,*APT] #d 
,C5TRALIZATION & ,AUTONOMY 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,ROSA ,LUXEMBURG 

,TEXT 3 

,WE HAVE NOT$ ! G5]AL C5TRALIZ+ T5D5CY ( CAPITALISM 9 ! B\RGEOIS /ATES4 ,BUT LOCAL AUTONOMY ALSO GR[S SIMULTANE\SLY \T ( ! OBJECTIVE DEVELOPM5T & \T ( ! NE$S ( B\RGEOIS SOCIETY4 

,B\RGEOIS ECONOMY REQUIRES AS GREAT A UNI=MITY AS POSSIBLE 9 LEGISLATION1 ! JUDICI>Y1 ADM9I/RATION1 ! S*OOL SY/EM1 ETC41 9 ! 5TIRE >EA ( ! /ATE1 & AS F> AS POSSIBLE1 EV5 9 9T]NATIONAL RELATIONS4 ,BUT ! SAME B\RGEOIS ECONOMY1 9 C>RY+ \T ALL !SE FUNCTIONS1 DEM&S ACCURACY & EFFICI5CY QUITE AS MU* AS UNI=MITY4 ,! C5TRALISM ( ! MOD]N /ATES IS ( NECESSITY CONNECT$ ) A BUREAUCRATIC SY/EM4 ,9 ! M$IEVAL /ATE1 9 A S]F ECONOMY1 PUBLIC FUNCTIONS W]E CONNECT$ ) L&$ PROP]TY2 !SE W]E ! 0CONCRETE RI<TS10 A K9D ( L& TAX4 ,! FEUDAL LORD ( E/ATES WAS AT ! SAME TIME & BY ! SAME TOK5 A CIVIL & CRIM9AL JUDGE1 ! HEAD ( ! POLICE ADM9I/RATION1 ! *IEF ( MILIT>Y =CES 9 A C]TA9 T]RITORY1 & COLLECTOR ( TAXES4 ,!SE FUNCTIONS CONNECT$ ) [N+ REAL E/ATE W]E1 LIKE ! L& ITSELF1 ! OBJECT ( TRANSACTIONS1 GIFT1 SALE1 9H]ITANCE1 & SO ON4 ,ABSOLUTISM1 :I* 9CREAS$ T[>D ! 5D ( ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 PAV+ ! WAY = CAPITALISM BY ITS /RUGGLE AGA9/ FEUDAL DISP]SAL ( /ATE AU?ORITY1 SEP>AT$ PUBLIC FUNCTIONS FROM L& [N]%IP & CREAT$ A NEW SOCIAL CATEGORY = ! EXECUTION ( !SE FUNCTIONS1 NAMELY CR[N (FICIALS4 ,) ! DEVELOPM5T ( MOD]N CAPITALI/IC /ATES1 ! P]=MANCE ( PUBLIC FUNCTIONS PASS$ COMPLETELY 9TO ! H&S ( PAID HIREL+S4 ,?IS SOCIAL GR\P 9CREAS$ NUM]ICALLY & CREAT$ ! MOD]N /ATE BUREAUCRACY4 ,ON ! ONE H&1 ! TRANSF] ( PUBLIC FUNCTIONS TO HIR$ P]SONNEL - COMPLETELY DEVOT$ TO !IR WORK & DIRECT$ BY ONE P[]FUL POLITICAL C5T] - CORRESPONDS ) ! SPIRIT ( B\RGEOIS ECONOMY1 :I* IS BAS$ ON SPECIALIZATION1 DIVISION ( LABOR1 & A COMPLETE SUBORD9ATION ( MANP[] TO ! PURPOSE ( MA9TA9+ ! SOCIAL ME*ANISM3 ON ! O!R H&1 H[EV]1 ! C5TRALI/ BUREAUCRACY HAS S]I\S DRAWBACKS HAMP]+ ! ECONOMY4 

,CAPITALI/ PRODUCTION & EX*ANGE >E *>ACT]IZ$ BY ! HI<E/ S5SITIVITY & ELA/ICITY1 BY ! CAPACITY1 & EV5 ! 9CL9ATION = CON/ANT *ANGES 9 CONNECTION ) ?\S&S ( SOCIAL 9FLU5CES :I* CAUSE CON/ANT FLUCTUATIONS & UNDULATIONS 9 M>KET CONDITIONS1 & 9 ! CONDITIONS ( PRODUCTION !MSELVES4 ,AS A RESULT ( !SE FLUCTUATIONS1 ! B\RGEOIS ECONOMY REQUIRES SUBTLE1 P]CEPTIVE ADM9I/RATION ( PUBLIC S]VICES SU* AS ! C5TRALIZ$ BUREAUCRACY1 ) ITS RIGIDITY & R\T9E1 IS NOT ABLE TO AF=D4 ,H5CE1 ALREADY AS A CORRECTIVE TO ! C5TRALISM ( ! MOD]N /ATE1 !RE DEVELOPS1 9 B\RGEOIS SOCIETY1 ALONG ) LEGISLATION BY REPRES5TATIVE ASSEMBLIES1 A NATURAL T5D5CY T[>D LOCAL AUTONOMY1 GIV+ ! POSSIBILITY ( A BETT] ADJU/M5T ( ! /ATE APP>ATUS TO SOCIAL NE$S4 ,= LOCAL AUTONOMY TAKES 9TO ACC\NT ! MANIFOLD V>IETY ( LOCAL CONDITIONS & ALSO BR+S AB\T A DIRECT 9FLU5CE & COOP]ATION ( SOCIETY ?R\< ITS PUBLIC FUNCTIONS4 

,H[EV]1 MORE IMPORTANT ?AN ! DEFICI5CIES 9SEP>ABLE FROM ! RULE ( BUREAUCRACY1 BY :I* ! !ORY ( B\RGEOIS LIB]ALISM USUALLY EXPLA9S ! NECESSITY = AUTONOMY1 !RE IS ANO!R CIRCUM/ANCE4 ,! CAPITALI/ ECONOMY BR\<T =?1 FROM ! MOM5T ( ! 9CEPTION ( MASS FACTORY PRODUCTION1 A :OLE S]IES ( 5TIRELY NEW SOCIAL NE$S IMP]I\SLY DEM&+ SATISFACTION4 ,ABOVE ALL ! P5ETRATION ( BIG CAPITAL & ! SY/EM ( HIR$ LABOR1 HAV+ UND]M9$ & RU9$ ! 5TIRE TRADITIONAL SOCIAL /RUCTURE1 CREAT$ A PLAGUE UNKN[N BE=E1 NAMELY MASS UNEMPLOYM5T & PAUP]IZATION = ! PROLET>IAT4 ,S9CE CAPITAL NE$S A RES]VE LABOR =CE & S9CE PUBLIC SECURITY MU/ BE PRES]V$1 SOCIETY1 9 ORD] TO HOLD 9 *ECK ! PROLET>IAN MASSES DEPRIV$ ( MEANS ( LIVELIHOOD & EMPLOYM5T1 CANNOT BUT TAKE C>E ( !M4 ,9 ?IS WAY1 MOD]N PUBLIC WELF>E COMES 9TO BE+ AS A SOCIAL FUNCTION )9 ! FRAMEWORK ( CAPITALI/IC PRODUCTION4 

,! AGGLOM]ATION ( BIG MASSES ( 9DU/RIAL PROLET>IANS 9 ! WOR/ MAT]IAL CONDITIONS 9 ! MOD]N 9DU/RIAL C5T]S CREAT$ = ! ADJAC5T B\RGEOIS CLASSES A ?REAT ( 9FECTI\S DISEASES & BR\<T AB\T ANO!R URG5T SOCIAL NE$3 PUBLIC CONC]N = HEAL?1 & 9 CONNECTION ) ?IS1 ! :OLE MANAGEM5T ( ! SEWAGE SY/EM & SUPPLY ( WAT] AS WELL AS PUBLIC REGULATION ( BUILD+ CON/RUCTION4 

,! REQUIREM5TS ( CAPITALI/ PRODUCTION & ( B\RGEOIS SOCIETY BR\<T AB\T = ! FIR/ TIME ! PROBLEM ( POPUL> $UCATION4 ,! SY/EM ( S*OOLS ACCESSIBLE TO BROAD MASSES1 NOT ONLY 9 ! BIG CITIES BUT ALSO 9 ! PROV9CES & AMONG ! RURAL POPULATION1 BR\<T ! IDEA ?AT ! CREATION & REGULATION ( S*OOLS WAS A PUBLIC FUNCTION4 

,! MOVEM5T ( GOODS & P]SONS 9 ! :OLE >EA ( ! /ATE AS A NORMAL PH5OM5ON & A CONDITION ( ! EXI/5CE ( CAPITALI/ PRODUCTION BR\<T =? ! NE$ = CON/ANT PUBLIC CONC]N AB\T ROADS & MEANS ( COMMUNICATION1 NOT ONLY 9 ! =M ( TRUNK-L9E RAILROADS & M>ITIME TRAFFIC1 IMPORTANT FROM ! PO9T ( VIEW ( MILIT>Y /RATEGY & WORLD TRADE1 BUT ALSO ( VEHICUL> ROADS1 HI<WAYS1 BRIDGES1 RIV] NAVIGATION1 & SUBSIDI>Y RAILROADS4 ,! CREATION & MA9T5ANCE ( !SE 9DISP5SABLE CONDITIONS ( 9T]NAL COMMUNICATION BECAME ONE ( ! MO/ URG5T ECONOMIC NE$S ( B\RGEOIS SOCIETY4 

,F9ALLY1 PUBLIC SAFETY ( P]SONS & PROP]TY AS A MATT] ( G5]AL CONC]N & SOCIAL NE$ IS ALSO A CLE>LY MOD]N PRODUCT1 CONNECT$ ) ! REQUIREM5TS ( CAPITALI/ ECONOMY4 ,9 M$IEVAL SOCIETY1 SAFETY WAS GU>ANTE$ BY SOME SPECIAL >EAS ( LEGAL PROTECTION3 = ! RURAL POPULATION1 ! >EA ( ! RESPECTIVE FEUDAL DOM9ION1 = ! BUR<]S1 ! PROTECTIVE WALLS ( ! CITY & ! /ATUTES & 0FRE$OMS0 ( EA* CITY SEP>ATELY4 ,! KNI<TS W]E SUPPOS$ TO GU>ANTEE !IR [N SAFETY4 ,MOD]N SOCIETY1 BAS$ ON ! PRODUCTION ( GOODS1 NE$S SAFETY ( P]SONS & PROP]TY AS A UNIV]SAL SOCIAL GU>ANTEE = EV]YBODY 9 ! 5TIRE T]RITORY ( ! /ATE )\T DISCRIM9ATION4 ,! C5TRAL GOV]NM5T CANNOT SATISFY ALL !SE NE$S4 ,!RE >E SOME ! GOV]NM5T CANNOT TAKE C>E ( AT ALL1 LIKE ! LOCAL AFFAIRS 9 ! REMOTE P>TS ( ! C\NTRY2 UND]/&ABLY1 ! GOV]NM5T T5DS TO TRANSMIT ! EXP5SES ( MANAG+ SU* AFFAIRS TO ! LOCAL POPULATION4 

,LOCAL AUTONOMY1 !RE=E1 ORIG9ATES 9 ALL MOD]N /ATES V]Y E>LY1 ABOVE ALL 9 ! =M ( TRANSF]R+ ! MAT]IAL BURD5 ( A S]IES ( SOCIAL FUNCTIONS TO ! POPULATION ITSELF4 

,ON ! O!R H&1 CAPITALISM /RATIFIES & L9KS 9TO ONE ECONOMIC & SOCIAL ORGANISM ! BIGGE/ /ATE >EAS1 &1 TO A C]TA9 EXT5T1 ! 5TIRE WORLD4 ,AT ! SAME TIME1 H[EV]1 9 ORD] TO PROMOTE ITS 9T]E/S1 TO P]FECT & 9TEGRATE ! B\RGEOIS ECONOMY1 CAPITALISM SPLITS ! .<AUTONOM\S.> /ATES & CREATES NEW C5T]S1 NEW SOCIAL ORGANISMS1 AS1 = 9/ANCE1 BIG CITIES & PROV9CIAL REGIONS1 ETC4 ,A CONTEMPOR>Y MOD]N CITY IS TI$ BY NUMB]LESS ECONOMIC & POLITICAL BONDS NOT ONLY TO ! /ATE BUT TO ! 5TIRE WORLD4 ,! ACCUMULATION ( PEOPLE1 ! DEVELOPM5T ( MUNICIPAL TRANSPORTATION & ECONOMY1 TURNS ! CITY 9TO A SEP>ATE SMALL ORGANISM2 ITS NE$S & PUBLIC FUNCTIONS >E MORE NUM]\S & V>I$ ?AN W]E ?OSE ( A M$IEVAL CITY1 :I* ) ITS H&ICRAFT PRODUCTION1 WAS ALMO/ 5TIRELY 9DEP5D5T BO? ECONOMICALLY & POLITICALLY4 

,! CREATION ( DIFF]5T /ATES & ( NEW URBAN >EAS PROVID$ ! FRAMEWORK = ! MOD]N MUNICIPAL GOV]NM5T - A PRODUCT ( NEW SOCIAL NE$S4 ,A MUNICIPAL OR PROV9CIAL GOV]NM5T IS NECESS>Y 9 ORD] TO COMPLY ) ! NE$S ( !SE SPECIFIC SOCIAL ORGANISMS 9TO :I* CAPITALISM1 FOLL[+ ! ECONOMIC PR9CIPLE ( ! CONTRADICTORY 9T]E/S ( ! CITY & ! VILLAGE1 TRANS=M$ ! CITY ON ! ONE H& & ! VILLAGE ON ! O!R4 ,)9 ! FRAMEWORK ( ! SPECIAL CAPITALI/IC CONNECTION BETWE5 9DU/RY & AGRICULTURE1 ?AT IS1 BETWE5 CITY & VILLAGE1 )9 ! FRAMEWORK ( ! CLOSE MUTUAL DEP5D5CE ( !IR PRODUCTION & EX*ANGE1 A ?\S& ?READS L9K+ ! DAILY 9T]E/S ( ! POPULATION ( EA* MAJOR CITY ) ! EXI/5CE ( ! POPULATION ( ! NEI<BOR+ VILLAGES !RE GOES1 9 A NATURAL WAY1 A PROV9CIAL AUTONOMY AS 9 ,FRANCE - DEP>TM5TAL1 CANTONAL1 OR COMMUNAL4 ,MOD]N AUTONOMY 9 ALL !SE =MS IS BY NO MEANS ! ABOLITION ( /ATE C5TRALISM BUT ONLY ITS SUPPLEM5TATION2 TOGE!R !Y CON/ITUTE ! *>ACT]I/IC =M ( ! B\RGEOIS /ATE4 

,BESIDES POLITICAL UNIFICATION1 /ATE SOV]EIGNTY1 UNI=M LEGISLATION1 & C5TRALIZ$ /ATE GOV]NM5T1 LOCAL AUTONOMY BECAME1 9 ALL !SE C\NTRIES1 ONE ( ! BASIC POLICY ISSUES BO? ( ! LIB]ALS & ( ! B\RGEOIS DEMOCRACY4 ,LOCAL AUTONOMY1 GR[+ \T ( ! MOD]N B\RGEOIS SY/EM 9 ! MANN] 9DICAT$1 HAS NO?+ 9 COMMON ) F$]ALISM OR P>TICUL>ISM H&$ D[N FROM ! M$IEVAL PA/4 ,IT IS EV5 ITS EXACT OPPOSITE4 ,:ILE ! M$IEVAL P>TICUL>ISM OR F$]ALISM CON/ITUTES A SEP>ATION ( ! POLITICAL FUNCTIONS ( ! /ATE1 MOD]N AUTONOMY CON/ITUTES ONLY AN ADAPTATION ( ! CONC5TRAT$ /ATE FUNCTIONS TO LOCAL NE$S & ! P>TICIPATION 9 !M ( ! PEOPLE4 ,:ILE1 !RE=E1 COMMUNAL P>TICUL>ISM OR F$]ALISM 9 ! SPIRIT ( 

