,! ,ITALIAN FACTORY OCCUPATIONS ( #aib 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,TOM ,WETZEL 

,TEXT 3 

,D,U,R,+ ! MON? ( ,SEPTEMB]1 #a#i#b1 A WIDESPREAD OCCUPATION ( ,ITALIAN FACTORIES BY !IR WORK=CES TOOK PLACE1 :I* ORIG9AT$ 9 ! AUTO FACTORIES1 /EEL MILLS & MA*9E TOOL PLANTS ( ! METAL SECTOR BUT SPREAD \T 9TO MANY O!R 9DU/RIES -- COTTON MILLS & HOSI]Y FIRMS1 LIGNITE M9ES1 TIRE FACTORIES1 BREW]IES & DI/ILL]IES1 & /EAM%IPS & W>EH\SES 9 ! PORT T[NS4 

,BUT ?IS WAS NOT A SIT-D[N /RIKE2 ! WORK]S CONT9U$ PRODUCTION ) !IR [N 9-PLANT ORGANIZATION4 ,& RAILWAY WORK]S1 9 OP5 DEFIANCE ( ! MANAGEM5T ( ! /ATE-[N$ RAILWAYS1 %UNT$ FREI<T C>S BETWE5 ! FACTORIES TO 5ABLE PRODUCTION TO CONT9UE4 ,AT ITS HEI<T AB\T #f1 WORK]S W]E 9VOLV$4 

,?IS MOVEM5T BLEW UP \T ( A CONV5TIONAL TRADE UNION /RUGGLE OV] WAGES4 ,BUT ! WAGE DEM&S W]E ONLY ! (FICIAL OCCASION = ! FI<T2 ! REAL ASPIRATIONS & DESIRES ?AT MOTIVAT$ ! WORK]S 9VOLV$ 9 ?IS /RUGGLE GO MU* DEEP]4.<#a.> 

,GR[+ ,DISAFFECTION ) ! ,UNION ,LEAD]%IP 

,AMONG ! BULK ( ! ,ITALIAN POPULACE AT ! 5D ( ,WORLD ,W> ,I1 :E!R WORK]S 9 FACTORIES 9 ! BIG NOR!RN CITIES1 WAGE LABOR]S ON COMM]CIAL F>MS 9 ! NOR!RN VALLEYS1 OR PEASANT F>M]S 9 ! S\!RN P>T ( ! C\NTRY1 !RE WAS A MOOD ( EXPECTANCY1 ?AT MAYBE N[ WAS ! TIME :5 !RE W\LD BE A QUALITATIVE IMPROVEM5T 9 !IR LIVES1 AFT] ! UPHEAVALS & DEPRIVATION ( ! W> YE>S4 

,H[EV]1 A GR[+ ASPIRATION = WORK]S CONTROL1 & = SOCIAL TRANS=MATION 9 AN ANTI-CAPITALI/ DIRECTION1 RAN HEAD ON 9TO ! GR[+ BUREAUCRATIZATION ( (FICIAL ,ITALIAN TRADE-UNIONISM4 

,! MA9 TRADE UNION F$]ATION 9 ,ITALY WAS ! ,G5]AL ,CONF$]ATION ( ,LABOR 7,C,G,L71 (FICIALLY ALIGN$ ) ! ,ITALIAN ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY.<#b.>4 ,LUDOVICO ,D',>AGONA1 & O!R LEAD]S ( ! ,C,G,L1 LOOK$ TO ! ,BRITI% ,LABOR ,P>TY AS !IR MODEL1 :]E A PR(ESSIONAL TRADE UNION & P>LIAM5T>Y LEAD]%IP PRESID$ OV] GRADUAL RE=MS & AN ACCEPT$ 9/ITUTIONAL EXI/5CE )9 ! PREVAIL+ CAPITALI/ SOCIETY4 

,UNLIKE ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES1 :]E UNIONISM DID NOT BECOME 5TR5*$ 9 ! BIG 9DU/RIAL 5T]PRISES UNTIL ! '#cS1 9 ,ITALY ! UNIONS AFFILIAT$ TO ! ,C,G,L HAD ALREADY A*IEV$ CONTRACTS ) MAJOR COMPANIES LIKE ,PIRELLI & ,FIAT BE=E ,WORLD ,W> ,I4 ,A PR(ESSIONAL UNION HI]>*Y HAD EM]G$1 AS P]MAN5T 0REPRES5TATIVES0 ( WORK]S 9 REGUL> B>GA9+ ) EMPLOY]S4 

,! PROCESS ( UNION BUREAUCRATIZATION1 & AN 9CREAS+ GAP BETWE5 ! LEAD]%IP & ! RANK-&-FILE1 WAS ACCEL]AT$ BY ! ,FIR/ ,WORLD ,W>4 ,DUR+ ! W> ,ITALIAN 9DU/RY WAS SUBJECT$ TO A K9D ( 9DU/RIAL FEUDALISM ) WORK]S TI$ TO !IR JOBS UND] ?REAT ( IMPRISONM5T4 

,A SY/EM ( JO9T LABOR_/MANAGEM5T GRIEVANCE COMMITTEES W]E IMPOS$ BY ! GOV]NM5T -- ESS5TIALLY A SY/EM ( COMPULSORY >BITRATION TO SETTLE DISPUTES OV] WAGES & SAFETY4 ,9 ORD] TO NOT BE COMPLETELY FROZ5 \T1 ! UNION (FICIALS P>TICIPAT$ ON !SE COMMITTEES4 ,BUT ! UNIONS W]E UNABLE TO DEF5D !IR MEMB]S 9 CASES ( MANAGEM5T DISCIPL9E SU* AS FIR+S4 

,! W> GOV]NM5T ( ,VITTORIO ,ORL&O ALSO SET UP A HI<-LEVEL JO9T LABOR_/MANAGEM5T COMMISSION TO DRAFT PROPOSALS = RECON/RUCTION ( ,ITALY AFT] ! W>4 ,P>TICIPATION ( ,C,G,L LEAD]S -- SU* AS ,BRUNO ,BUOZZI1 HEAD ( ! ,ITALIAN ,F$]ATION ( ,METALURGICAL ,WORK]S 7,F,I,O,M7 -- ON ?IS COMMISSION AM\NT$ TO COLLABORATION ) ! PLANS & GOALS ( ! BUS9ESS CLASS4 

,?IS 9CREAS+ COLLABORATION ) ! W> GOV]NM5T G5]AT$ DI/RU/ AMONG ! RANK & FILE4 ,EV5 BE=E ! W>-TIME AU/]ITY BORE D[N ON WORK+ PEOPLE1 P>TICIPATION 9 ! W> WAS NOT POPUL> 9 ! WORK+ CLASS COMMUNITIES ( NOR!RN ,ITALY4 ,OPPOSITION TO ! W> WAS ESPECIALLY 9T5SE 9 ! BIG 9DU/RIAL CITY ( ,TUR91 C5T] ( ,ITALY'S AUTO 9DU/RY4 ,9 REACTION TO ,ITALY'S 5TRY 9TO ! WORLD W> 9 #a#i#a#e1 !RE WAS A TWO-DAY G5]AL /RIKE AGA9/ ! W> ON ,MAY #a#g-#a#h1 :I* L$ TO PROLONG$ & BLOODY CLA%ES ) ! POLICE4 

,:5 ! ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY'S P>LIAM5T>Y REPRES5TATIVES VOT$ AGA9/ ! W> BUDGET 9 #a#i#a#e1 !IR ACTION REFLECT$ ?IS DEEP-SEAT$ ANTI-W> FEEL+ AMONG !IR WORK+ CLASS CON/ITU5CY4 

,BUT ! COLLABORATION ( ! LABOR LEAD]%IP ) ! W> GOV]NM5T & ! 9/ITUTIONS ( W>TIME LABOR DISCIPL9E HAD ! EFFECT ( S[+ D\BTS AB\T ?AT LEAD]%IP 9 ! M9DS ( MANY WORK]S4 

,ONE ( ! FIR/ 9DICATIONS ( ! WID5+ GAP BETWE5 LEAD]S & ! RANK & FILE 9 ! ,C,G,L UNIONS WAS ! OPPOSITION ( RANK & FILE ACTIVI/S TO ! NATIONAL ,F,I,O,M CONTRACT 9 ,M>* ( #a#i#a#i4 ,9 ! MON?S IMM$IATELY AFT] ! W>1 ! 9DU/RIAL FIRMS W]E WILL+ TO GRANT CONCESSIONS TO LABOR ORGANIZATIONS 9 ORD] TO AVOID DISRUPTION ( !IR EF=TS TO QUICKLY CONV]T FROM PRODUCTION ( >MS TO CIVILIAN PRODUCTION4 ,?IS SITUATION L$ TO A MASSIVE /RIKE WAVE AS WORK]S TOOK ADVANTAGE ( ?IS SITUATION4 

,! EMPLOY]S W]E P>TICUL>LY WILL+ TO GRANT CONCESSIONS ON PAY & H\RS 9 EX*ANGE = GREAT] CONTROL OV] ! LABOR PROCESS4 ,?IS IS PRECISELY :AT ! ,F,I,O,M (FICIALS AGRE$ TO1 REFLECT+ ! BUREAUCRATIZATION ( ! ,F,I,O,M1 :OSE TOP (FICIALS DID NOT HAVE TO WORK UND] ! CONDITIONS ( ! CONTRACTS4 ,9 EX*ANGE = A WAGE 9CREASE & ! EI<T-H\R DAY1 RE/RICTIONS W]E IMPOS$ ON RAPID /RIKE ACTION & ! 9-PLANT ORGANIZATIONS ( ! WORK]S W]E NOT P]MITT$ TO BE ACTIVE DUR+ WORK+ H\RS4 ,! WORK]S ALSO HAD TO WORK A FULL DAY ON ,SATURDAYS 9/EAD ( HALF-DAYS AS BE=E4 ,AT ! NEXT ,F,I,O,M CONGRESS ?IS CONTRACT FAC$ BLI/]+ CRITICISM FROM ! ,TUR9 DELEGATES4 

