,*APT] #a 
,L& & ,CITY 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,MURRAY ,BOOK*9 

,TEXT 3 

#a4 ,L& & ,CITY 

  

,CITIES PLAY AN 9DISPUTABLY DOM9ANT ROLE 9 MOD]N LIFE4 ,!Y VISIBLY DECIDE ! DEVELOPM5T ( MOD]N SOCIETY4 ,IT W\LD ?US SEEM ?AT ONCE URBAN COMMUNITIES >OSE1 !Y QUICKLY A*IEV$ A LEAD+ POSITION &1 LIKE \R [N CITIES1 5T]$ 9TO AN OV]BE>+ ANTAGONISM ) ! C\NTRYSIDE4 

,BUT !RE WAS A TIME :5 URBAN LIFE WAS EI!R SUBORD9AT$ TO OR 9 BALANCE ) ! C\NTRYSIDE4 ,! DEVELOPM5T ( SOCIAL RELATIONS ?R\< MU* ( PRECAPITALI/ HI/ORY'DID NOT DEF9ITIVELY DEP5D UPON ! DEVELOPM5T ( CITY LIFE UNTIL ! LATE ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 :5 CITIES BECAME ! PRECURSORS ( AN AU!NTIC B\RGEOIS ECONOMY4 ,IT IS EASILY =GOTT5 ?AT MO/ ( HUMAN HI/ORY IS OCCUPI$ ) WOM5 & M5 AS FOOD CULTIVATORS1 & ?AT ! SOCIAL WEAL? ( ! PA/ CAME PRIM>ILY FROM AGRICULTURAL PURSUITS4 ,MOREOV]1 AGR>IAN SOCIETY WAS ITSELF ! PRODUCT ( A LONG & COMPLEX EVOLUTION1 9VOLV+ DIFF]5T =MS ( L& T5URE & SOCIAL RELATIONS4 ,FROM ! MORE OR LESS COMMUNAL =MS ( HORTICULTURE PRACTIC$ BY E>LY CLANS & TRIBES1 AGR>IAN SOCIETY ADVANC$ ?R\< ! ,ASIAN L& SY/EM ) ITS P>AM\NT MON>*IES TO FEUDALISM & TO AN AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY BAS$ ON AN 9DEP5D5T PEASANTRY4 ,! PROBLEMS ( ?IS LONG P]IOD W]E1 PRIM>ILY AGR>IAN PROBLEMS & ! GREATE/ ECONOMIC WEI<T LAY NOT 9 CITIES BUT 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE1 OR AT LEA/ AMONG SOCIAL CLASSES BAS$ ON ! L&4 

,ALL CITIES CON/ITUTE AN ANTI!SIS TO ! L&4 ,!Y >E A BREAK 9 ! SOLIDITY ( AGR>IAN CONDITIONS1 A G]M ( NEGALION 9 ! AGR>IAN COMMUNITY4 ,AT ! SAME TIME1 H[EV]1 RURAL LIFE SUMMONS =? ! CITY FROM ITS [N 9N] DEVELOPM5T AS A DIVISION ( LABOR BETWE5 CRAFTS & TRADE ON ! ONE H&1 & RELATIVELY SELF-SUFFICI5T AGRICULTTURAL COMMUNITIES ON ! O!R4 ,! EM]G+ CITY BEG9S BY REFLECT+ ! SOCIAL RELATIONS 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE SO ?AT !RE >E DIFF]5T CITIES MORE OR LESS CORRESPOND+ TO DIFF]5T =MS ( AGR>IAN SOCIETY4 ,9 V>I\S PHASES ( SOCIAL DEVELOPM5T1 ! ,CITY IS RAIS$ FROM A DI/9CTLY SUBORD9ATE POSITION TO ONE ( EQUILIBRIUM ) ! C\NTRYSIDE & MAY REMA9 SO = LONG P]IODS ( TIME OR1 AFT] OV]/EPP+ ! LIMITS ( ITS RURAL BASE1 F9ALLY YIELD TO ! HEGEMONY ( ! L& :5 ! TWO BECOME CLE>LY 9COMPATIBLE4 ,VIEW$ OV] MO/ ( PRECAPITALI/ HI/ORY1 CITY LIFE DID NOT HAVE AS COMPLETE AN URBAN BASIS AS IT SEEMS TO HAVE TODAY4 ,URBAN C5T]S W]E L>GELY ! FOCI ( SURR\ND+ AGR>IAN RELATIONS4 ,!Y W]E HORTICULTURAL CLAN CITIES1 ,ASIAN CITIES4 ,FEUDAL CITIES1 & EV5 PEASANT & YEOMAN CITIES4 ,URBAN LIFE C\LD BE CLE>LY UND]/OOD ONLY BY SE>*+ BACK TO ! ECONOMIC RELATION%IPS ?AT PREVAIL$ 9 ! AGRICULTURAL 5VIRONS4 ,AL?\< CITY LIFE ACQUIR$ SOCIAL =CES ( ITS [N & (T5 5T]$ 9TO CONTRADICTION ) ! L&1 ! AGR>IAN ECONOMY E/ABLI%$1 ! HI/ORICAL LIMITS = ALMO/ EV]Y ,URBAN DEVELOPM5T4 

,?IS CAN BE DEMON/RAT$ QUITE CLE>LY BY A NUMB] ( EXAMPLES1 ,AN ILLU/RATION ( ! E>LIE/ CITIES CAN BE DRAWN FROM DESCRIPTIONS ( ! ,AZTEC 0CAPITAL0 ( ,T5O*TITLAN1 5C\NT]$ BY ,SPANI% CONQUI/ADORES ONLY ?REE C5TURIES AGO4 ,AT FIR/ GLANCE1 ! COMMUNITY IS DECEPTIVELY SIMIL> 9 APPE>ANCE TO A MOD]N CITY4 ,AL?\< >*ITECTURE & ! DESIGN ( LIFE W]E 0EXOTIC10 ! DIM5SIONS ( ! CITY1 ! HEI<T ( ITS /RUCTURES1 & ! LAT5ESS ( ITS DISCOV]Y BY :ITE M5 SEEM TO PLACE IT CLOS] TO ! 5D RA!R ?AN ! BEG9N+ ( URBAN HI/ORY4 ,ACCORD+ TO ,GEORGE ,C4 ,VAILLANT1 TO ! ,SPANI% 9VAD]S :O FIR/ SAW IT1 09 CONTRA/ TO ! DRAB T[NS & TAWNY BILLS ( ,SPA91 ,T5O*TITLAN MU/ HAVE APPE>$ A P>ADISE1 = ITS GRE5 G>D5S & :ITE BUILD+S W]E SET 9 ! MID/ ( BLUE LAKES1 R+$ BY L(TY M\NTA9S40 .<#b.> ,VAILLANT QUOTES ,B]NAL ,DIAZ1 ONE ( ,CORTES'S SOLDI]S3  
  

,GAZ+ ON SU* WOND]FUL SI<TS1 WE DID NOT KN[ :AT TO SAY OR :E!R :AT APPE>$ BE=E US WAS REAL1 = ON ONE ,SIDE 9 ! L& W]E GREAT ,CITIES & ! LAKE ITSELF WAS CR[D$ ) CANOES1 & 9 ! CAUSEWAY W]E MANY BRIDGES AT 9T]VALS1 & 9 FRONT ( US /OOD ! ,CITY ( ,MEXICO4.<#c.>  
  

,BUT ,DIAZ WAS NOT A PROV9CIAL GAZ+ SPELLB\ND AT A COSMOPOLIS1 NOR W]E ! T[NS ( ,SPA9 M]ELY VILLAGES BY COMP>ISON ) ,T5O*TITLAN4 ,A CLOS]1 P]HAPS 9TELLECTUALLY MORE RU?LESS VIEW SUGGE/S ?AT ! BRILLIANCE ( ! ,MEXICAN CITY CONSI/$ L>GELY ( EXT]NALS ,! CITY'S RESEMBLANCE TO A MOD]N URBAN C5T] RE/S ON ITS L(TY RELIGI\S /RUCTURES1 ITS SPACI\S PLAZAS = C]EMONIES1 ITS PALACES & ADM9I/RATIVE BUILD+S4 ,LOOK+ BEYOND !SE /RUCTURES1 ! CITY 9 MANY RESPECTS WAS V]Y LIKELY A GROSSLY OV]SIZE PUEBLO COMMUNITY 

,IT W\LD BE DIFFICULT TO UND]/& CLE>LY ! NATURE ( ,T5O*TITLAN )\T DIRECT+ ATT5TION TO ! CLAN /RUCTURE & HORTICULTURAL BASIS ( ,AZTEC SOCIETY4 ,AL?\< ! CITY WAS UNUSUALLY L>GE = SU* A TRADITIONAL SOCIETY1 ! HORTICULTURAL ACTIVITIES ( ! CLANS REA*$ DIRECTLY 9TO ! URBAN COMMUNITY4 ,TOGE!R ) RELIGI\S & MILIT>Y AFFAIRS1 ! COORD9ATION ( CLANS = SOCIAL & ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES =M$ ! MAJOR 9T]E/ ( ! CITY'S GOV]N+ BODIES4 ,SO COMPLETE WAS ! 9TEGRATION ( L& & CITY1 9DE$ ! SUPREMACY ( AGR>IAN 9T]E/S OV] UNIQUELY URBAN ONES1 ?AT ! ,AZTECS NEV] QUITE DEVELOP$ MONEY4 ,EX*ANGE NORMALLY PROCE$$ ON A B>T] BASIS -- ?AT IS TO SAY1 ON A VILLAGE BASIS -- 'EQUALIZ$1 BY CACAO BEANS :5 ! VALUE ( ONE COMMODITY EXCE$$ ?AT ( ANO!R4 ,! CITY DWELL] WAS BORN 9TO A COMPLEX BODY ( SOCIAL RELATION%IPS ?AT ESS5TIALLY DEVELOP$ FROM LIFE ON ! L&4 ,HIS POSITION 9 SOCIETY WAS DEF9$ BY H]$IT>Y ROOTS 9 GR\PS ( K9FOLK & BLOOD RELATION%IPS4 ,! CLAN =M$ ! MATRIX ( ! ,AZTECS CIVIC1 SOCIAL1 & CULTURAL LIFE4 

,! CITY1 TO BE SURE1 DIFF]5TIAT$ A SIZABLE PORTION ( ! POPULACE FROM !IR OLD] AGR>IAN ELAN TIES1 CREAT+ CRAFTSM5 & TRAD]S4 ,BUT !SE GR\PS W]E ALSO OBLIG$ TO P>TICIPATE 9 ! TRADITIONAL SOCIAL S*EME1 =MALLY DUPLICAT+ RELATION%IPS DEVELOP$ 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE4 ,VAILLANT OBS]VES3  
  

,! OP5+ ( 9T]TRIBAL CONTACT ?R\< SETTLEM5T & W>F>E & ! GR[? ( MAT]IAL & RITUALI/IC WANTS L$ TO ! E/ABLI%M5T ( A CLASS1 ! PO*TECA4 :OSE MEMB]S TRAVEL$ ALL OV] ,MEXICO1 EX*ANG+ LOCAL = =EIGN PRODUCE4 .<#d.>  
  

,! PO*TECA1 H[EV]1 0HAD !IR [N GOD1 & APP>5TLY LIV$ 9 A SPECIAL QU>T]0 9 A MANN] SIMIL> TO O!R CLANS 9 ! COMMUNITY4 ,!Y HELD A POSITION )9 ! CITY OR AS P>T ( IT1 NOT AS ITS LEAD]S2 !Y DID NOT REPRES5T ! CITY LIKE ! BUR<]S 9 ! M$IEVAL T[NS & ! MOD]N B\RGEOISIE4 

,AL?\< A C5TRALIZ$ MON>*ICAL 0CAPITAL10 ,T5O*TIILAN WAS MANAG$ BY F\R EXECUTIVE (FIC]S & A V>IETY ( NOBLES :O ADJUDICAT$ DISPUTES BETWE5 ! CLANS & C>$ = MILIT>Y AFFAIRS4 ,)9 ?IS 9FRA/RUCTURE1 FROM ! L[E/ L9EAGES TO ! HI<E/1 P[] WAS A FUNCTION ( A V]Y COMPLEX SOCIAL /RATIFICATION4 ,VAILLANT NOTES ?AT !  
  