,BAKUN9'S IDEAL IS A PLAN = SPLITT+ ! T]RITORY ( A BIG /ATE 9TO SMALL >EAS P>TLY OR COMPLETELY 9DEP5D5T ( EA* O!R1 MOD]N AUTONOMY IS ONLY A =M ( DEMOCRATIZATION ( A C5TRALIZ$ BIG /ATE4 ,! CLE>E/ ILLU/RATION ( ?IS PO9T ( MOD]N AUTONOMY :I* GREW 9 ! *IEF MOD]N /ATES ON ! GRAVE ! =M] P>TICUL>ISM & 9 CLE> OPPOSITION TO IT4 

  

,I,I 

,/ATE ADM9I/RATIVE & BUREAUCRATIC C5TRALISM WAS 9ITIAT$ 9 ,FRANCE BY ABSOLUTISM DUR+ ! ANCI5 REGIME4 ,BY ! SUPPRESSION ( COMMUNAL 9DEP5D5CE 9 ! CITIES1 ESPECIALLY 9 ,P>IS1 BY SUBJUGAT+ ! L>GE/ FEUDAL POSSESSIONS & 9CORPORAT+ !M 9TO ! CR[NL&S1 F9ALLY BY CONC5TRAT+ ADM9I/RATION 9 ! H&S ( ! /ATE C\NCIL & ROYAL SUP]VISORS1 !RE WAS CREAT$ ALREADY 9 ! TIME ( ,RI*ELIEU A P[]FUL APP>ATUS ( /ATE C5TRALISM4 ,! =M] 9DEP5D5T FEUDAL FIEFS W]E R$UC$ TO ! CONDITION ( PROV9CES2 SOME ( !M W]E GOV]N$ BY ASSEMBLIES :OSE P[]1 H[EV]1 WAS MORE & MORE ( AN ILLUSION4 

,! ,GREAT ,REVOLUTION UND]TOOK ITS WORK 9 TWO DIRECTIONS4 ,ON ! ONE H&1 CONT9U+ ! T5D5CY T[>D POLITICAL C5TRALIZATION1 IT COMPLETELY ABOLI%$ ! T]RITORIAL REMNANTS ( FEUDALISM2 ON ! O!R1 9 PLACE ( ! PROV9CIAL ADM9I/RATION ( BUREAUCRATS ASSIGN$ BY ! GOV]NM5T1 IT CREAT$ A LOCAL ADM9I/RATION ) REPRES5TATIVES ELECT$ BY ! PEOPLE4 ,! ,CON/ITU5T ,ASSEMBLY WIP$ FROM ! MAP ( ,FRANCE ! HI/ORICAL DIVISION ( ! C\NTRY 9TO PROV9CES1 AS WELL AS ! M$IEVAL DIVISION 9TO ADM9I/RATIVELY DIV]SE CITIES & VILLAGES4 ,ON ! TABULA RASA :I* WAS ?US LEFT ! ,CON/ITU5T ,ASSEMBLY1 FOLL[+ ! IDEA ( ,SIEYES1 9TRODUC$ A NEW1 SIMPLE1 GEOMETRICAL DIVISION 9TO SQU>E DEP>TM5TS4 ,! DEP>TM5TS1 9 TURN1 >E SUBDIVID$ 9TO >RONDISSEM5TS1 CANTONS1 & COMMUNES1 EA* GOV]N$ BY A BODY ELECT$ BY PUBLIC VOTE4 ,! CON/ITUTION ( ! ,DIRECTORY ( ! ,YE> ,I,I,I MADE C]TA9 *ANGES 9 DETAILS1 MA9TA9+ H[EV]1 ! F\NDATIONS ( ! GREAT RE=M EFFECT$ BY ! ,CON/ITU5T ,ASSEMBLY2 IT WAS ?IS RE=M :I* HAD GIV5 TO MOD]N HI/ORY AN EPO*-MAK+ MODEL ( MOD]N AUTONOMY1 :I* GREW UP ON ! GRAVE ( FEUDAL DEC5TRALIZATION & WAS IMBU$ ) AN 5TIRELY NEW IDEA1 NAMELY1 DEMOCRATIC REPRES5TATION BY ELECTION4 

,!RE FOLL[$ A HUNDR$ YE>S ( *ANGE 9 ! HI/ORY ( AUTONOMY 9 ,FRANCE4 ,?IS HI/ORY & ! :OLE POLITICAL FATE ( DEMOCRACY 9 ! C\NTRY OSCILLAT$1 9 A *>ACT]I/IC MANN]1 BETWE5 TWO POLES4 ,! SLOGAN ( ! >I/OCRATIC1 MON>*ICAL REACTION IS1 ?R\<\T ?IS TIME1 DEC5TRALIZATION1 9 ! S5SE ( RETURN+ TO ! 9DEP5D5CE ( ! =M] HI/ORICAL PROV9CES1 :ILE ! SLOGAN ( LIB]ALISM & DEMOCRACY IS CLOSE ADH]5CE TO POLITICAL C5TRALISM & AT ! SAME TIME1 ! RI<TS ( REPRES5TATION ( ! LOCAL POPULATION1 ESPECIALLY 9 ! COMMUNE4 ,! FIR/ BL[ TO ! WORK ( ! ,REVOLUTION 9 ?AT FIELD WAS DEALT BY ,NAPOLEON1 :O WAS CR[N$ BY ! SO-CALL$ ,/ATUTE ( ,PLUVOIS #bh ( ! YE> ,V,I,I,I 7,FEB4 #a#g1 #a#h71 HIS C\P D'ETAT ( #a#h? ,BRUMAIRE4 ,?IS /ATUTE1 TAK+ ADVANTAGE ( ! G5]AL CONFUSION & *AOS CAUS$ ESPECIALLY 9 ! PROV9CES BY ! C\NT]-REVOLUTION DUR+ ! TIME ( ! ,DIRECTORY1 = :I* ! DEMOCRATIC AUTONOMY WAS BLAM$1 HA/ILY COMPRESS$ ! WORK ( ! ,REVOLUTION 9TO ! FRAMEWORK ( BUREAUCRACY4 ,MA9TA9+ ! NEW T]RITORIAL DIVISION ( ,FRANCE 9 L9E ) POLITICAL C5TRALISM1 ,NAPOLEON ABOLI%$1 BY ONE /ROKE ( ! P51 ANY P>TICIPATION ( ! PEOPLE 9 LOCAL AUTONOMY & GAVE OV] ! 5TIRE P[] 9TO ! H&S ( (FICIALS ASSIGN$ BY ! C5TRAL GOV]NM5T3 PREFECT1 SUB-PREFECT1 & MAYOR4 ,9 ! DEP>TM5T1 ! ,NAPOLEONIC PREFECT WAS1 9 A CONSID]ABLE MEASURE1 A RESURRECTION ( ! SUP]VISOR FROM ! HAPPY TIMES ( ! ANCI5 REGIME4 ,NAPOLEON EXPRESS$ ?IS REV]SION ) *>ACT]I/IC FRANKNESS :5 HE SAID1 0,AVEC MES PREFETS1 MES G5S D'>MES ET MES PRETRES1 JE F]AI T\T CE QUE JE V\DRAI40 .<0,) ! HELP ( MY PREFECTS1 POLICE1 & PRIE/S ,I WILL DO :ATEV] ,I LIKE40.> 

,! ,RE/ORATION KEPT ! SY/EM ( ITS PR$ECESSOR 9 G5]AL1 ACCORD+ TO A CURR5T EXPRESSION4 0,! ,B\RBONS SLEPT ON A B$ ?AT HAD BE5 MADE BY ,NAPOLEON40 ,H[EV]1 AS SOON AS ! >I/OCRATIC EMIGRATION RETURN$ HOME ITS BATTLE CRY WAS DEC5TRALIZATION1 A RETURN TO ! SY/EM ( ! PROV9CES4 ,! NOTORI\S *AMBRE 9TR\VABLE HAD SC>CELY ASSEMBL$ :5 ONE ( ! EXTREME ,ROYALI/S1 ,B>! ,LEBA/RIE1 AT A MEET+ ( ,JANU>Y #a#c1 #a#h#a#f1 SOLEMNLY ANN\NC$ ! 9DISP5SABILITY ( DEC5TRALIZATION4 ,ON MANY LAT] OCCASIONS ! LEAD]S ( ! RI<T1 ,CORBI]E1 ,DE ,BONALD1 ,LA ,B\RDONNAYE1 DE ,VILLELE1 ,DUV]GI] DE ,HAURANNE1 >GU$ 0! IMPOSSIBILITY ( RECONCIL+ ! MON>*Y ) REPUBLICAN UNI=MITY & EQUALITY40 ,UND] ?IS /&>D1 ! >I/OCRACY F\<T SIMPLY = A RETURN TO ITS =M] POSITION 9 ! PROV9CES FROM ! ECONOMIC & POLITICAL PO9T ( VIEW4 ,AT ! SAME TIME1 IT D5\NC$ POLITICAL C5TRALISM AS 0A G]3NID = REVOLUTION1 A HOTB$ ( 9NOVATIONS & AGITATION40 ,H]E WE ALREADY HE> LIT]ALLY ! SAME >GUM5TS UND] COV] ( :I* ! RI<T1 HALF A C5TURY LAT]1 TRI$ TO MOBILIZE ! PROV9CIAL REACTION AGA9/ ! REVOLUTION>Y ,P>IS ,COMMUNE4 

,!RE=E1 ! FIR/ TIMID ATTEMPT AT ! RE=M ( ! LOCAL ADM9I/RATION ) APPLICATION ( ! PR9CIPLE ( ELECTION1 ?AT IS1 ! PROJECT ( ,M>TIGNAQUE1 CALL$ =? A /ORM 9 ! HONORABLE PRE-,JULY ASSEMBLY & WAS REJECT$ CLE>LY AS ! 0BEG9N+ ( REVOLUTION40 ,! 5RAG$ REPRES5TATIVES ( ! L&$ >I/OCRACY DEM&$ ONLY ! BROAD5+ ( ! COMPET5CE ( ! PREFECT & SUB-PREFECT & MAK+ !M DEP5D5T ON ! C5TRAL AU?ORITY4 ,H[EV]1 ! DAYS ( ! ,RE/ORATION W]E ALREADY NUMB]$ & ! DEFEAT ( ,M>TIGNAQUE'S PROJECT BECAME ! PROLOGUE ( ! ,JULY ,REVOLUTION4 ,! ,JULY ,MON>*Y1 :I* WAS ONLY AN IMPROV$ $ITION ( ! ,RE/ORATION 9 ! SPIRIT ( ! RULE ( ! RI*E/ B\RGEOISIE1 9TRODUC$ 9SIGNIFICANT *ANGES 9 LOCAL AUTONOMY2 IT PROVID$ A %AD[ ( ! SY/EM ( ELECTION4 ,! LAW ( #ahca ON ! COMMUNES & ! LAW ( #ahcc ON ! DEP>TM5TS GAVE ! RI<T ( SUFFRAGE = MUNICIPAL & DEP>TM5TAL C\NCILS TO A SMALL M9ORITY ( ! MO/ HI<LY TAX$ AS WELL AS TO ! BUREAUCRACY & B\RGEOIS 9TELLIG5TSIA1 )\T1 H[EV]1 ANY BROAD5+ ( ! ATTRIBUTES ( !SE C\NCILS4 

,! REVOLUTION ( #ahdh RE/OR$ ! WORK ( ITS GREAT PR$ECESSOR1 9TRODUC$ UNIV]SAL SUFFRAGE = DEP>TM5TAL C\NCILS1 & MADE ! MEET+S ( ! C\NCILS PUBLIC4 ,AFT] ! ,JUNE DAYS1 ! P>TY ( ! >I/OCRATIC-CL]ICAL RI<T VIOL5TLY DEM&$ ! RETURN TO DEC5TRALIZATION AS A WEAPON AGA9/ ! HYDRA ( SOCIALISM4 ,9 #a#h#d#i-#a#h#e#a1 ! DEP>TM5TAL C\NCILS UNANIM\SLY DEM&$ ! EXT5SION ( !IR COMPET5CE & EXTRAORD9>Y P[]S 9 CASE ( CIVIL W>1 = USE AGA9/ ,P>IS4 ,?I]S1 AT ?AT TIME /ILL A LIB]AL1 ON ! CONTR>Y1 9SI/$ ON C5TRALISM AS ! MO/ C]TA9 PREV5TIVE MEANS AGA9/ SOCIALISM4 7,! V]Y SAME ,?I]S1 IT IS TRUE1 9 #a#h#g#a1 HIMSELF WAV$ ! BANN] ( F$]ALISM & DEC5TRALIZATION TO MOBILIZE ! PROV9CES AGA9/ ! ,P>IS ,COMMUNE47 ,! ,SECOND ,REPUBLIC1 9 LIQUIDAT+ ! WORK ( ! ,FEBRU>Y ,REVOLUTION1 PREP>$ 9 #ahea A PROJECT = ! RE=M ( LOCAL ADM9I/RATION :I* RE/OR$ COMPLETELY ! SY/EM ( ,NAPOLEON ,I1 ) AN ALL-P[]FUL PREFECT1 & 9 ?IS WAY BUILT H]E1 AS 9 G5]AL1 A BRIDGE ON :I* ,NAPOLEON ,I,I,I 5T]$4 ,! LATT] UND]TOOK AN EV5 MORE ?OR\< REVISION ( ! ,FEBRU>Y A*IEVEM5TS1 PUT LOCAL ADM9I/RATION EV5 FUR!R BACK ?AN ! RE=MS ( ,NAPOLEON ,I1 & ABOLI%$ ! OP5NESS ( ! MEET+S ( ! DEP>TM5TAL C\NCILS & !IR RI<T TO ELECT !IR [N CAB9ET2 FROM !N ON ! GOV]NM5T APPO9T$ MAYORS QUITE >BITR>ILY1 I4E41 NOT FROM )9 ! COMMUNAL C\NCIL4 ,F9ALLY1 ,NAPOLEON ,I,I,I EXP&$ ! P[] ( ! PREFECTS 7BY ! LAWS ( #aheb & #a#h#f#a7 TO SU* AN EXT5T ?AT HE MADE !M COMPLETELY 9DEP5D5T ( ! GOV]NM5T4 ,!SE OMNIPRES5T DEP>TM5TAL SATRAPS1 DEP5D5T DIRECTLY ON ,L\IS ,NAPOLEON1 BECAME1 BY VIRTUE ( !IR FUNCTION ( 0DIRECTORS0 ( ELECTIONS TO ,P>LIAM5T1 ! MA9 PILL>S ( ! ,SECOND ,EMPIRE4 

,! C\RSE ( ! ABOVE HI/ORY UNTIL ! BEG9N+ ( ! ,SECOND ,EMPIRE WAS *>ACT]IZ$ BY ,M>X 9 BROAD /ROKES 9 HIS ,! ,EI<TE5? ,BRUMAIRE ( ,L\IS ,BONAP>TE 9 ! FOLL[+ WAY3 