,! GR[+ CONFLICT BETWE5 ! RANK & FILE & ! 9/ITUTIONAL LEAD]S ( ! ,ITALIAN LABOR MOVEM5T L$ TO ! EM]G5CE ( NEW ORGANIZATIONS1 ( A MORE GRASSROOTS *>ACT]4 ,?IS TOOK TWO MA9 =MS3 7#a7 ,! MOVEM5T = %OP /EW>DS' C\NCILS1 9DEP5D5T ( ! E/ABLI%$ TRADE UNION HI]>*Y1 BUILT UP BY ! RANK & FILE ACTIVI/S ( ! ,C,G,L UNIONS1 MA9LY 9 ,TUR92 & 7#b7 ! EM]G5CE & GR[? ( A DISSID5T UNION1 ! ,UNIONE ,S9DACALE ,ITALIANA 7,ITALIAN ,SYNDICALI/ ,UNION -- ,U,S,I74 

,ORIG9S ( ! ,U,S,I 

,! ,U,S,I HAD ORIG9AT$ FROM AN AN>*I/-9SPIR$ RANK & FILE OPPOSITION )9 ! ,C,G,L UNIONS4 ,) ! GR[? ( PR(ESSIONAL TRADE UNION HI]>*IES & AN 9CREAS+ ORI5TATION ( (FICIAL TRADE UNIONISM TO ELECTORAL POLITICS1 ! REACTION ( ! AN>*I/S WAS ! DEVELOPM5T ( DISSID5T RANK-&-FILE GR\PS -- CALL$ 0COMMITTEES = DIRECT ACTION10 BEG9N+ >\ND #a#i#h4 

,BY ! TIME ( ! ,MOD5A ,CONGRESS ( ,DIRECT ,ACTION ,COMMITTEES 9 #a#i#a#b1 !RE W]E #i1 P>TICIPANTS 9 !SE COMMITTEES4 ,IT WAS DECID$ AT ?AT CONGRESS ?AT ! MOVEM5T = A MORE MILITANT1 NON-BUREAUCRATIC WORK]S MOVEM5T HAD SUFFICI5T MASS SUPPORT TO LAUN* A NEW LABOR ORGANIZATION1 & ?US ! ,U,S,I WAS BORN4 ,BY #aiad ! ,U,S,I HAD GR[N TO #a#e1 MEMB]S4 

,! ,U,S,I HAD L[ DUES & NO HI]>*ICAL1 PR(ESSIONAL TRADE UNION LEAD]%IP LIKE ! ,C,G,L2 IT WAS BAS$ ON HORIZONTAL L9KS BETWE5 MILITANT ASSOCIATIONS ( WORK]S 9 ! V>I\S WORKPLACES4 ,! MA9 FOCUS WAS ! UNITY ( ! LOCAL UNIONS FROM ! DIFF]5T SECTORS 9 P>TICUL> COMMUNITIES BUT ! ,U,S,I DID HAVE A MAJOR NATIONAL F$]ATION 9 ! METAL SECTOR1 :I* GREW TO #c1 MEMB]S 9 #a#i#b4 

,U,S,I'S ME?OD ( ORGANIZATION WAS MOBILIZATION ( WORK]S >\ND DIRECT ACTION1 & IT BELIEV$ ?AT A SOCIAL TRANS=MATION C\LD BE A*IEV$ ?R\< 0AN EXPROPRIAT+ G5]AL /RIKE0 -- ESS5TIALLY A G5]ALIZ$ 0ACTIVE /RIKE0 9 :I* WORK]S CONT9UE PRODUCTION UND] !IR [N CONTROL4 ,! ,U,S,I WAS ! ,ITALIAN C\NT]P>T ( ! ,9DU/RIAL ,WORK]S ( ! ,WORLD 7,I,W,W7 9 ?IS C\NTRY4.<#c.> 

,ORIG9S ( ! ,TUR9 ,%OP ,/EW>DS' ,MOVEM5T 

,AS ! W> WAS COM+ TO AN 5D ! EXP]I5CE ( ! ,BRITI% %OP /EW>DS' MOVEM5T WAS BEG9N+ TO REGI/] 9 ,TUR91 ?R\< REPORTS 9 ! LOCAL LEFTW+ PRESS4 ,?\< ! ,BRITI% %OP /EW>DS' MOVEM5T PROVID$ ! ORIG9AL MODEL = ! DEVELOPM5T ( NEW %OP ORGANIZATION 9 ,TUR91 ! CONCEPTS W]E MODIFI$ BY WORK]S TO MEET ! NE$S ( ! ,ITALIAN SITUATION4 ,A CAMPAIGN = A NEW =M ( %OP ORGANIZATION DEVELOP$ ?R\< C\NTLESS SMALLGR\P DISCUSSIONS1 9 LOCAL 0SOCIALI/ CIRCLES01 WORK]S' $UCATION C5T]S1 & 9 WORKPLACES4 

,A GR\P ( ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY ACTIVI/S1 9CLUD+ ,PALMIRO ,TOGLIATTI1 ,ANTONIO ,GRAMSCI.<#d.>1 & ,UMB]TO ,T]RAC9I1 SET UP A MAGAZ9E1 ,L',ORD9E ,NUOVO1 TO POPUL>IZE IDEAS ( GRASSROOTS %OP ORGANIZATION & TO S]VE AS A =UM = WORK]S TO DISCUSS :AT =M SU* ORGANIZATION %\LD TAKE TO MEET ! NE$S ( !IR SITUATION4 ,?\< ! MAGAZ9E'S F\ND]S W]E ACTIVE 9 ! ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY1 AN>*I/S ALSO P>TICIPAT$2 ! MAGAZ9E WAS 9DEP5D5T1 IT HAD AN OP5-5D$1 NONP>TY *>ACT]4 ,?IS MADE ! MAGAZ9E WELL-SUIT$ TO A MOVEM5T D$ICAT$ TO DEVELOP+ A HEI<T5$ UNITY 9 ! WORK=CE4 

,TO UND]/& ! NEW TYPE ( ORGANIZATION ?AT WAS EVOLV$1 IT IS NECESS>Y TO CONSID] ! PROBLEMS ?AT RANK-&-FILE ACTIVI/S W]E TRY+ TO SOLVE3 

,LACK ( ,RANK-&-,FILE ,P>TICIPATION4 ,! TYPICAL 9-PLANT ORGANIZATION EXI/+ AT ?AT TIME 9 ! ,F,I,O,M1 & O!R ,C,G,L UNIONS AS WELL1 WAS ! 09T]NAL COMMISSION0 7EQUIVAL5T TO A %OP COMMITTEE 9 ?IS C\NTRY74 ,9 ! E>LY UNION CONTRACTS !SE W]E AD HOC COMMITTEES SET UP TO DEAL ) GRIEVANCES BUT EV5TUALLY !Y BECAME P]MAN5T BODIES = REPRES5T+ ! LOCAL PLANT WORK=CE 9 DEAL+ ) MANAGEM5T4 ,! ,TUR9 RANK-&-FILE ACTIVI/S CRITICIZ$ ! EXI/+ 9T]NAL COMMISSIONS AS ESS5TIALLY A UNION OLIG>*Y1 MAK+ DECISIONS )\T ! P>TICIPATION ( ! MASS ( WORK]S4 

,DIVISIONS BETWE5 ,UNION ,MEMB]S & ,NONMEMB]S4 ,?\< ! UNIONS HAD BE5 5TR5*$ 9 CONTRACT B>GA9+ ) EMPLOY]S = SOME TIME1 UNION MEMB]%IP WAS ALWAYS VOLUNT>Y -- AT TIMES ! UNION MEMB]%IP W]E EV5 A M9ORITY :O HAD TO MOBILIZE ! RE/ ( ! WORK=CE AS /RUGGLES EM]G$4 ,A PROBLEM ?AT CONFRONT$ ! WORKPLACE ACTIVI/S WAS ?AT ( 9VOLV+ ! NONUNION WORK]S 9 A DEVELOP+ UNITY ( ! WORK=CE4 ,?IS WAS AN IMPORTANT DIFF]5CE FROM ! SITUATION CONFRONT$ BY ! ,BRITI% %OP /EW>DS' MOVEM5T1 :]E ,BRITI% CRAFT UNIONS TYPICALLY HAD CLOS$ %OP CONTRACTS4 

,DIVISIONS BY ,CRAFT & ,IDEOLOGY4 ,! VOLUNT>Y NATURE ( UNION MEMB]%IP HAD ALSO FACILITAT$ ! RISE ( DISSID5T UNIONS1 SU* AS ! ,U,S,I.<#e.>1 (T5 REFLECT+ IDEOLOGICAL DIVISIONS AMONG WORK]S4 ,O!R DIVISIONS 9 ! WORK=CE 9 ! FACTORIES 9 ,TUR9 W]E ?AT BETWE5 ! BLUE COLL> WORK]S & :ITE COLL> WORK]S1 & BETWE5 ! MA*9E OP]ATORS1 :O TYPICALLY BELONG$ TO ! ,F,I,O,M1 & ! SKILL$ TE*NICIANS1 :O HAD !IR [N CRAFT UNION4 ,IT WAS P]CEIV$ ?AT ! UNITY ( ! WORK=CE C\LD BE/ BE A*IEV$ BY A =M ( ORGANIZATION ?AT WAS 9DEP5D5T ( ANY ( ! EXI/+ TRADE UNIONS4 

,RISE ( ! ,NEW ,%OP ,ORGANIZATIONS 

,! FIR/ ( ! NEW %OP /EW>DS' ORGANIZATIONS WAS DEVELOP$ AT A ,FIAT PLANT AT ! 5D ( ,AUGU/1 #a#i#a#i1 & QUICKLY SPREAD TO TO O!R PLANTS 9 ,TUR9 ?R\<\T ,SEPTEMB] & ,OCTOB]4 ,! NEW ORGANIZATIONS W]E BUILT 9ITIALLY )\T ANY AU?ORIZATION FROM ! ,C,G,L UNIONS4 

,! NEW ORGANIZATION WAS DIRECTLY BAS$ 9 ! GR\P ( PEOPLE :O WORK TOGE!R 9 A P>TICUL> WORK%OP OR DEP>TM5T4 ,TYPICALLY !RE W\LD BE A %OP /EW>D ELECT$ = EA* GR\P ( #ae OR #b OR SO PEOPLE4 ,! ELECTIONS ( ! %OP /EW>DS TOOK PLACE RI<T 9 ! WORKPLACE1 DUR+ WORK+ H\RS4 ,! %OP /EW>D WAS EXPECT$ TO REFLECT ! WILL ( HIS C[ORK]S :O HAD ELECT$ HIM1 & WAS SUBJECT TO IMM$IATE RECALL IF HIS C[ORK]S SO DESIR$4 ,! ASSEMBLY ( ALL ! %OP /EW>DS 9 A GIV5 PLANT !N ELECT$ ! 09T]NAL COMMISSION0 = ?AT FACILITY4 ,BUT ?IS NEW 9T]NAL COMMISSION WAS N[ DIRECTLY1 CON/ANTLY RESPONSIBLE TO ! BODY ( %OP /EW>DS1 :I* WAS CALL$ ! 0FACTORY C\NCIL40 

