN WRITES ON RURAL AN>*ISM 9 ,&ALUSIA 9 ! LATE N9ETE5? C5TURY3 

',! IDEA'1 AS IT WAS CALL$1 WAS C>RI$ FROM VILLAGE TO VILLAGE BY ,AN>*I/ 'APO/LES'4 ,9 ! F>M LABOR]S' GANANIAS OR B>RACKS 444 ! APO/LES SPOKE ON LIB]TY & EQUALITY & JU/ICE TO RAPT LI/5]S 444 MANY LE>N$ TO READ1 C>RI$ ON ANTI-RELIGI\S PROPAG&A & (T5 PRACTIC$ VEGET>IANISM & TEETOTALISM4 ,EV5 TOBACCO & C(FEE W]E BANN$ BY SOME 444 ,BUT ! *IEF *>ACT]I/IC ( ,&ALUSIAN AN>*ISM WAS ITS NAIVE MILL5>IANISM 7,! ,SPANI% ,LABYR9?1 #a#e#g74 

,! AN>*I/S EXPECT$ A NEW AGE 9 :I* EV5 ! L&[N]S & ! ,CIVIL ,GU>D W\LD BE FREE & HAPPY4 

,! ,H]O 

,SIMPLE IDEALISM MAY BE L9K$ EI!R TO F]V5T NONVIOL5CE OR TO VIOL5T ACTION4 ,IDEALI/IC VIOL5CE AS A =M ( PEASANT REBELLION T5DS TO BE SYMBOLIZ$ 7& 9 DUE C\RSE S5TIM5TALIZ$7 9 ! ,ROB9 ,HOOD TRADITION ( B&ITS AS AV5G]S ( A ROBB$ PEASANTRY4 ,?IS TRADITION M]GES VIA ,BAKUN9I/ ROMANTICISM 9TO ! AN>*I/ EXPROPRIATORS :O ROBB$ BANKS = ! B5EFIT ( ! REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5T4 ,HOBSBAWM1 9 A REC5T BOOK ON ! !ME ( ,B&ITS1 *OOSES AS A SYMBOL ( ! EXPROPRIATORS ,FRANCISCO ,SABATE FROM ,B>CELONA4 ,AFT] ! VICTORY ( ,FRANCO 9 ! ,CIVIL ,W>1 ,SABATE WAS R$UC$ TO MAK+ BRIEF RAIDS 9TO ,SPA9 FROM OV] ! ,FR5* BORD]1 & WAS EV5TUALLY %OT BY ! POLICE4 ,SABATE'S MODE ( LIFE WAS .<#i#f.> SIMPLE1 HIS HABITS W]E ASCETIC & HE WAS ALWAYS POOR2 & HE ACT$ ) ! CONSCI\S *IVALRY & D>+ ( A H]O1 TAK+ RISKS TO AVOID HURT TO O!R PEOPLE1 & ALWAYS WALK+ T[>DS ! POLICE4 ,HOBSBAWN QUOTES A COMM5T BY ONE ( ,SABATE'S FRI5DS AFT] HIS DEA?3 ',:5 WE W]E Y\NG1 & ! ,REPUBLIC WAS F\ND$1 WE W]E KNI<TLY ?\< ALSO SPIRITUAL 4 4 4 ,WE HAVE GR[N OLD]1 BUT NOT ,SABATE 444 HE WAS ONE ( ?OSE ,QUIXOTES :O COME \T ( ,SPA9' 7#a#f-#g74 

,! IMAGE IS ATTRACTIVE1 BUT ITS QUALITY DEP5DS ON ! *>ACT] ( ! H]O1 & ITS VALIDITY DEP5DS ON ! SOCIAL CONTEXT4 ,! DANG] ( ALLY+ MORAL PURISM TO EXALTATION ( VIOL5CE IS ?AT IT CAN TURN 9TO ! BR& ( FANATICISM :I* L$ 9 ! ,SPANI% ,CIVIL ,W> TO ! MURD] ( PIMPS & MALE PRO/ITUTES4 ,:ILE ! PEASANT B&IT TRANSF]R$ TO ! URBAN UND]WORLD T5DS TO BECOME A 'GANG/]'4 ,IF 9TELLECTUALS ESP\SE ROMANTIC VIOL5CE !Y MAY BL5D QUIXOTIC RI<T+ ( ! WRONGS ( ! POOR ) A REPUBLICAN TRADITION ( PUBLIC-SPIRIT$ M5 :O RISK !IR LIVES TO KILL A TYRANT4 ,A GOOD EXAMPLE WAS ,ALEX&] ,B]KMAN'S ATTEMPT TO %OOT ,FRICK1 ! MAN :O DUR+ ! ,P5NSYLVANIA ,HOME/EAD ,/EEL ,/RIKE ( #ahib IMPORT$ ! ?UGS :O KILL$ ELEV5 /RIK]S1 9CLUD+ A T5-YE>-OLD *ILD4 ,BUT ?IS /YLE ( ACTION EASILY M]GES 9TO MORE 9DISCRIM9ATE T]RORISM1 OR BL5DS ) ORD9>Y CRIM9ALITY4 ,FR5* AN>*I/S 9 ! #a#h#iS W]E CONFRONT$ ) !SE DILEMMAS4 ,SOME ( ! ,FR5* 9TELLECTUALS AT ?IS TIME1 MANY ( :OM 9CL9$ T[>DS AN>*ISM1 ADOPT$ A DILETTANTE POSE T[>DS VIOL5T DE$S4 ,:5 A HOMEMADE BOMB WAS EXPLOD$ 9 P>LIAM5T A GR\P ( CELEBRITIES W]E ASK$ BY A J\RNALI/ TO COMM5T1 & ONE ( !M REPLI$3 ',:AT DO ! VICTIMS MATT] IF ! GE/URE IS F9E8' 7,B>B>A ,W4 ,TU*MAN1 ',AN>*ISM 9 ,FRANCE'1 9 ,HOR[ITZ1 $41 ,! ,AN>*I/S1 #d#e#b74 ,?IS ATTITUDE VE]S T[>DS ?AT ALLIANCE BETWE5 ! 9TELLECTUAL ELITE & ! UND]WORLD 'MOB' ?AT ,HANNAH ,>5DT TRACES AS ONE ( ! CULTURAL /R&S LEAD+ T[>DS FASCISM4 ,AT ! O!R EXTREME RIGOR\S 9TELLECTUAL CONSI/5CY MAY TAKE ! =M ( IDEALIZ+ M]CILESS RU?LESSNESS = ! SAKE ( ! CAUSE1 & WILL+NESS TO SACRIFICE TO ?IS 5D ALL MORAL SCRUPLES & 9DIVIDUALS :O GET 9 ! WAY4 ,! FANTASY ( ! ICE COLD CONSPIRATOR1 EMBODI$ 9 ,! ,CATE*ISM ( A ,REVOLUTIONI/1 WAS PLAY$ \T ) 9FLEXIBLE WILLP[] BY ! ,RUSSIAN /UD5T ,NE*AEV1 :O MANIPULAT$ & *EAT$ ,BAKUN91 LI$ HIS WAY TO REVOLUTION>Y 9FLU5CE1 MURD]$ A FELL[ /UD5T :O SAW ?R\< HIM1 & DI$ DEFIANT & UNREP5TANT 9 A DUNGEON4 .<#i#g.> 

,! ,C[>D 

,! 9TELLECTUAL MAY1 H[EV]1 LOOK = A SOLUTION 9 ANO!R =M ( POPUL> EXP]I5CE1 NOT TO F9D A GOLD5 AGE SIMPLICITY1 PURE FAI? OR ROMANTIC REBELLION1 BUT TO DISCOV] A VE9 ( COMMON S5SE & NORMALITY ) :I* PEOPLE PROTECT !MSELVES FROM ! P]ILS ( POLITICS4 ,?IS EMPHASIS ON SELF-PRES]VATION BECAME ONE ( ! MOTIFS 9 POLITICAL ?\<T AT ! TIME ( ! ,5GLI% ,CIVIL 0,W>4 ,AS NOT$ 9 ,*APT] #a1 NOT ONLY IS IT C5TRAL TO ,HOBBES'S BR& ( AU?ORIT>IANISM1 BUT IT TOOK MORE SUBV]SIVE & ANLTI-POLITICAL =MS4 ,IR5E ,COLTMAN 9 H] BOOK ,PRIVATE ,M5 & ,PUBLIC ,CAUSES *>T+ ! V>I\S CURR5TS ( ?\<T EM]G+ FROM ! ,CIVIL ,W> SUGGE/S ?AT ! 9SI/5CE ON SELF-PRES]VATION HAD ALREADY F\ND CLASSIC LIT]>Y EXPRESSION 9 ,%AKESPE>E'S ,FAL/AF,L ',:AT IS HONOR8'1 ,FAL/AFF ASKS HIMSELF JU/ BE=E A BATTLE 9 :I* HIS MA9 9T]E/ IS TO AVOID BE+ KILL$4 ',CAN HONOR SET TO A LEG8 ,NO4 ,OR AN >M8 ,NO4 ,OR TAKE AWAY ! GRIEF ( A W\ND8 ,NO4 ,HONOR HA? NO SKILL 9 SURG]Y1 !N8 ,NO4 ,:AT IS HONOR8 ,A WORD 4 4 4 ,:O HA? IT8 ,HE ?AT DI$ O' ,W$NESDAY 4 4 4 ,HONOR IS A RM]E SCUT*EON' 7,H5RY ,I,V1 ,P>T ,I1 ,ACT ,V1 ,SC5E #a74 