CONT9UAL ELECTION ( SU* HI< (FIC]S ( ! SAME FAMILY OR L9EAGE1 :5 DEMOCRATIC PROC$URE OBTA9$ ELSE:]E1 IS H>D] TO EXPLA94 ,TRADITION IS /RONG 9 PRIMITIVE COMMUNITIES1 & A FAMILY ?AT PRODUC$ ONE EFFECTIVE MAN MI<T 9 ! NEXT G5]ATION PRODUCE ANO!R4.<#e.>  
  

,MORE REC5T EVID5CE REVEALS ?AT ! 0DEMOCRATIC PROC$URE0 TO :I* ,VAILLANT GIVES SO MU* EMPHASIS HAD 9 FACT WAN$ TO A PO9T :]E ! CITY C\NCIL ( ,T5O*TITLAN1 ONCE A FAIRLY DEMOCRATIC BODY COMPOS$ ( CLAN LOAD]S1 WAS APPO9T$ BY ! MON>*Y & L>GELY CONTROLL$ BY ! RUL+ /RATUM1 ,BY ! TIME ( ! ,SPANI% CONQUE/1 ,AZTEC SOCIETY HAD BECOME A HI<LY COMPLEX HI]>*Y ( NOBLES & COMMON]S1 A HI]>*Y ,/ILL BAS$ ON K9 TIES & SUP]IMPOS$ ON A CLAN /RUCTURE1 BUT ONE ?AT MAY HAVE BE5 DRIFT+ T[>D >T 9CREAS+LY T]RITORIAL =M ( SOCIAL LIFE4 ,H[ FAIR ! SOCIETY MI<T HAVE DEVELOP$ 9 ?IS DIRECTION -- OR1 QUITE POSSIBLY1 9 ! DIRECTION ( A RIGID C5TRALIZ$ /RUCTURE SIMIL> TO ! 0/ATE COMMUNISM0 ( ! ,9CA EMPIRE -- WILL NEV] BE KN[N4 ,! ,SPANI% CONQUE/ BR\<T ! ,AZTEC DEVELOPM5T TO AN 5D & COMPLETELY DEMOLI%$ ITS 9T]NAL ,/RUCTURE4 

,?IS URBAN SOCIETY1 VIEW$ FROM ! /&PO9T ( ITS CLAN RELATION%IPS1 MAY HAVE EXI/$ = C5TURIES 9 ,MESOAM]ICA BE=E IT WAS 5C\NT]$ BY :ITE M54 ,! ,AZTEC & ,9CA EMPIRES SEEM TO HAVE M>K$ ! CULM9ATION ( ! ,9DIAN URBAN TRADITION 9 ! ,AM]ICAS1 P]HAPS ITS \T]MO/ LIMITS4 ,G5]ALLY1 ?R\<\T ,MESOAM]ICA1 AS ONE CITY >OSE1 ANO!R DECL9$ 9 EM95CE2 A CONT9UAL RIS+ >ID FALL+ ( CITIES WAS ! RULE4 ,ONCE ! OLD ADM9I/RATIVE /RUCTURE WAS DEMOLI%$ 9 A GIV5 >EA -- P]HAPS [+ TO L& EXHAU/ION OR W> -- ! CITY DISAPPE>$1 ONLY TO REAPPE> ELSE:]E :5 ,FAVORABLE CONDITIONS = URBANISM DEVELOP$4 ,!SE CITIES >OSE1 FL\RI%$1 & (T5 VANI%$ )\T ABOLI%+ ! CLAN /RUCTURE4 

,IT IS FAIR TO SAY ?AT ! ,AM]ICAN ,9DIAN CITY UP TO ! ,SPANI% CONQUE/ WAS ESS5TIALLY ROOT$ 9 ! CLAN OR 9 SIMIL> K9%IP /RUCTURES4 ,AS TIME PASS$ & AS POPULATIONS 9CREAS$1 A T5D5CY EM]G$ TO EXT5D ! 0PLAN ( GOV]NM5T0 7TO BORR[ ,LEWIS ,H4 ,MORGAN'S PHRASE7 FROM CLAN TO TRIBE & FROM TRIBE TO TRIBAL F$]ATION4 ,?IS T5D5CY MU/ BE SE5 AS A QUANTITATIVE L9K+ ( CLAN TO CLAN1 A COLONIZATION BY SOCIAL AFF9ITY ( RELATIVELY SELF-SUFFICI5T1 SOCIO-NATURAL ORGANISMS ALONG 9CREAS+LY HI]>*ICAL L9ES4 ,ATTEMPTS TO RELATE ! ,AZTEC & ,9CA EMPIRES TO ! HI/ORICAL CITY & L&$ >I/OCRACY ( ,EUROPE1 DESPITE !IR MANY SIMIL>ITIES1 >E (T5 MISLEAD+4 ,AN ,AM]ICAN ,9DIAN ANALOG TO ! HI/ORICAL CITIES ( ,EUROPE & ! ,M$IT]RANEAN BAS9 W\LD BE MEAN+FUL IF CLAN SOCIETY HAD SO COMPLETELY DECOMPOS$ ?AT IT YIELD$ A CLASS SOCIETY BAS$ ON T]RITORIAL RA!R ?AN K9%IP TIES & EV5TUALLY ON ! PRIVATE [N]%IP & CONTROL ( SOCIAL WEAL?4 ,NO SU* QUALITATIVE TRANS=MATION ACTUALLY OCCURR$ 9 ,MESOAM]ICA BE=E ! CONQUE/4 ,G5]ALLY1 :]E ! PRESSURES ( SC>CITY & SURVIVAL ABAT$ 9 P>TS ( ,9DIAN ,AM]ICA1 !RE EM]G$ A FAIRLY UNIFI$ COMMUNITY1 (T5 SUP]FICIALLY URBAN 9 *>ACT]1 ?AT T5D$ TO 9TEGRATE RA!R ?AN EXAC]BATE 9T]NAL DIV]G5CES4 0,!RE WAS LITTLE TO H>ASS ! 9DIVIDUAL 9TELLECTUALLY OR ECONOMICALLY10 OBS]VES ,VAILLANT1  
  

,EXI/5CE WAS SUBJECT TO DIV9E FAVOR1 & A MAN F>$ MU* AS DID BITS FELL[S4 ,L>GE AS SOME T[NS W]E -- ,MEXICO ,CITY .<,T5O*TITLAN.> HAD #c1 PEOPLE -- ! S5SE ( COMMUNITY WAS /RONG4 ,FRE$OM ( ?\<T1 9DIVIDUAL LIB]TY1 P]SONAL ,=TUNES1 W]E NONEXI/5T1 BUT PEOPLE LIV$ ACCORD+ TO A CODE ?AT HAD WORK$ WELL & CONT9U\SLY = C5TURIES4 ,AN ,AZTEC W\LD HAVE BE5 HORRIFI$ AT ! M>K$ ISOLATION ( AN 9DIVIDUAL'S LIFE 9 \R ,WE/]N WORLD4 .<#f.>  
  

,VIEW$ FROM ! BASE ( SOCIETY1 ! CLAN E/ABLI%$ ! LIMITS ( ?IS TYPE ( URBAN LIFE4 ,! CITY WAS ! PRODUCT ( ! CLAN & WAS SE5 AS ! %ELT] ( ! CLAN'S F$]ATIVE T5D5CIES4 

,HI/ORY1 CONCEIV$ AS ! ACC\NT ( CONFLICT+ SOCIAL 9T]E/S1 BEG9S :5 ! EXT]NAL MEANS = EXPROPRIAT+ MAT]IAL SURPLUSES 7NOTABLY1 W> & PILLAGE7 >E 9T]NALIZ$ AS SY/EMATIC MODES ( EXPLOITATION1 RE/RUCTUR+ ! CLAN & TRANS=M+ SOCIAL LIFE FROM )94 ,SOCIETY'S TRANSC5D5CE ( ! CLAN IS ! GREATE/ & MO/ SIGNIFICANT ,S+LE DEVELOPM5T ( ! ANCI5T WORLD4 ,HUMANITY IS EXIL$ FROM A H>MONIZ$ UNIV]SE TO ! REALM ( SOCIAL CONTRADICTION1 :]E ! PROBLEMS ( MAT]IAL WANT >E ,FELL AS H>% ANTAGONISMS BETWE5 ONE /RATUM & ANO!R4 ,SOCIETY BECOMES ONE-SID$ & 9COMPLETE1 DISRUPT+ ! BALANCE )9 ! HUMAN COMMUNITY & BETWE5 HUMANITY & ! NATURAL WORLD4 ,MANK9D IS PROPELL$ ON A RE/LESS J\RNEY TO R\ND \T SOCIAL LIFE ON A HI<] EQUILIBRIUM4 ,IT %\LD NOT SURPRISE US ?AT ! 9T]NAL REWORK+ ( ! CLAN1 & LAT]1 ITS COMPLETE DE/RUCTION1 9VOLVES A MORE DECISIVE TE*NOLOGICAL REVOLUTION ?AN ANY DEVELOPM5T KN[N BE=E4 ,! DIVISION ( TABOR EXP&S & NEW /RATA >E SET AP>T FROM AGRICULTURAL WORK1 EA* ( :I* CRY/ALLIZES 9TO A SOCIAL CLASS ) SPECIAL 9T]E/S ?AT >E (T5 9 %>P OPPOSITION TO ! 9T]E/S ( O!R CLASSES4 

,SO F> REMOV$1 AS YET1 >E ! E>LY CITIES FROM ! URBAN MA9/REAM ( HI/ORY ?AT *ANGES 9 CLAN SOCIETY >ISE FROM TE*NOLOGICAL DEVELOPM5TS 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE RA!R ?AN 9 ! T[NS1 NOTABLY ! DOME/ICATION ( ANIMALS & ! DISCOV]Y ( PL[ AGRICULTURE4 ,) ?IS NEW MODE ( AGRICULTURE1 ! CLAN CEASES TO BE A PRECONDITION = SOCIAL LIFE4 ,TO HAVE ELIM9AT$ ! CLAN 9 ,9DIAN ,AM]ICA W\LD HAVE COMPLETELY DISRUPT$ ! MAT]IAL BASIS ( SOCIETY3 )\T A HI<LY D$ICAT$1 SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE LABOR =CE ?AT ALONE C\LD HAVE PROVID$ ! 9T5SIVE CULTIVATION REQUIR$ BY MAIZE & BY A TE*NOLOGY ?AT HAD NOT ADVANC$ BEYOND ! HOE & HUMAN MUSCLE P[]1 IT IS D\BTFUL IF ! SUB/ANTIAL MAT]IAL SURPLUSES NE$$ TO SU/A9 L>GE CITIES W\LD HAVE BE5 AVAILABLE 9 ,MEXICO & ,P]U4 ,9DIAN FOOD CULTIVATION ON SU* A SCALE WAS POSSIBLE ONLY UND] SOCIAL CONDITIONS 9 :I* PEOPLE RELAT$ TO EA* O!R AS K9FOLK RA!R ?AN ISOLAT$ URBAN CITIZ5S4 ,! SIGNIFICANCE ( ! CLAN /RUCTURE BECOMES ALL ! MORE EVID5T IF WE HE> 9 M9D ?AT FOOD CULTIVATION 9 >EAS LIKE ! ,P]UVIAN ,&ES DEP5D$ 9 L>GE P>T ON T]RAC+ B>R5 M\NTA9\S REGIONS ) SOIL PA9/AK+LY COLLECT$ FROM DI/ANT L[L&S4 ,AS ,$W>D ,HYAMS OBS]VES1 [+ TO ! FACT ?AT  
  