,ON ,OCTOB] #b?1 AN ASSEMBLY ( ALL ! %OP /EW>DS FROM NE>LY #b PLANTS 9 ! AUTO & METAL-WORK+ SECTOR SET UP A 0,/UDY ,COMMITTEE = ,FACTORY ,C\NCILS0 TO DEVELOP A SPECIFIC PROGRAM ?AT W\LD EMBODY ! CONCLUSIONS ?AT ! MOVEM5T HAD BE5 WORK+ T[>DS4 ,! MOVEM5T WAS N[ DRIV+ T[>DS RE-ORGANIZATION ( ! LOCAL UNION ORGANIZATION ( ,F,I,O,M 9 ,TUR9 & ?IS WAS DISCUSS$ AT ANO!R ASSEMBLY ( %OP /EW>DS FROM OV] #c PLANTS1 REPRES5T+ #e1 WORK]S1 :I* TOOK PLACE ON ,OCTOB] #c#a/4 ,?IS ASSEMBLY ADOPT$ A PROGRAM PREP>$ BY ! 0,/UDY ,COMMITTEE10 :I* WAS ! \TGR[? ( ! C\NTLESS DISCUSSIONS AMONG ! WORK=CE .<#f.>4 ,! PROGRAM CALL$ = REELECTION ( %OP /EW>DS EV]Y SIX MON?S1 & REQUIR$ !M TO 0HOLD FREQU5T REF]5DA ON SOCIAL & TE*NICAL QUE/IONS & TO CALL FREQU5T MEET+S TO4440 CONSULT ) ! PEOPLE :O ELECT$ !M BE=E MAK+ DECISIONS4 

,?R\<\T #aiai ! ,U,S,I HAD BE5 CALL+ = A 0REVOLUTION>Y UNIT$ FRONT0 BETWE5 ! WORK]S ( ! ,C,G,L1 ,U,S,I & ! 9DEP5D5T RAIL & M>ITIME TRANSPORT UNIONS4 ,! ,U,S,I 5VISION$ A UNITY ?AT C\LD OV]COME ! MAJOR IDEOLOGICAL DIVISION )9 ! ,ITALIAN WORK+ CLASS1 ?AT IS1 ! DIVISION BETWE5 SUPPORT]S ( ! ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY & ?OSE SYMPA!TIC TO ! AN>*I/S .<#g.>4 ,! %OP /EW>DS' PROGRAM RESPOND$ POSITIVELY TO ?IS 9ITIATIVE1 CLE>LY GIV+ ,U,S,I MEMB]S EQUAL RI<T TO BE ELECT$ AS %OP /EW>DS ALONGSIDE MEMB]S ( ! ,F,I,O,M4 ,! ,TUR9 MOVEM5T ?US 9T]PRET$ ! IDEA ( A 0UNIT$ FRONT0 9 T]MS ( ! UNITY ( ! WORK=CE COMPRIS$ 9 ! %OP C\NCILS4 

,AT AN ASSEMBLY ON ,OCT4 #c#a/1 ! ! %OP /EW>DS RESOLV$ ON A PROGRAM = RE-/RUCTUR+ ! LOCAL UNION1 :I* C>RI$ ! DAY DESPITE ! VEHEM5T OBJECTIONS ( ! UNION (FICIALS4 ,CONTROL ( ! LOCAL ,F,I,O,M ORGANIZATION N[ PASS$ TO ! ASSEMBLY ( ALL ! METAL 9DU/RY %OP /EW>DS 9 ,TUR9 :O ACQUIR$ ! RI<T TO ELECT ! LOCAL UNION EXECUTIVE4 ,AL?\< ! ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY WAS ! POLITICAL ORGANIZATION ) ! PR$OM9ANT SUPPORT AMONG ,F,I,O,M MEMB]S1 ,MAURIZIO ,G>9O1 AN AN>*O-SYNDICALI/ :O WAS A MEMB] ( ! ,TUR9 ,LIB]T>IAN ,GR\P1 WAS ELECT$ ! NEW SECRET>Y ( ! ,TUR9 SECTION ( ,F,I,O,M BECAUSE ( HIS /AUN* SUPPORT = ! NEW MOVEM5T = RANK-&-FILE WORK]S' DEMOCRACY4 

,C\NCILS AS ,ORGANS ( ,WORK]S' ,CONTROL 

,! NEW MOVEM5T 9 ,TUR9 DID NOT VIEW ! %OP C\NCILS AS M]ELY A MEANS ( RE=M+ ! UNION MOVEM5T1 H[EV]4 ,! ,%OP ,/EW>DS ,PROGRAM1 ADOPT$ ON ,OCT4 #c#a/1 /AT$ ?AT !IR PURPOSE WAS 0TO SET 9 TRA9 9 ,ITALY A PRACTICAL EX]CISE 9 ! REALIZATION ( COMMUNI/ SOCIETY40 

,! %OP C\NCILS W]E SE5 AS BO? ! VEHICLE ( SOCIAL TRANS=MATION AS WELL AS ! BASIC UNITS ( CONTROL BY WORK+ PEOPLE 9 A FUTURE SOCIALIZ$ ECONOMY PRECISELY BECAUSE !Y UNIT$ ! :OLE WORK=CE 9 A HI<LY DEMOCRATIC MANN]4 ,! ,%OP ,/EW>DS ,PROGRAM SAW ! C\NCILS AS HAV+ 0! POT5TIAL OBJECTIVE ( PREP>+ M51 ORGANIZATIONS & IDEAS1 9 A CONT9U\S PRE-REVOLUTION>Y CONTROL OP]ATION1 SO ?AT !Y >E READY TO REPLACE EMPLOY] AU?ORITY 9 ! 5T]PRISE & IMPOSE A NEW DISCIPL9E ON SOCIAL LIFE40 .<#h.> 

,BECAUSE ( ! WIDESPREAD RANK & FILE DI/RU/ ( ! UNION (FICIALS1 & ! NE$ TO DEVELOP UNITY ) WORK]S :O W]E NOT MEMB]S ( ! ,C,G,L UNIONS1 ! ,TUR9 WORKPLACE ACTIVI/S 9SI/$ UPON ! 9DEP5D5CE ( ! %OP C\NCILS FROM ! ,C,G,L TRADE UNIONS4 ,NONE!LESS1 !Y DID NOT REJECT ! ,C,G,L UNIONS 5TIRELY4 

,9/EAD1 ! ,%OP ,/EW>DS ,PROGRAM TOOK ! POSITION ?AT ! TRADE UNIONS & ! C\NCILS HAD DIFF]5T FUNCTIONS4 ,! TRADE UNIONS HAD BE5 BUILT UP 9 /RUGGLES ) ! EMPLOY]S & REPRES5T$ C]TA9 GA9S ?AT HAD BE5 MADE 9 SU* >EAS AS WAGES & H\RS )9 ! PRES5T SY/EM4 ,! TRADE UNIONS >E ESS5TIALLY WORK]S' COLLECTIVE M>KET+ ORGANIZATIONS )9 A SOCIETY :]E WORK]S MU/ SELL !IR ABILITY TO WORK4 ,! UNIONS1 !RE=E1 NE$ TO BE SUPPORT$ UNTIL SU* TIME ?AT ! WORK=CE IS 9 A POSITION TO GO BEYOND ! EXI/+ COMPROMISES ) ! EMPLOY]S & COMPLETELY REPLACE ! COMPETITIVE1 PRIVATE 5T]PRISE ECONOMY4 

,H[EV]1 ! C\NCILS NE$ TO BE 9DEP5D5T ( ! UNIONS BECAUSE ! UNIONS1 AS %[N BY !IR BUREAUCRATIC /RUCTURES1 >E COMMITT$ TO MA9TA9+ ! EXI/+ COMPROMISES ) ! EMPLOY]S4 ,! BUREAUCRATIC TRADE UNIONS1 AS ,ANTONIO ,GRAMSCI PUT IT1 0T5D TO UNIV]SALIZE & P]PETUATE .<!.> LEGALITY0 CODIFI$ 9 !SE COMPROMISES4 ,! %OP C\NCILS1 PRECISELY BECAUSE !Y >E NOT A PR(ESSIONAL BUREAUCRACY EXT]NAL TO ! WORK]S !MSELVES1 0T5DS TO ANNIHILATE .<?IS LEGALITY.> AT ANY MOM5T1 T5DS CONT9U\SLY TO LEAD T[>DS GREAT] WORK]S 9DU/RIAL P[]444T5DS TO UNIV]SALIZE EV]Y REBELLION40 .<#i.> 

,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY ,OPPOSITION TO ! ,TUR9 ,C\NCILS 

,AL?\< ! ,TUR9 SECTION ( ! ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY WAS PLAY+ A MAJOR ROLE 9 ! NEW %OP C\NCIL MOVEM5T1 9 COOP]ATION ) AN>*O-SYNDICALI/S SU* AS ! ,TUR9 ,LIB]T>IAN ,GR\P1 ! MA9 ACTIVI/S & LEAD]S ( ! ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY \TSIDE ( ,TUR9 W]E SOLIDLY OPPOS$ TO ! NEW MOVEM5T = TWO REASONS3 

,!Y SAW ?IS MOVEM5T AS UND]M9+ ! EXI/+ TRADE UNION /RUCTURES & LEAD]S :O !Y REG>D$ AS AN ESS5TIAL BASIS ( !IR P>TY'S POLITICAL =TUNES4 

,!Y W]E OPPOS$ TO ANY 9T]PRETATION ( WORK]S P[] 9 SOCIETY 9 T]MS ( MASS ORGANIZATIONS 9 WORKPLACES 9/EAD ( ! DIRECT RULE ( ! ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY4 