,?IS EXECUTIVE P[] ) ITS 5ORM\S BUREAUCRATIC & MILIT>Y ORGANIZATION1 ) ITS +5I\S /ATE MA*9]Y1 EMBRAC+ WIDE /RATA1 ) A HO/ ( (FICIALS NUMB]+ HALF A MILLION1 BESIDES AN >MY ( ANO!R HALF-MILLION1 ?IS APPALL+ P>ASITIC BODY1 :I* 5ME%ES ! BODY ( ,FR5* SOCIETY LIKE A NET & *OKES ALL ITS PORES1 SPRANG UP 9 ! DAYS ( ! ABSOLUTE MON>*Y1 ) ! DECAY ( ! FEUDAL SY/EM1 :I* IT HELP$ TO HA/54 ,! SEIGNORIAL PRIVILEGES ( ! L&[N]S & T[NS BECAME TRANS=M$ 9TO SO MANY ATTRIBUTES ( ! /ATE P[]1 ! FEUDAL DIGNIT>IES 9TO PAID (FICIALS1 & ! MOTLEY PATT]N ( CONFLICT+ M$IEVAL PL5>Y P[]S 9TO ! REGULAT$ PLAN ( A /ATE AU?ORITY :OSE WORK IS DIVID$ & C5TRALIZ$ AS 9 A FACTORY4 ,! FIR/ ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 ) ITS TASK ( BREAK+ ALL SEP>ATE LOCAL1 T]RITORIAL1 URBAN1 & PROV9CIAL P[]S 9 ORD] TO CREATE ! CIVIL UNITY ( ! NATION1 WAS B\ND TO DEVELOP :AT ! ABSOLUTE MON>*Y HAD BEGUN3 C5TRALIZATION1 BUT AT ! SAME TIME ! EXT5T1 ! ATTRIBUTES1 & ! AG5TS ( GOV]NM5TAL P[]4 ,NAPOLEON P]FECT$ ?IS /ATE MA*9]Y4 ,! ,LEGITIMI/ ,MON>*Y & ! ,JULY ,MON>*Y ADD$ NO?+ BUT A GREAT] DIVISION ( LABOR1 GR[+ 9 ! SAME MEASURE AS ! DIVISION ( LABOR )9 B\RGEOIS SOCIETY CREAT$ NEW GR\PS ( 9T]E/S1 &1 !RE=E1 NEW MAT]IAL = /ATE ADM9I/RATION4 ,EV]Y COMMON 9T]E/ WAS /RAI<TAWAY SEV]$ FROM SOCIETY1 C\NT]POS$ TO IT AS A HI<] G5]AL 9T]E/1 SNAT*$ FROM ! ACTIVITY ( SOCIETY'S MEMB]S !MSELVES & MADE AN OBJECT ( GOV]NM5TAL ACTIVITY1 FROM A BRIDGE1 A S*OOLH\SE1 & ! COMMUNAL PROP]TY ( A VILLAGE COMMUNITY TO ! RAILWAYS1 ! NATIONAL WEAL?1 & ! NATIONAL UNIV]SITY ( ,FRANCE4 ,F9ALLY1 9 ITS /RUGGLE AGA9/ ! REVOLUTION1 ! P>LIAM5T>Y REPUBLIC F\ND ITSELF COMPELL$ TO /R5G!N1 ALONG ) ! REPRESSIVE MEASURES1 ! RES\RCES & C5TRALIZATION ( GOV]NM5TAL P[]4 ,ALL REVOLUTIONS P]FECT$ ?IS MA*9E 9/EAD ( SMA%+ IT4 ,! P>TIES ?AT CONT5D$ 9 TURN = DOM9ATION REG>D$ ! POSSESSION ( ?IS HUGE /ATE $IFICE AS ! PR9CIPAL SPOILS ( ! VICTOR4 

,BUT UND] ! ABSOLUTE MON>*Y1 DUR+ ! FIR/ ,REVOLUTION1 UND] ,NAPOLEON1 BUREAUCRACY WAS ONLY ! MEANS ( PREP>+ ! CLASS RULE ( ! B\RGEOISIE4 ,UND] ! ,RE/ORATION1 UND] ,L\IS ,PHILIPPE1 UND] ! P>LIAM5T>Y REPUBLIC1 IT WAS ! 9/RUM5T ( ! RUL+ CLASS1 H[EV] MU* IT /ROVE = P[] ( ITS [N4 

,ONLY UND] ! SECOND ,BONAP>TE DOES ! /ATE SEEM TO HAVE MADE ITSELF COMPLETELY 9DEP5D5T4 ,AS AGA9/ CIVIL SOCIETY1 ! /ATE MA*9E HAS CONSOLIDAT$ ITS POSITION SO ?OR\<LY ?AT ! *IEF ( ! ,SOCIETY ( ,DECEMB] #a SUFFICES = ITS HEAD1 AN ADV5TUR] BL[N 9 FROM ABROAD1 RAIS$ ON ! %IELD BY A DRUNK5 SOLDI]Y1 :I* HE HAS B\<T ) LIQUOR & SAUSAGES1 & :I* HE MU/ CONT9UALLY PLY ) SAUSAGE ANEW4.<#a.> 

,! BUREAUCRATIC SY/EM ( ,NAPOLEON ,I,I,I /IRR$ UP1 ESPECIALLY T[>D ! 5D ( HIS REIGN1 A /RONG OPPOSITION2 ?IS OPPOSITION COMES ?R\< CLE>LY 9 ! /ATEM5TS ( C]TA9 LOCAL ADM9I/RATIONS4 ,! MO/ /RIK+ EXAMPLE WAS ! FAM\S 0,NANCY ,MANIFE/O10 :I* DEM&$ EXTREME DEC5TRALIZATION & UND] :OSE BANN] !RE RALLI$1 9 #a#h#f#e1 ! :OLE LEGITIMI/-CL]ICAL OPPOSITION ( ! LA/ PHASE ( ! ,EMPIRE4 ,9 ! NAME ( 0FRE$OM & ORD]0 ! ,MANIFE/O DEM&$ ! LIB]ATION ( ! ,COMMUNE FROM ! SUP]-VISION ( ! PREFECT1 ! APPO9TM5T ( ! MAYOR FROM AMONG ! COMMUNAL C\NCILORS1 & ! COMPLETE ELIM9ATION ( ! >RONDISSEM5T C\NCILS4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 ! ,MANIFE/O DEM&$ E/ABLI%+ CANTONAL C\NCILS & ASSIGN+ TO !M ! DI/RIBUTION ( TAXES1 & F9ALLY1 REVIS+ ! B\ND>IES BETWE5 DEP>TM5TS 9 ! SPIRIT ( RETURN+ TO ! HI/ORICAL B\ND>IES ( ! PROV9CES & MAK+ ! DEP>TM5TS SO REVIS$ 9DEP5D5T CONC]N+ BUDGET & ! 5TIRE ADM9I/RATION4 ,?IS PROGRAM1 :I* AIM$ 0TO CREATE PREV5TIVE MEASURES AGA9/ REVOLUTIONS10 TO SAVE 0FRE$OM COMPROMIS$ BY ?REE REVOLUTIONS10 WAS ACCEPT$ BY ALL LIB]AL CONS]VATIVES ( ! ,ODILON ,B>ROT TYPE1 & ITS ADVOCATES W]E HEAD$ BY ALL ! LEAD]S ( LEGITIMISM1 I4E41 ! ,B\RBON P>TY3 ,BE*>D1 ,FALI\X1 ,C\NT ,MONTALEMB]T1 & F9ALLY1 ! ,PRET5D] TO ! CR[N HIMSELF1 ,C\NT ,*AMBORD1 :O1 9 HIS ,MANIFE/O ( #ahga RAIS$ 0ADM9I/RATIVE DEC5TRALIZATION0 TO ! ROLE ( A LEAD+ PROGRAMMATIC DEM& ON ! BANN] ( ! :ITE LILIES4 

,! ,NANCY PROGRAM PROVOK$ %>P RESI/ANCE FROM TWO SIDES - FROM ! ,EMPIRE & FROM ! EXTREME ,LEFT1 ,REPUBLICANS1 ,DEMOCRATS1 & ,SOCIALI/S4 ,! LATT]1 CONDEMN+ ! C\NT]-REVOLUTION>Y T5D5CY ( LEGITIMI/ 0DEC5TRALIZATION10 SAID1 9 ! WORDS ( ,VICTOR ,HUGO3 0,G5TLEM51 Y\ >E =G+ A *A9 & Y\ SAY3 ',?IS IS FRE$OM4'0 0,!RE=E10 !Y EXCLAIM$1 0WE DO NOT WANT Y\R DEP>TM5TAL C\NCILS AS A LEGISLATIVE AU?ORITY1 NOR Y\R P]MAN5T DEP>TM5TAL COMMISSIONS AS ADM9I/RATIVE AU?ORITY 9 :I* A TRIPLE FEUDALISM W\LD PREVAIL3 ! L&$ 9T]E/1 ! *UR*1 & 9DU/RY1 9T]E/$ 9 KEEP+ ! PEOPLE 9 IGNORANCE & MIS]Y40.<#b.> ,UND] ! PRETEXT ( FRE$OM1 ,FRANCE WAS TO BE H&$ OV] AS PREY TO BI%OPS1 L&$ >I/OCRACY1 & FACTORY [N]S - ?IS IS ! OP9ION ( CONTEMPOR>Y DEMOCRACY & SOCIALI/S AB\T ! #ahfe PROGRAM4 ,L\IS ,BLANC WAS AN ESPECIALLY 9FLEXIBLE OPPON5T ( DEC5TRALIZATION1 EV5 TO ! DEP>TM5TS1 :I* HE CONSID]$ AN >TIFICIAL CREATION1 ?\< HE F]V5TLY 5C\RAG$ ! WIDE/ SELF-GOV]NM5T ( ! ,COMMUNE AS ! NATURAL HI/ORICAL ORGANIZATION & ! F\NDATION ( ! /ATE4 

,9 ! REVOLUTION>Y CAMP ! ADVOCATES ( DEC5TRALIZATION1 :O 9DE$ W5T FUR!R ?AN ! LEGITIMI/S1 W]E ONLY ADH]5TS ( ,PR\DHON1 SU* AS ,DESM>ET1 :O DI/9CTLY PROCLAIM$ ! SLOGAN ( F$]ALISM BO? 9 APPLICATION TO 0! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES ( ,EUROPE0 & TO COMMUNES & DI/RICTS )9 ! /ATE1 AS AN IDEAL SOLUTION ( ! SOCIAL QUE/ION BECAUSE IT WAS A WAY ( 0ANNIHILAT+ P[] BY DIVID+ IT40 ,?AT ! ADH]5TS ( ?IS AN>*I/IC MANN] ( DISPOS+ ( ! B\RGEOIS /ATE HAVE NOT YET DI$ \T 9 ,FRANCE IS PROV$ BY ! BOOK :I* APPE>$ 9 #a#h#i#i1 ,LE PR9CIPE SAUVEUR P> UN GIROND9 .<,CIT$ BY ,AVALOV1 P4#b#b#h.>1 9 :I* ! AU?OR %>PLY POLEMICIZES AGA9/ ! C5TRALISM & HOMOG5EITY ( ! MOD]N /ATE1 ADVOCAT+1 9/EAD ( DEP>TM5TAL AUTONOMY1 ! COMPLETE DISSOLUTION ( ! /ATE 9 ! SPIRIT ( F$]ATION4 ,NEW VOICES 9 ! SAME SPIRIT HAVE BE5 HE>D EV5 9 LAT] YE>S - & 5?USIA/S = 0HI/ORICAL0 DEC5TRALIZATION /ILL CROP UP FROM ! CAMP ( ! ,ROYALI/S1 AS IS DEMON/RAT$ BY ! LEGITIMI/ PAMPHLET FROM ! TIME ( ! ,DREYFUS AFFAIR1 ,LA DEC5TRALIZATION ET LA MON>*IE NATIONALE4 

,! OPPOSITION BETWE5 ! VIEWS ( ! CONTEMPOR>Y SOCIALI/S & ! AN>*I/IC ,PR\DHON WAS =MULAT$ AS E>LY AS #ahea BY ,L\IS ,BLANC 9 HIS PAMPHLET1 ,LA ,REPUBLIQUE UNE ET 9DIVISIBLE1 9 :I* 9 A ?UND]\S VOICE HE W>N$ ! REPUBLIC AGA9/ ! DANG] ( F$]ALISM1 OPPOS+ TO ! ANTAGONISMS ( ?IRTY-SEV5 ?\S& T9Y P>LIAM5TS 0LA GR&E TRADITION MONTAGN>DE 5 FAIT DE C5TRALIZATION POLITIQUE0 & 0UNE ADM9I/RATION SURVEILLEE04 ,AS A MATT] ( FACT1 ,FRANCE AT ?AT MOM5T WAS LESS ?REAT5$ BY ! DANG] ( F$]ALISM ?AN BY ITS OPPOSITE3 ! C\P D'ETAT ( ,L\IS ,BONAP>TE & ! ABSOLUTE RULE ( HIS PREFECTS4 

,! SAME GR\P+ ( P>TIES ) REG>D TO LOCAL ADM9I/RATION WAS ALSO REFLECT$ 9 ! NOTORI\S NATIONAL ASSEMBLY 9 ,BORDEAUX AFT] ! FALL ( ! ,EMPIRE4 ,AFT] ! DE/RUCTION ( ! ,P>IS ,COMMUNE ! MA9 QUE/ION CONC]N+ DEC5TRALIZATION WAS :E!R IT C\LD S]VE AS A PREV5TITIVE AGA9/ ! REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5TS ( ! PROLET>IAT4 ,FIR/ ( ALL1 ! ,?IRD ,REPUBLIC HA/5$ TO EXP& ! COMPET5CE ( ! DEP>TM5TS1 EQUIPP+ !M - 9 ACCORDANCE ) ! LEAD+ IDEA ( REACTION S9CE ! TIME ( ! ,RE/ORATION - ) SPECIAL P[]S AGA9/ ! REVOLUTION4 ,! SO-CALL$ 0,LOI ,TREV5EUC0 ( ,FEBRU>Y #a#e1 #a#h#g#b1 BE>S ! SIGNIFICANT TITLE 0,LOI RELATIVE AU ROLE EV5TUEL DES CONSEILS G5]AUX DANS DES CIRCON/ANCES EXCEPTIONNELLES40 ,ON ! O!R H&1 ! P[]S ( ! COMMUNES W]E1 AFT] A TEMPOR>Y EXPANSION1 AGA9 RE/RICT$3 :]EAS 9 #ahga ! COMMUNAL C\NCILS HAD RECEIV$ ! P[] ( ELECT+ !IR MAYOR1 AFT] ?REE YE>S !Y W]E AGA9 DEPRIV$ ( ?IS RI<T1 & ! GOV]NM5T ( ! ,?IRD ,REPUBLIC APPO9T$ ?IRTY-SEV5 ?\S& MAYORS ?R\< ITS PREFECTS1 ?US %[+ ITSELF A FAI?FUL EXPON5T ( ! MON>*ICAL TRADITIONS4 