!Y W]E ,=C$1 9 ! ,&ES 444 TO CREATE !IR SOILS 9 ORD] TO EXP&1 444 !Y W]E =C$ TO RETA9 444 ! ANCI5T /RUCTURE ( SOCIETY1 AT LEA/ 9 SO F> AS IT RELAT$ TO SY/EMS ( L&-T5URE & L& WORK+4 ,9 ! ABS5CE ( MA*9]Y OR ( AN ADVANC$ SLAVE-[N+ ECONOMY1 L>GE WORKS ( T]RAC+1 OR RECLAMATION & ( IRRIGATION CAN ONLY BE C>RI$ \T BY COMMUNAL EF=TS & COMMON LABOR4444 ,!RE HAS PROBABLY NEV] BE51 UNLESS UND] ,EUROPEAN ,FEUDALISM1 A SY/EM 9 :I* AGRICULTURAL PRACTICE & SOCIAL ORGANIZATION W]E SO LOCK$ TOGE!R 9 A P]FECT >TIFACT ( ! M9D & SPIRIT ,& NO?+ MAKES ?IS CLE>] ?AN ! RESULTS :I* FOLL[$ ! IMPOSITION ( ! ,EUROPEAN SY/EM & RELIGION ON ! ,&EANS4 ,! SOIL WAS NOT DIRECTLY ATTACK$ = ! ,SPANI>DS W]E AT FIR/ 9T]E/$ ONLY 9 GOLD1 BUT ! SOCIAL ORGANISM WAS DE/ROY$ & AT ONCE ! SOIL ITSELF BEGAN TO DIE4 .<#g.>  
  

,) ! DISCOV]Y ( ! PL[ & ! BROADCA/ S[+ ( H>DY GRA9S 9 ! ,NE> ,EA/ -- AS WELL AS ! G5]AL APPLICATION ( ANIMAL LABOR TO ! TILL+ ( ! L& -- AGRICULTURE BECAME EXT5SIVE RA!R ?AN 9T5SIVE4 ,FOOD CULTIVATION N[ REQUIR$ A FRACTION ( ! WORK NE$$ TO A*IEVE CORRESPOND+ \TPUTS 9 ! ,AM]ICAS4 ,BUT IF ! ELAN WAS NO LONG] A LIMIT TO FUR!R SOCIAL *ANGES1 NEI!R WAS IT1 AT LEA/ 9ITIALLY1 AN OB/ACLE4 ,9DE$1 IT P]SI/$ AS A BASIC =M ( SOCIAL RELATION%IP & LABOR MOBILIZATION WELL 9TO HI/ORICAL TIMES4 ,H]E1 W]E W\LD DO WELL TO EMPHASIZE ?AT HUMANITY DOES NOT CASUALLY *ANGE ITS SOCIAL /RUCTURES1 P>TICUL>LY IF !Y HAVE BE5 SANCTIFI$ BY MILL5NIA ( DEVELOPM5T & ! WEI<T ( TRADITION4 ,RETROSPECTIVELY1 WE MI<T COM=TABLY 5T]TA9 MANY ALT]NATIVE'S TO ! HI/ORICAL DEVELOPM5T ?AT ACTUALLY OCCURR$1 P]HAPS TO SUGGE/ MORE RATIONAL & HUMANI/IC L9ES ( SOCIAL EVOLUTION4 ,BUT IF NO?+ ELSE1 HI/ORY TEA*ES US ?AT OLD 9/ITUTIONS >E R>ELY *ANG$ UNTIL !IR POSSIBILITIES HAVE BE5 L>GELY EXHAU/$4 ,CLAN SOCIETY WAS ESPECIALLY DURABLE4 ,EV5 :]E IT EXI/S TODAY1 IT REMA9S ! MO/ /ABLE =M ( HUMAN ASSOCIATION ?US F> DEVELOP$4 ,P]HAPS NO 9/ITUTION FOLL[+ IT ,FO/]$ AS DEEP A S5SE ( SOLID>ITY1 MUTUAL AID1 & SUPPORTIVE COM=T TO ! 9DIVIDUAL4 ,[+ TO !IR NATURAL BASIS 9 K9%IP TIES1 CLANS PROV$ TO BE ! MO/ 9TIMATE & P]HAPS SATISFY+ SOCIAL =MS DEVIS$ BY HUMANITY4 ,ACCORD+LY1 ! CLAN T5D$ TO P]PETUATE ITSELF AGA9/ COMPELL+ SOCIAL =CES ?AT EASILY OV]:ELM$ OR DRA/ICALLY ALT]$ O!R ,=MS ( HUMAN ASSOCIATION4 

,AT FIR/1 ! NEW PL[ & FIELD ECONOMY DID NOT APPRECIABLY ALT] ! SOCIAL ,=MS BAS$ ON ! HOE & G>D5+ ECONOMY ( AN E>LI] EPO*4 ,! EVOLUTION ( ONE SY/EM 9TO ANO!R1 9 ,FACT1 PROCE$$ SO SUBTLY & ORGANICALLY ?AT IT IS (T5 DIFFICULT TO DEL9EATE ! SOCIAL DI/9CTIONS BETWE5 ! TWO4 ,V>IATIONS OCCURR$ 9 COMMUNAL PROP]TY & 9 ! OLD NATURE RELIGIONS1 BUT COMMUNAL SY/EMS ( PROP]TY P]SI/$ ,= A LONG TIME UND] NEW =MS ( SOCIAL ADM9I/RATION4 ,EV5 ! CLANS L+]$ ON VE/IGIALLY1 IF NOT 9TACT1 WELL 9TO ADVANC$ HI/ORICAL P]IODS4 ,=MALLY SPEAK+1 ! SUCCESSORS ( ! TRADITIONAL CLAN SY/EM EM]G$ :5 TRIBAL *IEFS1 PROM95T W>RIORS1 OR A CONSOLIDAT$ PRIE/LY CA/E SUCCE$$ 9 BECOM+ ! SOLO PROPRIETORS ( ! L&4 ,!Y SEASONALLY ALLOCAT$ PLOTS = CULTIVATION AMONG ! CLANSFOLK1 & COLLECT$ AGRICULTURAL SURPLUSES PRESUMABLY = USE BY ! COMMUNITY AS A :OLE4 ,! *ANGE FROM ! OLD SOCIAL =MS TO ! NEW ASSUM$ ! *>ACT] ( A %IFT 9 EMPHASIS RA!R ?AN A TOTAL RUPTURE ) ! PA/ -- A *ANGE 9 ! ORIG9AL COMMUNAL SY/EM ?AT SEEM$ TO CONSI/ 9 5L>G+ ITS SOCIAL FUNCTIONS & DIM5SIONS4 

,9 TIME1 H[EV]1 ! CLAN =M WAS SO ?OR\<LY DIVE/$ ( ITS ORIG9AL CONT5T AS ! DET]M9+ FACTOR 9 SOCIAL ,LIFE ?AT IT BECAME LITTLE MORE ?AN A DEVICE = ALLOCAT+ LABOR & RES\RCES4 ,CLAUS LO/ VIRTUALLY ALL ( !IR 9FLU5CE 9 ! ADM9I/RATION ( ! COMMUNITY4 ,9 ! H&S ( RU?LESS AU?ORITIES1 CLANS (T5 BECAME ! 9/RUM5TS ( !IR SELF-EXPLOITATION & PLUND]1 ,! *ANGE FROM OLD] EQUALIT>IAN RELATIONS 9 ,EGYPT & ,MESOPOTAMIA TO NEW SY/EMS ( EXPLOITATION & CLASS /RATIFICATION WAS NOT QUITE ACCEPT$ PASSIVELY BY ! OPPRESS$2 9DE$1 ! >*AEOLOGICAL RECORD ATTE/S TO WIDESPREAD POPUL> REVOLTS & 9T]REGNUMS ( SOCIAL DISORD] 9 :I* FUTILE ATTEMPTS W]E MADE TO RE/ORE ! OLD ORD] ( ?+S4 ,9T]E/+LY1 AP>T FROM SEP>ATI/ T5D5CIES & UPRIS+S BY CONQU]$ POPULATIONS1 NO 9T]NAL SOCIAL CONFLICTS ( SU* MAGNITUDE >E KN[N T O ! CIVILIZATIONS ( ,9DIAN ,AM]ICA1 = ! PREOCCUPATION ( DOM9AT$ TRIBES 9 ?IS REGION WAS NOT ) ! SOCIAL /RUCTURE AS SU*1 NOTABLY ITS CLAN =M1 BUT ) ! TRIBUTE :I* WAS CLAIM$ BY DOM9E]+ TRIBES SU* AS ! ,AZTEC RUL]S ( ,MEXICO4 

,WE [E L>GELY TO ,M>X ! T]M 0,ASIAN L& SY/EM0 AS ! DESIGNATION ( A MODE ( AGRICULTURE 9 :I* L& IS /ILL 9ALI5ABLE1 9DE$ COMMUNALLY WORK$1 BUT ITS MANAGEM5T IS CONTROLL$ BY A P[]FUL /ATE APP>ATUS4 .<#h.> ,POSSIBLY ! MO/ >*AIC ( CLASS SOCIETIES1 ITS ELEM5TS T5D TO APPE> :5EV] TRIBAL SOCIETY HAS BEGUN TO DIS9TEGRATE & ! NE$ = VIABLE CLAN /RUCTURES HAS BE5 REMOV$ BY ! ECONOMIC DEVELOPM5T ( ! COMMUNITY4 ,! ,ASIAN L& SY/EM APPE>S NOT ONLY 9 E>LY ,EGYPT & ,MESOPOTAMIA1 BUT 9 A NASC5T =M :5 AGR>IAN K+%IPS W]E E/ABLI%$ OV] ! ,GREEK1 ,ROMAN11 & ,G]MAN TRIBES DUR+ ! ]A ( !IR SETTLEM5T ON ! L&4 ,9 ALL SU* CASES1 WE SEE EVID5CE ?AT SOCIETY IS TRY+ TO =MULATE A COMPROMISE BETWE5 A TIME-HONOR$ TRADITION ?AT L& IS 9ALI5ABLE & BELONGS TO ! COMMUNITY AS A :OLE ) NEW T5D5CIES T[>D PRIVATE PROPRIETOR%IP 9 L& OR1 AT LEA/1 CONTROL ( AGRICULTURAL SURPLUSES BY A PRIVILEG$ /RATUM4 ,)9 !SE >*AIC P>AMET]S1 EXPLOITATION ( HUMAN BY HUMAN EM]GES EV5 BE=E PRIVATE PROP]TY 9 L& & RES\RCES HAS BE5 FIRMLY E/ABLI%$4 ,) ! ,ASIAN L& SY/EM1 WE 5C\NT] A SOCIETY ?AT 5JOYS A DURABILITY COMP>ABLE TO ?AT ( ! CLAN /RUCTURE3 9 ,EGYPT1 ,MESOPOTAMIA1 ,9DIA1 & ,*9A1 IT REMA9$ ! BASIS ( SOCIAL RELATIONS ,= ?\S&S ( YE>S2 9DE$1 AP>T FROM ,MESOPOTAMIA21 IT WAS NOT SUB/ANTIALLY ]OD$ UNTIL3 FAIRLY MOD]N TIMES4 ,NOR IS IT DIFFICULT TO UND]/& :Y !SE CIVILIZATIONS1 L>GELY ALLUVIAL ONES1 FAIL$ TO ADVANCE 9TO PROP]TI$ =MS ( ,SOCIETY1 ,IRRIGATION1 BY VIRTUE ( ITS TE*NICAL REQUIREM5TS1 FE/]S COOP]ATIVE IF NOT PUBLIC =MS ( AGRICULTURAL MANAGEM5T4.<#i.> ,9 ! ANCI5T WORLD1 A WORLD /ILT HEIR TO SOCIAL [N]%IP ( L& & A COMMUNAL ORGANIZATION ( LABOR1 A SOCIETY BAS$ ON IRRIGATION NECESS>ILY RETA9$ ELEM5TS ( ! >*AIC CLAN & TRIBAL /RUCTURE1 ALBEIT 9 A HI<LY C5TRALIZ$ /ATI/ FRAMEWORK4 ,9S(> AS ! CULTIVATION ( FOOD REQUIR$ ! COORD9AT$ MANAGEM5T ( WAT] RES\RCES & AN EXT5SIVE SY/EM ( CANALS1 ANY REGIONAL P>TICUL>ISM -- MU* LESS ANY DEVELOPM5T ( PRIVATE PROP]TY -- W\LD HAVE VITIAT$ ! SUCCESS ( AGRICULTURE4 ,*RI/OPH] ,DAWSON OBS]VES3  
  