,GIAC9TO ,S]RATI1 ! MO/ 9FLU5TIAL LEAD] ( ! ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY1 HELD ?AT ! RULE ( ! WORK+ CLASS WAS TO CONSI/ ( ! RULE ( ! ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY .<#a.>4 ,! ,TUR9 SOCIALI/S :O W]E ACTIVE 9 ! %OP C\NCIL MOVEM5T SAW ! C\NCILS1 NOT ! P>TY1 AS ! FUTURE ORGANIZATIONS ?R\< :I* ! WORK+ CLASS C\LD EX]CISE P[] 9 SOCIETY4 ,?\< MO/ ( !M SAW AN IMPORTANT ROLE = ! ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY 9 A*IEV+ SOCIALISM1 !Y DID NOT BELIEVE ?AT ! ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY C\LD EMBODY WORK+ CLASS RULE BECAUSE1 AS A VOLUNT>Y POLITICAL ASSOCIATION BAS$ ON A P>TICUL> IDEOLOGY1 IT WAS NOT SUFFICI5TLY ALL-EMBRAC+ & WAS NOT ROOT$ 9 ! NATURAL COMMUNITIES ( WORK]S ?AT DEVELOP 9 ! PRODUCTION PROCESS4 

,C,G,L ,RESPONSE3 ,UNION-,CONTROLL$ ,C\NCILS 

,! RISE ( ! %OP C\NCIL MOVEM5T REFLECT$ RANK & FILE DISSATISFACTION ) ! EXI/+ TRADE UNIONS & SO ! ,C,G,L WAS UND] PRESSURE TO RESPOND 9 SOME WAY1 ESPECIALLY GIV5 ! VOLUNT>Y NATURE ( UNION MEMB]%IP & ! COMPETITION FROM ! RAPIDLY GR[+ DISSID5T UNION MOVEM5T ORGANIZ$ 9 ! ,U,S,I4 

,! ,C,G,L UNIONS RESPOND$ ) PROPOSALS = RE=MS ( ! 9T]NAL COMMISSION1 BUT ) ! VOTE = %OP /EW>DS LIMIT$ TO ONLY ,C,G,L UNION MEMB]S4 ,ONE PROPOSAL W\LD HAVE ONE %OP /EW>D = EV]Y #c OR #d UNION MEMB]S -- :I* W\LD MAKE ! %OP /EW>DS LESS RESPONSIVE TO !IR CON/ITU5TS4 ,! NEW 9T]NAL COMMISSIONS W\LD NOT EMBODY A UNITY ) NON-,C,G,L WORK]S1 SU* AS ,U,S,I GR\PS1 & W\LD BE UND] ! CONTROL ( ! ,C,G,L UNION4 

,! PROPOSALS = UNION-CONTROLL$ C\NCILS W]E PREF]R$ BY ! BULK ( ! ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY & ,C,G,L UNION ACTIVI/S \TSIDE ( ,TUR9 & WAS ?US ABLE TO PR$OM9ATE )9 ! ,C,G,L UNIONS 9 ! RE/ ( ! C\NTRY4 ,! RESULT WAS TO 5TR5* ! DIVISION 9 ! WORK+ CLASS BETWE5 ?OSE SYMPA!TIC TO ! ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY & ?OSE MORE 9CL9$ TO A LIB]T>IAN APPROA*1 AS EMBODI$ 9 ! ,U,S,I MOVEM5T4 

,! ,RUSSIAN REVOLUTION HAD ONLY JU/ OCCURR$ & ! ,BOL%EVIKS HAD TREM5D\S PRE/IGE )9 ! ,ITALIAN SOCIALI/ MOVEM5T AT ?IS TIME4 ,9DE$1 ! ,ITALIAN ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY HAD VOT$ TO AFFILIATE TO ! ,COMMUNI/ ,9T]NATIONAL 9 ,M>* ( #a#i#a#i4 ,S]RATI1 & ! O!R ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY LEAD]S1 W]E ABLE TO BR+ ! PRE/IGE ( ! ,SOVIET ,COMMUNI/ LEAD]%IP TO BE> AGA9/ ! ,TUR9 C\NCIL MOVEM5T & ! DEVELOP+ MOVEM5T = WORK]S CONTROL ( 9DU/RY4 

,NICOLAI ,LJUB>SKY1 ! REPRES5TATIVE ( ! ,COMMUNI/ ,9T]NATIONAL 9 ,ITALY1 PO9T$ \T ?AT ! FACTORY COMMITTEES ?AT HAD >IS5 9 ! ,RUSSIAN REVOLUTION 9 #aiag W]E ! ,RUSSIAN C\NT]P>T ( ! ,TUR9 C\NCILS & !SE COMMITTEES HAD EV5TUALLY BE5 SUBORD9AT$ TO ! TRADE UNIONS 9 ,RUSSIA & HAD NOT BECOME AN ORGAN ( WORK]S MANAGEM5T ( 9DU/RY OR A BASIS ( POLITICAL RULE ( ! WORK+ CLASS .<#a#a.>4 ,9 EFFECT1 ! PRE/IGE ( ! ,RUSSIAN ,COMMUNI/S WAS BE+ US$ TO BOL/] ! POSITION ( ! ,ITALIAN TRADE UNION BUREAUCRACY4 

,NONE!LESS1 ON ,DECEMB] #a#d-#a#e1 AT A MEET+ ( ! ,TUR9 >EA ,LABOR ,*AMB] 7,CAM]A DEL ,LAVORO7 -- ! (FICIAL ,TUR9->EA C5TRAL LABOR C\NCIL -- ! PROPON5TS ( ! %OP C\NCIL SY/EM W]E ABLE TO W9 5DORSEM5T ( ! C\NCIL PROGRAM = ! :OLE ,TUR9 LABOR MOVEM5T4 ,BY ! TIME ( ! FIR/ REELECTION ( %OP /EW>DS 9 ,FEBRU>Y ( #a#i#b1 IT WAS E/IMAT$ ?AT OV] #a#e1 WORK]S 9 ! ,TUR9 >EA W]E ORGANIZ$ 9 ! NEW C\NCIL SY/EM4.<#a#b.> 

,! ,U,S,I & ,C\NCIL ,ORGANIZATION 

,! ,TUR9 C\NCIL MOVEM5T EVOK$ AN IMM$IATE & POSITIVE RESPONSE FROM ! LIB]T>IAN W+ ( ! LABOR MOVEM5T4 ,I'VE ALREADY PO9T$ \T ! 9VOLVEM5T ( AN>*O-SYNDICALI/S 9 ,TUR91 SU* AS ! ,TUR9 ,LIB]T>IAN ,GR\P1 )9 ! %OP C\NCIL MOVEM5T4 ,9 E>LY #aib ! DISSID5T LIB]T>IAN UNION1 ! ,U,S,I1 HELD ITS [N CONGRESS AT ,P>MA & ! ,TUR9 C\NCIL PROGRAM WAS ! MAJOR TOPIC4 ,5EA ,MATTA1 A ,TUR9 SOCIALI/ ACTIVE ON ! 0,/UDY ,COMMITTEE = ,FACTORY ,C\NCILS10 :I* HAD WRITT5 UP ! DRAFT ,%OP ,/EW>DS ,PROGRAM1 WAS A GUE/ SPEAK]4 

,ALIBR&O ,GIOVANETTI1 ! SECRET>Y ( ! ,U,S,I METAL WORK]S UNION1 URG$ SUPPORT = ! ,TUR9 C\NCILS BECAUSE !Y REPRES5T$ ANTI-BUREAUCRATIC DIRECT ACTION1 AIM$ AT ! CONTROL ( 9DU/RY1 & C\LD BE ! CELLS ( REVOLUTION>Y 9DU/RIAL UNIONS1 A POT5TIAL 0,ONE ,BIG ,UNION0 ( ! WORK=CE4 

,VET]AN AN>*I/ ACTIVI/ ,]RICO ,MALATE/A EXPRESS$ RES]VATIONS BUT ALSO SUPPORT$ ! C\NCILS AS A =M ( DIRECT WORK] ACTIVITY ?AT WAS GU>ANTE$ TO G5]ALIZE REBELLI\SNESS AMONG ! WORK=CE4 ,! ,U,S,I ADOPT$ ! NEW %OP C\NCIL ORGANIZATION AS ITS [N & ! AN>*I/ DAILY ,UMANITA ,NOVA & ,GU]RA DI ,CLASSE1 ! PAP] ( ! ,U,S,I1 SOON BECAME AS F]V5T 9 BEAT+ ! DRUM = ! %OP C\NCILS AS ,L',ORD9E ,NUOVO & ! ,TUR9 SOCIALI/S4.<#a#c.> 

,! EXPLOSIVE GR[? ( ! ,U,S,I \TSIDE ( ,TUR9 REFLECT$ ! 9ABILITY ( ! ,C,G,L UNIONS TO EMBODY ! MILITANCY & ASPIRATIONS = WORK]S CONTROL ?AT W]E 9CREAS+LY WIDESPREAD AMONG WORK]S 9 NOR!RN ,ITALY4 ,! ,U,S,I GREW FROM #c1 MEMB]S 9 #aiai TO A PEAK ( #h1 MEMB]S BY ! TIME ( ! OCCUPATION ( ! FACTORIES 9 ,SEPT4 ( #a#i#b4 

,! AN>*O-SYNDICALI/S 9 ,TUR9 W]E NOT AS MOTIVAT$ TO BUILD A SEP>ATE ,U,S,I ORGANIZATION 9 ,TUR9 BECAUSE ( !IR SUPPORT = ! %OP C\NCIL MOVEM5T1 DESPITE ITS DEVELOPM5T )9 ! AMBIT ( ! ,C,G,L UNIONS4 ,! SUPPORT$ ! %OP C\NCIL MOVEM5T = SEV]AL REASONS3 

,IT EMBODI$ ! SORT ( GRASSROOTS1 DEMOCRATIC ORGANIZATION & MASS P>TICIPATION ?AT !Y BELIEV$ 92 

IT WAS OP5LY FRI5DLY TO ! LIB]T>IAN W+ ( ! LABOR MOVEM5T & AIM$ AT DEVELOP+ A DEMOCRATIC UNIT$ FRONT ( RANK & FILE WORK]S DESPITE ! PR$OM9ANCE ( ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY ACTIVI/S2 