,FAL/AFF'S VIRTUES >E CONTRA/$ ) ! HONORS ( BATTLE WREAK$ BY M5 LESS PRUD5TLY TIMID4 ,!Y >E ALSO CONTRA/$ ) OPPOS+ VALUES4 ,%AKESPE>E EMBODIES 9 ,HOTSPUR1 :O W\LD 'PLUCK BRI<T HONOR FROM ! PALE-FAC'D MOON'1 ! H]OIC VIRTUES ( >D5T AMBITION1 G5]OSITY & IMPETU\S C\RAGE1 -:I* BR+ HIM TO AN UNTIMELY DEA? AT ! H&S ( ,PR9CE ,H5IRY ON ! BATTLEFIELD4 ,! ,PR9CE IS MORE H>D-HEAD$ & COLD-BLOOID$ ?AN ,HOTSPUR4 ,HE ALSO KN[S :5 TO R5\NCE ,FAL/AFF'S WORLD & HIS P]SONAL FRI5D%IP1 :I* HE DOES BRUTALLY ON BECOM+ ,K+4 ,YET HIS S5SE ( POLITICAL REALISM IS ALSO A S5SE ( RESPONSIBILITY1 & IS PRES5T$ AS BE+ MORE CONDUCIVE TO ! PUBLIC GOOD ?AN ,HOTSPUR'S GALLANTRY OR ,FAL/AFF'S AN>*Y4 

,! ,POLITICAL ,REALM 

,%AKESPE>E T5DS TO ACCEPT ?AT RUL]S LIVE 9 A SEP>ATE SPH]E FROM !IR SUBJECTS1 ?AT !IR BURD5S >E MU* GREAT] & !IR DECISIONS NECESS>ILY F\ND$ ON NECESSITY ( /ATE4 ,?IS IS ! SECUL> VIEW ( POLITICS TO BE F\ND 9 ,MA*IAVELLI1 :I* HAS S9CE BECOME AN IMPORTANT 9FLU5CE ON POLITICAL !ORIZ+4 ,A S5SITIVE MOD]N 9T]PRETATION :I* AVOIDS CRUDE ,MA*IAVELLIANISM IS TO BE F\ND 9 ,HANNAH ,>5DT'S ,! ,HUMAN ,CONDITION4 ,%E 9SI/S ?AT C]TA9 VALUES & ATTITUDES >E 9APPROPRIATE TO ! POLITICAL REALM--AMONG .<#i#h.> !SE1 LOVE1 BO? P]SONAL LOVE & UNIV]SALIZ$ ,*RI/IAN LOVE4 ,?IS LOVE 'CAN ONLY BECOME FALSE & P]V]T$ :5 IT IS US$ = POLITICAL PURPOSES SU* AS ! *ANGE OR SALVATION ( ! WORLD' 7#d#g74 ,?IS IS A DIRECT REFUTATION ( ! ,TOL/OYAN ASPIRATION4 

,HANNAH ,>5DT'S POSITION IS BAS$ ON A BELIEF ?AT !RE >E SEP>ATE REALMS ( EXP]I5CE & ACTIVITY1 ) DIFF]5T CRIT]IA APPLICABLE TO !M3 RELIGION1 >T1 PHILOSOPHY1 & SCI5CE -- ALL DI/9CT FROM ! SPH]E ( POLITICS1 AS IS ! PRIVATE WORLD ( ! H\SEHOLD4 ,GIV5 ! CONFUSIONS & DANG]S ( TRY+ TO FIT POLITICS 9TO ! MOLD ( ANO!R MODE ( UND]/&+ & EXP]I5CE1 ! IDEA ( MULTIPLE SPH]ES ( ACTIVITY IS HELPFUL4 ,BUT ANY VIEW :I* ACCEPTS A TOTAL SEP>ATION ( SPH]ES RUNS 9TO TR\BLE4 ,!IR TOTAL SEP>ATION )9 ! EXP]I5CE ( AN 9DIVIDUAL IMPLIES ! 9VASION ( BUREAUCRACY 9TO ! P]SONALITY1 ,MAX ,WEB]'S 'P>CEL+-\T ( ! S\L'4 ,MOREOV]1 ALL !SE SPH]ES MU/ HAVE A COMMON LOCUS 9 A GIV5 SOCIETY1 & !IR SOCIAL SEP>ATION IS DANG]\S1 S9CE !IR EFFECTS CANNOT BE TOTALLY SEP>AT$4 ,IF SCI5CE IS PURSU$ IRRESPECTIVE ( SOCIAL CONSEQU5CES1 PHILOSOPHY & >T DIVORC$ FROM PUBLIC RELEVANCE1 RELIGION CONC]N$ 5TIRELY ) ! O!R WORLD1 & IF ! AV]AGE MAN RETREATS 9TO HIS PRIVATE LIFE1 ! RESULT MAY BE PURE ,MA*IAVELLIANISM -- RAMPANT POLITICAL IRRESPONSIBILITY4 ,TOTAL SEP>ATION ( SPH]ES IS POT5TIALLY AS DISA/R\S AS ?AT ,/AL9ISM :I*1 9 A GROSS DI/ORTION ( ! ,M>XI/ ATTEMPT AT SOCIAL 9TEGRATION1 DICTAT$ SCI5TIFIC & PHILOSOPHICAL TRU?1 DECRE$ >TI/IC =MS1 D5I$ AUTONOMY TO MORAL /&>DS1 & 9VAD$ P]SONAL PRIVACY4 

,:5 ! ,GREEK IDEA ( POLITICS AS ! PUBLIC REALM 7LOCAT$ LIT]ALLY 9 ! ASSEMBLY PLACE7 IS L9K$ TO ! CON/ITUTIONAL TRADITION1 ! PICTURE ?AT EM]GES IS ( A POLITICAL SPH]E H$G$ R\ND BY DI/9CT WORLDS OV] :I* POLITICS MAY CLAIM NO DOM9ION4 ,! B\ND>Y BETWE5 POLITICS & PRIVATE HFE PROTECTS 9DIVIDUAL FRE$OM4 ,! WORLD ( LE>N+ & ( FACTUAL DOCUM5TATION CREATES1 ,HANNAH ,>5DT SUGGE/S1 ANO!R B\ND>Y :I* RESI/S POLITICAL ATTEMPTS TO DI/ORT !IR TRU?4 ,H[EV]1 A CON/ITUTIONAL \TLOOK1 =M$ UND] ! NECESSITY ( SETT+ UP B>RI]S TO ! 9CURSIONS ( ROYAL P[] 9 A C5TRALIZ$ ,/ATE1 T5DS TO OV]LOOK ! ,GREEK UND]/&+ ( ! 9T]P5ETRATION ( CULTURE & POLITICS2 EMBODI$ = 9/ANCE 9 ! ROLE ( DRAMA 9 REF9+ ! NOTION ( JU/ICE1 OR 9 PHILOSOPHICAL DEBATES AB\T MORAL & POLITICAL CONCEPTS4 

,A MOD]N DEF5SE ( ! 9T]RELATION BETWE5 POLITICS & O!R SPH]ES CAN P]HAPS BE/ APPEAL TO A SITUATION :I* IS UND]/OOD AS ! COMPLETE NEGATION ( FREE POLITICS -- 'TOTALIT>IANISM'4 ,HANNAH ,>5DT SUGGE/S 9 H] /UDY ( ,! ,ORIG9S ( ,TOTALIT>IANISM ?AT ! LOGIC ( A TOTAL IDEOLOGY EXCLUDES G5U9E ?\<T3 ',! SELF-CO]CIVE =CE ( LOGICALITY IS MOBILIZ$ LE/ ANYBODY EV] />T ?9K+ .<#i#i.> -- :I* AS ! FREE/ & PURE/ ( ALL HUMAN ACTIVITIES IS ! V]Y OPPOSITE ( ! COMPULSORY PROCESS ( D$UCTION' 7#d#g#c74 ,?\<T 9 ?IS S5SE IS BO? SPONTANE\S & CREATIVE1 & SO IS CAPABLE ( *ALL5G+ ! EXI/+ ORD] & CREAT+ SOME?+ NEW4 ,! ,POLI% PHILOSOPH] ,KOLAK[SKI SAYS ?AT CREATIVE ?\<T IS 'PRECISELY ! ACTIVITY :I* CANNOT BE DUPLICAT$ BY AN AUTOMATON4 ,PHILOSOPHY IS ! ET]NAL EF=T TO QUE/ION ALL ?AT IS OBVI\S 444 ,! POLICE IDEAL ( ORD] IS ! ORD] ( A COMPREH5SIVE FILE2 PHILOSOPHY'S IDEAL IS ! ORD] ( AN ACTIVE IMAG9ATION' 7,M>XISM & ,BEYOND1 #d1 #e#e74 