,! CONV]SION ( ! JUNGLES & SWAMPS ( ! PREHI/ORIC VALLEY 9TO ! RI* CORNL&S :I* MADE ,EGYPT ! WOND] ( ! WORLD WAS ONLY ACCOMPLI%$ BY AGES ( COMMUNAL COORD9AT$ EF=T ,! PROSP]ITY ( ! C\NTRY DEP5DS1 NOT AS 9 NOR!RN L&S ON ! 9DU/RY ( ! 9DIVIDUAL PEASANT & HIS FAMILY1 BUT ON ! ORGANIZ$ LABOR ( ! IRRIGATION DYKES1 & ON ! F]TILIZ+ WAT]S ( ! ANNUAL 9UNDATION1 = L& 9 ITSELF IS VALUELESS AP>T FROM ! WAT] :I* IS SUPPLI$ BY ! ,NILE & ! IRRIGATION CANALS4 ,FROM ! E>LIE/ TIMES ! MEASUREM5T ( ! ,NILE FLOOD & ! MA9T5ANCE ( ! IRRIGATION WORKS HAS BE5 ! PRIM>Y DUTY ( EV]Y ,EGYPTIAN ,GOV]NM5T4 ,! ANCI5T ,EGYPTIAN YE> BEGAN ON ,JULY #a#i1 ! DAY ?AT ! 9UNDATION REA*$ ! NEI<BORHOOD ( ! HEAD ( ! ,DELTA1 & AS E>LY AS ! ,FIR/ ,DYNA/Y ! ANNUAL TAXATION WAS FIX$ ACCORD+ TO ! LEVEL ( ! RIV]1 = ! YIELD ( ! FOLL[+ H>VE/ DEP5DS 5TIRELY ON A GOOD ,NILE4444 ,H5CE ! P[] :I* REGULATES & CONTROLS ! 9UNDATION IS ! MA/] ( ! LIFE & PROP]TY ( ! :OLE POPULATION1 >ID ! PR9CIPLE ( COMPULSORY PUBLIC LABOR -- ! CORVEE -- :I* ELSE:]E APPE>S AS A TYRANNICAL 9FR+EM5T ( ! RI<TS ( ! 9DIVIDUAL1 IS 9 ,EGYPT ! NECESS>Y CONDITION ( ALL ECONOMIC LIFE4.<#a.>  
  

,IRRIGATION1 BY NECESSITAT+ COORD9AT$ COMMUNAL LABOR1 ,FO/]$ /ATE C5TRALIZATION & BUREAUCRATIZATION4 ,AS E>LY AS ! FIR/ ,DYNA/Y 9 ,EGYPT1 WE LE>N FROM ! HI/ORICAL RECORD ( ! EXI/5CE ( A VIZI]1 *ANCELLOR1 *AMB]LA91 MA/] ( C]EMONIES1 ROYAL >*ITECT4 ,SUP]9T5D5T ( ,9UNDATION1 & SO =?1 D[N TO A ,KEEP] ( ! ,K+'S ,COSMETIC ,BOX -- 9 %ORT1 A WIDE SPECTRUM ( (FICE HOLD]S1 SELECT$ L>GELY FROM ! LEAD+ FAMILIES ( ! VALLEY1 :O REM9D US MORE ( ROYAL C\RTI]S & BUREAUCRATS ?AN 9DEP5D5T FEUDAL NOBLES4 ,9 ,EGYPT1 AP>T ,FROM CLAIMS MADE BY ! PRIE/HOOD1 ! L& BELONG$ TO ! ,PH>AOH4 ,IT WAS ESS5TIALLY 9 HIS NAME ?AT LOCAL GOV]NORS COLLECT$ TRIBUTE & TUXES 9 K9D1 :I* W]E !REUPON /OR$ 9 ROYAL W>EH\SES4 ,! PEASANTRY1 L>GELY B\ND TO ! SOIL1 WAS EI!R LEFT ) A RESIDUE ( ITS PRODUCE OR REW>D$ 9 K9D FROM ! PUBLIC ,FUND4 ,9 ,MESOPOTAMIA1 !SE PRIVILEGES W]E PREEMPT$ BY PRIE/LY CORPORATIONS1 LAT] TO BE TRANSF]R$ TO ! P]SON ( A MON>* :O 5JOY$ AN AU?ORITY NOT DISSIMIL> FROM ?AT ( ! ,PH>AONIC P[]4 ,9 ! C\RSE ( TIME1 ?IS HI<LY C5TRALIZ$ SY/EM BROKE D[N BE=E ! ASSAULT ( ! L&$ NOBILITY1 BUT IT WAS ALMO/ 9V>IABLY RECON/ITUT$ AGA91 DEP5D+ UPON ! VIGOR ( SUCCESSIVE DYNA/IES & USURP]S4 ,! ,ASIAN L& SY/EM REMA9$ ! BA/E SOCIAL =M ( ,NE> ,EA/]N & ,ORI5TAL CIVILIZATIONS UNTIL MOD]N TIMES4 

,!SE AGR>IAN SOCIETIES >E ! KEY TO UND]/&+ ANCI5T CITY DEVELOPM5T1 = !Y NOT ONLY ADVANCE BUT ALSO LIMIT ! EVOLUTION ( URBAN LIFE4 ,AGR>IAN 9T]E/S1 [+ TO ! C5TRALIZ$ P[] & WEAL? !Y COMM&1 SUBORD9ATE ! CITY TO ! L&4 ,AL?\< MANY L>GE & ORNATE CITIES >OSE 9 ,MESOPOTAMIA 7&1 TO A LESS] EXT5T1 9 ,EGYPT71 !SE URBAN COMMUNITIES DID NUT COME 9TO LA/+ BALANCE ) %E AU?ORITY EX]CIS$ BY LAUD$ CLASSES4 ,COMM]CE1 CRAFTS1 ANTI NEW 9DU/RIAL TE*NIQUES W]E NUM]\S1 BUT !SE W]E PLAC$ 9 ,%E S]VICE ( ! AGR>IAN /RATA4 ,URBAN WEAL?1 9/EAD ( RETURN+ TO A LOCAL B\RGEOISIE 9 ! =M ( CAPITAL ACCUMULATION1 WAS EXPROPRIAT$ BY MON>*IES1 SLATE BUREAUCRACIES1 & LOCAL GOV]NORS4 ,CAPITAL =MATION1 9 EFFECT1 WAS L>GELY CIRCUMSCRIB$ & ESS5TIALLY >RE/$4 ,! EM]G5CE ( AN 9DEP5D5T B\RGEOIS CLASS WAS BLOCK$ BY TAXES1 IMPO/S1 & /ATE-[N$ 5T]PRISES4 

,! SCALE ON :I* 9DU/RY & COMM]CE WAS PLUND]$ CAN BE DEALT ) ,ONLY SUMM>ILY4 ,AS ,LATE AS ,PTOLEMAIC TIMES1 ! ,EGYPTIAN ECONOMY WAS SN>L$ 9 OV] TWO HUNDR$ TAXES4 ,! 9T]NAL M>KET ( ! VALLEY WAS EFFECTIVELY LIMIT$ BY A #a P]C5T SALES TAX1 A #e P]C5T TAX ON HOME R5TS1 AN 9H]ITANCE TAX &1 EXCEPT = PRIVILEG$ /RATA1 A POLL TAX4 ,WEAL?Y CLASSES W]E COMMONLY BURD5$ BY CO/LY LITURGIES & BY OBLIGATIONS TO GIVE 0CR[NS0 TO ! MON>*Y4 ,COMMODITY TAXES W]E IMPOS$ NOT ONLY AT PORTS & FRONTI] R\TES1 BUT ALSO AT ! BORD]S ( PROV9CES4 ,VIRTUALLY ALL H&ICRAFTS & PR(ESSIONS W]E LIC5S$ BY ! /ATE4 ,ROYAL MONOPOLIES W]E E/ABLI%$ 9 ! PRODUCTION ( OIL1 PAPYRUS1 TEXTILES1 & 9 M9+ & BANK+1 :ILE /ATE 5T]PRISES COMPET$ ) ! PRIVATE SECTOR 9 9DU/RIES SU* AS DYE+1 LEA!R1 COSMETICS1 P]FUM]Y1 GLASS1 POTT]Y1 & BE]4 

,! ECONOMIC CONTROLS EX]CIS$ BY ! ,PTOLEMAIC PH>AOHS DIFF]$ LITTLE 9 PR9CIPLE FROM ! REGULATIONS & ,IMPO/S ?AT BURD5$ COMM]CE & 9DU/RY 9 NE>LY ALL ! AGR>IAN CIVILIZATIONS ( ! ,NE> ,EA/ & ! ,ORI5T1 ,! FIR/ WAVES ( COMMODITY PRODUCTION1 SO ESS5TIAL TO ! DEVELOPM5T ( AN AU!NTIC URBAN SOCIETY1 W]E ?US SCATT]$ BY ! MASSIVE B\LD]S ( LI<TLY KNIT1 /ATE-MANAG$ AGR>IAN ECONOMIES4 ,ALL[+ = A FEW EXCEPTIONS1 ,CITY LIFE BECAME AN ORNAM5T ( AGR>IAN K+LY P[] & ! PRODUCT ( AGRICULTURAL SUP]FLUITY1 NOT UNLIKE ! HUGE MONUM5TS1 TEMPLES1 & MORTU>IES :OSE CON/RUCTION ABSORB$ ! SURPLUS LABOR & RES\RCES ( ,EGYPT & ,MESOPOTAMIA4 ,)9 ?IS SOCIAL >RANGEM5T1 CAPITAL ACCUMULATION1 :I* LAT] =M$ ! BASIS = AN 9DEP5D5T B\RGEOISIE & = AN 9DU/RIAL ECONOMY 9 ,EUROPE1 WAS VIRTUALLY IMPOSSIBLE UND] ! ,ASIAN L& SY/EM4 ,:ILE WEA!R$ BY TIME1 ! GRANITE /RUCTURE ( ?IS SY/EM NEV] ,FRACTUR$ OR %ATT]$4 ,= ?\S&S ( YE>S AFT] ! DAWN ( HI/ORY1 IT P]SI/$ ) SURPRIS+ 5DURANCE -- :ILE M5 ELSE:]E PICK$ UP ! MA9 ?READ ( SOCIAL DEVELOPM5T & ADVANC$ TO MORE PROMIS+ & FLEXIBLE URBAN =MS4 

,AFT] ! FIR/ MILL5NIUM ,B4,C4 A NEW AGR>IAN SY/EM & A NEW MODE ( URBAN LIFE BEGAN TO EM]GE ON ! NOR!RN %ORES ( ! ,M$IT]RANEAN ,SEA4 ,PA/ORAL TRIBES1 FILT]+ 9TO ! ,GREEK PROMONTORY1 CONQU]$ & GRADUALLY MIX$ ) PREEXI/+ /ABLE AGRICULTURAL COMMUNITIES1 RAPIDLY DEVELOP+ AWAY FROM TRIBAL SOCIETY4 ,HELL5IC SOCIETY1 ALL[+ = ITS MANY UNIQUE QUALITIES1 9 ITS [N WAY RECAPITULATES ! EVOLUTION ( AGR>IAN K+%IPS FROM COMMUNAL RELATIONS TO A LOOSE K9D ( FEUDALISM1 PASS+ ?R\< SOCIAL =MS NOT UNLIKE ! ,ASIAN L& SY/EM4 ,?AT ?IS PHASE EM]G$ PROTOTYPICALLY IS ATTE/$ BY A GOOD DEAL ( EVID5CE FROM >*AIC ,CREEK CULTURE4 ,! LEG5D>Y FIGURE ( ,!SEUS SEEMS TO GR\P UND] A S+LE NAME A NUMB] ( ,HELL5IC *IEFTA9S :O ORGANIZ$ ! ,CREEK TRIBES 9TO F$]ATIONS SOME:AT REM9ISC5T ( E>LY ,NILOTIC SOCIETY4 0,! FIR/ UNQUE/IONABLE FACT :I* MEETS US 9 ! LIFE ( ?IS NEW K9D COMMUNITY IS ?AT IT WAS ORIG9ALLY GOV]N$ BY K+S10 OBS]VES ,WILLIAM ,F ,F[L]4  
  