& 

IT WAS A MOVEM5T ?AT HAD ADOPT$ ! SAME GOAL AS ! AN>*O-SYNDICALI/S1 ?AT IS1 WORK]S SELF-MANAGEM5T ( 9DU/RY AS P>T ( AN 9TEGRAL SOCIALIZATION ( ! ECONOMY4 

,! ,APRIL ,G5]AL ,/RIKE 

,AS ,I M5TION$ E>LI]1 ! ,M>*1 #a#i#a#i1 NATIONAL CONTRACT ( ,F,I,O,M HAD PROVID$ ?AT ! 9T]NAL COMMISSIONS W]E BANN$ FROM ! %OPFLOOR1 RE/RICT$ TO NON-WORK+ H\RS4 ,?IS MEANS ?AT ! ACTIVITIES ( ! %OP /EW>DS' MOVEM5T 9 ,TUR9 -- SU* AS /OPP+ WORK TO HOLD %OP /EW>D ELECTIONS -- W]E 9 VIOLATION ( ! CONTRACT4 ,! MOVEM5T WAS ESS5TIALLY BE+ MA9TA9$ ?R\< MASS 9SUBORD9ATION4 

,! %[D[N ) ! EMPLOY]S >RIV$ 9 ,APRIL1 :5 A G5]AL ASSEMBLY ( %OP /EW>DS AT ,FIAT CALL$ = SIT-9 /RIKES TO PROTE/ ! DISMISSAL ( SEV]AL %OP /EW>DS4 ,9 RESPONSE ! EMPLOY]S DECL>$ A LOCK\T1 :I* AFFECT$ #h1 WORK]S4 ,! GOV]NM5T ( ,FRANCESCO ,NITTI SUPPORT$ ! LOCK\T ) A MASS %[ ( =CE1 AS TROOPS OCCUPI$ ! FACTORIES4 ,:5 ! %OP /EW>DS MOVEM5T DECID$ TO SURR5D] ON ! IMM$IATE ISSUES 9 DISPUTE AFT] TWO WEEKS ON /RIKE1 ! EMPLOY]S RESPOND$ ) A DEM& ?AT ! %OP /EW>DS C\NCILS BE LIMIT$ TO NON-WORK+ H\RS1 9 ACCORDANCE ) ! ,F,I,O,M NATIONAL CONTRACT4 

,?IS W\LD HAVE GUTT$ ! %OP C\NCILS & ! ,TUR9 LABOR MOVEM5T RESPOND$ ) A MASSIVE G5]AL /RIKE 9 DEF5SE ( ! %OP C\NCILS4 ,! /RIKE SPREAD ?R\<\T ! REGION ( ,PI$MONT & 9VOLV$ #e1 WORK]S4 ,! /REETC>S1 RAILWAYS1 PUBLIC S]VICES & MANY COMM]CIAL E/ABLI%M5TS W]E %UT D[N 9 ADDITION TO ! 5TIRE MANUFACTUR+ 9DU/RY ( ! REGION4 

,! F>M WORK]S 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE >\ND ,TUR9 W]E ALSO 9VOLV$ 9 A /RUGGLE OV] ! DEF5SE ( !IR LABOR EX*ANGES & ! ,TUR9 MOVEM5T ADOPT$ !SE ORGANIZATIONS AS P>T ( ! SAME MOVEM5T1 SPREAD+ ! /RIKE MOVEM5T TO AGRICULTURE4 

,! ,TUR9 MOVEM5T !N S5T DELEGATES TO A MEET+ ( ! ,NATIONAL ,C\NCIL ( ! ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY 9 ORD] TO PU% = EXT5D+ ! G5]AL /RIKE ?R\<\T ! C\NTRY4 ,H[EV]1 ! ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY & ,C,G,L UNION LEAD]S W]E NOT P>TICUL>LY 5?USIA/IC AB\T ! ,TUR9 C\NCIL MOVEM5T & REFUS$ TO (F] ANY SUPPORT4 

,! MA9 TOPIC ON ! AG5DA ( ?IS MEET+ WAS ! ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY'S EF=TS TO WORK \T A CONCEPT ( 0WORK]S' C\NCILS0 OR 0SOVIETS10 9 ORD] TO RESPOND TO ! POPUL>ITY ( !SE IDEAS1 P>TICUL>LY 9 ! AFT]MA? ( ! ,RUSSIAN REVOLUTION4 ,! S*EME DISCUSS$ BY ! P>TY 5VISAG$ 0SOVIETS0 -- LOCAL REVOLUTION>Y GOV]N+ BODIES -- BAS$1 NOT ON 9DU/RIAL OR WORKPLACE GR\P+S1 BUT ON NEI<BORHOOD OR GEOGRAPHIC DI/RICTS4 ,! :OLE PROJECT WAS TO BE RUN BY COMMITTEES ( ! ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY :O W\LD CREATE !SE 0C\NCILS40.<#a#d.> ,!SE IDEAS REMA9$ 5TIRELY ACADEMIC1 H[EV]1 AS NO EF=T WAS EV] MADE BY ! ,P,S,I TO C>RY ?IS \T4 

,COMM5T+ BITT]LY ON ?IS P]=MANCE ( ! P>TY LEAD]S1 ,ANTONIO ,GRAMSCI SAID3 0,!Y W5T ON *ATT]+ AB\T SOVIETS & C\NCILS :ILE 9 ,PI$MONT & ,TUR9 HALF A MILLION WORK]S />V$ TO DEF5D ! C\NCILS ?AT ALREADY EXI/40 

,) ! OPPOSITION ( ! ,C,G,L & ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY LEAD]S1 ! ONLY SUPPORT TO ! ,TUR9 G5]AL /RIKE CAME FROM UNIONS ?AT W]E MA9LY UND] AN>*O-SYNDICALI/ 9FLU5CE1 SU* AS ! 9DEP5D5T RAILWAY & ! M>ITIME WORK]S UNIONS4 ,! RAILWAY WORK]S 9 ,PISA & ,FLOR5CE REFUS$ TO TRANSPORT TROOPS :O W]E BE+ S5T TO ,TUR94 ,!RE W]E /RIKES ALL >\ND ,G5OA1 AMONG DOCK WORK]S & 9 WORKPLACES :]E ! ,U,S,I WAS A MAJOR 9FLU5CE4 

,EV5TUALLY ! ,C,G,L LEAD]%IP SETTL$ ! /RIKE ON T]MS ?AT ACCEPT$ ! EMPLOY]S' MA9 DEM& = LIMIT+ ! %OP /EW>DS' C\NCILS TO NON-WORK+ H\RS4 ,?\< ! C\NCILS W]E N[ MU* R$UC$ 9 ACTIVITY & %OPFLOOR PRES5CE1 !Y W\LD YET SEE A RESURG5CE ( !IR POSITION DUR+ ! ,SEPTEMB] FACTORY OCCUPATIONS4 

,DESPITE ! SETBACK SUFF]$ BY ! C\NCIL MOVEM5T 9 ,TUR91 ! MOVEM5T = WORK]S CONTROL & NEW1 GRASSROOTS ORGANIZATION CONT9U$ TO GR[ ?R\<\T #a#i#b1 AS MEASUR$1 = EXAMPLE1 9 ! RAPID GR[? ( ! ,U,S,I4 ,NEW 9DEP5D5T %OP C\NCILS EM]G$ DUR+ ?IS P]IOD 9 ,MILAN -- ,ITALY'S BIGGE/ CITY & MA9 COMM]CIAL C5T] -- MA9LY ?R\< ! EF=TS ( ! ,U,S,I4 

,! ,F,I,O,M ,WAGE ,/RUGGLE 

,! GR[+ COMPETITION FROM ! ,U,S,I PUT ! ,C,G,L LEAD]%IP UND] CONSID]ABLE PRESSURE TO ADAPT TO ME?ODS & TACTICS ?AT W\LD REFLECT ! 9CREAS+LY MILITANT MOOD4 ,! ,F,I,O,M GREW TO #a#f1 MEMB]S DUR+ ?IS P]IOD BUT ! ,U,S,I METAL WORK]S UNION ALSO HAD 5ROLL$ #c14 ,FROM ,JANU>Y TO ,SEPTEMB]1 #a#i#b1 ! CO/ ( LIV+ 9CREAS$ BY ONE-?IRD4 ,IT WAS 9 ?IS 9FLATION>Y CONTEXT ?AT ! ,F,I,O,M DECID$ ON A DEM& = A #d.0 WAGE 9CREASE AT ITS CONGRESS 9 ,MAY ( #a#i#b4 ,AT ! SAME TIME1 ! EMPLOY]S W]E TRY+ TO EXPLOIT !IR VICTORY OV] ! %OP C\NCIL MOVEM5T 9 ,APRIL TO TAKE A MORE H>DL9E /ANCE1 & !RE W]E NUM]\S FIR+S ( ACTIVI/S4 

,! EMPLOY]S FE>$ ?AT A RECESSION WAS ON ! HORIZON & W]E 9TRANSIG5T AGA9/ A WAGE 9CREASE4 ,! ,F,I,O,M DECID$ ON A GO-SL[ AS A TACTIC TO MAKE !M *ANGE !IR TUNE4 ,! ,U,S,I METAL WORK]S1 MEET+ AT ,LA ,SPEZIA ON ,AUG4 #a#g?1 DID NOT APPROVE ( ! GO-SL[1 S9CE !Y FELT IT WAS AN 9EFFECTIVE WEAPON4 ,9/EAD1 !Y CALL$ = BO? UNIONS TO OCCUPY ! FACTORIES3 

0,! EXPROPRIATION ( ! FACTORIES BY ! METAL WORK]S MU/ BE SIMULTANE\S & SPE$Y & MU/ BE DEF5D$ BY ALL NECESS>Y MEASURES4 ,WE >E DET]M9$1 FUR!RMORE1 TO CALL ! WORK]S ( O!R 9DU/RIES 9TO BATTLE40 .<#a#e.> 

,NONE!LESS1 ! ,U,S,I AGRE$1 = ! MOM5T1 TO GO ALONG ) ! GO-SL[ SO AS 0NOT TO DIVIDE ! WORK+ CLASS40 

,AS A CONCESSION TO MILITANT OP9ION1 ,F,I,O,M AGRE$ ?AT IF ANY EMPLOY] RESPOND$ TO ! GO-SL[ ) A LOCK\T1 ! WORK]S %\LD OCCUPY ! FACTORY1 BY BATT]+ 9 ! GATES1 IF NECESS>Y4 