,H[EV]1 9 ! F\NDATION ( ! ,?IRD ,REPUBLIC !RE OCCURR$ C]TA9 SOCIAL *ANGES :I*1 DESPITE ALL EXT]NAL OB/ACLES1 PU%$ ! MATT] ( LOCAL AUTONOMY ON TO COMPLETELY NEW PA?S4 ,AL?\< ! 9DEP5D5CE ( ! URBAN & RURAL COMMUNES MI<T HAVE BE5 ABHORR5T TO ! B\RGEOIS REACTION1 9TIMIDAT$ BY ! GREAT TRADITIONS ( ! ,P>IS ,COMMUNE FROM #agic TO #a#h#g#a1 IT EV5TUALLY BECAME AN 9DISP5SABLE NE$1 ESPECIALLY S9CE ! 9CEPTION ( BIG 9DU/RY UND] ! W+S ( ! ,SECOND ,EMPIRE4 ,IT WAS !N ?AT RAILROADS BEGAN TO BE BUILT ON A L>GE SCALE4 ,! >TIFICIALLY FO/]$ & PROTECT$ BIG 9DU/RY NOT ONLY FL\RI%$ 9 ,P>IS BUT 9 ! FIFTIES & SIXTIES IT SPREAD 9TO ! PROV9CES & SUBURBAN >EAS :]E CAPITALISM S\<T *EAP FACTORY SITES & *EAP LABOR4 ,5T]PRISES1 9DU/RIAL C5T]S1 F9ANCIAL =TUNES MU%ROOM$ 9 ! HO?\SE TEMP]ATURE ( ! ,EMPIRE1 SUPPRESS+ SMALL 9DU/RY & 9TRODUC+ MASS FACTORY LABOR ( WOM5 & *ILDR54 ,! ,P>IS ,/OCK ,EX*ANGE OCCUPI$ SECOND PLACE 9 ,EUROPE4 ,TOGE!R ) ?IS EXPLOSION ( 0ORIG9AL ACCUMULATION10 AS YET UNBRIDL$ BY ANY PROTECTIVE LAW - !RE WAS /ILL NO FACTORY 9SPECTION - OR BY LABOR ORGANIZATION & /RUGGLE1 !RE TOOK PLACE 9 ,FRANCE AN UNP>ALLEL$ ACCUMULATION ( MASS POV]TY1 DISEASE1 & DEA?4 ,SUFFICE IT TO M5TION ?AT !RE W]E CASES :5 FEMALE FACTORY WORK]S W]E PAID ONE S\1 I4E41 FIVE C5TIMES P] DAY1 9 A P]IOD ( G5]AL UNP>ALLEL$ HI< PRICES ( ! PRIME NECESSITIES ( LIFE4.<#c.> ,! %ORT P]IOD ( ?IS EXPLOIT+ ECONOMY MADE B\RGEOIS SOCIETY PA9FULLY AW>E ( ! LACK ( ANY PUBLIC ACTIVITY TO PREV5T GL>+ POV]TY1 9FECTI\S DISEASES1 DANG] TO LIFE & PROP]TY ON PUBLIC ROADS1 ETC4 ,AS E>LY AS #a#h#e#f1 MU* WAS WRITT5 & SPOK5 AB\T ! NECESSITY ( AN (FICIAL 9QUIRY CONC]N+ PAUP]ISM 9 ,FRANCE4 ,9 #a#h#e#h1 SU* AN 9QUIRY 0CONFID5TIALLY0 ORD]$ BY ! GOV]NM5T PR$ICTABLY CAME TO NAU<T4 

,! /ATE ( PUBLIC $UCATION CORRESPOND$ MORE OR LESS ) !SE ECONOMIC CONDITIONS4 ,S*OOL C\RSES = ADULTS1 SUBSIDIZ$ BY ! GOV]NM5T UND] ,L\IS ,PHILIPPE BY ! T9Y SUM ( #d< FRANCS ON ! AV]AGE ANNUALLY1 W]E1 DUR+ ! ,EMPIRE1 DEPRIV$ ( ?IS SUBSIDY & NEGLECT$4 ,A C]TA9 HI/ORIAN DESCRIB$ ! /ATE ( ELEM5T>Y S*OOLS 9 #ahfc AS FOLL[S3 

,?\S&S ( COMMUNES >E )\T S*OOLS = GIRLS2 VILLAGES >E DEPRIV$ ( ANY S*OOLS AT ALL2 A L>GE NUMB] ( O!RS /AY BRIEFLY 9 S*OOL & DO NOT LE>N ANY?+ USEFUL2 !RE >E NO S*OOLS = ADULTS & NOT A S+LE LIBR>Y 9 ! VILLAGES2 ! ANNUAL FIGURES %[ ?AT !RE IS MORE ?AN #bg P]C5T ILLIT]ACY2 ?AT LIV+ CONDITIONS ( ! MALE & FEMALE TEA*]S >E MIS]ABLE2 ?AT #e1 FEMALE TEA*]S RECEIVE LESS ?AN #d FRANCS ANNUAL WAGES1 SOME RECEIVE SEV5TY-FIVE FRANCS P] YE>4 ,NOT A S+LE ONE IS 5TITL$ TO RETIREM5T PAY4 ,NOT A S+LE MALE TEA*] 5JOYS A RETIREM5T PAY :I* W\LD ASSURE HIM ( ONE FRANC DAILY SUBSI/5CE4.<#d.> 

,AMONG ! WORK]S 9 ,P>IS1 ! 9QUIRY ORD]$ BY ! ,*AMB] ( ,COMM]CE 9 #ahf ASC]TA9$ ?AT FIFTY ?\S&1 I4E41 AB\T #ac P]C5T ( ! WORK+ POPULATION1 WAS COMPLETELY ILLIT]ATE4 ,! ,?IRD ,REPUBLIC1 :OSE MISSION IT WAS TO BUILD A DURABLE HOME = ! B\RGEOISIE & FIR/ ( ALL TO LIQUIDATE ! BANKRUPT E/ATE TAK5 OV] FROM ! ,EMPIRE1 F\ND ITSELF FAC$ ) A NUMB] ( NEW TASKS3 MILIT>Y RE=M1 & 9 CONNECTION ) ?IS1 A HEAL? RE=M2 ALSO A RE=M1 OR RA!R CREATION ( PUBLIC $UCATION2 RE=M ( TRANSPORTATION1 COMPLETELY NEGLECT$ BY ! ,EMPIRE1 :I* WAS SOLELY OCCUPI$ ) DECORAT+ & RE=M+ ,P>IS TO TURN IT 9TO A MODEL CAPITAL ( ! ,MON>*Y4 ,MOREOV]1 ! ,?IRD ,REPUBLIC FAC$ ! TASK ( ACQUIR+ MEANS = !SE RE=MS4 ,?IS MEANT AN 9CREASE ( TAXES4 ,H[EV]1 !SE W5T PRIM>ILY = MILIT>Y EXP5DITURES1 = COLONIAL POLICY1 & ESPECIALLY = ! MA9T5ANCE ( ! BUREAUCRATIC APP>ATUS4 ,)\T ! P>TICIPATION ( ! LOCAL POPULATION1 ABOVE ALL ( ! COMMUNES1 ! ,?IRD ,REPUBLIC W\LD NEV] HAVE BE5 ABLE TO SOLVE !SE TASKS4 

,AT ! SAME TIME1 BIG 9DU/RY'S REVOLUTIONIZ+ ( CONDITIONS UND] ! ,EMPIRE COMPLETELY *ANG$ ! ROLE ( ! DEP>TM5T4 ,:5 ,L\IS ,BLANC1 9 ! NATIONAL ASSEMBLY 9 #a#h#g#a1 DECL>$ ?AT ! DEP>TM5T IS AN >TIFICIAL PRODUCT ( ADM9I/RATIVE GEOMETRY1 ?IS WAS D\BTLESS AN ANA*RONI/IC VIEW4 ,9DE$1 9 !IR BEG9N+1 EM]G+ FROM ! H&S ( ! CON/ITU5T ASSEMBLY1 ! DEP>TM5TS W]E AN 5TIRELY 0FREE IMPROVIZATION0 ( ! G5IUS ( ! ,REVOLUTION1 A SIMPLE NETWORK ( SYMMETRICAL FIGURES ON ! MAP ( ,FRANCE2 & IT WAS EXACTLY 9 ?IS ABOLITION ( ALL HI/ORICAL B\ND>IES ( ! PROV9CES ?AT ! P[]FUL 9NOVAT+ ?\<T1 ?AT GREAT 0TRADITION MONTAGN>DE0 CONSI/$1 :I*1 ON ! RU9S ( ! M$IEVAL SY/EM1 CREAT$ A POLITICALLY UNIFI$ MOD]N ,FRANCE4 ,= DECADES1 DUR+ ! ,RE/ORATION & LAT]1 ! DEP>TM5TS DID NOT HAVE ANY LIFE ( !IR [N2 !Y W]E US$ BY ! C5TRAL GOV]NM5T ONLY AS BRAN* (FICES1 AS ! SPH]E ( ACTION ( ! CL]K-PREFECT :OSE ONLY PALPABLE EXPRESSION WAS ! OBLIGATORY 0HOTELS DE PREFECTURE04 ,H[EV]1 9 MOD]N ,FRANCE1 NEW LOCAL NE$S HAVE BR\<T1 9 ! C\RSE ( TIME1 NEW 9/ITUTIONS SURR\ND+ !SE =TRESSES ( ! C5TRAL BUREAUCRACY4 ,! NEW 0DEP>TM5TAL 9T]E/S0 :I* HAVE GA9$ 9CREAS+ RECOGNITION >E C5T]$ >\ND %ELT]S1 HOSPITALS1 S*OOLS1 LOCAL ROADS1 & ! PROCUREM5T ( 0ADDITIONAL C5TIMES0 NECESS>Y TO MEET ! CO/S4 

,! ORIG9ALLY EMPTY FRAMEWORK ( ! DEP>TM5TS1 DRAWN ON ! GRAVE ( ! M$IEVAL P>TICUL>ISM ( ! PROV9CES1 BECAME 9 ! C\RSE ( TIME1 ?R\< ! DEVELOPM5T ( B\RGEOIS ,FRANCE1 FILL$ ) NEW SOCIAL CONT5T3 ! LOCAL 9T]E/S ( CAPITALISM4 ,! LOCAL ADM9I/RATION ( ,FRANCE BY ALL-P[]FUL PREFECTS C\LD SUFFICE 9 ! SECOND HALF ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY ONLY = ! >TIFICIAL MA9T5ANCE ( ! ,EMPIRE4 ,! ,?IRD ,REPUBLIC WAS EV5TUALLY =C$1 9 ITS [N 9T]E/S1 TO ADMIT ! LOCAL POPULATION TO P>TICIPATION 9 ?IS ADM9I/RATION & TO *ANGE ! COMMUNES & DEP>TM5TS FROM EXCLUSIVE 9/RUM5TS ( ! C5TRAL GOV]NM5T 9TO ORGANS ( DEMOCRATIC AUTONOMY4 

,H[EV]1 ?IS %IFT C\LD BE EFFECT$ ONLY )9 ! ,?IRD ,REPUBLIC4 ,9 ! SAME WAY ?AT ! REPUBLICAN =M ( GOV]NM5T WAS CONSOLIDAT$ 9 ,FRANCE ULTIMATELY ?ANKS ONLY TO CIRCUM/ANCES :I* P]MITT$ ! SOCIAL NUCLEUS ( ?IS CLE>LY B\RGEOIS POLITICAL =M TO BE HUSK$ FROM ITS IDEOLOGICAL COCOON1 FROM ! ILLUSION ( 0SOCIAL REPUBLIC0 CREAT$ BY ?REE REVOLUTIONS 9 ! C\RSE ( ALMO/ HALF A C5TURY1 SO ! LOCAL SELF-GOV]NM5T HAD FIR/ TO BE LIB]AT$ FROM ! TRADITIONAL IDEOLOGY HO/ILE TO IT4 ,AS LATE AS ! #ahga ,NATIONAL ,ASSEMBLY1 SOME ADVOCATES ( LIB]ALISM ABHORR$ ! 0REACTION>Y0 IDEA ( AUTONOMY :I* !Y P]SI/5TLY ID5TIFI$ ) FEUDAL DEC5TRALIZATION4 ,! ,MON>*I/1 D',HAUSSONVILLE1 W>N$ HIS P>TY1 REM9D+ IT ?AT ALREADY DUR+ ! ,GREAT ,REVOLUTION ! APPE>ANCE ( ADH]+ TO F$]ALISM WAS SUFFICI5T TO S5D PEOPLE TO ! GUILLOT9E1 :ILE ,DUV]GI] DE ,HAURANNE DECL>$ ?AT ,FRANCE WAS FAC$ ) A DILEMMA3 EI!R UNI=M ADM9I/RATION REPRES5T$ 9 EA* DEP>TM5T BY A PREFECT1 OR A F$]ATION ( AUTONOM\S DEP>TM5TS4 ,!SE W]E ! LA/ REV]B]ATIONS ( AN OP9ION :I* WEI<$ ON PEOPLE'S M9DS = ?REE-QU>T]S ( A C5TURY4 ,ONLY :51 ) ! FALL ( ! ,SECOND ,EMPIRE & ! TRIUMPH ( ! ,?IRD ,REPUBLIC1 ! ATTEMPTS ( ! >I/OCRATIC CL]ICAL REACTION W]E DEFEAT$ ONCE & = ALL & ! PHANTOM ( ! F$]ALISM ( ! 0HI/ORIC PROV9CES0 WAS RELEGAT$ TO ! REALM ( DISEMBODI$ SPIRITS DID ! IDEA ( ! RELATIVE 9DEP5D5CE ( ! DEP>TM5TS CEASE TO GIVE AN IMPRESSION ( F$]ALISM :I* FRI<T5$ AWAY B\RGEOIS LIB]ALISM & DEMOCRACY4 ,& ONLY :5 ! LA/ FLICK] ( ! ,P>IS ,COMMUNE REVOLUTION>Y TRADITION DI$ \T 9 ! C9D]S ( ! #ahga ,COMMUNE & UND] ! WI!R$ LAWN ( ! 0,CONF$]ATES' ,WALL0 .<0,MUR DES ,F$]ES0.> AT ,P]E ,LA*AISE1 :]E ! CORPSES & HALF-DEAD BODIES ( ! ,COMMUNE'S H]OES W]E DUMP$1 ONLY !N DID ! IDEA ( COMMUNAL SELF-GOV]NM5T CEASE TO BE SYNONYM\S ) SOCIAL UPHEAVAL 9 ! M9DS ( ! B\RGEOISIE1 & ! ,PHRYGIAN CAP CEASE TO BE ! SYMBOL ( ! ,CITY ,HALL4 ,9 A WORD1 ONLY :5 BO? DEP>TM5TAL & COMMUNAL AUTONOMY W]E ABLE TO DEMON/RATE !IR PROP] HI/ORICAL SOCIAL VALUE AS G5U9ELY MOD]N 9/ITUTIONS ( ! B\RGEOIS /ATE1 GR[+ \T ( ITS [N NE$S & S]V+ ITS 9T]E/S1 DID ! PROGRESSIVE DEVELOPM5T ( LOCAL AUTONOMY 9 ,FRANCE BECOME POSSIBLE4 ,! ORGANIC /ATUTE ( #a#h#g#a1 SUPPLEM5T$ BY ! LAW ( #a#h#i#i1 AT LA/ AU?ORIZ$ REPRES5TATIVES ( DEP>TM5TS *OS5 BY G5]AL ELECTIONS ( ! PEOPLE TO P>TICIPATE 9 ! ADM9I/RATION ) A DET]M9+ VOICE1 & ! /ATUTE ( #ahhd GAVE A SIMIL> RI<T TO ! COMMUNAL C\NCILS1 RETURN+ TO !M ! P[] ( *OOS+ !IR [N MAYOR4 ,SL[LY & RELUCTANTLY1 & ONLY 9 REC5T TIMES1 ! MOD]N AUTONOMY ( ,FRANCE HAS LIB]AT$ ITSELF FROM ! IRON BONDS ( BUREAUCRACY4 