,BO? ! CRITICAL & ! CREATIVE CONTRIBUTIONS ( >T & PHILOSOPHY TO SOCIETY PROMOTE AN IDEAL ( 9DIVIDUAL & SOCIAL FRE$OM4 ,! ROLE ( SCI5CE IS N[ PECULI>LY COMPLICAT$1 & 9 ITS IMPACT ON POLITICS IS FREQU5TLY SE5 AS A ?REAT TO FRE$OM & CREATIVITY4 ,?IS DEVELOPM5T IS P>TICUL>LY IRONICAL 9 VIEW ( ! HOPES PLAC$ 9 SCI5CE AS AN 9/RUM5T ( 5LI<T5M5T & LIB]ATION1 ?\< ?IS ID5TIFICATION ( SCI5CE ) PROGRESS N[ HELPS P]PETUATE ! DANG]S >IS+ FROM SUP]/ITI\S RESPECT = 'SCI5CE'4 ,9 ! NATURAL SCI5CES ! AIM ( PURSU+ TRU?1 & UND]/&+ ! MY/]IES ( NATURE1 HAS BE5 L>GELY SUBORD9AT$ TO ! AIM ( US+ SCI5CE TO DOM9ATE NATURE4 ,! PRE/IGE ( NATURAL SCI5CE HAS L$ !ORI/S = WELL OV] A C5TURY TO ATTEMPT TO CREATE A SOCIAL SCI5CE ( EQUAL /ATUS1 :I* W\LD RID US ( \R PRES5T UNC]TA9TIES4 ,! TRIUMPH ( ?IS SOCIAL SCI5CE W\LD APPE> TO IMPLY A TOTAL DET]M9ISM1 AN UNCOV]+ ( ! 'LAWS' :I* 9DIVIDUALS OR SOCIETIES MU/ FOLL[2 BUT ON ! ANALOGY ( NATURAL SCI5CE IT ALSO 9VOLVES USE ( ?IS KN[L$GE TO DIRECT & DOM9ATE SOCIETY BY ! SCI5TIFIC ELITE4 ,BUT ?IS MISCONCEPTION ( 'SCI5CE' CAN BE REFUT$ FROM )9 ! SCI5TIFIC TRADITION4 ,BAKUN9 9 ONE ( HIS P]CEPTIVE FLA%ES >GUES 9 ,GOD & ! ,/ATE ?AT ! V]Y NATURE ( SCI5CE -- ITS T5D5CY TO G5]ALIZATION & AB/RACTION -- MAKES IT UNSUIT$ TO GUIDE OR GOV]N A SOCIETY4 ',SCI5CE CANNOT CONCEIVE REAL 9DIVIDUALS & 9T]E/S' 7#f74 ,PAUL ,GOODMAN \TL9ES 9 HIS ESSAY ON ' 0,APPLI$ ,SCI5CE0 & ,SUP]/ITION' 79 ,UTOPIAN ,ESSAYS & ,PRACTICAL ,PROPOSALS7 ! HUMANI/ 9SPIRATION ( SCI5CE1 9 :I* 'PURSUIT ( NATURAL TRU? IS A TRANSC5D+ GOOD' & 9 :I* ! DISCIPL9E ( SCI5TIFIC HABITS IS ( POSITIVE VALUE4 ,:5 ,KROPOTK9 S\<T 9 ,MOD]N ,SCI5CE & ,AN>*ISM TO RELATE AN>*ISM TO SCI5TIFIC ME?OD1 HIS ANALOGIES ) ! ANIMAL WORLD DID NOT LEAD HIM TO SUBORD9ATE SOCIAL EXP]I5CE TO MODELS DRAWN FROM ! NATURAL SCI5CES4 ,9/EAD HE APPEALS TO ! EVID5CE ( HI/ORY & AN?ROPOLOGY1 & POPUL> EXP]I5CE4 ,AN>*I/S /& )9 A TRADITION ( SCI5CE :I* SEEKS TO PURSUE UND]/&+ = ITS [N SAKE1 BUT ALSO APPLIES ?IS UND]/&+ TO IMPROVE M5'S 5VIRONM5T1 & SOCIAL CONDITIONS1 9 AN EXP]IM5TAL & CRITICAL WAY4 ,FROM ?IS .<#a.> /&PO9T 'SOCIOLOGY' OR PSY*OLOGY MAY PROMOTE >EAS ( FRE$OM & CREATIVITY :I* SEEM TO BE D5I$ BY ! IRON NECESSITIES ( P[] POLITICS4 ,COM=T = EXAMPLE SEES MOD]N SOCIOLOGY AS UPHOLD+ AN EXP]IM5TAL & AN>*I/ VIEW ( SOCIAL *ANGE :ILE 'POLITICS' OBTRUCTS SOCIAL POSSIBILITIES4 ,BUT :5 SCI5CE BECOMES A LEGITIMAT+ IDEOLOGY = ! ABUSE ( P[]1 & A S\RCE ( TE*NIQUES TO BE US$ 9 ! 9T]E/S ( P[]1 !N ! PRET5SIONS ( 'SCI5CE' MAY BE OPPOS$ BY ! POLITICAL TRADITION ( CREATIVITY & FRE$OM 7= A P]SUASIVE ATTACK ON 'SCI5TISM' 9 ! NAME ( POLITICAL VALUES SEE1 ,B]N>D ,CRICK1 ,9 ,DEF5SE ( ,POLITICS74 

,! CONFUSIONS ( ! DEBATE BETWE5 'SCI5CE' & 'POLITICS' >ISE BECAUSE BO? HAVE BE5 DIVORC$ FROM !IR ORIG9AL HUMANI/IC CONTEXT4 ,GREEK PHILOSOPHY WAS IMBU$ ) CONVICTION ?AT 9 HUMAN AFFAIRS IT IS ESS5TIAL TO RETA9 MOD]ATION & BALANCE4 ,IF M5 SUCCUMB TO ! TEMPTATION TO ASSUME GODLIKE P[]S ?R\< AN OV]-WEAN+ PRIDE1 !N JU/ & 9EVITABLE RETRIBUTION WILL FOLL[4 ,! RELEVANCE ( ?IS PR9CIPLE 7:I* IS BO? A MORAL & AN ES!TIC PR9CIPLE7 HAS BE5 DEMON/RAT$ 9 MOD]N SCI5CE -- 91 = EXAMPLE1 ! SPLITT+ ( ! ATOM4 ,ITS RELEVANCE TO POLITICS IS EQUALLY OBVI\S4 ,:ILE ,GREEK CITY /ATES W]E AS PRONE AS MO/ REGIMES TO ! '>ROGANCE ( P[]' !IR VIEW ( POLITICS WAS 9=M$ BY ! S5SE ?AT MOD]ATION WAS AN 9H]5T POLITICAL VALUE4 ,MOREOV]1 POLITICS 9 ?IS S5SE WAS BAS$ PRIM>ILY ON SPEE*1 & SO ON REASON$ P]SUASION1 NOT ON =CE2 ON ! COLLECTIVE ACTION ( EQUALS1 NOT ! 5=C$ OB$I5CE ( SLAVES4 

,?IS PICTURE ( POLITICS AMONG A COMMUNITY ( CITIZ5S NATURALLY UND]GOES A RADICAL *ANGE IF POLITICS IS UND]/OOD PRIM>ILY 9 RELATION TO ! RUL]S ( NATION ,/ATES1 )9 :I* SOCIETY IS HI]>*ICAL & ! MAJORITY ( SUBJECTS PASSIVE4 ,?IS IS ! CONTEXT ASSUM$ BY ,%AKESPE>E4 ,MA*IAVELLI SKET*ES AN \TL9E ( POLITICS :I* 9CLUDES BO? ! VIRTUES ( ! CITIZ5 9 ! CLASSICAL REPUBLIC1 & ! MA*9ATIONS ( ! ,PR9CE :OSE H]OIC CAPACITY MAY BE DEMON/RAT$ BY ! MAGNITUDE ( HIS CRIMES4 ,?IS BLURR+ ( REPUBLICAN POLITICS ) PR9CELY-P[] POLITICS HAS BE5 H&$ D[N TO US1 ?\< = MO/ PEOPLE ! LATT] IMAGE IS PROBABLY PR$OM9ANT4 ,BUT A D\BLE IMAGE ( ! POLITICAL SPH]E CREATES CONFUSION AB\T ! RELEVANCE ( MORAL CRIT]IA4 ,A TRADITION ( REPUBLICAN POLITICS EMBODIES VALUES :I* PURE P[] POLITICS MAY DE/ROY4 ,SO ! AN>*I/ CONT5TION ?AT P[] POLITICS )9 NATION ,/ATES IS NOT 9EVITABLE CAN CLAIM SUPPORT FROM ! CLASSICAL TRADITION ( POLITICS4 

,MA*IAVELLI'S IDEAL IS ,ROME ) ITS AU/]E & M>TIAL VIRTUES4 ,BUT EV5 ! MORE DIV]SE & HUMANI/IC ,A!NIAN IDEAL ( REPUBLICAN 'POLITICS' IS NOT COMPATIBLE ) ,TOL/OY'S ,*RI/IAN MORALITY4 .<#a#a.> ,HANNAH ,>5DT HAS1 H[EV]1 MADE AN 9T]E/+ CONCESSION T[>DS ! ,TOL/OYAN VIEW 9 A REC5T ESSAY ON ',TRU? & ,POLITIES'1 ?\< %E *OOSES FIR/ A ,GREEK RA!R ?AN A ,*RI/IAN EXAMPLE4 ,9 DISCUSS+ ! 9FLU5CE ( ! ,SOCRATIC PROPOSITION ?AT 'IT IS BETT] TO SUFF] WRONG ?AN TO DO WRONG' %E SUGGE/S ?AT ! 9FLU5CE ?IS /ATEM5T HAS HAD >ISES NOT FROM PHILOSOPHICAL >GUM5T1 BUT ! P[] ( EXAMPLE -- BECAUSE ,SOCRATES /AK$ HIS LIFE ON ?IS TRU?4 ,%E SEES ?IS AS ! ONLY WAY E?ICAL PR9CIPLES CAN 5T] ! POLITICAL REALM )\T DI/ORTION4 ,! 9SPIRATION ( ! PR9CIPLE 9 ACTION 5C\RAGES IMITATION1 & CREATES A MODEL :I* 5ABLES US TO GRASP ! PR9CIPLE4 ,IT IS C]TA9LY TRUE ?AT ! HI/ORY ( 9DIVIDUAL CONSCI5TI\S DISOB$I5CE TO ! COMM&S ( GOV]NM5T IS UND]/OOD1 & H&$ D[N1 L>GELY 9 T]MS ( C]TA9 KEY FIGURES2 & ONE CAN TRACE ! 9SPIRATION ( ,?OREAU & ,TOL/OY ON1 = EXAMPLE1 ,G&HI1 :O HAS 9 TURN P>TIALLY 9SPIR$ MOVEM5TS ( CIVIL DISOB$I5CE 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES & ,BRITA94 