,9TO ! ,FACTORY ,OCCUPATION 

,! GO-SL[ WAS WIDELY OBS]V$ & ITS EFFECT CAN BE JUDG$ FROM ! FACT ?AT ONLY #bg VEHICLES W]E PRODUC$ DAILY AT ! ,FIAT-,C5TRO PLANT DUR+ ,AUGU/ COMP>$ TO #fg VEHICLES ON A NORMAL DAY4 

,H[EV]1 T[>DS ! 5D ( ,AUGU/ ! GO-SL[ WAS T5D+ TO DEVELOP 9TO A SIT-D[N /RIKE & ON ,AUG4 #c? WORK CAME TO A HALT AT ! ,ROMEO PLANT 9 ,MILAN4 ,?IS PLANT WAS P>T ( ! ,ANSALDO CONGLOM]ATE1 :O TOOK ! MO/ 9TRANSIG5T POSITION AGA9/ ! UNIONS4 ,?IS COMPANY WAS RUN BY ! ,P]RONE BRO!RS -- ULTRA-NATIONALI/ 0ROBB] B>ONS0 :O HAD BUILT UP !IR EMPIRE ON MASSIVE PR(ITS DUR+ ! W>2 !Y EV5TUALLY BECAME ! FIR/ BIG BUS9ESS GR\P TO FUND ,MUSSOL9I'S FASCI/ MOVEM5T4 

,:5 ! ,ROMEO MANAGEM5T LOCK$ \T !IR #b1 WORK]S ON ,AUG4 #c?1 ! ,MILAN SECTION ( ,F,I,O,M RESPOND$ BY IMM$IATELY OCCUPY+ #c FACTORIES 9 ! ,MILAN >EA4 ,! LEAD]%IP ( ,F,I,O,M RESPOND$ BY PRAIS+ ! ,MILAN MEMB]%IP BUT ASK+ WORK]S 9 O!R CITIES TO CONT9UE ! GO-SL[4 ,H[EV]1 ON ! NI<T ( ,AUGU/ #c#a/ ! EMPLOY]S' F$]ATION 9 ! METAL 9DU/RIES ORD]$ A G5]AL LOCK\T ?R\<\T ,ITALY4 

,LYNN ,WILLIAMS DESCRIB$ :AT !N TOOK PLACE 9 !SE WORDS3 

0,BETWE5 ! #a/ & #d? ( ,SEPTEMB] METAL WORK]S OCCUPI$ FACTORIES ?R\<\T ! ,ITALIAN P59SULA444! OCCUPATIONS ROLL$ =W>D NOT ONLY 9 ! 9DU/RIAL HE>TL& >\ND ,MILAN1 ,TUR9 & ,G5OA BUT 9 ,ROME1 ,FLOR5CE1 ,NAPLES & ,PAL]MO1 9 A =E/ ( R$ & BLACK FLAGS & A FANF>E ( WORK]S B&S444 ,)9 ?REE DAYS #d1 WORK]S W]E 9 OCCUPATION4 ,AS ! MOVEM5T SPREAD TO O!R SECTORS1 ! TOTAL ROSE TO OV] HALF A MILLION4 ,EV]YONE WAS /UNN$ BY ! RESPONSE40 .<#a#f.> 

,9 ,TUR9 ! %OP C\NCILS EM]G$ FROM ! BACKGR\ND TO RUN ! OCCUPATION4 ,TYPICALLY MASS ASSEMBLIES W]E HELD TO DECIDE :AT TO DO4 ,PRODUCTION WAS CONT9U$1 BUT N[ ) ! %OP C\NCILS TAK+ OV] RESPONSIBILITY4 ,COMMITTEES W]E ELECT$ TO H&LE TRANSPORT1 RAW MAT]IALS1 DEF5SE4 ,GU>DS W]E SELECT$ & >M$4 

,EXPRESS+ ! EUPHORIA ( ! MOM5T1 ,ANTONIO ,GRAMSCI ADDRESS$ A FACTORY ASSEMBLY 9 ,TUR9 9 !SE WORDS3 0,! SOCIAL HI]>*IES >E BROK54 ,HI/ORIC VALUES >E OV]?R[N4 ,! CLASSES0 ?AT HAD BE5 M]E 9/RUM5TS ( O!RS 0>E BECOME DIRECT+ CLASSES444 ,TODAY444! WORK]S !MSELVES MU/ BUILD ! FIR/ HI/ORIC CELL ( ! PROLET>IAN REVOLUTION :I* ?RU/S ?R\< ! G5]AL CRISIS ) ! IRRESI/ABLE P[] ( A =CE ( NATURE40 .<#a#g.> 

,SPEAK+ AT ANO!R FACTORY MEET+1 ,GRAMSCI /AT$ ?AT ! CONCRETE PROBLEMS ( RUNN+ FACTORIES 9 ISOLATION W\LD LEAD TO ! =MATION ( A CITY-WIDE WORK]S' C\NCIL1 ) ITS [N MILIT>Y =CE -- A POT5TIAL REPLACEM5T = ! CITY GOV]NM5T AU?ORITY4 ,9 PRACTICE1 H[EV]1 ! COORD9ATION ( ! OCCUPATIONS -- = EXAMPLE1 SALES ( PRODUCT -- WAS TYPICALLY A*IEV$ ?R\< ! ,LABOR ,*AMB] 7CITY-WIDE C5TRAL LABOR C\NCILS74 ,9DIVIDUAL FACTORIES W]E =BIDD5 FROM SELL+ ! PRODUCTS ( !IR WORK S9CE PRODUCTION WAS DEEM$ TO BE 0= ! B5EFIT ( ! COLLECTIVITY40 

,9 ! %OPS :]E ! ,U,S,I WAS DOM9ANT1 SU* AS ! METAL-WORK+ JOB-%OP 9DU/RY >\ND ,G5OA1 ! FACTORIES W]E ALSO RUN ?R\< ! FACTORY C\NCILS4 ,\TSIDE ( ,TUR9 & ! ,U,S,I /RON<OLDS1 ! ,C,G,L UNION HI]>*Y WAS MORE DOM9ANT4 ,!RE1 C\NCILS ALSO EM]G$ TO RUN ! OCCUPATION BUT UND] UNION CONTROL4 

,EXT5SIONS 

,! T5D5CY WAS = ! OCCUPATION MOVEM5T TO EXT5D BEYOND ! METAL SECTOR :]E IT ORIG9AT$4 ,= EXAMPLE1 9 ,TUR9 ! ,MI*EL9 PLANT & O!R RUBB] FIRMS W]E OCCUPI$ AS W]E ! FOOTWE> PLANTS1 ! TANN]Y1 TEXTILE MILLS1 F\R WOOL PLANTS1 F\R HOSI]Y FIRMS1 & ! >TIFICAL SILK PLANT4 ,9 ,MILAN1 ! ,PIRELLI TIRE PLANT WAS TAK5 OV]1 AS W]E ! ,CAMP>I DI/ILL]Y1 ! ,ITALIA BREW]Y1 & ! ,HUT*9SON RUBB] PLANT .<#a#h.>4 ,BY ! MIDDLE ( ,SEPTEMB] NE>LY #f1 WORK]S W]E OCCUPY+ & RUNN+ !IR FACTORIES ?R\< !IR FACTORY C\NCILS4 

,MO/ ( ! EXT5SIONS ( ! OCCUPATION \TSIDE ( ! METAL 9DU/RY1 O!R ?AN ?OSE 9 ,TUR91 W]E C>RI$ \T BY UNIONS UND] AN>*O-SYNDICALI/ 9FLU5CE1 SU* AS ! TAKEOV] ( %IPS BY ! 9DEP5D5T M>ITIME UNION OR OCCUPATIONS ( M9ES1 COMM]CIAL F>MS & O!R 5T]PRISES C>RI$ \T BY ,U,S,I4 

,U,S,I'S P]SI/5T CALL ?R\<\T ! OCCUPATION1 AS ITS MEMB]%IP NE>$ #h11 WAS = ! EXT5SION ( ! OCCUPATION TO ALL 9DU/RIES1 & = ITS TRANS=MATION 9TO AN 0EXPROPRIAT+ G5]AL /RIKE10 ?AT IS1 MAK+ ! OCCUPATION P]MAN5T ?R\< ! CREATION ( A NEW ECONOMIC ORD] UND] WORK]S MANAGEM5T4 

,P]HAPS ! MO/ IMPORTANT EXT5SION ( ! OCCUPATION ?AT TOOK PLACE WAS ! ACTION ( ! RAILWAY WORK]S UNION4 ,AS ! RAIL UNION MOV$ 9TO A POSITION ( SUPPORT = ! OCCUPATION ?R\<\T ! C\NTRY1 ! WORK]S ON ! ,ITALIAN ,/ATE ,RAILWAYS BEGAN SWIT*+ FREI<T C>S TO ! FACTORY SID+S1 PROVID+ FUEL & RAW MAT]IALS & TRANSPORT CONNECTIONS BETWE5 ! V>I\S FACTORIES UND] OCCUPATION4 ,?IS ACTION WAS ESS5TIAL 9 5ABL+ ! WORK]S TO CONT9UE PRODUCTION4 

,AT ?IS PO9T ! LIB]AL GOV]NM5T ( ,GIOVANNI ,GIOLITTI BEGAN TO PREP>E PLANS = ! MILIT>IZATION ( ! RAILWAYS4 ,NONE!LESS1 ,GIOLITTI'S MA9 /RATEGY = DEFUZ+ ! CRISIS WAS TO PURSUE A POLICY ( /RICT GOV]NM5T NON9T]V5TION :ILE BACK+ ! POSITION ( ! ,C,G,L LEAD]S1 :O WANT$ TO 5D ! /RUGGLE 9 A COMPROMISE ) ! EMPLOY]S4 ,9 RESPONSE TO EMPLOY] REQUE/S = GOV]NM5T MILIT>Y 9T]V5TION1 ,GIOLITTI TOLD ! *IEF GOV]NM5T ADM9I/RATIVE (FIC] 9 ,MILAN3 0,IT IS NECESS>Y TO MAKE ! 9DU/RIALI/S UND]/& ?AT NO ,ITALIAN GOV]NM5T WILL RESORT TO =CE & PROVOKE A REVOLUTION SIMPLY TO SAVE !M SOME MONEY40 