,! ?+ WAS EXPRESS$ BY V>I\S WORDS -- ,BASILEUS1 ,>*ON4 ,PYRTANIS1 .<& AMONG ! ,LAT9S.> ,HEX1 ,DICTATOR -- BUT1 SO F> AS WE KN[1 IT WAS ALWAYS ,I H]E 9 ! *ILDHOOD ( ! ANCI5T ,/ATE4 ,TRADITION1 BO? 9 ,GREECE & ,ITALY1 ALWAYS TOLD ( A TIME :5 ! ESS5TIAL ACTS ( GOV]NM5T W]E P]=M$ EI!R BY OR UND] ! AU?ORITY ( A S+LE MAN2 & 9 ?IS CASE WE ,CAN BE SURE ?AT TRADITION WAS RI<T4 ,BO? ,?UCYDIDES & ,>I/OTLE ACCEPT$ IT2 AT CONS]VATIVE ,SP>TA ! K+ HIMSELF SURVIV$ ?R\<\T H] HI/ORY2 & AT ,A!NS & ,HOME K+%IP LEFT TRACES BEH9D IT :5 IT HAD VANI%$444 .<#a#a.>  
  

,9DE$1 >*AIC ,GREEK SOCIETY F\ND ITS ES!TIC 9SPIRATION 9 AN ,ORI5TALIZ$ >T SO ALI5 TO ! SCULPTURE :I* N\RI%$ DUR+ ! LAT] CLASSICAL P]IOD ?AT IT SEEMS DIFFICULT TO BELIEVE ?AT ! PEOPLE :O PRODUC$ ! RIGID1 OV]/YLIZ$ ,APOLLO ( ,T5EA C\LD HAVE %>$ ANY HI/ORICAL RELATION%IP TO ?OSE :O SCULPT$ ! FIGURES :I* ADORN$ ! TEMPLES ( ,P]ICLEAN ,A!NS4 

,YET WE KN[ ?AT ! RELATION%IP EXI/$ & WE MU/ F9D \R EXPLANATION = ! DIFF]5CES BETWE5 ! TWO P]IODS 9 ! GEOGRAPHY ( S\!RN ,EUROPE1 ,! RUGG$ M\NTA9 T]RA9 ( ,GREECE MADE IT VIRTUALLY IMPOSSIBLE TO A*IEVE ! DEGREE ( POLITICAL CONSOLIDATION & C5TRALISM :I* SO CONSPICU\SLY DI/+UI%ES ! HI< ,ASIAN & ,NE> ,EA/]N CIVILIZATIONS4 ,E>LY ,HELL5IC COMMUNITIES1 LIKE !IR ,ASIAN C\NT]P>TS1 9VE/$ L& [N]%IP 9 *IEFTA9S1 BUT ! C5TRIFUGAL =CES :I* EPISODICALLY %AP$ ,ASIAN SOCIETIES ALONG FEUDAL & P>TICUL>I/IC L9ES BECAME1 9 ,GREECE1 ! DOM9ANT FACTORS :I* GUID$ ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! POLITICAL /RUCTURE4 ,BY ,HOM]IC TIMES1 FEUDAL VASSALAGE RA!R ?AN A HI<LY C5TRALIZ$ /ATE HAD BECOME ! BASIS ( ,GREEK F$]ATION4 ,GEORGE ,?OMPSON D\BTLESS GIVES US AN ACCURATE PICTURE ( ,HOM]IC LIFE :5 HE NOTES ?AT ! ,CREEK K+  
  

LIVES 9 S PALACE ON SOME ROCKY EM95CE1 SURR\ND$ BY ! DWELL+S ( HIS VASSALS4 ,! RELATION BETWE5 K+ & VASSAL IS SU* AS WE F9D 9 SIMIL> CONDITIONS AMONG ! PRIMITIVE ,G]MANS #b1 YE>S LAT] ,9 REW>D = MILIT>Y S]VICE1 ! VASSAL HOLDS 9 FEE ! RULE ( SOME PORTION ( ! CONQU]$ T]RITORY1 & 9 RETURN HE TAKES UP >MS = ! K+ :5 CALL$ ON TO DO SO4 ,SU* WAS ! RELATION ( ,BELL]OPHON TO ! ,K+ ( ,LYCIA1 ( ,PHONIX TO ! FA!R ( ,A*ILLES2 & WE REMEMB] H[ ,ODYSSEUS 5DEAVOR$1 BUT 9 VA91 TO EVADE MILIT>Y S]VICE4 ,! VASSAL IS 5TITL$ TO BE CONSULT$ ON MATT]S ( POLICY & TO FE$ AT ! ROYAL TABLE4 ,!RE >E MANY SU* C\NCILS 9 ! ,ILIAD1 & 9 !  
,ODYSSEY ! (F5SE ( ! SUITORS LIES 9 !IR ABUSE ( A RECOGNIZ$ PRIVILEGE4 ,F9ALLY1 EA* VASSAL /OOD 9 ! RELATION ( K+ TO VASSALS ( HIS [N1 ,ODYSSEUS WAS A VASSAL ( ,AGAMEMNON'S1 BUT TO ! PR9CES ( ,I?ACA HE WAS K+4 .<#a#b.>  
  

,IF ! 9VE/ITURE ( CONTROL OV] TRIBAL L&S 9 ! P]SON ( AGR>IAN MON>*S T5DS TO DIS9TEGRATE 9TO FEUDALISM UNLESS ! K+LY AU?ORITY IS RE9=C$ BY ! SOCIAL NE$ TO COORD9ATE A COMPLEX IRRIGATION SY/EM1 SO FEUDALISM1 9 TURN1 T5DS TO GIVE WAY TO 9DEP5D5T PEASANT COMMUNITIES BAS$ ON SMALL-SCALE FOOD CULTIVATION1 ESPECIALLY AFT] COMMODITY PRODUCTION EM]GES 9 AN AGR>IAN SOCIETY4 ,! T[NS1 FREE+ !MSELVES FROM ! WAN+ AU?ORITY ( ! T]RITORIAL LORDS1 REA*ES BACK 9TO ! C\NTRYSIDE TO REPLICATE ! SAME ECONOMIC CONDITIONS :I* PREVAIL 9 URBAN M>KETPLACES & WORK%OPS4 ,COMMODITY RELATIONS & TRADE TURN ! VASSAL & S]F 9TO 9DEP5D5T PEASANTS1 ! AGR>IAN ANALOG ( ! FREE URBAN CRAFTSMAN & MA/]4 ,?IS BASIC SOCIAL T5D5CY1 AS WE %ALL SEE LAT]1 WAS TO BE FOLL[$ 9 LATE M$IEVAL ,EUROPE4 ,9 ANCI5T ,GREECE & ,ITALY1 ! DEVELOPM5T WAS CONSID]ABLY MODIFI$ BY ! IMPACT ( SUCCESSIVE TRIBAL 9VASIONS ,FROM ! NOR? & BY ! SETTLEM5T ( CRAFTSM5 & TRAD]S FROM ! MORE ADVANC$ ,M$IT]RANEAN CIVILIZATIONS4 ,! NOR!RN 9VAD]S R$UC$ ! OLD]1 PREEXI/+ AGRICULTURAL COMMUNITIES TO ! ,/ATUS ( S]FS1 :ILE ! CONQU]ORS (T5 ACQUIR$ A QUASI-PEASANT /ATUS1 FREE 9 NAME IF NOT 9 FACT4 ,PEASANT & S]F WORK$ ! L& SIDE BY SIDE1 EA* %AD+ SOCIALLY 9TO ! O!R'S POSITION4 ,9 TIME1 A YEOMAN SOCIETY ( L&$ FREEHOLD]S BEGAN TO CRY/ALLIZE FROM ! FLUID1 (T5 TUMULTU\S CONDITIONS ( A DIS9TEGRAT+ SY/EM ( FEUDAL L&-T5URE4 ,A NEW K9D ( CITY N[ EM]GES1 A CITY ?AT =MS ! POLITICAL1 CULTURAL1 & COMM]CIAL C5T] ( FREE F>M]S & CRAFTSM5 -- EA* 9DEP5D5T & PRODUC+ PRIM>ILY = ! O!R 9 A REM>KABLY WELL-BALANC$ ECONOMY4 

,BY ! SIX? & FIF? C5TURIES ,B4,C41 A NUMB] ( ,GREEK CITIES ALREADY BEGAN TO RESEMBLE1 AT LEA/ SUP]FICIALLY1 ! MOD]N IMAGE ( AN URBAN COMMUNITY4 ,A!NS1 ! ,HELL5IC CITY ) :I* WE >E MO/ FAMILI>1 PROBABLY SUPPORT$ SOME #c1 MALE CITIZ5S 7& IF WE ADD !IR WOM5 & *ILDR51 A TOTAL ( #a#e1#a1 P]HAPS #a1 SLAVES1 & AN E/IMAT$ #c#e1 METICS1 OR FREE ALI5S4 ,DUR+ ,A!NS'S CLASSICAL P]IOD1 ! CITY'S POPULATION MAY HAVE WELL EXCE$$ A QU>T] ( A MILLION4 ,G5]ALLY1 WE MU/ CONCEIVE ( ! NEW ,GREEK CITIES AS 9DEP5D5T URBAN 5TITIES1 FRE$ FROM ! SUZ]A9TY ( T]RITORIAL LORDS & L&$ MAGNATES4 7,?IS FACT DECISIVELY DI/+UI%ES ! ,GREEK CITY-/ATES OR1 MORE ACCURATELY1 POLEIS ,FROM ! ,CITIES ( ! ,NE> ,EA/ & ,ORI5T47 ,URBAN LIFE N[ EXI/S AS AN 5D 9 ITSELF1 NOT AS A SUPPLEM5T TO A RURAL SOCIETY1 & 5JOYS >T AUTONOMY ?AT W\LD HAVE BE5 9CONCEIVABLE )9 ! FRAMEWORK ( ! E>LI] ,ASIAN L& SY/EM4 