,TOL/OY APPEALS TO ! 9DIVIDUAL CONSCI5CE & TO A MORALITY :I* CLAIMS ITS VALIDITY FROM A S\RCE \TSIDE ! POLITICAL SPH]E1 BUT :I* (T5 *ALL5GES ! CRIMES COMMITT$ UND] ! LABEL ( POLITICAL NECESSITY4 ,BUT 9DIVIDUAL DISOB$I5CE HAS ITS ROOTS ALSO 9 ?AT V]Y DIFF]5T P]SONAL COMMITM5T :I* MEANS CL++ DOGG$LY TO ONE'S HOME1 FAMILY1 HEAL?1 LIFE & P]SONAL 5JOYM5T AS LONG AS HUMANLY POSSIBLE4 ,DESPITE ! APOLITICAL NATURE ( ?IS COMMON AMBITION1 PRIVATE VALUES DO HAVE RELEVANCE TO POLITICS 9 5C\RAG+ QUALITIES LIKE PRUD5CE & CAUTION4 ,!SE >E POLITICAL VIRTUES = ,MA*IAVELLI TOO1 BUT 9 HIS CONTEXT T5D TO LOOK LIKE PURE CALCULATION ( RISKS1 & ( ! RISKS ( ?OSE :O HAVE1 OR >E GAMBL+ =1 P[]4 ,A G5]AL RESPECT = ! GOODS ( PRIVATE LIFE SUGGE/S A MU* GREAT] CAUTION AB\T GAMBL+ ) O!R PEOPLE'S LIVES4 ,DEBUNK+ ( H]OIC PRET5SIONS & PR9CIPLES ALSO GU>DS AGA9/ FANATICISM & IDOLATRY & HELPS TO KEEP POLITICS D[N TO E>?4 

,NOT ONLY DOES COMMITM5T TO PRIVATE VALUES HAVE G5]AL IMPLICATIONS = POLITICAL POLICIES1 IT ALSO T5DS TO HAVE IMPLICATIONS = P]SONAL POLITICAL ACTION4 ,M5 CAN SOMETIMES BUILD PREC>I\S HAPP9ESS BY CONC5TRAT+ ON !IR PRIVATE WELF>E2 BUT BE=E ! WOR/ DISA/]S ( W> & TYRANNY ! 9DIVIDUAL IS (T5 MO/ HELPLESS TO SAVE HIMSELF BY BE+ APOLITICAL4 ,BRE*T1 :O (T5 SALUTES ! QUALITIES ( T5ACI\S SELF-PRES]VATION1 & ( DOGG$ OB$I5CE TO ! ABSURD COMM&S ( ! P[]S-?AT-BE1 EMBODI$ 9 ! ,GOOD ,SOLDI] ,S*WEIK1 ALSO EMPHASIZES ! NECESSITY ( SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY4 ,HE %[S1 = EXAMPLE1 9 ,! ,RESI/IBLE ,RISE ( ,>TURO ,UI 7AB\T ,HITL]'S RISE TO P[]7 H[ SOCIAL CORRUPTION1 ! N>R[ 9T]E/S ( ?OSE ) ECONOMIC & POLITICAL P[]1 TOGE!R ) .<#a#b.> ! TIMIDITY ( ! COMMON MAN1 5ABLE ,HITL] TO GA9 9CREAS+LY IRRESI/IBLE P[]4 ,ALEX ,COM=T1 :O IS SKEPTICAL AB\T ! VALUES ( H]OISM1 IS NEV]!LESS CONV9C$ 9 ,>T & ,SOCIAL ,RESPONSIBILITY ?AT DESIRE = SELF-PRES]VATION MU/ BE TRANSLAT$ 9TO ACTIVE RESI/ANCE3 ',FROM N[ ON1 ! DES]T] IS EV]Y MAN'S FRI5D' 7#h#h7 & ',Y\ CAN ABOLI% FIR+ SQUADS ONLY BY REFUS+ TO S]VE 9 !M' 7#h#e74 ,BUT ?IS /E]S DANG]\SLY CLOSE TO H]OISM4 

,! ,CITIZ5 

,9DE$1 ONCE ! APOLITICAL COMMON MAN BEG9S TO PURSUE ! LOGIC ( HIS VALUES & 5GAGE 9 DISOB$I5CE HE BEG9S TO F9D A MEET+ GR\ND ) ! 9DIVIDUAL FOLL[+ ! /> ( HIS [N CONSCI5CE1 ESPECIALLY :5 ! CONSCI5TI\S RESI/] ALSO BEG9S TO POLITICIZE HIS /&4 ,BO? MAY SEIZE ON ! IDEA ( RESPONSIBLE CITIZ5%IP4 ,SOCRATES & LAT] ,?OREAU JU/IFI$ !IR ACTIONS 9 P>T ON ! GR\NDS ?AT !Y W]E ACT+ = ! REAL GOOD ( !IR SOCIETY1 & SUBMITT$ !MSELVES TO ! LAWS ( ?AT COMMUNITY4 ,ALEX ,COM=T IS LESS CONC]N$ ) 9DIVIDUAL CIVIL DISOB$I5CE 9 A RELATIVELY CIVILIZ$ ,/ATE1 & MORE ) POPUL> & 'UND]GR\ND' RESI/ANCE 9 A DICTATOR%IP OR SOCIETY MOBILIZ$ = W>4 ,BUT HE ALSO /RESSES ?AT ! CRIT]ION IS P]SONAL RESPONSIBILITY1 ! SAFEGU>D+ ( FRE$OM BY DISOB$I5CE4 ,A CONCEPT ( CITIZ5%IP ALSO FILLS ! GAP BETWE5 AN >I/OCRATIC CODE ( H]OISM & ! SELFI% PRUD5CE ( ! COMMON] PICTUR$ BY ,%AKESPE>E4 ,CITIZ5%IP D5OTES CRITICAL JUDGM5T & P]SONAL RESPONSIBILITY1 & IS1 !RE=E1 OPPOS$ TO ! 'SOMNAMBULANT H]OISM' ( ?OSE :O GO TO W> & COMMIT ATROCITIES2 AT ! SAME TIME IT DEM&S C\RAGE\S1 BUT :]E POSSIBLE PRUD5T1 RESI/ANCE4 ,! MODEL ( CITIZ5%IP ALSO N>R[S ! GAP BETWE5 ! POLITICAL VIRTUES ( ! RUL+ ,PR9CE -- A S5SE ( SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY & ( SOCIAL NECESSITIES -- & ! MORAL /&>DS ( ! 9DIVIDUAL CONSCI5CE4 

,ONE ( ! MA9 T5ETS ( AN>*I/ POLITICAL !ORY IS1 !RE=E1 ! BELIEF 9 ! FREQU5T NECESSITY ( DISOB$I5CE TO GOV]NM5TS & RESI/ANCE TO P>TICUL> POLICIES4 ,?IS IDEA ( RESI/ANCE MAY BE BAS$ ON A WIDE RANGE ( VALUES3 IT MAY BE SE5 PRIM>ILY AS AN ASS]TION ( ORIG9AL 'POLITICAL' OR REPUBLICAN VALUES AGA9/ ! DI/ORT$ JU/IFICATIONS ( P[] POLITICS2 IT MAY /EM FROM A NONPOLITICAL MORAL COMMITM5T2 FROM A S5SE ( >TI/IC OR SCI5TIFIC OR PHILOSOPHICAL RESPONSIBILITY2 OR FROM AN 9/9CTIVE & 9TUITIVE S5SE ( HUMAN RESPONSIBILITY4 ,:ILE !SE /&PO9TS MAY (T5 CONFLICT 9 ! VALUES !Y ESP\SE & ! SPECIFIC ACTIONS !Y 5C\RAGE1 !Y ALSO T5D TO OV]LAP & TO GA9 A C]TA9 UNITY FROM !IR OPPOSITION .<#a#c.> TO COMMON EVILS4 ,!Y ALSO UNITE 9 !IR REFUSAL TO ACCEPT UNCRITICALLY ANY APPEAL TO MORALITY1 IDEALISM OR FAI? DESIGN$ TO JU/IFY V>I\S =MS ( W> & OPPRESSION4 ,ALEX ,COM=T SUMS UP ?IS SKEPTICISM3 ':5 !Y BEG9 TO SAY 0,LOOK1 9JU/ICE10 Y\ MU/ REPLY1 0,:OM DO Y\ WANT ME TO KILL80' 7,>T & ,SOCIAL ,RESPONSIBILITY1 #h#c74 

,?IS COMMONS5SE SKEPTICISM IS 9TR9SIC TO ! PHILOSOPHY ( ?AT !ORI/ MO/ CONC]N$ TO 9CULCATE CIVIL OB$I5CE -- ,HOBBES4 ,BUT ,HOBBES DIRECTS HIS ATTACK NOT AGA9/ ! JU/IFICATIONS ( GOV]NM5TS1 BUT AGA9/ ! 9DEP5D5CE ( CONSCI5CE1 PHILOSOPHICAL QUE/ION+1 >I/OCRATIC H]OISM1 OR DEVOTION TO ! IDEAL ( DEMOCRATIC CITIZ5%IP1 :I* MAY ALL 9 DIFF]5T WAYS UND]M9E ! /ABILITY ( GOV]NM5T4 ,AS A RESULT ,HOBBES DEF5DS ! MORALITY ( ! 'TAME MAN' :O OBEYS ?R\< FE> & PRUD5CE4 ,HE IS NOT1 H[EV]1 UNAW>E ( ! POLITICAL LIMITATIONS ( ?IS MODEL ( ! IDEAL SUBJECT1 OR ( ! VALIDITY ( O!R VALUES4 ,9 ! ,CONCLUSION ( HIS ,LEVIA?AN HE DISCUSSES ?OSE QUALITIES :I* GO TO MAKE UP A GOOD CITIZ5 ( ! COMMONWEAL?1 QUALITIES :I* >E SAID TO BE 9COMPATIBLE 9 ONE MAN1 BUT :I* CAN BE COMB9$ ?R\< $UCATION & DISCIPL9E4 ,TWO ( !SE 9COMPATIBLES >E C\RAGE :I* DISDA9S DEA? & W\NDS1 & SO ALSO 9CL9ES M5 TO UNSETTL+ ! PUBLIC PEACE2 & ?AT SAFE TIMOR\SNESS1 :I* H[EV] 'MANY TIMES DISPOSE? TO ! DES]TION ( ! PUBLIC DEF5SE'4 ,HOBBES !N 9S]TS AN EPITAPH TO ! MAN TO :OSE MEMORY ! ,LEVIA?AN IS =MALLY D$ICAT$3 