,! FIR/ S]I\S DISCUSSION ( A G5]ALIZ$ OCCUPATION AIM+ AT A P]MAN5T RE-ORGANIZATION ( ! ECONOMY TOOK PLACE ON ,SEPT4 #g? AT A CONV5TION ( ! UNIONS 9 ,LIGURIA 7! REGION >\ND ,G5OA71 AN >EA :]E AN>*O-SYNDICALI/ 9FLU5CE WAS P>TICUL>LY /RONG4 ,! CONV5TION AGRE$ TO 0CREATE A FAIT ACCOMPLI BY ! OCCUPATION ( ,G5OA1 GREATE/ PORT ( ,ITALY1 TOGE!R ) ALL ! O!R PORTS ( ,LIGURIA1 & TO FOLL[ IT UP AT ONCE ) A G5]AL OCCUPATION ( EV]Y BRAN* ( PRODUCTION40 .<#a#i.> 

,9 ! 9C5DI>Y CLIMATE ( ! MOM5T1 ?IS ACTION MI<T HAVE QUICKLY SPREAD ELSE:]E & DECID$ ! DIRECTION ( ! /RUGGLE1 :I* WAS WAV]+ BETWE51 ON ! ONE H&1 A REVOLUTION>Y RE-ORGANIZATION ( ! ECONOMY1 BE+ PU%$ BY ! ,U,S,I & ! ,TUR9 LABOR MOVEM5T1 &1 ON ! O!R H&1 SOME SORT ( /RUCTURAL RE=M WORK$ \T 9 A COMPROMISE ) ! EMPLOY]S1 :I* WAS ! POSITION ( ! ,C,G,L LEAD]%IP4 

,AT ?IS MOM5T1 H[EV]1 ,MAURIZIO ,G>9O1 ! AN>*O-SYNDICALI/ SECRET>Y ( ! ,TUR9 BRAN* ( ,F,I,O,M1 P]SUAD$ ! ,LIGURIAN CONV5TION TO WAIT UNTIL AN EM]G5CY NATIONAL C\NCIL MEET+ ( ! ,C,G,L1 PLANN$ = ,SEPT4 #a?4 ,HE >GU$ ?AT ! ,C,G,L C\NCIL W\LD VOTE TO EXT5D ! /RUGGLE 9TO A COMPLETE SOCIALIZATION ( ! MEANS ( PRODUCTION & ?IS W\LD 5ABLE ! ,G5OA UNIONI/S TO AVOID AN ACTION TAK5 9 ISOLATION4 ,G>9O MADE ! MI/AKE ( ASSUM+ ?AT ! REVOLUTION>Y IMPETUS AMONG ! RANK & FILE C\LD CONV]T ! BUREAUCRATIZ$ ,C,G,L 9TO AN ORGAN ( REVOLUTION4 

,C,G,L ,LEAD]S ,ADJ\RN ! ,REVOLUTION 

,! TWO ALT]NATIVE DIRECTIONS = ! OCCUPATION MOVEM5T W]E POS$ AT ! ,C,G,L ,NATIONAL ,C\NCIL MEET+4 ,AT ?IS MEET+ ! ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY1 & MO/ ESPECIALLY ! ,TUR9 SOCIALI/S1 W]E PU%+ = EXT5D+ ! OCCUPATION1 MAK+ IT A P]MAN5T EXPROPRIATION & 0SOCIALIZATION ( ! MEANS ( PRODUCTION & EX*ANGE40 

,LUDOVICO ,D',>AGONA & ! O!R ,C,G,L LEAD]S OPPOS$ ?IS DIRECTION1 & POS$ AN ALT]NATIVE 9 T]MS ( A /RUGGLE = 0UNION CONTROL40 0,CONTROL0 H]E W\LD NOT MEAN UNION MANAGEM5T BUT ! RI<T TO COMPLETE 9=MATION AB\T ! /ATE ( ! 9DU/RY & JO9T LABOR_/MANAGEM5T CONTROL OV] HIR+ & FIR+4 ,!Y PRES5T$ ?IS PROPOSAL AS ! FIR/ /EP 9 A GRADUAL PROCESS LEAD+ EV5TUALLY TO ! SOCIALIZATION ( ! ECONOMY4 

,! VOTE BY ! ASSEMBL$ UNION REPRES5TATIVES WAS #e#d.0 = ! ,C,G,L POSITION TO #c#g.0 = ! ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY POSITION .<#b.>4 7,! ,F,I,O,M LEAD]%IP AB/A9$47 

,SUPPORT = ! ,SOCIALI/ POSITION CAME FROM ! 9DU/RIAL UNIONS :]EAS ! MAJORITY = ! ,C,G,L LEAD]%IP WAS BAS$ ON ! SMALL CRAFT UNIONS &1 MO/ ESPECIALLY1 ! RURAL WORK]S UNION1 ,F$]T]RA1 :I* WAS ADAMANTLY OPPOS$ TO ! PROPOSAL = RAIS+ ! /AKES ( ! /RUGGLE4 ,! RURAL UNIONS HAD BE5 BUILT 9 DIFFICULT /RUGGLES 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE L>GELY F\<T \T OV] ISSUES SPECIFIC TO !IR SECTOR4 ,!Y S5S$ !IR ISOLATION 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE & FEW L9KS HAD BE5 DEVELOP$ ) ! MOVEM5T AMONG 9DU/RIAL WORK]S 9 ! CITY4 

,COMM5T+ ON ?IS VOTE1 ! ,9T]NATIONAL ,LABOR ,(FICE 9 ,G5EVA1 :I* SUPPORT$ ! POSITION ( ! ,C,G,L LEAD]%IP1 PO9T$ \T ?AT ?IS VOTE TALLY ACTUALLY UND]E/IMAT$ ! SUPPORT = ! ,C,G,L LEAD]%IP POSITION BECAUSE IT WAS TALLI$ ON ! #aiai MEMB]%IP /ATI/ICS4 ,BUT ! RURAL F$]ATION HAD MU%ROOM$ FROM #c#f.0 ( ! ,C,G,L MEMB]%IP 9 #aiai TO #d#f.0 ( ! ,C,G,L BY ! TIME ( ! ,SEPTEMB] VOTE4 

,H[EV]1 ! ,I,L,O'S POSITION IGNORES ! FACT ?AT ! M>ITIME & RAIL TRANSPORT WORK]S UNION SUPPORT$ EXT5D+ ! MOVEM5T TO A P]MAN5T EXPROPRIATION1 BUT1 AS 9DEP5D5T UNIONS1 W]E D5I$ ANY VOTE4 ,MOREOV]1 ! ,U,S,I1 :I* WAS P]SI/5TLY CALL+ = EXT5SION & P]MAN5T EXPROPRIATION1 WAS NOT EV5 9VIT$ TO ?IS C\NCIL MEET+ & IT WAS CLAIM+ #h1 MEMB]S AT ?IS TIME -- OR F\R-T5?S ! SIZE ( ! :OLE ,C,G,L4 ,! EVID5CE IS ?AT A MAJORITY ( URBAN WORK]S 9 NOR!RN ,ITALY W\LD HAVE SUPPORT$ AN EXT5SION ( ! /RUGGLE4 

,IMM$IATELY AFT] ?IS VOTE ,GIOLITTI W5T 9TO ACTION TO WORK \T A DEAL BETWE5 ! ,C,G,L LEAD]%IP & ! 9DU/RIALI/S' F$]ATION4 ,GIOLITTI TOLD ! EMPLOY]S ?AT HE SUPPORT$ ! POSITION ( ! ,C,G,L LEAD]S & WAS PREP>$ TO 9TRODUCE LEGISLATION ?AT W\LD SET UP A JO9T LABOR_/MANAGEM5T COMMISSION TO WORK \T ! DETAILS ( 0UNION CONTROL40 

,?IS PROVOK$ \TRAGE & PANIC AMONG ! 9DU/RIALI/S4 ,H[EV]1 AT A MEET+ ( ! EMPLOY]S CONF$]ATION1 ,SILVIO ,CRESPI ( ! ,BANCA ,COMM]CIALE URG$ ?AT !Y GO ALONG ) ! DEAL4 ,HE >GU$ ?AT A RECESSION WAS ON ! HORIZON1 !RE W\LD BE HI< UNEMPLOYM5T :I* W\LD WEAK5 ! UNIONS' B>GA9+ POSITION4 ,*ANGES 9 ! ECONOMIC & POLITICAL CLIMATE W\LD EV5TUALLY BURY ! IDEA ( 0UNION CONTROL40 ,9 ! MEANTIME !Y C\LD DRAG !IR FEET TO DELAY IMPLEM5TATION ( ! PROPOSAL4 ,! EMPLOY]S' ASSOCIATION !N VOT$ TO ACCEPT ! DEAL4 ,AS IT TURN$ \T1 ,CRESPI'S PR$ICTIONS PROV$ QUITE ACCURATE4 

,DESPITE 9T5SE OPPOSITION FROM ! ,U,S,I .<#b#a.> & ! ,TUR9 %OP /EW>DS' MOVEM5T1 ! ,C,G,L LEAD]%IP W]E SUCCESSFUL 9 GETT+ ! MAJORITY ( RANK & FILE WORK]S TO ACCEPT ! DEAL4 ,MO/ W5T ALONG ) ! SETTLEM5T BECAUSE IT GAVE !M AT LEA/ ! S5SE ( HAV+ WON1 ( HAV+ OP5$ ! DOOR TO AN 9CREAS+ VOICE 9 9DU/RY4 ,! SETTLEM5T ALSO 9CLUD$ 9CREASES 9 PAY1 CO/ ( LIV+ BONUSES & OV]TIME PREMIUMS4 

,C]TA9LY ONE ( ! CLE>E/ RESULTS ( ! OCCUPATION ( ! FACTORIES WAS ! RESURG5CE ( ! %OP /EW>DS' C\NCIL MOVEM5T4 ,! DEFEAT 9 ,APRIL 9 ,TUR91 :5 ! C\NCILS W]E BANI%$ FROM ! %OPFLOOR1 WAS N[ AV5G$444AT LEA/ = ! MOM5T4 