,! HI/ORY ( SELF-GOV]NM5T 9 ,5GL& FOLL[$ 5TIRELY DIFF]5T PA?S4 ,9/EAD ( ! REVOLUTION>Y *ANGE-OV] FROM M$IEVAL TO MOD]N SOCIETY1 WE SEC H]E1 ON ! CONTR>Y1 AN E>LY COMPROMISE :I* HAS PRES]V$ TO ?IS DAY ! OLD REMNANTS ( FEUDALISM4 ,NOT SO MU* BY ! %ATT]+ ( OLD =MS AS BY GRADUALLY FILL+ !M ) NEW CONT5T1 B\RGEOIS ,5GL& HAS C>V$ \T A PLACE = ITSELF 9 M$IEVAL ,5GL&4 ,& P]HAPS 9 NO O!R >EA IS ?IS PROCESS SO TYPICAL & 9T]E/+ AS 9 ! >EA ( LOCAL SELF-GOV]NM5T4 ,AT FIR/ GLANCE1 & ACCORD+ TO A COMMONPLACE EXPRESSION1 ,5GL& APPE>S AS ! C\NTRY ) ! OLDE/ LOCAL SELF-GOV]NM5T1 NAY1 AS ! CRADLE1 ! CLASSICAL HOMEL& ( SELF-GOV]NM5T1 ON :I* ! LIB]ALISM ( ! CONT95T S\<T TO MODEL ITSELF4 ,9 REALITY1 ?AT AGE-OLD SELF-GOV]NM5T ( ,5GL& BELONGS TO ! REALM ( MY?S1 & ! FAM\S OLD ,5GLI% SELF-GOV]NM5T HAS NO?+ 9 COMMON ) SELF-GOV]NM5T 9 ! MOD]N S5SE4 ,SELF-GOV]NM5T WAS SIMPLY A SPECIAL SY/EM ( LOCAL ADM9I/RATION :I* ORIG9AT$ AT ! TIME ( ! FL[]+ ( FEUDALISM & BE>S ALL ! HALLM>KS ( ITS ORIG94 ,! C5T]S ( ?AT SY/EM >E ! C\NTY1 A PRODUCT ( ! FEUDAL CONDITIONS AFT] ! ,NORMAN ,CONQUE/1 & ! P>I%1 A PRODUCT ( M$IEVAL1 ECCLESIA/ICAL CONDITIONS2 :ILE ! MA9 P]SON1 ! S\L ( ! :OLE C\NTY ADM9I/RATION1 IS ! JU/ICE ( ! PEACE1 AN (FICE CREAT$ 9 ! F\RTE5? C5TURY ALONG ) ! ?REE O!R C\NTY (FICES3 ! %]IFF1 CONDUCT+ ! ELECTIONS TO P>LIAM5T1 ADM9I/]+ JUDGM5TS 9 CIVIL LAWSUITS1 ETC42 ! CORON]1 CONDUCT+ 9QUE/S 9 CASES ( VIOL5T DEA?2 & F9ALLY1 ! COMM&] ( ! C\NTY MILITIA4 ,AMONG !SE (FICIALS ONLY ! SECOND>Y FIGURE ( ! CORON] IS ELECTIVE2 ALL O!R (FIC]S >E APPO9T$ BY ! ,CR[N FROM AMONG ! LOCAL L&$ >I/OCRACY4 ,ONLY L&$ PROPRIETORS ) A SPECIFI$ 9COME C\LD BE APPO9T$ TO ! (FICE ( JU/ICE ( ! PEACE4 ,ALL !SE (FIC]S FULFILL$ !IR DUTIES )\T REMUN]ATION1 & ! PURELY M$IEVAL ASPECT IS FUR!R 9DICAT$ BY ! FACT ?AT 9 !IR COMPET5CE !Y COMB9$ JUDICIAL & EXECUTIVE P[]4 ,! JU/ICE ( ! PEACE DID EV]Y?+ 9 ! C\NTY AS WELL AS 9 ! P>I%1 AS WE %ALL PRES5TLY SEE4 ,HE RAN ! C\RTS1 ASSIGN$ TAXES1 ISSU$ ADM9I/RATIVE ORD9ANCES1 9 A WORD1 HE REPRES5T$ 9 HIS P]SON ! :OLE COMPET5CE ( PUBLIC AU?ORITY 5TIRELY 9 ACCORDANCE ) ! FEUDAL ATTRIBUTIONS ( ! L&$ PROPRIETOR2 ! ONLY DIFF]5CE H]E WAS HIS APPO9TM5T BY ! ,CR[N4 ,! JU/ICE ( ! PEACE1 ONCE APPO9T$1 BECAME AN OMNIPOT5T HOLD] ( PUBLIC P[]3 JU/ICES ( ! PEACE W]E 5TIRELY 9DEP5D5T ( ! C5TRAL GOV]NM5T1 & 9 G5]AL1 NOT RESPONSIBLE1 BECAUSE ! OLD SY/EM ( ,5GLI% SELF-GOV]NM5T OBVI\SLY KN[S NO?+ ( ANO!R BASIC FEATURE ( MOD]N ADM9I/RATION3 ! JUDICIAL RESPONSIBILITY ( (FICIALS & ! SUP]VISION BY ! C5TRAL AU?ORITY OV] LOCAL (FICES4 ,ANY P>TICIPATION ( ! LOCAL POPULATION 9 ?IS ADM9I/RATION WAS \T ( ! QUE/ION4 ,IF1 !RE=E1 ! ANCI5T ,5GLI% SELF-GOV]NM5T MAY BE REG>D$ AS A K9D ( AUTONOMY1 ?IS CAN BE DONE ONLY 9 ! S5SE ?AT IT WAS A SY/EM ( UNRE/RICT$ AUTONOMY ( ! L&$ >I/OCRACY1 :O HELD 9 !IR H&S ! COMPLETE PUBLIC P[] 9 ! C\NTY4 

,! FIR/ UND]M9+ ( ?IS M$IEVAL SY/EM ( ADM9I/RATION CO9CIDES ) ! REIGN ( ,ELIZABE?1 I4E41 ! P]IOD ( ?AT %ATT]+ REVOLUTION 9 RURAL PROP]TY RELATIONS :I* 9AUGURAT$ ! CAPITALI/IC ]A 9 ,5GL&4 ,VIOL5T EXPROPRIATIONS ( ! PEASANTRY BY ! >I/OCRACY ON ! BROADE/ SCALE1 ! SUP]SESSION ( AGRICULTURE BY %EEP-H]D+1 ! SECUL>IZATION ( *UR* E/ATES :I* W]E APPROPRIAT$ BY ! >I/OCRACY1 ALL ?IS SUDD5LY CREAT$ AN IMM5SE RURAL PROLET>IAT1 & 9 CONSEQU5CE1 POV]TY1 BEGG>Y1 & PUBLIC ROBB]Y4 ,! FIR/ TRIUMPHAL /EPS ( CAPITAL %OOK ! F\NDATIONS ( ! :OLE SOCIETY & ,5GL& WAS =C$ TO FACE A NEW ?REAT - PAUP]ISM4 ,!RE BEGAN A CRUSADE AGA9/ VAGRANCY1 BEGG>Y1 & LOOT+1 :I* EXT5DS 9 A BLOOD/A9$ /REAK UNTIL ! MIDDLE ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY4 ,S9CE1 H[EV]1 PRISONS1 BR&+ ) HOT IRONS1 & EV5 ! GALL[S PROV$ AN 5TIRELY 9SUFFICI5T M$IC9E AGA9/ ! NEW PLAGUE1 SUMM>Y CONVICTIONS CAME 9TO BE+ 9 ,5GL& & ALSO 0PUBLIC PHILAN?ROPY02 NEXT TO ! GALL[S AT ! CROSS-ROADS >OSE ! P>I% WORKH\SE4 ,! MOD]N PH5OM5ON ( MASS PAUP]ISM WAS ! FIR/ PROBLEM TRANSC5D+ ! P[]S & MEANS ( ! M$IEVAL SY/EM ( ADM9I/RATION AS C>RI$ \T BY ! SELF-GOV]NM5T ( ! >I/OCRACY4 ,! SOLUTION ADOPT$ WAS TO %IFT ! NEW BURD5 TO NEW %\LD]S ( ! MIDDLE CLASSES1 ! WEAL?Y B\RGEOISIE4 ,N[ ! MOLD-COV]$ *UR* P>I% WAS CALL$ TO A NEW ROLE - C>E ( ! POOR4 ,9 ! PECULI> ,5GLI% ADM9I/RATION1 ! P>I% IS NOT ONLY A RURAL BUT ALSO AN URBAN ORGANIZATION1 SO ?AT TO ?IS DAY ! P>I% SY/EM OV]LAPS ! MOD]N ADM9I/RATIVE NETWORK 9 ! BIG CITIES1 CREAT+ A GREAT *AOS ( COMPET5CES4 

,AT ! 5D ( ! SIXTE5? C5TURY1 A TAX = ! POOR WAS 9TRODUC$ 9 ! P>I%1 & ?IS TAX GRADUALLY BECAME ! CORN]/ONE ( ! TAX SY/EM ( ! COMMUNE4 ,! POOR RATES GREW FROM ,G,B,P#i1 /]L+ AT ! 5D ( ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY TO ,G,B,P#g1#h#g1#h#a /]L+ 9 #a#h#h#a4 ,! COLLECTION & ADM9I/RATION ( !SE FUNDS1 ! ORGANIZATION ( ASSI/ANCE & WORKH\SES1 CALL$ =? A NEW ORGANIZATION ( ! COMMUNAL (FICE3 & TO IT !RE ALSO FELL PRES5TLY ANO!R IMPORTANT PUBLIC FUNCTION :I* WAS LIKEWISE CAUS$ B ! NE$S ( ! NASC5T CAPITALI/ ECONOMY3 SUP]VISION ( ROADS4 ,?IS ORGANIZATION ALSO COMPRIS$1 FROM !N ON1 BESIDES ! RECTOR :O WAS AT ! HEAD & TWO *UR* W>D5S ELECT$ BY ! COMMUNE1 TWO OV]SE]S ( ! POOR1 DESIGNAT$ BY ! JU/ICE ( ! PEACE1 & ONE SURVEYOR ( ! HI<WAYS1 ALSO DESIGNAT$ BY ! JU/ICE ( ! PEACE4 ,AS WE SEE1 ?IS WAS /ILL ! USE ( ! OLD SELF-GOV]NM5T APP>ATUS = MOD]N PURPOSES4 ,! L&$ >I/OCRACY 9 ! P]SONS ( ! JU/ICES ( ! PEACE PRES]V$ P[] 9 !IR H&S2 ONLY ! MAT]IAL BURD5 FELL ON ! B\RGEOISIE4 ,! COMMUNE HAD TO C>RY ! BURD5 ( ! POOR TAX2 H[EV]1 IT DIDN'T HAVE ANY VOICE 9 ! APPORTIONM5T ( ! TAX4 ,! LATT] FUNCTION WAS AN ATTRIBUTE ( ! JU/ICE ( ! PEACE & ( ! COMMUNAL OV]SE]S SUBJECT TO HIM4 

,9 SU* A /ATE ! LOCAL ADM9I/RATION SURVIV$ UNTIL ! N9ETE5? C5TURY4 ,A FEW ATTEMPTS AT ADMITT+ ! POPULATION TO P>TICIPATION 9 ?IS ADM9I/RATION W]E UND]TAK5 AT ! BEG9N+ ( ?AT C5TURY BUT CAME TO NO?+4 

,9 ! MEANTIME1 CAPITALISM 9 ,5GL& 5T]$ NEW PA?S3 BIG MA*9E 9DU/RY CELEBRAT$ ITS TRIUMPHAL 5TRY & UND]TOOK AN ASSAULT ON ! OLD =TRESS ( SELF-GOV]NM5T1 :I* ! CRUMBL+ /RUCTURE C\LD NOT )/&4 

,! VIOL5T GR[? ( FACTORY 9DU/RY AT ! 5D ( ! EI<TE5? & ! BEG9N+ ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY CAUS$ A COMPLETE UPHEAVAL 9 ! CONDITIONS ( ,5GL&'S SOCIAL LIFE4 ,! IMM5SE 9FLUX ( ! RURAL PROLET>IAT TO ! CITIES SOON BR\<T AB\T SU* A CONC5TRATION ( PEOPLE & SU* A H\S+ %ORTAGE 9 ! 9DU/RIAL CITIES ?AT ! WORK]S' DI/RICTS BECAME ABHORR5T SLUMS1 D>K1 /9K+1 FIL?Y1 PLAGUE-RIDD54 ,SICKNESS AMONG ! POPULATION ASSUM$ T]RIFY+ PROPORTIONS4 ,9 ,SCOTL& & ,IREL& AN \TBREAK ( TYPHOID TOOK PLACE REGUL>LY AFT] EA* PRICE 9CREASE & EA* 9DU/RIAL CRISIS4 ,9 ,$9BUR< & ,GLASG[1 = 9/ANCE AS /AT$ BY ,5GELS 9 HIS CLASSIC WORK1 ,! ,CONDITION ( ! ,WORK+ ,CLASS 9 ,5GL& 9 #a#h#d#d1 9 ! YE> #a#h#a#g1 #f1 P]SONS FELL ILL2 9 #ahbf & #a#h#c#g1 #a1 EA*2 9 #a#h#d#b1 9 ,GLASG[ ALONE1 #c#b11 I4E41 #ab P]C5T ( ! 5TIRE POPULATION4 ,9 ,IREL&1 9 #a#h#a#g1 #c#i1 P]SONS FELL ILL ) TYPHOID1 9 #a#h#a#i1 #f12 9 ! MA9 9DU/RIAL CITIES ( C\NTIES ,CORK & ,LIM]ICK1 ONE-SEV5? & ONE-F\R? RESPECTIVELY ( ! 5TIRE POPULATION FELL VICTIM 9 ?OSE YE>S TO ! EPIDEMIC4 ,9 ,LONDON & ,MAN*E/]1 MAL>IA WAS 5DEMIC4 ,9 ! LATT] CITY1 IT WAS (FICIALLY /AT$ ?AT ?REE-QU>T]S ( ! POPULATION NE$$ M$ICAL HELP EV]Y YE>1 & MORTALITY AMONG *ILDR5 UP TO FIVE REA*$1 9 ! 9DU/RIAL CITY ( ,LE$S 9 #a#h#c#b1 ! T]RIFY+ FIGURE ( #e1#b#h#f \T ( A POPULATION ( #a14 ,! LACK ( HOSPITALS & M$ICAL HELP1 H\S+ %ORTAGES1 & UND]N\RI%M5T ( ! PROLET>IAT BECAME A PUBLIC ?REAT4 