,!RE IS !RE=E NO SU* 9CONSI/5CE ( HUMAN NATURE1 ) CIVIL DUTIES1 AS SOME ?9K4 ,I HAVE KN[N CLE>NESS ( JUDGM5T & L>G5ESS ( FANCY2 /R5G? ( REASON1 & GRACEFUL ELOCUTION2 A C\RAGE = ! W>S1 & A FE> = ! LAWS1 & ALL EM95TLY 9 ONE MAN2 & ?AT WAS MY MO/ NOBLE & HONOR$ FRI5D1 ,MR ,SIDNEY ,GODOLPH92 :O HAT+ NO MAN1 NOR HAT$ ( ANY1 WAS UN=TUNATELY SLA9 9 ! BEG9N+ ( ! LATE CIVIL W>1 9 ! PUBLIC QU>REL1 BY AN UNDISC]N$ & UNDISC]N+ H& 7#d#f#a74 

,! FIGURE ( ,GODOLPH9 :I* BRIEFLY ILLUM9ATES ! ,LEVIA?AN ALSO 9TRODUCES A S5SE ( LOSS1 NOT ONLY BECAUSE HE P]SONIFIES ! TRAG$Y ( VIOL5T DEA?1 BUT BECAUSE HE EMBODIES POLITICAL VALUES ( ACTIVE & RESPONSIBLE CITIZ5%IP4 ,OAKE%OTT 9 HIS ESSAY ON ',! ,MORAL ,LIFE 9 ! ,WRIT+S ( ,?OMAS ,HOBBES' COMM5TS3 

,9DE$1 IT SEEMS ALMO/ TO HAVE BE5 ,HOBBES'S VIEW ?AT M5 ( ?IS *>ACT] >E A NECESS>Y CAUSE ( ! CIVITAS2 & C]TA9LY IT IS ONLY !Y :O1 HAV+ AN ADEQUATE MOTIVE = DO+ SO1 MAY .<#a#d.> BE DEP5D$ UPON TO DEF5D IT :5 DISS5SION DEPRIVES ! SOV]EIGN ( HIS P[] 7,RATIONALISM 9 ,POLITICS1 #b#i#c74 

,! R>ITY ( SU* QUALITIES1 H[EV]1 LEADS ,HOBBES TO PLACE HIS FAI? 9 PASSIVE OB$I5CE TO A SOV]EIGNTY :I* M5 MAY WELL CALL 'TYRANNY'4 ,CITIZ5%IP APPE>S TO IMPLY A COMMUNITY ( CITIZ5S1 :I* DEP5DS ON FAVORABLE CULTURAL & POLITICAL =MS2 CONDITIONS :I* 9 MANY CASES >E NOT MORE FAVORABLE N[ ?AN :5 ,HOBBES WROTE4 ,BUT1 AS ,?OMAS ,MANN REALIZ$ :5 LOOK+ DESP]ATELY = A POSSIBLE CONJUNCTION ( CULTURAL VALUES & POLITICAL ORGANIZATION CAPABLE ( /OPP+ ! RISE ( ,HITL] 9 ,G]MANY1 ! EXI/5CE ( ?IS K9D ( POLITICAL RESPONSIBILITY MAY BE ESS5TIAL TO /AVE (F TOTAL B>B>ISM4 ,HOBBES'S PHILOSOPHY ( ! TAME MAN HAS (T5 SUCCE$$ ALL TOO WELL2 :ILE HIS [N TYPE ( CRITICAL 9TELLIG5CE1 & S5SE ( ! CONDITIONAL NATURE ( OB$I5CE1 HAVE FREQU5TLY BE5 SUBM]G$ BY ! K9D ( MY?S & FANATICISM HE DEPLOR$4 

,ONE REASON :Y MANY AN>*I/S HOLD ON1 FROM !IR V>Y+ /&PO9TS1 TO A S5SE ( POLITICAL OR SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY1 :I* TRANSC5DS OR OPPOSES GOV]NM5T DEF9ITIONS ( :AT A 'GOOD CITIZ5' %\LD DO1 IS BECAUSE !Y RETA9 A DEGREE ( OPTIMISM AB\T REALIZ+ A BETT] COMMUNITY -- H]E & N[ 9 ! 9T]/ICES ( ! ,/ATE1 & 9 ! FUTURE4 ,?IS OPTIMISM IS NOT FACILE2 9 ?IS C5TURY IT MAY AT TIMES BECOME DESP]ATE4 ,BUT AS ,H]B]T ,READ ONCE COMM5T$ 3 ',! TASK ( ! AN>*I/ PHILOSOPH] IS NOT TO PROVE ! IMM95CE ( A ,GOLD5 ,AGE1 BUT TO JU/IFY ! VALUE ( BELIEV+ 9 ITS POSSIBILITY' 7,AN>*Y & ,ORD]1 #a#d74 .<#a#e.> 

,CONCLUSION 

,?IS /UDY HAS TRI$ TO DEMON/RATE ?AT AN>*I/ IDEAS >E DIRECTLY RELAT$ TO ! MORE OR?ODOX CONCEPTS & CONC]NS ( POLITICAL !ORY1 & CLOSELY ALLI$ TO O!R MAJOR POLITICAL TRADITIONS4 ,IT HAS ALSO ATTEMPT$ TO %[ ?AT AN>*ISM HAS ACQUIR$ MORE1 RA!R ?AN LESS1 RELEVANCE 9 CONTEMPOR>Y POLITICAL1 ECONOMIC & TE*NICAL CONDITIONS4 ,:ILE ! LA/ *APT] SUGGE/$ ?AT ?OSE =MS ( AN>*ISM :I* SEEM TO BE LEA/ POLITICAL (T51 9 FACT1 PROMOTE A S5SE ( 9DIVIDUAL SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY4 ,/&+ ASIDE FFOM CONV5TIONALLY CONCEIV$ POLITICS MAY P>ADOXICALLY 5ABLE AN>*I/S TO REALIZE C]TA9 VALUES ( CITIZ5%IP1 & AN IDEAL ( POLITICAL COMMUNITY1 ALMO/ LO/ )9 ! PRES5T MEAN+ ( 'POLITIES'4 

,NEV]!LESS1 ?IS /&+ ASIDE FROM ! POLITICAL >5A 5TAILS AT ! SAME TIME A S]I\S !ORETICAL & PRACTICAL WEAKNESS4 ,A PURE AN>*ISM CANNOT FULLY MEET ! CON/ITUTIONALI/ DEM& = IMM$IATE POLITICAL RESPONSIBILITY1 BECAUSE IT REFUSES TO CONSID] ! POSSIBLE NECESSITY ( COMPROMISE ) ! BAD TO PREV5T ! WORSE4 ,?IS =M ( CONSI/5CY HAS ITS VIRTUES1 ESPECIALLY :5 IT TAKES ! =M ( RESI/ANCE TO ,/ATE POLICIES 9 A PRIM>ILY CON=MI/ SOCIETY2 BUT ITS VALUE IS L>GELY PR$ICAT$ ON IT BE+ A M9ORITY POSITION4 ,GU]9 PO9TS TO ! 9COH]5CE ( ! AN>*I/ POSITION ON VOT+ 7,L',AN>*ISME1 #b#b-#c74 ,HE QUOTES ,MALATE/A1 :O MA9TA9$ 9 RELATION TO ! NEW ',C>TEL DES ,GAUDIES'1 =M$ = ! ,MAY1 #a#i#b#d1 ,FR5* ELECTION1 ?AT EV5 IF SOME SMALL AM\NT ( PROGRESS MI<T BE A*IEV$ ?R\< ! ELECTION1 ! AN>*I/S %\LD RETA9 !IR REVOLUTION>Y PURITY & BOYCOTT ! POLLS4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 ! ,BAKUN9I/S 9 ! ,FIR/ ,9T]NATIONAL HAD PROTE/$ ?AT BOYCOTT+ ! POLLS WAS NOT AN >TICLE ( FAI? BUT A MATT] ( TACTICS4 ,! AN>*I/S 9 ,SPA9 OSCILLAT$ BETWE5 !SE TWO POSITIONS1 JO9+ ) ! DEMOCRATIC ,P>TIES 9 #aic TO OV]?R[ ,PRIMO DE ,RIV]A1 C\NSEL+ AB/5TION 9 ! #aicc G5]AL ELECTION1 & 9 #a#i#c#f1 ?\< SUPPORT+ ! ,POPUL> ,FRONT1 HALF-HE>T$LY ADVIS+ AB/5TION -- ADVICE !Y DID NOT EXPECT TO BE HE$$4 

,SECONDLY1 AN>*ISM HAS NOT YET BE5 ABLE TO MEET ! ,M>XI/ DEM& = POLITICAL EFFECTIV5ESS2 & CONT9U\S FAILURE CAN ONLY BE TRANSLAT$ 9TO A =M ( GLORY BY APPEAL+ TO NONPOLITICAL VALUES4 ,! NATURE ( AN>*I/ !ORY MEANS ?AT 9 ANY IMPORTANT POLITICAL CRISIS 9DIVIDUALS :O SEEK TO 9FLU5CE EV5TS BY ACCEPT+ .<#a#f.> A LEAD]%IP POSITION -- = EXAMPLE1 9 A 'GOV]NM5T' -- >E OP5 TO *>GES ( GROSS 9CONSI/5CY OR TREA*]Y TO ! CAUSE4 ,SIMIL>LY AT ! LEVEL ( MASS ACTION AN>*I/S PREP>$ TO S9K !IR DIFF]5CES 9 A UNIT$ FRONT1 OR TO ALLY !MSELVES ) A POPUL> MOVEM5T1 MAY BE TORN BETWE5 ! IMPORTANCE ( ACTION & MA9TA9+ !IR PR9CIPLES4 ,DUR+ ! ,RUSSIAN ,REVOLUTION & ,CIVIL ,W> AN>*I/S W]E SPLIT NOT ONLY ON ! QUE/ION ( :E!R TO SUPPORT ! ,BOL%EVIKS1 BUT ON !IR ATTITUDE TO ! POPUL> PEASANT 'AN>*ISM' ( ,MAKHNO'S MOVEM5T4 ,AS A GUIDE TO ACTION ,M>XISM HAS AN ADVANTAGE1 S9CE IT REFRA9S FROM IMPOS+ AB/RACT & 9FLEXIBLE PR9CIPLES UPON POLITICAL EVALUATION ( A TOTAL SITUATION4 