,BUT ! ,HELL5IC CITIES >E NOT TRULY MOD]N CITIES 9 ! POLITICAL & SOCIAL S5SE ( ! T]M4 ,AS CIVIC /RUCTURES1 !Y DIFF] PR(\NDLY NOT ONLY FROM ,ASIAN CITIES BUT FROM ! METROPOLISES & EV5 SMALL] CITIES ( \R [N ]A4 ,:AT ,/RIKES US AT ONCE AB\T ,A!NS1 ! MO/ ADVANC$ ( ! ,GREEK CITIES1 IS ?AT CIVIC ACTIVITY 9VOLVES AN EXCEPTIONALLY HI< DEGREE ( PUBLIC P>TICIPATION4 ,ALL ! POLICY DECISIONS ( ! POIIS >E =MULAT$ DIRECTLY BY A POPUL> ASSEMBLY1 OR ,ECCLESIA1 :I* EV]Y MALE CITIZ5 FROM ! CITY & ITS 5VIRONS 7,ATTICA7 IS EXPECT$ TO ATT5D4 ,! EXECUTION ( ! ,ECCLESIA'S DECISIONS FALLS TO ! AU?ORITY ( ! ,C\NCIL ( ,FIVE ,HUNDR$1 COMPOS$ ( ELECT$ CITIZ5S FROM ALL P>TS ( ,ATTICA1 :O1 9 GR\PS ( FIFTY1 ROTATE !IR (FICE EV]Y T5? ( ! YE>4 ,! PRACTICAL ASPECTS ( URBAN ADM9I/RATION >E ORD9>ILY DELEGAT$ BY ELECTION OR LOT TO PUBLIC BO>DS1 NOT TO A PR(ESSIONAL BUREAUCRACY -- NOTABLY TO N9E ,>*ONS1 T5 ELECT$ ,/RATEGOI OR G5]ALS1 BO>DS ( F9ANCE1 $UCATION1 DOCKY>DS1 & SO =?4 ,9ASMU* AS ALL ! CIVIC AG5CIES ( ,A!NS >E RECON/ITUT$ EV]Y YE>1 IT W\LD SEEM ?AT A SIZABLE NUMB] ( ORD9>Y CITIZ5S P>TICIPATE 9 T9E EXECUTIVE BODIES ( ! CITY AT ANY GIV5 TIME1 ,WILLIAM ,F[L] E/IMATES ?AT 9 ! DAYS ( ,P]ICLES1 #a1#i CITIZ5S \T ( AN ADULT POPULATION ( #c1 M5 W]E ACTIVELY 5GAG$ 9 ! S]VICE ( ! CITY1 !REBY R5D]+ WIDE PUBLIC P>TICIPATION AN 9H]5T FEATURE ( URBAN ADM9I/RATION3  
  

,N[ IF WE TAKE ?IS 9 CONNECTION ) ! UNIV]SAL RI<T ( CITIZ5S TO TAKE P>T 9 ! ,ECCLESIA1 & ( ?OSE OV] ?IRTY YE>S ( AGE TO SIT AS JURORS 9 ! C\RTS1 IT BECOMES AT ONCE PLA9 ?AT ! ,A!NIAN PEOPLE DID ACTUALLY CONDUCT ITS [N GOV]NM5T1 & ?AT ! ,/ATE WAS A TRUE DEMOCRACY4 ,H]E IS NO PRIVILEG$ CLASS1 NO CLASS ( SKILL$ POLITICIANS1 NO BUREAUCRACY3 NO BODY ( M51 LIKE ! ,ROMAN ,S5ATE1 :O ALONE UND]/OOD ! SECRETS ( ,/ATE1 & W]E LOOK$ OP TO & TRU/$ AS ! GA!R$ WISDOM ( ! :OLE COMMUNITY4 ,AT ,A!NS !RE WAS NO DISPOSITION1 & 9 FACT NO NE$1 TO TRU/ ! EXP]I5CE ( ANY ONE4 EA* MAN 5T]$ 9TELLIG5TLY 9TO ! DETAILS ( HIS [N TEMPOR>Y DUTIES1 & DIS*>G$ !M AS F> AS WE RAN TELL1 ) 9DU/RY & 9TEGRITY4 ,LIKE ! PLAY]S 9 A WELL-TRA9$ OR*E/RA1 ALL CONTRIV$ TO LE>N !IR P>TS & TO HE SATISFI$ ) ! %>E ALLOTT$ TO !M4 .<#a#c.>  
  

,BUT ! ADM9I/RATIVE ASPECTS ( ,A!NIAN CIVIC LIFE CAPTURE ONLY AN ASPECT ( ! WELL-R\ND$1 BALANC$1 & 9T5SELY SOCIAL NATURE ( :AT ,$I? ,HAMILTON HAS SO APTLY DESCRIB$ AS 0! ,GREEK ,WAY40 ,= C5TURIES AFT]W>DS1 M5 W]E TO LEEK HACK TO ,ATTICA :]E1 = A BRIEF P]IOD1 !RE FL\RI%$ A COMMUNITY :OSE DEVELOPM5T WAS NOT TO HE EXCELL$ OV] ! C\RSE ( LAT] HI/ORY4 ,:AT IMM$IATELY CAT*ES ! EYE 9 A /UDY ( ,HELL5IC SOCIETY IS ! RI* FL[ ( ,A!NIAN LIFE -- ITS ALL-5COMPASS+ RATIONALITY & ITS HUMAN SCALE4 ,! 0,M5 ( ,M>A?ON0 TAKE UP >MS AGA9/ ! ,P]SIAN 9VAD]S ( !IR C\NTRY ) ! SAME READ9ESS ?AT !Y TAKE UP ! SCY! 9 H>VE/+ !IR F>MS4 ,!Y N\RI% !IR M9DS ) ! SAME =TITUDE ?AT !Y DO BATTLE 9 ! M\NTA9 FA/NESSES ( !IR L&4 ,HELL5IC MY?OLOGY1 UNEQUIVOCABLY NATURALI/IC UND] ! BRI<T ,M$IT]RANEAN SKY1 GRACEFULLY 9T]TW9ES ) ! MONUM5TAL OAKS ( ,ATTIC TRAG$Y2 ! ,HELL5IC M9D1 CULTIVAT$ 9 ! MO/ DEM&+ S*OOLS ( SPECULATIVE REASON1 NEV] FAILS TO PAUSE -- ALMO/ *ILDI%LY -- TO M>VEL AT ! PHYSICAL BEAUTY ( ! L& & SEA1 &4 ABOVE ALL1 AT ! SUPPLE =M ( MAN4 :OSE DE/9Y 9 ,A!NIAN LIT]ATURE M+LES A PHILOSOPHICAL PA?OS ) S]5E DIGNITY4 

,A!NIAN LIFE1 DUR+ ITS F9E/ MOM5TS1 =M$ A TOTALITY ?AT WAS SU/A9$ BY ! BALANCE ,& UNITY ( ! POLIS ITSELF ,TO A ,GREEK1 IT W\LD HAVE SEEM$ PREPO/]\S ?AT M9D %\LD BE SEP>AT$ FROM BODY1 >T FROM SOCIETY1 MAN FROM NATURE1 CULTURE FROM POLITICS4 ,! POLIS WAS ! MAN2 ! MAN1 ! POLIS4 ,TO HE EXIL$ FROM ! POLIS WAS TO SUFF] AN EXT9CTION MORE HORRIFY+ EV5 ?AN DEA?4 ,! ,HELL5IC CITIZ5 WAS N\RI%$ BY HIS COMMUNITY LIKE A TREE BY ! SOIL4 ,SO 9SEP>ABLY W$D$ W]E M5 & SOCIETY ?AT A SOCIAL SUNLI<T P]MEAT$ EV]Y?+ ,GREEK4 ,WE NEV] FAIL TO M>VEL AT H[ REM>KABLY WELT ! SATIRES ( ,>I/OPHANES READ TO ?IS V]Y DAY1 H[ ADVANC$ !Y >E OV] SO MU* ( \R [N CONTEMPOR>Y LIT]ATURE ( ! SAME G5RE1 H[ UNEXCELL$ !Y >E 9 !IR 5]GY2 H[ REFRE%+ !IR E>?9ESS & REALISM1 H[ G5]\S !IR HUMANITY1 & H[ SUBTLY PHILOSOPHICAL !IR NUANCES1 ,YET !SE PLAYS W]E POLITICAL WORKS -- C\RAGE\SLY 9CISIVE SATIRES ( ! \T/&+ POLITICIANS ( ! DAY & SAVAGE COMM5T>IES ON IMM$IATE CIVIC PROBLEMS4 ,!Y ,[E !IR UNEXCELL$ POSITION 9 WE/]N LIT]ATURE TO ! CLE> RATIONALITY ( ! ,GREEK M9D1 TO ! ESS5TIALITY ( ALL RELATIONS 9 ! POLIS1 TO A C&OR T[>D LIFE 7HAT *AS$ AWAY ! FALSE %AD[S ( 9TROSPECTION & ! %AMS ( NEUROTIC E/HCTICISM4 

,FROM ! TOTALITY ( ! POLIS >OSE ! ,GREEK VIEW1 :I* ,PAUL ,L&IS SO ELOQU5TLY DESCRIBES 9 HIS DISCUSSION ( ! ,A!NIAN DRAMA3  
  

,AN ATTITUDE T[>D LIFE AT ONCE HONE/ & SO 9TELLIG5T ?AT ! M9DS ( M51 H[EV] F> !Y MAY BE DECEIV$ BY ,FANCY OR PHILOSOPHY1 MU/ ALWAYS RETURN TO IT AT ! 5D4 ,BY VIRTUE ( SOME?+ ?AT LOOKS ALMO/ LIKE RACIAL G5IUS ! ,A!NIANS ( ! FIF? C5TURY SUCCE$$ 9 LOOK+ UPON LIFE ) A LEVEL GAZE4 ,!Y FAC$ IT NEI!R ) BRAVADO & BLU/]1 NOR ) FE> & TREMBL+2 NOT ) AN IGNORANT ASSUMPTION ( P[] OV] IT1 NOR ) AN EQUALLY IGNORANT & C[>DLY FEEL+ ( 9F]IORITY444  
  

,! MESSAGE ( ! ,A!NIAN DRAMA IS  
  

?IS HONE/ 9TELLECTUALISM1 ?IS PASSION = TRU?1 ?IS S]5E & LEVEL GAZE ON LIFE -- & ?IS HAS ALWAYS BE5 ! MOD]N SPIRIT4444,IT IS ! /RUGGLE TO FREE ! 9TELLECT1 TO TE> FROM IT ! VEILS ( HOPE & FE>1 SO ?AT IT MAY LOOK CLE>LY & UNAFRAID UPON ! FACE ( LIFE & KN[ IT AS IT IS1 T]RIBLE & PITIFUL & GLORI\S & UTT]LY NONS5SICAL4.<#a#d.>  
  

,?AT ,HELL5IC SOCIETY WAS SC>R$ BY SLAV]Y & BY A SEV]ELY PATRI>*AL DISP5SATION FUR WOM5 NE$ H>DLY BE EMPHASIZ$4 ,!SE CRUET FEATURES IT %>$ ) ALL CITY /ATES ,I HAT BEGAN TO DU/] ALONG ! %ORES ( ! ,M$IT]RANEAN ,SEA -- FEATURES ?AT W]E P>T ( ! G5]AL B>B>ISM ( ! EPO*4 ,BUT !Y DO NOT EXPLA9 :Y ! POLIS SUCCE$$ SO ADMIRABLY 9 TRANSC5D+ ?AT B>B>ISM1 9DE$1 ! HORRORS :I* W]E TO FOLL[ 9 ! WAKE ( !  
POLIS'S DECL9E1 NOTABLY ! EM]G5CE ( ! ,ROMAN ,IMP]IUM & ! E>LY ,MIDDLE ,AGES4 ,LE/ WE LOSE ALL S5SE ( P]SPECTIVE T[>D URBAN DEVELOPM5T1 WE MU/ NEV] FAIL TO FOCUS ON ! ESS5TIALS :I* PRODUC$ SO ADVANC$ A SOCIETY AS ! ,A!NIAN POLIS4 ,! CIVIC SPIRIT ( ,A!NS HAS ITS S\RCE 9 YEOMAN VIRTUES1 NOT 9 SLAV]Y OR PATRI>*AL ISM1 ,A!NIAN 9T]NAL UNITY /EMS FROM M5 ( /RONG *>ACT] :O W]E 9DOMITABLE 9 !IR SOCIAL ALLEGIANCES & R\ND$ 9 !IR URBANITY BECAUSE !Y HAD FIRM TIES TO ! SOIL & W]E 9DEP5D5T ITS !IR ECONOMIC POSITION4 ,LABOR & L&1 T[N & C\NTRY1 M5 & SOCIETY W]E JO9$ 9 A COMMON DE/9Y ,9 B\RGEOIS SOCIETY ! COMMUNITY DISSOLVES 9TO COMPET+ MONADS & IS P]VAD$ BY SPIRITUAL M$IOCRITY DIRECTLY AS ! MAT]IAL BE+ ( MAN IS R5D]$ 5SLAV$1 9SECURE1 & ONE-SID$4 ,9 ! POLIS1 ! COMMUNITY A*IEVES UNITY & FL\RI%ES SPIRITUALLY AS ! MAT]IAL BE+ ( MAN A*IEVES RELATIVE FRE$OM1 9DEP5D5CE1 & R\ND$NESS4 ,9 B\RGEOIS SOCIETY1 ! COMMODITY1 :I* M$IATES ALL HUMAN RELATIONS1 NOT ONLY 0UNITES0 SOCIETY 9 A CA% NEXUS & M9UTE DIVISION ( LABOR1 BUT AT ! SAME TIME SEP>ATES MAN FROM ! 9/RUM5TS ( PRODUCTION1 LABOR FROM CREATIVITY1 OBJECT FROM SUBJECT1 & EV5TUALLY MAN FROM MAN4 ,9 ! POLIS1 ! RELATIVE 9DEP5D5CE ( ! 9DIVIDUAL MAKES IT POSSIBLE TO SEE ! TRUE DEP5D5CE ( MAN ON ! COMMUNITY1 COMPLETELY ID5TIFY+ ! ,A!NIAN ) HIS SOCIETY4 