,9 NO LESS A DEGREE1 ! 9TELLECTUAL NEGLECT ( ! MASS ( ! PEOPLE BECAME A PUBLIC PLAGUE :5 BIG 9DU/RY1 HAV+ CONC5TRAT$ IMM5SE CR[DS ( ! PROLET>IAT UND] ITS COMM&1 MADE !M A PREY ( SPIRITUAL SAVAGES4 ,! TEXTILE 9DU/RY ESPECIALLY1 :I* WAS ! FIR/ TO 9TRODUCE MASS LABOR ( WOM5 & *ILDR5 AT ! L[E/ AGE & :I* MADE IMPOSSIBLE ANY HOME $UCATION1 H[EV] RUDIM5T>Y1 MADE ! FILL+ ( ?IS GAP1 I4E41 ! CREATION ( ELEM5T>Y S*OOLS1 A PUBLIC NE$4 ,H[EV]1 ! /ATE P]=M$ !SE TASKS TO A M9IMAL DEGREE4 ,AT ! BEG9N+ ( ! F\R? DECADE .<( ! C5TURY.>1 \T ( ! BUDGET ( ,5GL& AM\NT+ TO ,G,B,P#e#e MILLION1 PUBLIC $UCATION IS ALLOTT$ ! RIDICUL\S SUM ( ,G,B,P#d14 ,$UCATION WAS LEFT MA9LY TO PRIVATE 9ITIATIVE1 ESPECIALLY ( ! *UR*1 & BECAME MO/LY AN 9/RUM5T ( BIGOTRY & A WEAPON ( SECT>IAN /RUGGLE4 ,9 ,SUNDAY S*OOLS1 ! ONLY ONES ACCESSIBLE TO WORK+-CLASS *ILDR51 ! LATT] W]E (T5 NOT EV5 TAU<T READ+ & WRIT+1 AS OCCUPATIONS UNWOR?Y ( ,SUNDAY2 :ILE 9 ! PRIVATE S*OOLS1 AS WAS DEMON/RAT$ BY A P>LIAM5T>Y 9QUIRY1 ! TEA*]S !MSELVES (T5 DID NOT KN[ H[ TO READ OR WRITE4 ,9 G5]AL1 ! PICTURE REVEAL$ BY ! FAM\S ,*ILDR5 ,EMPLOYM5T ,COMMISSION %[$ ! NEW CAPITALI/IC ,5GL& AS A SC5E ( RU9 & DE/RUCTION1 A WRECKAGE ( ! 5TIRE ANTIQUAT$1 TRADITIONAL1 SOCIAL /RUCTURE4 ,! GREAT SOCIAL RE=M WAS ACCOMPLI%$ = ! PURPOSE ( E/ABLI%+ TOL]ABLE LIV+ CONDITIONS = ! NEW HO/1 I4E41 = ! CAPITALI/IC B\RGEOISIE4 ,! ELIM9ATION ( ! MO/ ?REAT5+ SYMPTOMS ( PAUP]ISM1 ! PROVISION ( PUBLIC HYGI5E1 ELEM5T>Y $UCATION1 ETC4 BECAME AN URG5T TASK4 ,H[EV]1 ?IS TASK C\LD BE A*IEV$ ONLY :5 BO? 9 /ATE POLICY & 9 ! 5TIRE ADM9I/RATION ! EXCLUSIVE RULE ( ! L&$ >I/OCRACY WAS ABOLI%$ & YIELD$ TO ! RULE ( ! 9DU/RIAL B\RGEOISIE4 ,! ELECTION RE=M ( #a#h#c#b1 :I* BROKE ! POLITICAL P[] ( ! ,TORIES1 IS ALSO ! DATE FROM :I* BEG9S SELF-GOV]NM5T 9 ,5GL& 9 ! MOD]N S5SE1 I4E41 SELF-GOV]NM5T BAS$ ON ! P>TICIPATION ( ! POPULATION 9 ! LOCAL ADM9I/RATION1 & ON PAID1 RESPONSIBLE (FICIALS 9 ! ROLE ( EXECUTOR ( ITS WILL UND] ! SUP]VISION & CONTROL ( ! C5TRAL AU?ORITY4 ,! M$IEVAL DIVISION ( ! /ATE 9TO C\NTIES & P>I%ES CORRESPOND$ TO ! NEW GR\P+ ( ! POPULATION & LOCAL NE$S & 9T]E/S AS LITTLE AS ! M$IEVAL (FICES ( ! JU/ICE ( ! PEACE & P>I% C\NCILS4 ,BUT :ILE ! REVOLUTION>Y ,FR5* LIB]ALISM SWEPT FROM ! C\NTRY ! HI/ORIC PROV9CES & 9 !IR PLACE ]ECT$ A HOMOG5E\S ,FRANCE ) NEW ADM9I/RATIVE DIVISIONS1 ! CONS]VATIVE ,5GLI% LIB]ALISM CREAT$ ONLY A NEW ADM9I/RATIVE NETWORK - 9SIDE1 BESIDE1 & ?R\< ! OLD DIVISIONS1 )\T =MALLY ABOLI%+ !M4 ,! PECULI>ITY ( ,5GLI% SELF-GOV]NM5T CONSI/S 9 ! FACT ?AT1 UNABLE TO UTILIZE ! COMPLETELY 9 ADEQUATE FRAMEWORK ( TRADITIONAL SELF-GOV]NM5T1 IT CREAT$ A NEW K9D ( BASE3 SPECIAL COMMUNAL ASSOCIATIONS ( ! POPULATION = EA* ( ! BASIC FUNCTIONS ( SELF GOV]NM5T4 

,?US1 ! LAW ( #ahcd E/ABLI%ES NEW 0POOR LAW UNIONS01 COMPRIS+ SEV]AL P>I%ES :OSE POPULATION JO9TLY ELECTS1 ON ! BASIS ( A SIX-CLASS ELECTORAL LAW1 9 ACCORDANCE ) ! TAXES PAID1 A SEP>ATE BO>D ( GU>DIANS = EA* UNION4 ,?IS BODY DECIDES ! :OLE MATT] ( WELF>E1 BUILD+ ( WORKH\SES1 ISSU+ DOLES1 ETC42 IT ALSO HIRES & PAYS ! (FICIALS :O C>RY \T ITS DECISIONS4 ,! OLD (FICE ( ! P>I% OV]SE] ( ! POOR *ANG$ FROM AN HONOR>Y TO A PAID ONE1 & WAS R$UC$ TO ! FUNCTION ( IMPOS+ & COLLECT+ TAXES ASSIGN$ BY ! BO>D4 

,ACCORD+ TO ! SAME MODEL1 BUT QUITE 9DEP5D5TLY1 ! LAW ( #ahdg CREAT$ A NEW1 BROAD ORGANIZATION TO TAKE C>E ( PUBLIC HEAL? & SUP]VISION ( BUILD+S1 CLEANL9ESS ( /REETS & H\SES1 WAT] SUPPLY1 & FOOD M>KET+4 ,ALSO = ?IS PURPOSE NEW ASSOCIATIONS ( ! LOCAL POPULATION ) REPRES5TATIVES ELECT$ BY IT W]E E/ABLI%$4 ,ON ! BASIS ( ! ,PUBLIC ,HEAL? ,ACT ( #a#h#g#e1 ,5GL& - ) ! EXCEPTION ( ! CAPITAL - IS DIVID$ 9TO URBAN & RURAL SANIT>Y DI/RICTS4 ,! ORGAN ( REPRES5TATION IS1 9 ! URBAN DI/RICTS1 ! CITY C\NCIL2 9 ! BOR\<S1 SPECIAL LOCAL BO>DS ( HEAL?2 & 9 ! RURAL DI/RICTS HEAL? IS SUP]VIS$ BY ! BO>D ( GU>DIANS4 ,ALL !SE BO>DS DECIDE ALL MATT]S P]TA9+ TO HEAL? & HIRE SAL>I$ (FIC]S :O C>RY \T ! RESOLUTIONS ( ! BO>D4 

,! ADM9I/RATION ( LOCAL TRANSPORTATION ALSO FOLL[$ ! SAME L9ES BUT 9DEP5D5TLY ( ! TWO BODIES M5TION$ ABOVE4 ,= ?IS PURPOSE1 HI<WAY DI/RICTS W]E CREAT$1 COMPOS$ ( SEV]AL P>I%ES :OSE POPULATION ELECTS SEP>ATE HI<WAY BO>DS4 ,9 MANY RURAL DI/RICTS1 TRANSPORTATION IS ! CONC]N ( ! LOCAL BO>D ( HEAL?1 OR ! BO>D ( GU>DIANS :I* ADM9I/]S BO? TRANSPORTATION & POOR RELIEF4 ,! HI<WAY BO>DS OR ! BO>DS ( GU>DIANS DECIDE AB\T TRANSPORTATION 5T]PRISES & HIRE A PAID DI/RICT-SURVEYOR AS ! (FICIAL C>RY+ \T !IR ORD]S4 ,& SO ! (FICE ( ! =M] HONOR>Y HI<WAY SURVEYOR VANI%$4 

,F9ALLY1 $UCATION WAS ALSO 5TRU/$ TO A SPECAIL SELF-GOV]N+ ORGANIZATION4 ,9DIVIDUAL P>I%ES1 CITIES & ! CAPITAL =M AS MANY S*OOL DI/RICTS4 ,H[EV]1 ! BO>D ( $UCATION ( ! C\NCIL ( /ATE HAS ! RI<T TO COMB9E SEV]AL URBAN P>I%ES 9TO ONE DI/RICT4 ,EV]Y DI/RICT ELECTS A S*OOL BO>D 5TRU/$ ) SUP]VISION ( ELEM5T>Y $UCATION3 IT MAKES DECISIONS CONC]N+ TUITION-FREE S*OOL+ & ! HIR+ ( (FICIALS & TEA*]S4 

,9 ?IS WAY !RE CAME 9TO BE+1 QUITE 9DEP5D5TLY FROM ! OLD ORGANIZATION ( SELF-GOV]NM5T1 NEW1 MULTIPLE1 AUTONOM\S ORGANIZATIONS :I*1 PRECISELY BECAUSE !Y ORIG9AT$ NOT BY WAY ( A BOLD REVOLUTION>Y RE=M BUT AS DISCRETE PAT*WORK1 =M$ AN EXTREMELY COMPLEX & 9VOLV$ SY/EM ( (T5 OV]LAPP+ >EAS ( COMPET5CE4 ,H[EV]1 IT IS *>ACT]I/IC = ! CLASSIC C\NTRY ( CAPITALI/ ECONOMY ?AT ! AXIS >\ND :I* ?IS MOD]N SELF-GOV]NM5T WAS CRY/ALLIZ$ - SO F> CLE>LY ON ! L[E/ LEVEL 9 ! RURAL COMMUNE - WAS ! ORGANIZATION ( PUBLIC WELF>E1 ! ORGANIZATION = COMBAT+ PAUP]ISM3 ! 0POOR0 WAS1 9 ,5GL&1 TO ! MIDDLE ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 ! (FICIAL SYNONYM = ! WORK]1 JU/ AS 9 A LAT] TIME ( ORD]LY & MOD]NIZ$ CONDITIONS1 ! SOB] EXPRESSION 0H&S0 BECAME SU* A SYNONYM4 ,BESIDE ?IS NEW ORGANIZATION ( SELF-GOV]NM5T1 ! OLD C\NTIES ) !IR JU/ICES ( ! PEACE BECAME A RELIC4 ,! JU/ICE ( ! PEACE FELL TO ! SUBORD9ATE ROLE ( P>TICIPANT 9 ! LOCAL C\NCIL1 & SUP]VISION ( ADM9I/RATION WAS LEFT HIM ONLY TO A C]TA9 EXT5T 9 MATT]S ( HI<WAYS4 ,:51 H[EV]1 ! LOCAL ADM9I/RATION PASS$ FROM ! H&S ( ! JU/ICE APPO9T$ BY ! ,CR[N TO ! ELECT$ REPRES5TATIVES ( ! LOCAL POPULATION1 ! ADM9I/RATIVE DEC5TRALIZATION BY NO MEANS 9CREAS$1 BUT ON ! CONTR>Y1 WAS ELIM9AT$4 ,IF1 9 ! OLD DAYS1 ! JU/ICE ( ! PEACE WAS AN ALL-P[]FUL MA/] 9 ! C\NCIL1 5TIRELY 9DEP5D5T ( ! C5TRAL GOV]NM5T1 AT PRES5T1 ! LOCAL GOV]NM5T IS SUBJECT ON ! ONE H& TO ! UNI=M P>LIAM5T>Y LEGISLATION1 & ON ! O!R TO /RICT CONTROL BY ! C5TRAL ADM9I/RATIVE AU?ORITIES4 ,! ,LOCAL ,GOV]NM5T ,BO>D SPECIALLY CREAT$ = ?IS PURPOSE CONTROLS ! ACTIVITY ( ! LOCAL BO>DS ( GU>DIANS & BO>DS ( HEAL? ?R\< VISIT+ 9SPECTORS1 :ILE ! S*OOL BO>DS >E SUBJECT TO ! BO>D ( $UCATION ( ! /ATE C\NCIL4 

,ALSO1 URBAN SELF-GOV]NM5T 9 ,5GL& IS A PRODUCT ( MO/ REC5T TIMES4 ,ONLY SLI<T TRACES SURVIV$ TO MOD]N TIMES ( ! COMMUNAL 9DEP5D5CE ( ! M$IEVAL CITY4 ,! MOD]N CITY1 AN \TCOME ( ! CAPITALI/ ECONOMY ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 MADE A NEW URBAN ORGANIZATION 9DISP5SABLE3 9ITIAT$ BY ! LAW ( #a#h#c#e1 IT WAS NOT F9ALLY E/ABLI%$ UNTIL #a#h#h#b4 

,! HI/ORY ( SELF-GOV]NM5T 9 ,G]MANY & ,AU/RIA LACKS SU* DI/9CTIVE FEATURES AS ?AT ( ,FRANCE OR ,5GL&2 H[EV]1 IT G5]ALLY FOLL[$ ! SAME L9ES4 ,9 BO? C\NTRIES1 ! DIVISION 9TO CITIES & RURAL COMMUNES RESULT+ FROM ! M$IEVAL DEVELOPM5T BR\<T AB\T A HI<LY DEVELOP$ SELF-GOV]NM5T ( ! CITIES & !IR POLITICAL 9DEP5D5CE1 & ALSO CREAT$ ! POLITICAL SPLIT1 P]HAPS ! GREATE/ 9 ,EUROPE1 ( ! /ATE T]RITORY 9TO 9DEP5D5T FEUDAL >EAS4 ,AFT] ! SIXTE5? C5TURY1 & ESPECIALLY 9 ! EI<TE5? C5TURY1 DUR+ ! TIME ( 5LI<T5$ ABSOLUTISM1 ! CITIES COMPLETELY LO/ !IR 9DEP5D5CE & FELL UND] ! AU?ORITY ( ! /ATE4 ,AT ! SAME TIME1 ! RURAL COMMUNES LO/ !IR TRADITIONAL SELF-GOV]N+ 9/ITUTIONS1 HAV+ COMPLETELY FALL51 ?R\< ! GR[? ( S]FDOM1 UND] ! AU?ORITY ( L&[N]S4 ,AL?\< MU* LAT] ?AN 9 ,FRANCE1 ABSOLUTISM NEV]!LESS1 AS ! CREATOR ( A UNIFI$ /ATE AU?ORITY & T]RITORY1 TRIUMPH$ 9 ,G]MANY 9 ! EI<TE5? C5TURY4 ,AT ! BEG9N+ ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 BUREAUCRATIC C5TRALISM IS EV]Y:]E VICTORI\S4 

,H[EV]1 BE=E LONG1 9 CONNECTION ) ! RIS+ BIG-9DU/RIAL PRODUCTION & ! ASPIRATION ( ! B\RGEOISIE TO 9TRODUCE MOD]N CONDITIONS 9TO ! /ATE1 ! DEVELOPM5T ( LOCAL SELF-GOV]NM5T ON NEW PR9CIPLES BEG9S4 ,! FIR/ G5]AL LAW ( ?IS K9D ORIG9AT$ 9 ,AU/RIA DUR+ ! ,M>* ,REVOLUTION4 ,ACTUALLY1 H[EV]1 ! F\NDATIONS ( ! PRES5T SELF-GOV]NM5T W]E LAID 9 ,AU/RIA BY ! /ATUTE ( #a#h#f#b2 9 ! RESPECTIVE CR[NL&S1 P>TICUL> COMMUNAL LAWS CAME 9TO BE+ LAT] ?R\< LEGISLATION ( ! ,DIET4 