,NEV]!LESS1 TACTICAL FLEXIBILITY HAS ITS [N TRAPS1 & ONE ( ! MO/ IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTIONS ( AN>*ISM TO POLITICAL !ORY IS ITS CRITIQUE ( ,M>XI/ 'SUCCESS'1 & 9SI/5CE ON RELAT+ MEANS TO 5DS4 ,EMMA ,GOLDMAN COMM5TS 9 ,MY ,DISILLUSIONM5T ) ,RUSSIA ?AT %E CAME TO REALIZE ?AT ! ,BOL%EVIKS BELIEV$ ?AT ! 5D JU/IFIES ALL MEANS3 

,ANY SUGGE/ION ( ! VALUE ( HUMAN LIFE1 QUALITY ( *>ACT]1 ! IMPORTANCE ( REVOLUTION>Y 9TEGRITY AS ! BASIS ( A NEW SOCIAL ORD]1 WAS REPUDIAT$ AS 'B\RGEOIS' S5TIM5TALITY 7#g74 

,AN>*I/S !MSELVES >E SPLIT BETWE5 ?OSE :O REG>D ALL =MS ( VIOL5CE AS BRUTALIZ+1 & BELIEVE VIOL5T MEANS >E 9COMPATIBLE ) ! GOAL ( AN AN>*I/ SOCIETY2 & ?OSE :O ?9K ?AT A DEGREE ( VIOL5CE MAY (T5 BE NECESS>Y1 OR 9EVITABLE4 ,EMMA ,GOLDMAN1 :O IS 9 ! LATT] CATEGORY1 DI/+UI%ES BETWE5 TYPES ( 'VIOL5CE'3 

,IT IS QUITE ONE ?+ TO EMPLOY VIOL5CE 9 COMBAT1 AS A MEANS ( DEF5SE4 ,IT IS QUITE ANO!R ?+ TO MAKE A PR9CIPLE ( T]RORISM1 TO 9/ITUTIONALIZE IT1 TO ASSIGN IT ! MO/ VITAL PLACE 9 ! SOCIAL /RUGGLE4 ,SU* T]RORISM BEGETS C\NT]-REVOLUTION & 9 TURN ITSELF BECOMES C\NT]-REVOLUTION>Y 7XIX74 

,)9 ! AN>*I/ TRADITION !RE IS NOT ONLY A CRITIQUE ( ! ABUSE ( P[] AFT] A REVOLUTION1 BUT AN IMPORTANT CRITICISM ( ! ROMANTIC !ORY ( REVOLUTION -- ! BELIEF ?AT A REVOLUTION :I* BREAKS DECISIVELY ) ! PA/ WILL AUTOMATICALLY PROMOTE A NEW SOCIAL ]A4 ,9/EAD IT IS URG$ ?AT BUILD+ UP ! 9/ITUTIONS ( A NEW SOCIETY IS A LONG T]M PROCESS1 :I* MU/ BE />T$ H]E & N[4 ,A REVOLUTION :I* CANNOT BUILD ON CREATIVE T5D5CIES & 9/ITUTIONAL =MS ALREADY 9 EXI/5CE IS LIKELY TO BECOME 9CREAS+LY DE/RUCTIVE1 & RESURRECT CO]CIVE C5TRALIZ$ P[]4 ,?IS APPROA* GOES BEYOND ,/IRN]'S DI/9CTION BETWE5 A POLITICALLY DIRECT$ 'REVOLUTION' LEAD+ TO A NEW ,/ATE1 & A SPONTANE\S .<#a#g.> 9SURRECTION DE/ROY+ ALL POLITICAL P[]2 & IT UND]L9ES ! DANG]S ( ! ,BAKUN9I/ IDEAL ( REBELLION4 ,IT IS ONE ( ! CONTRIBUTIONS TO AN>*I/ ?\<T MADE BY ,L&AU]1 :O1 DRAW+ ON BO? ,PR\DHON & ,KROPOTK91 APPEALS TO ! COMMUNAL TRADITIONS ( ! PA/4 ',! RADICAL RE=M] WILL F9D NO?+ TO RE=M EXCEPT :AT IS !RE' 7,BUB]1 ,PA?S 9 ,UTOPIA1 #d#i74 ,L&AU]'S AIM IS 9 ,BUB]'S PHRASE 'A REVOLUTION>Y CONS]VATION'4 ,BUT IT CAN BE UND]/OOD )\T ,L&AU]'S 'CONS]VATIVE' OV]TONES4 ,L&AU] HIMSELF LOOK$ TO ! NEW WORK+ CLASS 9/ITUTIONS ( ! CO-OP]ATIVES & TRADE UNIONS3 

,WE WANT TO BR+ ! ,CO-OP]ATIVES1 :I* >E SOCIALI/ 9 =M )\T SOCIALI/ CONT5T1 & ! TRADE-UNIONS1 :I* >E VALOR )\T AVAIL -- TO ,SOCIALISM1 TO GREAT EXP]IM5TS 7#e#d74 

,! DI/9CTION MADE BY ,L&AU] BETWE5 A SOCIAL PR9CIPLE & A POLITICAL PR9CIPLE SUGGE/S TWO IMPORTANT MODES ( ACTION APPROPRIATE TO AN>*ISM4 ,ONE IS TO BUILD UP 9DEP5D5T COMMUNITIES@5 & ORGANIZATIONS )9 ! EXI/+ ,/ATE1 & SO CREATE A NEW SOCIETY 9 EMBRYO1 & AN ALT]NATIVE P[] BASE4 ,! O!R IS TO ]ODE ! P[] ( ?OSE AT ! TOP -- A P[] 9 REALITY SPR++ FROM ! COOP]ATIVE ACTION ( ! SOCIAL GR\P AS A :OLE -- BY )DRAW+ COOP]ATION & REFUS+ TO OBEY ORD]S4 ,IF NON-COOP]ATION W]E ADOPT$ ON A MASS SCALE ! 'P[]' ( ! M5 AT ! TOP W\LD CEASE TO EXI/4 ,BO? !SE APPROA*ES >E :OLLY CONSI/5T ) AN>*I/ PR9CIPLES1 & BO? >E POT5TIALLY EFFECTIVE4 ,! SNAG IS ?AT BO? MU/ BE L9K$ TO SOME =M ( POPUL> MOVEM5T IF !Y >E TO HAVE IMM$IATE IMPACT2 & TO A*IEVE ULTIMATE SUCCESS !Y MU/ BE P>T ( A /RATEGY :I* CAN =CE *ANGES 9 POLICY AT A NATIONAL LEVEL1 & EV5TUALLY OV]?R[ ! P[]S-?AT-BE4 ,H5CE BO? APPROA*ES MAY /ILL REQUIRE POLITICAL COMPROMISES4 

,! RELEVANCE ( BO? APPROA*ES :5 AN>*ISM IS L9K$ TO AN EXI/+ MOVEM5T WAS DEMON/RAT$ BY ! DEVELOPM5T ( SYNDICALISM4 ,TRADE UNION ORGANIZATION PROVID$ AN 9/ITUTIONAL BASE :I* C\LD BE /R5G!N$ 9 IMM$IATE /RUGGLES1 EXT5D$ TO CON/RUCTIVE EXP]IM5TS 9 =MS ( WORK]S' CONTROL1 & C\LD BE SE5 AS AN ALT]NATIVE ADM9I/RATIVE FRAMEWORK 9 ! FUTURE4 ,TRADE UNION ACTIVITY C\LD L9K PEOPLE'S IMM$IATE 9T]E/S TO WID] LONG T]M GOALS4 ,! /RIKE PROVID$ A POT5T MEANS ( DIRECT ACTION1 :I* C\LD BE SUPPLEM5T$ BY BOYCOTTS & SABOTAGE2 & TRADE UNION /RUGGLE C\LD BE EXT5D$ TO ! SEIZURE & CONTROL ( ! FACTORIES4 ,! G5]AL /RIKE HELD \T ! PROMISE ( A*IEV+ SPECIFIC POLITICAL GOALS1 LIKE PREV5TION ( W>1 & ( ULTIMATELY A*IEV+ ! OV]?R[ ( ! GOV]NM5T & ! CAPITALI/ CLASS4 ,SYNDICALISM HAS .<#a#h.> BUILT-9 DANG]S ( AU?ORIT>IAN ORGANIZATIONAL T5D5CIES1 OR ( TRADE UNION RE=MISM >IS+ \T ( IMM$IATE DEM&S = HI<] WAGES1 %ORT] H\RS & BETT] CONDITIONS4 ,AS ,NICOLAS ,WALT] COMM5TS 7,AN>*Y ,NO4 #a74 !SE PROBLEMS >E NOT 9 !MSELVES AN >GUM5T AGA9/ SYNDICALISM2 HE CRITICIZES IT RA!R = ITS ,M>XI/ EMPHASIS ON EXCLUSIVELY WORK+ CLASS MILITANCY 7#a#g#h74 