,F9ALLY1 PRECISELY BECAUSE 9 B\RGEOIS SOCIETY MAN HAS 0MA/]$0 NATURE )\T RATIONALLY COORD9AT+ HIS SOCIAL LIFE1 CONSCI\SNESS HAS ONLY TO REFLECT SOCIETY AS IT EXI/S TO YIELD ! MO/ CATA/ROPHIC AS WELL AS ! MO/ 9ANE RESULTS4 ,! UNTUTOR$ ACT ( ?\<T IS BR\<T TO ! S]VICE ( HORRORS ?AT ! BL9DE/ ,=CES ( NATURE C\LD NEV] YIELD4 ,! MORE PASSIVE ?\<T REMA9S 9 ! FACE ( CONDITIONS IT CAN NO LONG] COMPREH5D1 ! MORE ACTIVELY DEMONIACAL IT BECOMES M]ELY BY ACQUIESC+ TO ! /ATUS QUO4 ,9 ! POLIS1 ?\<T REA*ES SUBLIME HEI<T S ( PHILOSOPHY1 POETRY1 & >T IF ONLY BECAUSE ( ! SOLID>ITY4 ,FRE$OM1 & 9DEP5D5CE IT AF=DS ! 9DIVIDUAL1 AN 9DEP5D5CE ROOT$ NOT ONLY 9 CIVIC CONDITIONS BUT ALSO 9 MAT]IAL ONES4 

,CLASSICAL ,A!NIAN DRAMA 5DS NOT ) ANO!R ,AES*YLUS1 :OSE TRAG$IES DWELL ON ! CONSOLIDATION ( ! POLIS1 BUT ) ,>I/OPHANES1 :OSE SAVAGE MOCK]Y VOICES ! TRAGIC APPREH5SION ( SOCIAL DISSOLUTION4 ,! IRONY ( ,GREEK CONDITIONS1 H]E1 ACQUIRES ITS ADEQUATE =M1 = ! V]Y =CES ?AT PRODUCE ! ,HELL5IC YEOMANRY -- ! 0,M5 ( ,M>A?ON0 -- LEAD TO !IR EXT9CTION4 ,GIV5 ! LIMIT$ MAT]IAL BASIS ( ,HELL5IC SOCIETY1 ! >I/OCRACY :I* EM]GES FROM TRIBAL LIFE CANNOT HE REPLAC$ BY ! YEOMAN )\T ALSO CREAT+ FAVORABLE CONDITIONS = A NEW & MORE P$E/RIAN >I/OCRACY -- ! >I/OCRACY ( TRADE1 USURY1 & WEAL?4 

,?IS CRISIS WAS BY NO MEANS NEW LO ,GREEK SOCIETY4 ,AS E>LY AS ! TIME ( ,HESIOD1 DUR+ ! EI<? C5TURY ,B4C41 M]*ANTS & USUR]S BEGAN 5CROA*+ ON ! SMALLHOLD+1 CONSOLIDAT+ F>MS 9TO E/ATES1 & R$UC+ MANY CITIZ5S TO DEBTOR-SLAVES4 ,9 ! TWO C5TURIES ?AT SEP>ATE ,HESIOD FROM ,CLEIS!NES1 ,ATTICA WAS TORN BY 9T5SE SOCIAL /RUGGLES1 LAT] TO BE P>ALLEL$ CLOSELY BY SIMIL> CONFLICTS 9 ! E>LY ,ROMAN ,REPUBLIC4 ,9 CONTRA/ TO ,ROME1 :OSE PILLAG+ EXP$ITIONS ABROAD RE9=C$ ! P[] & WEAL? ( ! NIL TRIG CLASSES1 ,ATTICA'S CRISIS REMA9$ L>GELY 9T]NALIZ$ & ! POLIS WAS ABLE TO >RIVE AT A MORE RATIONAL SOLUTION ( ITS PROBLEMS4 ,:]EAS ,ROME RAPIDLY SUCCUMB$ TO ! LATIFUNDIA SY/EM 7A PLANTATION =M ( AGRICULTURE ADM9I/]$ BY WEAL?Y L& MAGNATES & WORK$ BY SLAVE GANGS71 ,ATTICA RETURN$ AGA9 TO ! SMALL-HOLD+4 ,SOLON1 ,PISI/RATUS1 & ,CLEIS!NES DIVID$ ! L>GE E/ATES AMONG ! DISPOSSESS$ & ALL[$ A LIMIT$ M>G9 ( 9DEP5D5CE TO ITS CRAFTSM5 & TRAD]S1 ,PISI/RATUS1 AFT] HIS SECOND EXILE1 RU?LESSLY UPROOT$ ! BIG L&[N]S4 ,!IR E/ATES W]E CONFISCAT$ & DIVID$ AMONG ! PEASANTRY1 DISPOSSESS$ AGRICULTURAL LABOR]S1 & ! ,A!NIAN POOR ,CLEIS!NES COMPLET$ ?IS IMM5SE WORK3 HE PUT D[N ALL ATTEMPTS AT AN >I/OCRATIC RE/ORATION & JURIDICALLY E/ABLI%$ ! ,A!NIAN DEMOCRACY :I* WAS TO PASS 9TO HI/ORY AS ! POLITICAL MODEL ( ! CLASSICAL POLIS4 

,WAS IT 9DE$ 0SOME?+ ?AT LOOKS ALMO/ LIKE RADICAL G5IUS10 AS ,L&IS W\LD HAVE IT1 OR WAS IT P]HAPS MORE MUNDANE FACTORS ?AT GUID$ ! ,A!NIANS TO SO RATIONAL A DISPOSITION ( !IR SOCIAL PROBLEMS8 ,?AT ! ,CREEKS W]E1 9 ,M>X'S WORDS1 ! 0NORMAL *ILDR50 ( E>LY HI/ORY CAN BE P>TLY ACC\NT$ = BY ! WEI<T ( !IR TRADITION & BY !IR GEOGRAPHIC SETT+4 ,A!NIAN SOCIETY WAS NOT SO F> REMOV$ FROM ITS TRIBAL ORIG9S1 NOR SO MUDDL$ BY ! RUBBI% ( HI/ORY1 ?AT IT LACK$ A CLE>1 DIRECT1 & HUMANI/IC VIEW ( ITS SOCIAL PROBLEMS4 ,! MEMORY ( ITS PRIMITIVE DEMOCRACY WAS /RONG 5\< TO F9D A MORE SECUL> FULFILLM5T 9 ! E/ABLI%M5T ( ! ,ECELESIA1 ,CLOSE TO NATURE1 SITUAT$ 9 A HOSPITABLE CLIMATE1 NEI!R SO RI* AS TO YIELD OPPRESSIVE /&>DS ( OPUL5CE NOR SO POOR AS TO BE /RANGL$ BY OPPRESSIVE POV]TY1 DEC5TRALIZ$ BY A M\NTA9\S T]RA9 BUT REPEAT$LY 9VIGORAT$ CULTURALLY BY ! SEA1 ,ATTICA REMA9$ REM>KABLY FLEXIBLE & G5]\SLY SUSCEPTIBLE TO ! CIVILIZ+ CROSSCURR5TS ( ! AGE4 ,ACCORD+LY1 ,A!NIAN LEAD]S W]E FAVOR$ BY EV]Y OPPORTUNITY TO ACT ) WISDOM -- TO RECONCILE & FUND ! 9T]E/S ( ! COMMUNITY 9TO A COMMON & H>MONIZ+ SOCIAL P]SPECTIVE1 ,H4 ,D4 ,F4 ,KITTO IS ONLY JU/ :5 HE %>PLY CONTRA/S ! C\RSE FOLL[$ BY ,SOLON1 ,PISI/RATUS1 & ,CLEIS!NES ) ?AT ( MOD]N ,EUROPE3 9 ,A!NS1 ! RECONCILIATION ( ! COMMUNITY TO NEW SOCIAL DEM&S OCCURR$ AT A HI< PO9T ( SOCIAL VIGOR1 :5 ALL /RATA ( ! POLIS W]E ABLE TO CONTRIBUTE VITALLY TO ! COMMUNITY2 9 ,EUROPE1 IT OCCURR$ AFT] ! COMPLETE EXHAU/ION & DECAY ( ! OLD SOCIETY1 :5 LITTLE REMA9$ ( E>LI] TRADITIONS4 ,HELL5IC SOCIETY RESOLV$ ITS PROBLEMS RATIONALLY2 ,EUROPE1 AS YET1 HAS NOT FRE$ ITSELF FROM BL9D & DEMONIACAL SOCIAL =CES4 

,[+ TO ! FACT ?AT ,A!NIAN SOCIETY WAS BAS$ ON A YEOMANRY & ON SMALL AGRICULTURAL HOLD+S1 T[N & C\NTRY W]E BR\<T 9TO DELICATE BALANCE4 ,9 TURN1 ! PRES]VATION ( ?IS BALANCE DEP5D$ UPON ! 9T]NAL SELF-SUFFICI5CY SUPPLI$ BY ! DIVISION ( LABOR BETWE5 URBAN & RURAL SOCIETY4 ,! POLIS FL\RI%$ ONLY AS LONG AS ONE DID NOT \TWEI< ! O!R4 ,TO ! ,CREEKS1 ?IS SOCIAL EQUILIBRIUM WAS SUMM$ UP BY ! T]M AUT>KEIA3 A CONCEPT ( :OL5ESS1 MAT]IAL SELF-SUFFICI5CY1 & BALANCE ?AT IS ! CORE ( ! ,HELL5IC \TLOOK4 ,BUT ?IS \TLOOK DID NOT PROVE IMP]VI\S TO ! P[]FUL ECONOMIC ,=CES :I* W]E GA!R+ 9 ! ,M$IT]RANEAN BAS9 & GRADUALLY RE/RUCTUR+ ,CREEK SOCIETY4 ,) ! EXPANSION ( H&ICRAFTS & COMM]CIAL CONTACT ) ! \TSIDE WORLD1 ! NASC5T ,HELL5IC B\RGEOISIE BECAME 9CREAS+LY P[]FUL & BEGAN TO ALT] ! BALANCE BETWE5 T[N & C\NTRY ON :I* ! UNITY ( ! POLIS DEP5D$4 ,A!NIAN 9T]E/S N[ GRADUAT$ FROM A LOCAL SCALE TO 5COMPASS ! ,M$IT]RANEAN >EA4 ,! POLIS WAS BECOM+ A COSMOPOLIS1 A *ANGE ?AT BR\<T IT 9TO CONFLICT ) ! SELF-SUFFICI5T SMALL-HOLD+1 NOT TO SPEAK ( ,GREEK COMMUNITIES ABROAD4 ,9 #dcd ,B4,C41 ) ! \TBREAK ( ! ,PELOPONNESIAN ,W>1 ,P]ICLEAN ,A!NS EMB>K$ UPON A DISA/R\S /RUGGLE = HEGEMONY OV] O!R ,GREEK CITIES & = A COMM&+ POSITION 9 ! ,M$IT]RANEAN TRADE4 ,! W> LA/$ SOME ?IRTY YE>S1 LAY+ WA/E TO ,ATTICA'S F>MS & EXHAU/+ H] RES\RCES4 0,! ,PELOPONNESIAN ,W>10 OBS]VES ,KITTO1 0VIRTUALLY SAW ! 5D ( ! CITY-/ATE AS A CREATIVE =CE FA%ION+ & FULFILL+ ! LIVES ( ALL ITS MEMB]S40.<#a#e.> ,AL?\< ! ,A!NIAN ECONOMY RECOV]$ FROM ?IS CONFLICT1 ,A!NS CEAS$ TO BE A /ABLE SMALL-HOLD]S' COMMUNITY' DESIGN$ TO MEET LOCAL NE$S4 ,ATTIC AGRICULTURE N[ BECAME ORI5T$ T[>D ! ,M$IT]RANEAN TRADE4 ,WEAL? & PROP]TY W]E AMASS$ 9 FEW] & FEW] H&S21 POLITICAL LIFE BECAME 9CREAS+LY DEVITALIZ$ & CORRUPT UNTIL ! 9DEP5D5CE ( ,A!NS WAS SWEPT AWAY BY A ,MAC$ONIAN PHALANX4 