,9 ,G]MANY1 !RE PREVAILS ,FR5* LAW1 P>TLY D]IV$ FROM ,NAPOLEONIC TIMES1 :I* DOES NOT DI/+UI% BETWE5 ! URBAN & RURAL COMMUNE3 = 9/ANCE1 9 ! ,RH9EL&1 9 ! ,BAV>IAN ,PALAT9ATE1 ,HESSE1 ,?UR+IA1 ETC4 ,ON ! O!R H9D1 ! ,PRUSSIAN MODEL PREVAIL+ 9 WE/]N & EA/]N ,G]MANY IS AN 9DEP5D5T PRODUCT4 ,AL?\< ! ,PRUSSIAN URBAN LAW DATES ALREADY FROM #a#h#h1 ! ACTUAL P]IOD ( ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! PRES5T SELF-GOV]NM5T 9 ,PRUSSIA FELL 9 ! SIXTIES & ! MA9 RE=MS 9 ! SEV5TIES & EI<TIES4 ,AMONG ! MA9 >EAS ( URBAN ADM9I/RATION - PROV9CE1 DI/RICT 7,KREIS71 & COMMUNE - ONLY ! LA/ HAS WELL-DEVELOP$1 SELF-GOV]N+ 9/ITUTIONS1 I4E41 EXT5SIVE P[] ( ! REPRES5TATIVES ELECT$ BY ! POPULATION2 9 ! REMA9+ ONES1 REPRES5TATIVE BODIES 7,KREI/AG1 ,PROV9ZALL&TAG7 EXI/ BUT !Y >E RA!R MOD]NIZ$1 M$IEVAL CLASS DIETS & !IR COMPET5CE IS EXTREMELY LIMIT$ BY ! COMPET5CE ( (FICIALS APPO9T$ BY ! ,CR[N1 SU* AS ,REGI]UNGSPRASID5T 9 ! PROV9CE1 & ,L&RAT 9 ! DI/RICT4 

,LOCAL SELF-GOV]NM5T 9 ,RUSSIA CON/ITUTES ONE ( ! MO/ \T/&+ ATTEMPTS ( ABSOLUTISM :I*1 9 ! FAM\S 0LIB]AL RE=MS0 AFT] ! ,SEBA/OPOL CATA/ROPHE1 AIM$ AT ADJU/+ ! 9/ITUTIONS ( ORI5TAL DESPOTISM TO ! SOCIAL NE$S ( MOD]N CAPITALI/ ECONOMY4 ,BETWE5 ! PEASANT RE=M & ! RE=M ( ! C\RTS AT ! ?RE%OLD ( ! 0R5EW$0 ,RUSSIA ( ,ALEX&] ,I,I1 /&S ! LAW :I* CREAT$ ! T]RITORIAL 9/ITUTIONS4 ,MODEL$ ON ! NEWLY E/ABLI%$ SELF-GOV]N+ 9/ITUTIONS ( ,PRUSSIA1 ! SY/EM ( ! ,RUSSIAN 0ZEM/VO0 IS A P>ODY ( ,5GLI% SELF-GOV]NM5T2 IT 5TRU/S ! 5TIRE LOCAL ADM9I/RATION TO ! WEAL?Y NOBILITY1 & AT ! SAME TIME SUBJECTS ?IS SELF-GOV]NM5T ( ! NOBILITY TO /RICT POLICE SUP]VISION & ! DECISIVE AU?ORITY ( CZ>I/ BUREAUCRACY4 

,! LAW GOV]N+ ELECTIONS TO ! C\NTY & GUB]NIAL T]RITORIAL C\NCILS HAPPILY COMB9ES1 9 ! TRI-CURIAL SY/EM & 9DIRECT ELECTIONS1 ! CLASS PR9CIPLE ) ! C5SUS PR9CIPLE4 ,IT MAKES ! C\NTY M>%AL ( ! NOBILITY ! EX-(FICIO *AIRMAN 9 ! DI/RICT C\NCIL1 & SECUR+ 9 IT TO ! NOBILITY CURIA HALF ( ! SEATS SUSP5DS OV] ALL RESOLUTIONS ( ! C\NCIL1 LIKE A ,DAMOCLES SWORD1 ! ?REAT5+ VETO ( ! GOV]NOR4 

,AS A RESULT ( ?IS PECULI>ITY ( ,RUSSIA'S SOCIAL DEVELOPM5T1 :I*1 9 ! P]IOD BE=E #aie MADE NOT ! URBAN B\RGEOISIE1 BUT C]TA9 /RATA ( ! NOBILITY ! ADVOCATES ( 0LIB]AL DREAMS0 H[EV] PALE1 EV5 ?IS P>ODY ( SELF-GOV]N+ 9/ITUTIONS REPRES5T$ BY ! ,RUSSIAN ZEM/VOS HAS BECOME1 9 ! H&S ( ! NOBILITY1 A FRAMEWORK = S]I\S SOCIAL & CULTURAL ACTIVITY4 ,H[EV]1 ! %>P CLA% ?AT IMM$IATELY >OSE BETWE5 LIB]ALISM1 NE/L+ 9 ! T]RITORIAL ADM9I/RATION1 ON ! ONE H&1 & ! BUREAUCRACY & GOV]NM5T ON ! O!R1 GL>+LY ILLUM9AT$ ! G5U9E CONTRADICTION BETWE5 MOD]N SELF-GOV]NM5T & ! M$IEVAL /ATE APP>ATUS ( ABSOLUTISNI4 ,BEG9N+ A FEW YE>S AFT] ! 9TRODUCTION ( ! ZEM/VOS1 ! COLLISION ) ! P[] ( ! GOV]NORS EXT5DS LIKE A R$ ?READ ?R\< ! HI/ORY ( SELF-GOV]NM5T 9 ,RUSSIA1 OSCILLAT+ BETWE5 ! DEPORTATION ( RECALCITRANT C\NCIL *AIRM5 TO MORE OR LESS DI/ANT REGIONS2 & ! BOLDE/ DREAMS ( ,RUSSIAN LIB]ALS 9 ! =M ( AN ALL-,RUSSIAN ,CONGRESS ( ZEM/VOS :I* WAS SUPPOS$ TO BE TRANS=M$ 9TO A CON/ITU5T ASSEMBLY ?AT W\LD ABOLI% ABSOLUTISM 9 A PEACEFUL MANN]4 

,! FEW YE>S ( ! ACTION ( ! .<#a#i#e.> REVOLUTION SOLV$ ?IS HI/ORICAL COLLISION1 VIOL5TLY MOV+ ! ,RUSSIAN NOBILITY TO ! SIDE ( REACTION & DEPRIV+ ! P>ODY ( T]RITORIAL SELF-GOV]NM5T ( ANY MY/IFY+ RESEMBLANCES TO LIB]ALISM4 ,?US WAS CLE>LY DEMON/RAT$ ! IMPOSSIBILITY ( RECONCIL+ ! DEMOCRATIC SELF-GOV]NM5T 9DISP5SABLE ,9 A B\RGEOIS SOCIETY ) ! RULE ( ABSOLUTISM1 AS WELL AS ! IMPOSSIBILITY ( GRAFT+ MOD]N B\RGEOIS DEMOCRACY ONTO ! CLASS ACTION ( ! T]RITORIAL NOBILITY & ITS 9/ITUTIONS4 ,LOCAL SELF-GOV]NM5T 9 ! MOD]N S5SE 9 ONLY ONE ( ! DETAILS ( ! G5]AL POLITICAL PROGRAM :OSE IMPLEM5TATION 9 ! 5TIRE /ATE CON/ITUTES ! TASK ( ! REVOLUTION4 

,9 P>TICUL>1 ! ,K+DOM ( ,POL& & ,LI?UANIA MU/ P>TICIPATE 9 ?IS POLITICAL RE=M4 ,?IS ,K+DOM IS AT S5T A UNIQUE EXAMPLE ( A C\NTRY ) A HI<LY DEVELOP$ B\RGEOIS ECONOMY :I*1 H[EV]1 IS DEPRIV$ ( ANY TRACES ( LOCAL SELF-GOV]NM5T4 

,9 ANCI5T ,POL&1 A C\NTRY ( NATURAL ECONOMY & G5TRY RULE1 !RE OBVI\SLY WAS NO LOCAL SELF-GOV]NM5T4 ,POLI% DI/RICT & PROV9CIAL C\NCILS POSSESS$ ONLY FUNCTIONS CONNECT$ ) ELECTIONS TO ! SEJM4 ,AL?\< CITIES POSSESS$ !IR ,MAGDEBURG LAWS1 IMPORT$ FROM ,G]MANY & /&+ \TSIDE ! NATIONAL LAW1 9 ! SEV5TE5? & EI<TE5? C5TURIES1 ) ! COMPLETE DECL9E ( CITIES1 ! MAJORITY ( !M FELL UND] ! LAW ( S]FDOM OR REGRESS$ TO ! /ATUS ( RURAL SETTLEM5TS & COMMUNES1 & 9 CONSEQU5CE URBAN SELF-GOV]NM5T DISAPPE>$4 

,! ,DU*Y ( ,W>SAW1 :I* WAS AN EXP]IM5T ( ,NAPOLEON1 WAS 5D[$ ) A SY/EM ( SELF-GOV]NM5T BODILY TRANSF]R$ FROM ,FRANCE1 NOT ! ONE :I* WAS ! PRODUCT ( REVOLUTION1 BUT A SELF-GOV]NM5T SQUEEZ$ 9 ! CLAMPS ( ! ,/ATUTE ( ,PLUVOIS #b#h4 ,! ,DU*Y WAS DIVID$ 9TO DEP>TM5TS1 C\NTIES1 & COMMUNES ) 0MUNICIPAL0 SELF-GOV]NM5TS & 0PREFECTS0 :O APPO9T$ MUNICIPAL C\NCILORS FROM A LI/ ( C&IDATES ELECT$ AT C\NTY DIETS1 :I* WAS A SLAVI% COPY ( ! ,NAPOLEONIC 0LI/ES DE CONFIANCE0 9 ! DEP>TM5T4 ,!SE BODIES1 DE/9$ MA9LY TO IMPOSE /ATE TAXES1 HAD ONLY ADVISORY FUNCTIONS O!RWISE1 & LACK$ ANY EXECUTIVE ORGANS4 

,9 ! ,CONGRESS ,K+DOM1 ! ,FR5* APP>ATUS WAS COMPLETELY ABOLI%$2 ONLY ! DEP>TM5TS REMA9$1 R5AM$ 0VOYVOD%IP40 ,H[EV]1 !Y /ILL HAD NO SELF-GOV]N+ FUNCTIONS1 ONLY A C]TA9 9FLU5CE ON ! ELECTION ( JUDGES & ADM9I/RATIVE (FICIALS4 ,AFT] ! ,NOVEMB] ,9SURRECTION .<#a#h#c.>1 EV5 ?IS REMNANT ( SELF-GOV]N+ =MS WAS ABOLI%$1 & ) ! EXCEPTION ( ! %ORT P]IOD ( ,WIELOPOLSKI'S EXP]IM5T 9 #a#h#f#a1 :5 PROV9CIAL & C\NTY AS WELL AS URBAN C\NCILS W]E CREAT$ ON ! BASIS ( 9DIRECT1 MULTILEVEL ELECTIONS & )\T ANY EXECUTIVE ORGANS1 ! C\NTRY TO ?IS DAY REMA9S )\T ANY =M ( SELF-GOV]NM5T4 ,A WEAK CLASS COMMUNE CRIPPL$ BY ! GOV]NM5T IS ! ONLY RELIC 9 ?IS FIELD4 ,CONSEQU5TLY1 ! ,K+DOM ( ,POL& REPRES5TS AT PRES5T1 AFT] A HUNDR$ YE>S ( ! OP]ATION ( ,RUSSIAN ABSOLUTISM1 SOME ANALOGY TO ?AT TABULA RASA :I* ! ,GREAT ,REVOLUTION CREAT$ 9 ,FRANCE 9 ORD] TO ]ECT ON ?IS GR\ND A RADICAL & DEMOCRATIC RE=M ( SELF-GOV]NM5T UNRE/RICT$ BY ANY HI/ORICAL SURVIVALS4 

  

,I,I,I 

,K>L ,KAUTSKY *>ACT]IZES ! BASIC ATTITUDE ( ,SOCIAL ,DEMOCRACY TO ! QUE/ION ( AUTONOMY AS FOLL[S3 

,! C5TRALIZATION ( ! LEGISLATIVE PROCESS DID NOT BY ANY MEANS 9VOLVE ! COMPLETE C5TRALIZATION ( ADM9I/RATION4 ,ON ! CONTR>Y4 ,! SAME CLASSES :I* NE$$ UNIFICATION ( ! LAWS W]E OBLIG$ !REAFT] TO BR+ ! /ATE P[] UND] !IR CONTROL4 ,H[EV]1 ?IS TOOK PLACE ONLY 9COMPLETELY UND] ! P>LIAM5T>Y =M ( GOV]NM5T1 9 :I* ! GOV]NM5T IS DEP5D5T ON ! LEGISLATURE4 ,! ADM9I/RATION1 ) ! :OLE BUREAUCRATIC APP>ATUS AT ITS DISPOSAL1 WAS NOM9ALLY SUBORD9ATE TO ! C5TRAL LEGISLATURE1 BUT ! EXECUTIVE (T5 TURN$ \T TO BE /RONG] 9 PRACTICE4 ,! ADM9I/RATION 9FLU5CES ! VOT]S 9 ! LEGISLATURE ?R\< ITS BUREAUCRACY & ?R\< ITS P[] 9 LOCAL MATT]S2 IT CORRUPTS ! LEGISLATORS ?R\< ITS P[] TO DO !M FAVORS4 ,H[EV]1 ! /RONGLY C5TRALIZ$ BUREAUCRACY %[S ITSELF LESS & LESS ABLE TO COPE ) ! 9CREAS+ TASKS ( ! /ATE ADM9I/RATION4 ,IT IS OV]COME BY !M4 ,! RESULTS >E3 FUMBL+1 DELAYS1 PO/PON+ ! MO/ IMPORTANT MATT]S1 COMPLETE MISUND]/&+ ( ! RAPIDLY *ANG+ NE$S ( PRACTICAL LIFE1 MASSIVE WA/E ( TIME & LABOR 9 SUP]FLU\S P5CIL WORK4 ,!SE >E ! RAPIDLY 9CREAS+ %ORTCOM+S ( BUREAUCRATIC C5TRALISM4 

,?US !RE >ISES1 ALONG ) ! /RIV+ = UNI=MITY ( LEGISLATION1 AFT] ! SEV]AL PROV9CIAL LEGISLATURES HAVE BE5 SUP]S$$ BY A C5TRAL P>LIAM5T1 A /RIV+ = DEC5TRALIZATION ( ADM9I/RATION1 = LOCAL ADM9I/RATION ( ! PROV9CES & COMMUNES4 ,! ONE & ! O!R >E *>ACT]I/IC ( ! MOD]N /ATE4 