,ANO!R >EA 9 :I* AN>*ISM HAS COME 9TO ITS [N1 & CAN PO9T TO /RIK+ TEMPOR>Y SUCCESSES1 IS 9 ?AT TRADITION ( POPUL> REVOLUTION>Y EXP]I5CE :I* HAS ?R[N UP ! ORGANIZATIONAL SY/EM ( WORK]S & COMMUNAL C\NCILS4 ,?IS T5D5CY1 :I* CAN BE TRAC$ TO ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 HAS BE5 DEMON/RAT$ REC5TLY 9 ,HUNG>Y & ,POL& 9 #a#i#e#f1 & 9 ,FRANCE 9 ,MAY #a#i#f#h4 ,) ! EXCEPTION ( ,SPA9 9 ! #a#i#cS1 ! C\NCIL SY/EM HAS NOT BE5 DIRECTLY 9SPIR$ BY AN ORGANIZ$ AN>*I/ MOVEM5T1 & CONSCI\S AN>*I/ 9FLU5CE HAS (T5 BE5 TOTALLY ABS5T4 ,! SYMBOL ( ! COMMUNAL C\NCIL1 OR LOCAL SOVIET1 HAS BE5 9CORPORAT$ ALSO 9TO BO? (FICIAL & UN(FICIAL ,M>XISM4 ,MORE SURPRIS+LY1 IT HAS C]TA9 ATTRACTIONS = CON/ITUTIONALI/ !ORI/S4 ,DE ,J\V5EL1 DRAW+ ON ,MONTESQUIEU1 CREATES 9 HIS BOOK1 ,P[]1 AN AB/RACT \TL9E ( A CONF$]ATION ( C\NCILS AS AN ALT]NATIVE TO P>TY-BAS$ P>LIAM5T>Y DEMOCRACY4 ,S9CE ! EM]G5CE ( ! WORK]S' ,SOVIETS 9 ,HUNG>Y 9 ,NOVEMB] #a#i#e#f1 ,HANNAH ,>5DT HAS EXPLOR$ ?IS APPROA* TO DEMOCRACY 9 DETAIL 9 ,ON ,REVOLUTION4 ,BUT 9 H] CON/ITUTIONALI/ V]SION ! C\NCILS >E ASSIGN$ AN EXCLUSIVELY 'POLITICAL' ROLE & DEEM$ 9APPROPRIATE TO MANAGEM5T ( 9DU/RY1 & SO >E D5UD$ ( !IR SPECIFICALLY SOCIALI/ *>ACT]4 ,:IL/ UND] ,M>XISM ! C\NCILS T5D TO BE DIVE/$ ( !IR TRULY DEMOCRATIC *>ACT] -- RAPIDLY ! CASE 9 ,RUSSIA AFT] #a#i#a#g2 & P>TLY TRUE TODAY 9 ,YUGOSLAVIA1 :]E !Y >E /ILL TO SOME EXT5T SUBORD9ATE TO ! ,P>TY AS WELL AS TO ! C5TRAL GOV]NM5T4 ,AN>*I/S CAN1 !RE=E1 P]HAPS CLAIM ?AT !IR !ORY IS MORE 9 TUNE ) ! ASPIRATIONS :I* HAVE BE5 %[N BY ! MOVEM5TS :I* HAVE EMBRAC$ ?IS =M ( SOCIAL ORGANIZATION4 

,ONE IMPORTANT RESPECT 9 :I* AN>*ISM APPE>S TO REPRES5T ! EMBRYONIC 9/ITUTIONAL IDEAS ( ! C\NCIL MOVEM5TS IS 9 !IR ADVOCACY ( CONF$]ATION BUILT UP FROM BEL[ AS AN ALT]NATIVE TO ! C5TRALIZ$ P[] ( ! ,/ATE1 A P[] MAK+ AT MO/ CONCESSIONS T[>DS DECONC5TRATION ( ADM9I/RATIVE AU?ORITY4 ,! IDEA ( CONF$]ATION PUT =W>D SUCCESSIVELY BY ! MAJOR AN>*I/ !ORI/S PROVIDES A POT5TIAL BRIDGE BETWE5 ! AN>*ISM ADAPT$ TO A SMALL COMMUNITY & ! NE$ = CO-ORD9ATION 9 MOD]N 9DU/RIAL SOCIETY4 

,! PROMISE ( CONF$]ATION LIES1 H[EV]1 P>TLY 9 ITS AMBIGUITY4 ,= EXAMPLE1 ?\< ,BAKUN9 FOLL[S ,PR\DHON 9 EMPHASIZ+ ! .<#a#i.> ORGANIZATIONAL ROLE ( ! LOCAL COMMUNE1 AS WELL AS ( PRODUC]S' ASSOCIATIONS1 ?IS MAY NOT BE 5TIRELY CONSI/5T ) HIS /RESS ON L>GE SCALE 9DU/RY4 ,ON ! ONE H&1 !RE >ISE QUE/IONS1 :I* HAVE T5D$ TO DIVIDE AN>*I/S & SYNDICALI/S1 AB\T ! RELATIVE ROLE ( ! LOCAL COMMUNE & 9DU/RY-BAS$ TRADE UNIONS4 ,ON ! O!R1 WID] QUE/IONS ( ECONOMIC PLANN+ >ISE4 ,SOME ( !SE PROBLEMS MAY BE RESOLV$ BY VOLUNT>Y AGREEM5T ON /&>DIZATION1 AS 9 ! POPUL> AN>*I/ EXAMPLE ( 9T]-CONT95TAL RAILWAY NETWORKS4 ,SOME MAY BE RESOLV$ BY /RICTLY FUNCTIONAL DELEGATION TO SPECIALIZ$ BODIES1 OR BY ! CREATION ( RES]VE EM]G5CY P[]S SUBJECT TO POLITICAL RE/RICTIONS4 ,& GIV5 ! NOTEWOR?Y FAILURES ( OV]-C5TRALIZ$ PLANN+ IT W\LD BE RA% TO DISMISS ! POSSIBILITY ( ECONOMIC CO-ORD9ATION ON A CONF$]AL BASIS4 ,BUT !RE >E /ILL MAJOR QUE/IONS AB\T ! SIZE ( ! BASIC UNITS 9VOLV$ & AB\T ! ME*ANICS ( COMMUNICATION & DECISION MAK+4 

,!RE >E ALSO QUE/IONS AB\T ! P]MAN5CE & =MALITY ( ! ORGANIZATION 9VOLV$4 ,A CONF$]AL CON/ITUTION & PLANN+ ORGANIZATION T5D TO CONFLICT ) ,KROPOTK9'S EMPHASIS ON NO =MAL 'GOV]NM5T' & ON SPONTANE\S CO-ORD9ATION & F$]ATION4 ,!Y W\LD ALSO CONFLICT ) ! F\R PR9CIPLES ( AN>*I/ ORGANIZATION SUGGE/$ BY ,COL9 ,W>D3 ?AT ORGANIZATION %\LD BE VOLUNT>Y1 FUNCTIONAL1 TEMPOR>Y & SMALL4 ,HIS >TICLE ON ',! ,ORGANIZATION ( ,AN>*Y' SUCCESSFULLY %[S ?AT GIV+ FULL SCOPE TO DIFF]5T TAL5TS & 9DIVIDUAL 9ITIATIVE MAY WORK MU* BETT] ?AN A /&>DIZ$ & HI]>*ICAL /RUCTURE2 & HE ILLU/RATES H['SPONTANE\S ORD]' CAN EM]GE \T ( APP>5T *AOS4 ,W>D ALSO REFUTES ! BELIEF 7VOIC$ BY ,5GELS7 ?AT 'AU?ORITY' IS NECESS>Y TO RUN A %IP OR A FACTORY1 BY REF]5CE TO ! GANG SY/EM AMONG WORK]S 9 ,COV5TRY1 & COMPOSITE WORK+ ( ! ,DURHAM COAL FIELDS1 :I* BO? DEMON/RATE ?AT SELF-REGULAT+ GR\PS ( WORK]S CAN PROMOTE HI< PRODUCTIVITY )\T CONV5TIONAL SUP]VISION 7,KRIM]MAN & ,P]RY1 ,PATT]NS ( ,AN>*Y1 #c#i#c-#e74 ,BUT ! >TICLE DOES NOT %[ H[ CONF$]ATION CAN BE BAS$ ON HIS F\R PR9CIPLES4 ,9DE$1 CONF$]ATION HAS USUALLY BE5 REG>D$ AS A COMPROMISE SOLUTION BY AN>*I/S4 ,PR\DHON S\<T TO LIMIT ! SCOPE & P]MAN5CE ( 9DIVIDUAL AU?ORITY1 & TO MA9TA9 ! PR9CIPLE ( CONF$]ATION BY RETA9+ MORE P[] AT ! LOCAL & 9T]M$I>Y LEVELS ?AN IS DELEGAT$ TO ! C5T]4 ,AS A COMPROMISE ) CON/ITUTIONALI/ OR SOCIALI/ APPROA*ES TO POLITICS1 ! IDEA ( CONF$]ATION HAS IMM$IATE RELEVANCE TO POLITICAL !ORY4 

,:E!R AN>*ISM WILL PRODUCE MORE ?AN SUGGE/IVE IDEAS = A !ORY ( POLITICS1 OR :E!R A SPECIFICALLY AN>*I/ MOVEM5T WILL EV] A*IEVE SUCCESS1 >E BO? OP5 TO CONSID]ABLE D\BT4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 AN>*I/ IDEAS MAY BE IMPORTANT 9 ! RE9T]PRETATION .<#a#a.> ( LIB]ALISM & SOCIALISM1 & MAY BE P>TIALLY REALIZ$ 9 ! AIMS OR ACTIVITIES ( POPUL> MOVEM5TS4 ,S9CE AN>*ISM IS 9 ESS5CE ! LEA/ SECT>IAN ( DOCTR9ES1 EFFECTIVE DIFFUSION ( AN>*I/ 9FLU5CE MI<T CON/ITUTE ITS ULTIMATELY MO/ VALUABLE CONTRIBUTION TO POLITICS4 

,SUGGE/IONS = FUR!R READ+ 

,A NUMB] ( 9TRODUCTORY BOOKS ON AN>*ISM HAVE REC5TLY APPE>$ 9 PAP]BACK3 

,GEORGE ,WOODCOCK1 ,AN>*ISM1 ,P5GU9 ,BOOKS 

,IRV+ ,L4 ,HOR[ITZ1 7$471 ,! ,AN>*I/S1 ,DELL ,PUBLI%+ ,CO4 

,LEON>D ,I4 ,KRIM]MAN & ,LEWIS ,P]RY1 7$S471 ,PATT]NS ( ,AN>*Y1 ,D\BL$AY 

,MANY ( ! WRIT+S ( AN>*I/ !ORI/S HAVE NOT BE5 TRANSLAT$ 9TO ,5GLI%1 OR >E \T ( PR9T4 ,H[EV]1 ! FOLL[+ >E AVAILABLE 9 PAP]BACK3 