,ROME IS LITTLE MORE ?AN AN EPILOGUE TO ,A!NS4 ,IT IS EASY 5\< TO DRAW P>ALLELS BETWE5 ! ,LAT9 DEVELOPM5T & ! ,HELL5IC3 ,CAMILLUS = ,SOLON1 ! ,GRAC*I = ! ,PISI/RADAE1 ,CIC]O = ,DEMOS!NES4 ,BUT H[EV] MU* ,LATIUM SEEMS TO FOLL[ 9 ! WAKE ( ,GREECE ,FROM TRIBALISM TO FEUDALISM & !N TO A COMMUNITY ( 9DEP5D5T F>M]S1 ! TWO DIV]GE ON ! ISSUE ( PUBLIC CONTROL OV] ! ADM9I/RATIVE ORGANS ( SOCIETY4 ,9 CONTRA/ TO ! ,ECCLESIA & ,C\NCIL ( ,FIVE ,HUNDR$1 ! ,ROMAN ,S5ATE DEVELOPS 9TO A SPECIALIZ$ PR(ESSIONAL BODY1 DIVORC$ FROM ! POPULACE4 ,IT BECOMES A LEGISLATIVE >I/OCRACY4 ,MOREOV]1 UNLIKE ,SOLON & ,PISI/RATUS1 ,CAMILLAS & ! ,GRAC*I FAIL TO RE/ORE ! SMALL-HOLD+ AS A VIABLE ECONOMIC BASIS = ! ,ROMAN CITY-/ATE4 ,! ,GREEK POLIS1 ONCE IT DECL9$1 C\LD NO LONG] BE DUPLICAT$ BY O!R COMMUNITIES )9 ! SOCIAL FRAMEWORK ( ANTIQUITY4 ,ITS PASS+ BE>S WITNESS TO ! FACT ?AT ! ELEM5TS :I* PRODUC$ ! POLIS HAD BE5 EXHAU/$4 ,9DE$1 ! COMPLEXITIES ( ,M$IT]RANEAN SOCIETY W]E ALREADY PRES5T WILLS ! CONSOLIDATION ( ,LATIUM & ! HI/ORIC PREEM95CE ( ! ,ROMAN CITY-/ATE4 

,ONCE TRADE & ! FREE CITIES ACQUIR$ COSMOPOLITAN PROPORTIONS1 TWO ALT]NATIVES CONFRONT$ ! ANCI5T WORLD3 EI!R M]CANTILE RELATIONS W\LD EXP& TO A PO9T ?AT W\LD PRODUCE AN AU!NTIC CAPITALI/ ECONOMY OR ! CITIES W\LD BECOME P>ASITIC 5TITIES1 LIV+ 9 VAMPIRE FA%ION ON ?O AGRICULTURAL WEAL? ( ! OLD] SOCIAL SY/EM 9 ! ,NE> ,EA/ & ,NOR? ,AFRICA4 ,! REALIZATION ( ! FIR/ ALT]NATIVE WAS ALMO/ COMPLETELY PRECLUD$ BY ! NATURE ( ,M$IT]RANEAN ECONOMIC LIFE4 ,TRADE1 :ILE GR[+ CONSID]ABLY1 C\LD NEV] REA* SUFFICI5T PROPORTIONS TO TRANS=M ,M$IT]RANEAN SOCIETY AS A :OLE4 ,!RE WAS SIMPLY NOT 5\< QUANTITY1 AS IT W]E1 TO PRODUCE A *ANGE ,9 QUALITY4 ,AL?\< COMM]CE MANAG$ TO UND]M9E ! SMALL-HOLD+1 :I* GAVE WAY TO L>GE-SCALE AGRICULTURE 9 ,LATIUM1 ! FREE CITIES W]E TOO FEW 9 NUMB] & MU* TOO WEAK ECONOMICALLY TO DISSOLVE ! SELF-CONTA9$ WEAL?Y L& SY/EMS ( ! ,NE> ,EA/ & OP5 !M AS COMM]CIAL M>KETS4 ,! ,ASIAN L& SY/EM IMPOS$ ! SAME LIMITS ON ! DEVELOPM5T ( CAPITALI/ PRODUCTION ABROAD :I* CONFRONT$ ITS DOME/IC COMM]CIAL /RATA AT HOME4 ,[+ TO ITS SOLIDITY1 IT DOS$ (F ! ONLY POT5TIAL M>KET ( SUFFICI5T DIM5SIONS ?AT MI<T HAVE TRANS=M$ M]CANTILE CAPITALISM 9TO 9DU/RIAL CAPITALISM4 ,ANCI5T TRADE REMA9$ PRIM>ILY A C>RY+ TRADE1 A CEM5T BETWE5 ! ,FREE CITIES & ECONOMICALLY IMP5ETRABLE SOCIETIES BAS$ ON TIME-HONOR$ AGRICULTURAL WAYS4 

,! 0,FALL ( ,ROME0 CAN BE EXPLA9$ BY ! RISE ( ,ROME1 ,! ,LAT9 CITY WAS C>RI$ TO IMP]IAL HEI<TS NOT BY ! RES\RCES ( ITS RURAL 5VIRONS1 BUT BY SPOILS ACQUIR$ FROM ! SY/EMATIC LOO ,L+ ( ! ,NE> ,EA/1 ,EGYPT1 & ,NOR? ,AFRICA1 ,! V]Y PROCESS 9VOLV$ 9 MA9TA9+ ! ,ROMAN COSMOPOLIS DE/ROY$ ! COSMOPOLIS4 ,EV]Y ATTEMPT ON ,ROME'S P>T TO EXACT ,FUR!R TRIBUTE FROM H] COLONIES 9VOLV$ 9CREAS+ CO]CION & EXP5DITURES1 :I* 9 TORN REQUIR$ MORE TRIBUTE4 ,A PO9T WAS F9ALLY REA*$ :]E ! NEGATIVE ASPECT ( ?IS ESCALAT+ DEVELOPM5T PR$OM9AT$ OV] ! POSITIVE3 ! CO/S ( MA9TA9+ ! CITY BEGAN TO \TWEI< :AT IT RECEIV$4 ,AS ! NE$S ( DIE CITY & ITS URBAN SATELLITES BEGAN TO RISE F> \T ( PROPORTION TO ! ,H[ ( TRIBUTE1 IMPOV]I%M5T & DEMORALIZATION ALSO 9CREAS$2 LOCAL TAXATION /RANGL$ DOME/IC ECONOMIC LIFE1 ! URBAN POPULATION BEGAN TO DRIFT 9TO ! C\NTRYSIDE1 & ! CITY'S BIR?RATES DECL9$4 ,ROME C\LD NO LONG] BE MA9TA9$ AS A VIABLE 5TITY4 ,! IMP]IAL EAGLES MIGRAT$ FROM ! WE/ TO ! EA/1 FROM ! >TIFICIAL C5T] ( ADM9I/RATION TO ! S\RCES ( REAL WEAL?1 ,CON/ANT9OPLE REPLAC$ ,ROME AS ! AU!NTIC C5T] ( ! EMPIRE & ,ITALY N[ LAY AT ! FEET ( ! B>B>IANS4 ,HAV+ PASS$ BEYOND ITS DOME/IC LIMITS1 ,ROME 0FELL0 9 ! S5SE ?AT ! CITY CONTRACT$ TO ITS ,[N AGR>IAN BASE -- & DECL9$ EV5 MORE AS A RESULT ( ! 5ORM\S URBAN HEI<TS FROM :I* IT HAD FALL54 

,:AT E>LI] HI/ORIANS ONCE DESCRIB$ AS ,EUROPE'S 0D>K AGES0 COMPRISE A SWEEP+ READJU/M5T ( URBAN LIFE TO ! ONLY AGR>IAN POSSIBILITIES :I* LAY AT H&4 ,UND] ! ,ROMAN EMPIRE1 T[N & C\NTRY HAD 5T]$ 9TO %>P CONTRADICTION ) EA* O!R4 ,LACK+ AN ADEQUATE AGR>IAN & 9DU/RIAL BASIS ( ITS [N4 ,ROME HAD SWOLL5 TO 5ORM\S DIM5SIONS >\ND A SY/EM ( PLUND] & P>ASITISM4 ,! CITY HAD TURN$ UPON ! ,L& & 9TRODUC$ 9EFFICI5T -- EV5 DE/RUCTIVE -- =MS ( AGRICULTURAL EXPLOITATION1 SU* AS SLAVE-WORK$ LATIFUNDIA [N$ BY ABS5TEE PROPRIETORS4 ,NOT SURPRIS+LY1 ,ROME SUCCUMB$ TO !SE 9T]NAL WEAKNESSES :5 ! P>ASITIC SY/EM OV]REA*$ ITSELF & BEGAN TO ACQUIRE LESS ?AN IT LO/4 ,BY SL[LY AB&ON+ A SLAVE-WORK$ AGRICULTURE = A FEUDAL ONE4 ,ITALY SIMPLY RETURN$ TO ! ONLY /ABLE AGR>IAN =MS :I* C\LD SATISFY H] NE$S4 ,! 0,FALL ( ,ROME0 AS A CITY1 QUITE ASIDE FROM ! DE/9Y ( ! EMPIRE1 WAS A LOCAL 0RETROGRESSION40 ,9DE$1 AP>T FRONT ,ROMAN ,EUROPE1 NO SU* RETROGRESSION OCCURR$ ELSE:]E1 ,NO DOC L9O ( URBAN LIFE OCCURR$ 9 ! ,NE> ,EA/1 :]E AGRICULTURAL RES\RCES W]E ADEQUATE = ! DEVELOPM5T ( L>GE CITIES ,SIMIL>LY 9 ,NOR? ,AFRICA1 ,9 !SE >EAS1 ! FREE CITIES PATT]N$ !MSELVES ON PREEXI/+ AGR>IAN SOCIAL =MS & ESS5TIALLY BECAME ! URBAN CREATURES ( ! ,ASIAN L& SY/EM4 ,AS TO ! C5TRAL & NOR!RN >EAS ( ,EUROPE1 :]E ,G]MANIC PEOPLES W]E EM]G+ FROM TRIBALISM & AGR>IAN K+%IPS1 ! DEVELOPM5T ( FEUDALISM WAS A LOGICAL EXT5SION ( ! C\RSE FOLL[$ BY TRIBAL COMMUNITIES 9 E>LY ,GREECE & ,LATIUM4 ,) ! RISE ( FEUDAL SOCIETY1 ! ,EUROPEAN CONT95T WAS ?R[N BACK UPON ITS [N MA9SPR+S1 ,A NEW RELATION%IP BETWE5 L& & CITY BEGAN TO EM]GE1 ONE ?AT 9ITIAT$ AN AU!NTIC DEVELOPM5T T[>D MORE ADVANC$ SOCIAL RELATION%IPS1 

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