0,?IS SELF-GOV]NM5T DOES NOT MEAN ! RE/ORATION ( M$IEVAL P>TICUL>ISM4 ,! COMMUNE .<,GEME9DE.> & LIKEWISE ! PROV9CE7 DOES NOT BECOME A SELF-SUFFICI5T 5TITY AS IT ONCE WAS4 ,IT REMA9S A COMPON5T P>T ( ! GREAT :OLE1 ! NATION1 .<,H]E US$ AS SYNONYM\S ) 0/ATE40 - ,KAUTSKY.> & HAS TO WORK = IT & )9 ! LIMITS ?AT IT SETS4 ,! RI<TS & DUTIES ( ! 9DIVIDUAL COMMUNES AS AGA9/ ! /ATE >E NOT LAID D[N 9 SPECIAL TREATIES4 ,!Y >E A PRODUCT ( ! G5]AL SY/EM ( LAWS1 DET]M9$ = ALL BY ! C5TRAL P[] ( ! /ATE2 !Y >E DET]M9$ BY ! 9T]E/S ( ! :OLE /ATE OR ! NATION1 NOT BY ?OSE ( ! SEV]AL COMMUNES40 - ,K4 ,KAUTSKY1 ,D] ,P>LAM5T>ISMUS1 DIE ,VOLKSGESETZGEBUNG UND DIE ,SOZIALDEMOKRATIE1 P4#d#h4 

,IF ,COMRADE ,/AMPF] WILL KEEP SEP>ATE ! C5TRALIZATION ( ADM9I/RATION & ! C5TRALIZATION ( ! LEGISLATIVE PROCESS1 HE WILL F9D ?AT ! PA?S BE+ FOLL[$ BY ,G]MAN & ,AU/RIAN ,SOCIAL ,DEMOCRACY RESPECTIVELY >E NOT DIV]G+ AT ALL1 BUT >E GO+ 9 ! SAME DIRECTION AS ! :OLE ( MOD]N DEMOCRACY4 ,OPPOSITION TO ALL SPECIAL PRIVILEGES 9 ! C\NTRY1 /R5G!N+ ( ! C5TRAL LEGISLATURE AT ! EXP5SE ( ! PROV9CIAL P>LIAM5TS AS WELL AS ( ! GOV]NM5T ADM9I/RATION2 WEAK5+ ( ! C5TRAL ADM9I/RATION BO? ?R\< ! /R5G!N+ ( ! C5TRAL LEGISLATURE & ?R\< ! DEVOLUTION ( SELF-ADM9I/RATION TO ! COMMUNES & PROV9CES - ?IS LATT] PROCESS TAK+1 9 ,AU/RIA1 9 ACCORDANCE ) ITS [N LOCAL CONDITIONS1 ! =M ( SELF-ADM9I/RATION ( ! NATIONALITIES - BUT A SELF-ADM9I/RATION REGULAT$ = ! :OLE C\NTRY BY ! C5TRAL LEGISLATURE ALONG UNI=M L9ES3 ?AT IS1 9 SPITE ( ALL HI/ORICAL & O!R SOCIAL DIFF]5CES1 9 ,G]MANY & ,AU/RIA ! POSITION ( ,SOCIAL ,DEMOCRACY ON ! QUE/ION ( C5TRALISM & P>TICUL>ISM4.<#e.> 

,WE HAVE QUOT$ ! ABOVE EXT5SIVE >GUM5T ( ,KAUTSKY ON ! QUE/ION WE >E EXAM9+ BUT NOT BECAUSE WE UNRES]V$LY %>E HIS VIEWS4 ,! LEAD+ IDEA ( ?IS >GUM5T3 ! DIVISION ( MOD]N /ATE C5TRALISM 9TO ADM9I/RATIVE & LEGISLATIVE1 ! REJECTION ( ! =M] & ! ABSOLUTE REOGNITION ( ! LATT]1 APPE>S TO US SOME:AT TOO =MALI/IC & NOT QUITE PRECISE4 ,LOCAL AUTONOMY - PROV9CIAL1 MUNICIPAL1 & COMMUNAL - DOES NOT AT ALL DO AWAY ) ADM9I/RATIVE C5TRALISM3 AUTONOMY COV]S ONLY /RICTLY LOCAL MATT]S1 :ILE ! ADM9I/RATION ( ! /ATE AS A :OLE -MA9S 9 ! H&S ( ! C5TRAL AU?ORITY1 :I*1 EV5 9 SU* DEMOCRATIC /ATES AS ,SWITZ]L&1 %[S A CON/ANT T5D5CY TO EXT5D ITS COMPET5CE4 

,AN \T/&+ FEATURE ( MOD]N ADM9I/RATION 9 CONTRADI/9CTION TO M$IEVAL P>TICUL>ISM IS PRECISELY ! /RICT SUP]VISION BY C5TRAL 9/ITUTIONS & ! SUBORD9ATION ( ! LOCAL ADM9I/RATION TO ! UNI=M DIRECTION & CONTROL ! /ATE AU?ORITIES4 ,A TYPICAL ILLU/RATION ( ?IS >RANGEM5T IS ! DEP5D5CE ( ! MOD]N SELF-GOV]N+ (FICIALS 9 ,5GL& ON ! C5TRAL (FICES & EV5 ! SPECIAL CREATION OV] !M ( A C5TRAL ,LOCAL ,GOV]NM5T ,BO>D :I* ELIM9ATES G5U9E ADM9I/RATIVE DEC5TRALIZATION REPRES5T$ BY ! OLD SY/EM 9 :I*1 IT WILL BE RECALL$1 ! ALL-P[]FUL JU/ICES ( ! PEACE W]E 5TIRELY 9DEP5D5T ( ! C5TRAL GOV]NM5T4 ,9 ! SAME WAY1 ! MO/ REC5T DEVELOPM5T ( SELF-GOV]NM5T 9 ,FRANCE PAVES ANEW ! WAY TO DEMOCRATIZATION1 & AT ! SAME TIME GRADUALLY ELIM9ATES ! 9DEP5D5CE ( ! PREFECT FROM ! C5TRAL M9I/RIES1 A SY/EM ?AT HAD *>ACT]IZ$ ! GOV]NM5T ( ! ,SECOND ,EMPIRE4 

,! ABOVE PH5OM5ON ALSO COMPLETELY CORRESPONDS TO ! G5]AL DIRECTION ( POLITICAL DEVELOPM5T4 ,A /RONG C5TRAL GOV]NM5T IS AN 9/ITUTION PECULI> NOT ONLY TO ! EPO* ( ABSOLUTISM AT ! DAWN ( B\RGEOIS DEVELOPM5T BUT ALSO TO B\RGEOIS SOCIETY ITSELF 9 ITS HI<E/ /AGE1 FL[]+1 & DECL9E4 ,! MORE EXT]NAL POLICY - COMM]CIAL1 AGGRESSIVE1 COLONIAL - BECOMES ! AXIS ( ! LIFE ( CAPITALISM1 ! MORE WE 5T] 9TO ! P]IOD ( IMP]IALI/IC 0GLOBAL0 POLICY1 :I* IS A NORMAL PHASE ( ! DEVELOPM5T ( B\RGEOIS ECONOMY1 & ! MORE CAPITALISM NE$S A /RONG AU?ORITY1 A P[]FUL C5TRAL GOV]NM5T :I* CONC5TRATES 9 ITS H&S ALL ! RES\RCES ( ! /ATE = ! PROTECTION ( ITS 9T]E/S \TSIDE4 ,H5CE1 MOD]N AUTONOMY1 EV5 9 ITS WIDE/ APPLICATION1 F9DS DEF9ITE B>RI]S 9 ALL ?OSE ATTRIBUTES ( P[] :I* >E RELAT$ TO ! =EIGN POLICY ( A /ATE4 

,ON ! O!R H&1 AUTONOMY ITSELF PUTS UP B>RI]S TO LEGISLATIVE C5TRALIZATION1 BECAUSE )\T C]TA9 LEGISLATIVE COMPET5CES1 EV5 N>R[LY \TL9$ & PURELY LOCAL1 NO SELF-GOV]NM5T IS POSSIBLE4 ,! P[] ( ISSU+ )9 A C]TA9 SPH]E1 ON ITS [N 9ITIATIVE1 LAWS B9D+ = ! POPULATION1 & NOT M]ELY SUP]VIS+ ! EXECUTION ( LAWS ISSU$ BY ! C5TRAL LEGISLATIVE BODY1 CON/ITUTES PRECISELY ! S\L & CORE ( SELF-GOV]NM5T 9 ! MOD]N DEMOCRATIC S5SE - IT =MS ! BASIC FUNCTION ( MUNICIPAL & COMMUNAL C\NCILS AS WELL AS ( PROV9CIAL DIETS OR DEP>TM5TAL C\NCILS4 ,ONLY :5 ! LATT] 9 ,FRANCE ACQUIR$ ! RI<T ( DECID+ 9 ! LA/ 9/ANCE AB\T !IR PROBLEMS 9/EAD ( SUBMITT+ !IR OP9IONS 9 A CONSULTATIVE CAPACITY1 & P>TICUL>LY :5 !Y ACQUIR$ ! RI<T ( DRAFT+ !IR 9DEP5D5T BUDGET1 ONLY FROM ?AT TIME DATES ! REAL BEG9N+ ( ! AUTONOMY ( ! DEP>TM5TS4 ,9 ! SAME WAY1 ! F\NDATION ( URBAN SELF-GOV]NM5T 9 ,G]MANY IS ! RI<T ( E/ABLI%+ ! BUDGET ( ! T[NS1 & 9 CONNECTION ) ?IS ! 9DEP5D5T FIX+ ( SUPPLEM5TS TO ! /ATE TAXES & ALSO ! 9TRODUCTION ( NEW COMMUNAL TAXES 7AL?\< )9 LIMITS FIX$ BY /ATE LAW74 ,FUR!R1 :51 = 9/ANCE1 ! CITY C\NCIL ( ,B]L9 OR ,P>IS ISSUES B9D+ REGULATIONS CONC]N+ ! BUILD+ CODE1 9SURANCE DUTIES = HOME 9DU/RY1 EMPLOYM5T & UNEMPLOYM5T AID1 ! CITY SEWAGE-DISPOSAL SY/EM1 COMMUNICATIONS1 ETC41 ALL !SE >E LEGISLATIVE ACTIVITIES4 ,! AXIS ( ! 9CESSANT /RUGGLE BETWE5 LOCAL REPRES5TATIVES & ORGANS ( ! C5TRAL ADM9I/RATION IS ! DEMOCRATIC T5D5CY CON/ANTLY TO EXP& ! LEGISLATIVE COMPET5CE ( ! ELECT$ ORGANS & TO R$UCE ! ADM9I/RATIVE COMPET5CE ( ! APPO9T$ ORGANS4 

,! ATTITUDE TO LOCAL AUTONOMY - ITS LEGISLATIVE & ADM9I/RATIVE FUNCTIONS - CON/ITUTES ! !ORETICAL BASIS ( ! POLITICAL FI<T :I* HAS BE5 GO+ ON = A LONG TIME BETWE5 ,SOCIAL ,DEMOCRACY ON ! ONE H& & ! GOV]NM5T & ! B\RGEOIS P>TIES ON ! O!R4 ,! LATT] HOLD A UNI=M VIEW ON ! MATT] 9 QUE/ION EXCEPT = A SMALL GR\P ( EXTREME-LEFT PROGRESSIVES4 ,:ILE ! !ORY ( B\RGEOIS REACTION MA9TA9S ?AT LOCAL SELF-GOV]NM5T IS1 BY ITS NATURE1 ONLY A LOCALIZATION ( /ATE ADM9I/RATIONS1 ?AT ! COMMUNE1 DI/RICT1 OR PROV9CE AS A F9ANCIAL UNIT IS CALL$ TO ADM9I/] ! /ATE PROP]TY1 ,SOCIAL ,DEMOCRACY DEF5DS ! VIEW ?AT A COMMUNE1 DI/RICT1 OR PROV9CE IS A SOCIAL BODY CALL$ UPON TO TAKE C>E - 9 A LOCAL SPH]E - ( A NUMB] ( SOCIAL MATT]S & NOT ONLY F9ANCIAL ONES4 ,! PRACTICAL CONCLUSION ( !SE TWO !ORIES IS ?AT ! B\RGEOIS P>TIES 9SI/ ?AT ELECTORAL RI<TS TO SELF-GOV]N+ BODIES %\LD BE LIMIT$ BY A PROP]TY QUALIFICATION1 :ILE ,SOCIAL ,DEMOCRACY CALLS = A UNIV]SAL & EQUAL ELECTORAL RI<T = ! :OLE POPULATION4 ,G5]ALLY SPEAK+1 ! PROGRESS ( MOD]N SELF GOV]NM5T T[>D DEMOCRACY CAN BE MEASUR$ BY ! EXPANSION ( ! GR\PS ( POPULATION :I* P>TICIPATE 9 SELF-GOV]NM5T BY WAY ( ELECTIONS1 AS WELL AS BY ! DEGREE TO :I* !IR REPRES5TATIVE BODIES EXT5D !IR COMPET5CE4 ,! TRANSF] ( SOME ACTIVITIES FROM ! ADM9I/RATION TO ! LEGISLATIVE1 REPRES5TATIVE BODIES IS A MEASURE EXT5D+ ! LATT]'S COMPET5CE4 ,IT SEEMS !RE=E ?AT ! C5TRALIZ$ /ATE APP>ATUS CAN BE SEP>AT$ FROM LOCAL SELF-GOV]NM5T1 & MOD]N SELF-GOV]NM5T FROM FEUDAL & PETIT B\RGEOIS P>TICUL>ISM4 ,?IS CAN BE DONE1 9 \R OP9ION1 NOT BY A =MALI/IC APPROA*1 :]EBY ! LEGISLATIVE & ! ADM9I/RATIVE P[]S >E SEP>AT$1 BUT BY SEP>AT+ SOME SPH]ES ( SOCIAL LIFE - NAMELY ?OSE :I* CON/ITUTE ! CORE ( A CAPITALI/ ECONOMY & ( A BIG B\RGEOIS /ATE - FROM ! SPH]E ( LOCAL 9T]E/S4 

,9 P>TICUL>1 ,KAUTSKY'S =MULA 9CLUD+ NATIONAL AUTONOMY UND] ! G5]AL HEAD+ ( LOCAL SELF-GOV]NM5T W\LD1 9 VIEW ( HIS !ORY AB\T LEGISLATIVE C5TRALIZATION LEAD ,SOCIAL ,DEMOCRACY TO REFUSE TO RECOGNIZE REGIONAL DIETS ON ! GR\ND ?AT !Y W]E A MANIFE/ATION ( LEGISLATIVE DEC5TRALIZATION1 I4E41 M$IEVAL P>TICUL>ISM4 ,KAUTSKY'S >GUM5TS >E 9 !IR ESS5CE EXTREMELY VALUABLE AS AN 9DICATION CONC]N+ ! G5]AL T5D5CY 9 ,SOCIAL ,DEMOCRATIC POLICY1 CONC]N+ ITS BASIC /&PO9T T[>D C5TRALISM & BIG P[] POLICY ON ! ONE H& & P>TICUL>I/IC T5D5CIES ON ! O!R4 ,BUT PRECISELY FROM ! SAME F\NDATIONS FROM :I*1 9 ALL CAPITALI/IC /ATES1 GR[S LOCAL SELF-GOV]NM5T1 !RE ALSO GR[S 9 C]TA9 CONDITIONS NATIONAL AUTONOMY1 ) LOCAL LEGISLATION AS AN 9DEP5D5T MANIFE/ATION ( MOD]N SOCIAL DEVELOPM5T1 :I* HAS AS LITTLE 9 COMMON ) M$IEVAL P>TICUL>ISM AS ! PRES5T-DAY CITY C\NCIL HAS ) A P>LIAM5T ( ! ANCI5T ,HANSEATIC REPUBLIC4 

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.<#c.> ,?IS FACT IS QUOT$ BY ,G4 ,WEILL1 ,HI/OIRE DU M\VEM5T SOCIAL 5 ,FRANCE 7#a#i#d71 P4#a#b4 ,ORIG9AL NOTE BY ,R4,L4 

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