,PI]RE-,JOSEPH ,PR\DHON1 ,SELECT$ ,WRIT+S ( ,PI]RE-,JOSEPH ,PR\DHON 7$4 ,/EW>T ,$W>DS71 ,MACMILLAN 

,MI*AEL ,BAKUN91 ,! ,POLITICAL ,PHILOSOPHY ( ,BAKUN9 7$4 ,G4 ,P4 ,MAXIM(F71 ,! ,FREE ,PRESS ( ,GL5COE 

,PET] ,KROPOTK91 ,MEMOIRS ( A ,REVOLUTIONI/1 ,DOV] ,BOOKS 

,LEO ,TOL/OY1 ,TOL/OY'S ,WRIT+S ON ,CIVIL ,DISOB$I5CE & ,NONVIOL5CE1 ,SIGNET ,BOOKS 

,! BE/ REC5T BOOK ON AN>*ISM IS ,DANIEL ,GU]9'S ,AN>*ISM3 ,FROM ,!ORY TO ,PRACTICE1 ,MON?LY ,REVIEW ,PRESS4 ,! ,5GLI% TRANSLATION APPE>$ 9 #a#i#g1 ) AN ,9TRODUCTION BY ,NOAM ,*OMSKY4 

,A G5]ALLY 9T]E/+ ANALYSIS ( ! AN>*I/ CONT5T ( CURR5T LEFT-W+ MOVEM5TS IS PROVID$ BY AN ISSUE ( ,GOV]NM5T & ,OPPOSITION $IT$ BY ,JAMES ,JOLL3 ,AN>*ISM ,TODAY'1 ,GOV]NM5T & ,OPPOSITION1 ,VOL4 #e1 ,NO4 #d1 ,AUTUMN #a#i#g4 ,?IS ISSUE 9CLUDES A HELPFUL SURVEY ( ! LIT]ATURE ON AN>*ISM4 

,ONE ( ! BE/ GUIDES TO LIT]ATURE BE+ PUBLI%$1 & TO AN>*I/ !ORY PA/ & PRES5T IS ! MON?LY J\RNAL ,AN>*Y1 PUBLI%$ BY ,FRE$OM ,PRESS1 #h#dB ,:ITE*APEL ,HI< ,/REET1 ,LONDON1 ,E4I4 

,BIBLIOGRAPHY 

,AN>*Y1 ,FRE$OM ,PRESS1 ,NO4 #ih 7,APRIL #a#i#f#i7 ,NO4 #ia 7,SEPTEMB] #a#i#f#h71 ,NO4 #id 7,DECEMB] #a#i#f#h7 ,NO4 #if 7,FEBRU>Y #a#i#f#i7 

,>5DT1 ,HANNAH1 7#a#i#e#i71 ,! ,HUMAN ,CONDITION1 ,D\BL$AY1 ,AN*OR ,BOOKS1 ,NEW ,YORK 

,>5DT1 ,HANNAH1 7#a#i#f#c71 ,ON ,REVOLUTION1 ,FAB] & ,FAB] 

,>5DT1 ,HANNAH1 7#a#i#e#h71 ,! ,ORIG9S ( ,TOTALIT>IANISM1 ,ALL5 @& ,UNW9 

,>5DT1 ,HANNAH1 ',TRU? & ,POLITIES'1 ,PHILOSOPHY1 ,POLITICS & ,SOCIETY1 ,?IRD ,S]IES 7$S4 ,P4 ,LASLETT & ,W4 ,G4 ,RUNCIMAN71 7#a#i#f#g71 ,BASIL ,BLACKWELL 

,BAKUN91 ,MI*AEL1 7CIRCA #a#i#a#e71 ,GOD & ! ,/ATE1 ,MO!R ,E>? ,PUBLI%+ ,ASSOCIATION1 ,NEW ,YORK 

,BAKUN91 ,MI*AEL1 7#a#i#e71 ,M>XISM1 ,FRE$OM & ! ,/ATE1 7$4 ,K4 ,J4 ,K5AFICK71 ,FRE$OM ,PRESS 

,BAKUN91 ,MI*AEL1 7#a#i#f#d71 ,! ,POLITICAL ,PHILOSOPHY ( ,BAKUN91 7$4 ,G4 ,P4 ,MAXIM(F71 ,! ,FREE ,PRESS ( ,GL5COE1 ,FREE ,PRESS ,PAP]BACKS1 ,NEW ,YORK 

,BALDW91 ,JAMES1 7#a#i#f#e71 ,NOTES ( A ,NATIVE ,SON1 ,CORGI ,BOOKS 

,B>K]1 ,]NE/1 7#a#i#e#a71 ,PR9CIPLES ( ,SOCIAL & ,POLITICAL ,!ORY1 ,OX=D ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS ,PAP]BACKS 

,B5DIX1 ,RE9H>D1 7#a#i#f#f71 ,MAX ,WEB]1 ,ME?U5 ,UNIV]SITY ,PAP]BACKS 

,B]KMAN1 ,ALEX&]1 7#a#i#f#d71 ,A,B,C ( ,AN>*ISM1 ,FRE$OM ,PRESS 

,B]KMAN1 ,ALEX&]1 7#a#i#b#e71 ,! ,BOL%EVIK ,MY?1 ,HUT*9SON 

,BOGN>1 ,JOSZEF1 ',G&HI'S ,HUNDR$? ,BIR?DAY'1 ,! ,NEW ,HUNG>IAN ,QU>T]LY1 ,VOL4 ,X,I1 ,NO4 #c#g1 7,SPR+ #a#i#g7 

,BRAM/$T1 ,E4 ,K41 7#a#i#d#e71 ,DICTATOR%IP & ,POLITICAL ,POLICE1 ,KEGAN ,PAUL1 ,TR5* & ,TRUBN] 

,BR5AN1 ,G]ALD1 7#a#i#f#g71 ,! ,SPANI% ,LABYR9?1 ,CAMBRIDGE ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS ,PAP]BACKS 

,BUB]1 ,M>T91 7#a#i#d#i71 ,PA?S 9 ,UTOPIA1 ,R\TL$GE @& ,KEGAN ,PAUL 

,BUB]1 ,M>T91 7#a#i#e#g71 ,PO9T+ ! ,WAY1 ,R\TL$GE @& ,KEGAN ,PAUL 

,CAMUS1 ,ALB]T1 7#a#i#f#b71 ,! ,REBEL1 ,P5GU9 ,BOOKS 

,COLE1 ,G4 ,D4 ,H41 7#a#i#f#a71 ,A ,HI/ORY ( ,SOCIALI/ ,?\<T1 VOLS4 #a-#e1 ,MACMILLAN 

,COLTMAN1 ,IR5E1 7#a#i#f#b71 ,PRIVATE ,M5 & ,PUBLIC ,CAUSES1 ,FAB] @& ,FAB] 

,COM=T1 ,ALEX1 7#a#i#d#f71 ,>T & ,SOCIAL ,RESPONSIBILITY1 ,FALCON ,PRESS 

,COM=T1 ,ALEX1 7#a#i#e71 ,AU?ORITY & ,DEL9QU5CY 9 ! ,MOD]N ,/ATE1 ,R\TL$GE @& ,KEGAN ,PAUL 

,CRICK1 ,B]N>D1 7#a#i#f#d71 ,9 ,DEF5SE ( ,POLITICS1 ,P5GU9 ,BOOKS 

,DE ,J\V5EL1 ,B]TR&1 7#a#i#d#h71 ,P[]1 ,HUT*9SON @& ,CO4 

,DE ,J\V5EL1 ,B]TR&1 7#a#i#f#c71 ,! ,PURE ,!ORY ( ,POLITICS1 ,CAMBRIDGE ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS 

,DE ,MAUNY1 ,]IK1 7#a#i#f#i71 ,RUSSIAN ,PROSPECT1 ,MACMILLAN 

,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE1 ,ALEXIS1 7#a#i#e#a71 ,DEMOCRACY 9 ,AM]ICA1 #b VOLS41 ,ALFR$ ,A4 ,KNOPF1 ,NEW ,YORK 

,DE ,TOCQUEVILLE1 ,ALEXIS1 7#a#i#e#e71 ,! ,OLD ,REGIME & ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 ,D\BL$AY1 ,AN*OR ,BOOKS1 ,NEW ,YORK 

,DR9NON1 ,RI*>D1 7#a#i#f#a71 ,REBEL 9 ,P>ADISE1 ,UNIV]SITY ( ,*ICAGO ,PRESS 

,DURKHEIM1 ,EMILE1 7#a#i#f#b71 ,SOCIALISM1 ,COLLI] ,BOOKS1 ,NEW ,YORK 

,ELTZBA*]1 ,PAUL1 7#a#i#f71 ,AN>*ISM1 ,FRE$OM ,PRESS 

,FEU]BA*1 ,LUDWIG1 7#a#i#e#g71 ,! ,ESS5CE ( ,*RI/IANITY1 ,H>P] ,TOR*BOOKS1 ,NEW ,YORK 

,GODW91 ,WILLIAM1 7#a#i#d#f71 ,9QUIRY ,CONC]N+ ,POLITICAL ,JU/ICE1 #b VOLS41 ,UNIV]SITY ( ,TORONTO ,PRESS 

,GODW91 ,WILLIAM1 7#a#i#d#i71 ,POLITICAL ,JU/ICE3 ,A ,REPR9T ( ! ,ESSAYS ON ,PROP]TY 7$1 ,H4 ,S4 ,SALT71 ,ALL5 @& ,UNW9 

,GOLDMAN1 ,EMMA1 7UNDAT$71 ,AN>*ISM & ,O!R ,ESSAYS1 ,MOD]N ,PUBLI%]S1 ,9DORE1 ,9DIA 

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,ORTEGA Y ,GASSET1 ,JOSE1 7#a#i#f#a71 ,! ,REVOLT ( ! ,MASSES1 ,ALL5 @& ,UNW91 ,UNW9 ,BOOKS 

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