,! ,FASCI/ ,ONSLAU<T 

,YET1 TR\BLE WAS NOT LONG 9 COM+4 ,9 ,NOVEMB] ! ,P]RONE BRO!RS W]E ! FIR/ BIG BUS9ESSM5 TO />T P\R+ FUNDS 9TO ,MUSSOL9I'S FASCI/ GR\PS1 :I* BEGAN TO MU%ROOM 9TO A MASS MOVEM5T AT ?IS TIME1 5ROLL+ #c1 PEOPLE DUR+ ! FIR/ SIX MON?S ( #a#i#b#a4 ,TWO YE>S ( CON/ANT /RIKES1 ( SITT+ ON ! $GE ( REVOLUTION1 HAD PROVOK$ ANG] & FE> AMONG ! PR(ESSIONAL & PROP]TY-[N+ /RATA1 ! SMALL BUS9ESS CLASS & L[]-LEVEL (FICIALS 9 GOV]NM5T & 9DU/RY4 ,IT WAS MA9LY FROM !SE /RATA ( ! POPULATION ?AT ,MUSSOL9I WAS GA9+ RECRUITS4 ,AS ! FUNDS P\R$ 9TO ,MUSSOL9I'S C(F]S1 HE WAS ABLE TO PROVIDE ! FASCI/ SQUADS ) VEHICLES & O!R EQUIPM5T1 :I* FACILITAT$ RAPID /RIKES AGA9/ ! LABOR MOVEM5T1 SO-CALL$ 0PUNITIVE EXP$ITIONS0 ?AT T]RORIZ$ :OLE COMMUNITIES4 

,BY ! SPR+ ( #aiba ! RECESSION ?AT ,CRESPI HAD PR$ICT$ HAD >RIV$ & UNEMPLOYM5T SOON 9CREAS$ SIX-FOLD4 ,! JO9T LABOR_/MANAGEM5T COMMISSION APPO9T$ BY ,GIOLITTI TO WORK \T ! DETAILS ( 0UNION CONTROL0 BROKE UP 9 HOPELESS DISAGREEM5T4 ,?\< ,GIOLITTI !N PASS$ LEGISLATION ?AT IMPLEM5T$ HIS V]SION ( 0UNION CONTROL10 IT WAS MU* TOO WEAK TO SATISFY EV5 ! ,C,G,L UNION HEADS1 GRANT+ ! WORK]S LITTLE MORE ?AN UNION & POLITICAL RI<TS 9 ! WORKPLACE1 RI<TS !Y HAD ALREADY CONQU]$ ?R\< !IR [N EF=TS ANYWAY4 ,! COMB9ATION ( RECESSION & ! FAILURE ( ! UNION CONTROL PROPOSAL CREAT$ WIDESPREAD DISILLUSIONM5T AMONG RANK & FILE WORK]S4 

,AN EMPLOY]S (F5SIVE BEGAN TO TAKE %APE 9 ,FEBRU>Y ( #aiba ) :OLESALE DISMISSALS & ATTACKS ON ! %OP /EW>DS' MOVEM5T4 ,9 ,APRIL ( #a#i#b#a1 TAK+ ADVANTAGE ( ! NEW ECONOMIC & POLITICAL SITUATION1 ! HEADS ( ,FIAT DEM&$ ?AT ! %OP C\NCILS CONF9E !IR ACTIVITY TO NON-WORK+ H\RS -- ! SAME DEM& ?AT HAD PRECIPITAT$ ! ,TUR9 G5]AL /RIKE ! PREVI\S ,APRIL4 ,ONCE AGA9 TROOPS FLOOD$ 9TO ! FACTORIES & ! WORK]S W]E LOCK$ \T4 

,BUT ?IS TIME ! /RIKE_/LOCK\T TOOK PLACE UND] ! WOR/ POSSIBLE CONDITIONS -- ) HI< UNEMPLOYM5T1 WIDESPREAD DISILLUSIONM5T & ) UNION HALLS & LEFTW+ NEWSPAP] (FICES BE+ SACK$ & BURN$ BY FASCI/S ALL OV] NOR!RN ,ITALY4 ,! %OP /EW>DS EV5TUALLY ?REW 9 ! T[EL & ! WORK=CE RETURN$ TO ! FACTORIES 9 ,MAY4 

,A MASS MOBILIZATION BY ! ,U,S,I DEFEAT$ AN ATTEMPT$ FASCI/ ATTACK ON ,P>MA 9 E>LY #aiba BUT ?IS WAS ! EXCEPTION AS ! FASCI/ ONSLAU<T BUILT UP ?R\<\T ! YE>4 ,LEFTW+ & UNION ORGANIZATIONS W]E (T5 =C$ 9TO A SEMI-UND]GR\ND EXI/5CE1 AS LOCAL POLICE & >MY P]SONNEL COOP]AT$1 MORE OR LESS OP5LY1 ) ! FASCI/ GR\PS4 ,LOCAL AU?ORITIES W\LD R\T9ELY GRANT GUN P]MITS TO FASCI/S & JU/ AS R\T9ELY D5Y !M TO SOCIALI/S4 ,NONE!LESS1 ! ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY LEAD]%IP /ILL 9SI/$ UPON A LEGALI/IC APPROA*4 0,CALL ! POLICE60 WAS !IR RESPONSE TO A FASCI/ ATTACK4 ,EV5TUALLY GR\PS ( SOCIALI/S BEGAN TO =M ,>DITI DEL ,POPOLO -- A PEOPLE'S MILITIA -- = SELF-DEF5SE4 ,BUT IT WAS 0TOO LITTLE1 TOO LATE40 

,LESSONS 

,?\< ! ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY'S RADICAL RHETORIC DID 9SPIRE PEOPLE ) A HOPE ( SOCIAL *ANGE1 ! P>TY'S RELIANCE UPON ELECTORAL POLITICS & ! TRADE UNION HI]>*Y MADE IT /RUCTURALLY IMPOSSIBLE TO BREAK \T ( A PRACTICE ( GRADUALISM & COMPROMISES ) ! EMPLOY+ CLASS4 ,YET1 ! RADICAL RHETORIC ( ?IS BUREAUCRATIZ$ W+ ( ! MOVEM5T HID ITS T5D5CY TO /& 9 ! WAY ( A BREAK ) ! SY/EM4 ,:5 ,MAURIZIO ,G>9O TOLD ! ,LIGURIAN UNION CONV5TION TO HOLD (F ON A G5]ALIZ$ EXPROPRIATION ( 9DU/RY 9 !IR REGION -- AN ACTION ?AT C\LD HAVE PROVOK$ AN 9C5DI>Y RESPONSE ELSE:]E -- HE WAS MAK+ ! MI/AKE ( RELY+ TOO MU* ON ! POSSIBILITIES ( PRESSUR+ ! ,C,G,L TRADE UNION F$]ATION4 

,NONE!LESS1 HIS MI/AKE WAS GR\ND$ 9 ! UN=TUNATE REALITY ?AT ! RANK & FILE ( ,C,G,L UNIONS \TSIDE ,TUR9 HAD NOT BE5 MOBILIZ$ 9DEP5D5TLY ( ! ,C,G,L HI]>*Y TO ! EXT5T !Y HAD BE5 9 ,TUR94 ,?IS MADE IT DIFFICULT TO NOT RELY ON ! ,C,G,L UNION ORGANIZATIONS 9 BUILD+ A UNIFI$1 NATIONAL MOVEM5T = EXT5D+ ! /RUGGLE1 AS OPPOS$ TO ISOLAT$ ACTIONS 9 P>TICUL> T[NS OR P>TICUL> SECTORS1 :I* C\LD !N BE MORE EASILY CRU%$ BY ! GOV]NM5T4 ,! /R5G? ( ! ,TUR9 MOVEM5T WAS PRECISELY ITS ABILITY TO UNITE WORK]S DIRECTLY1 ACROSS UNION OR IDEOLOGICAL DIVISIONS BUT 9DEP5D5TLY ( ! NATIONAL TRADE UNION HI]>*Y4 ,DESPITE ITS MILITANCY & MU%ROOM+ GR[?1 ! ,U,S,I RECOGNIZ$ ?AT IT WAS A M9ORITY ( ! WORK+ CLASS & ?AT ! EXPROPRIATION ( ! EMPLOY+ CLASS C\LD NOT BE A*IEV$ )\T ! P>TICIPATION ( ! ,C,G,L RANK & FILE4 

,! OPPOSITION ( ! RURAL UNIONS ( ! ,C,G,L TO EXT5D+ ! /RUGGLE TO ! EXPROPRIATION ( ! EMPLOY+ CLASS 9 ,SEPTEMB] ( #aib REFLECT$ ! ISOLATION ( ! AGRICULTURAL SECTOR FROM ! MOVEM5T DEVELOP+ 9 ! T[NS & 9DU/RIES4 ,H[EV]1 !RE W]E 9DICATIONS ?AT A L9KAGE BETWE5 ! RURAL & URBAN WORK=CES WAS POSSIBLE -- ! MUTUAL SUPPORT BETWE5 ! F>M WORK]S ( ,PI$MONT & ! %OP C\NCIL MOVEM5T 9 ,TUR9 9 ,APRIL ( #aib IS ONE EXAMPLE4 .<#b#b.> 

,! PROTE/ OCCUPATIONS ( BIG E/ATES & ! HUGE GR[? ( SOCIALI/ & ,CA?OLIC RURAL UNIONS %[$ ! WILL+NESS ( RURAL WORK]S TO ALSO FI<T AGA9/ ! P[] ( ! EMPLOY]S4 ,! LEFTW+ ( ! ,CA?OLIC LABOR MOVEM5T -- SU* AS ! 0,E/ATE ,C\NCIL0 MOVEM5T >\ND ,CREMONA -- W]E ALSO TALK+ AB\T EXPROPRIATION & COLLECTIVE WORK]S MANAGEM5T4 ,BUT = ! MO/ P>T1 ! ,CA?OLIC & SOCIAL-DEMOCRATIC RURAL UNION MOVEM5T CONF9$ ITS EF=TS TO /RUGGLES 9 ITS [N SECTOR & EF=TS AT RE=M ?R\< ! POLITICAL PROCESS4 

,9 H9DSI<T IT IS POSSIBLE TO SEE ?AT ! REAL *OICE ?AT FAC$ ! ,ITALIAN WORK+ CLASS AFT] ,WORLD ,W> #a WAS 0,FASCISM OR ,REVOLUTION80 ,! UNION BUREAUCRATS' HOPES ( 0/RUCTURAL RE=MS0 9 ! SY/EM PROV$ TO BE HOPELESSLY UNREALI/IC4 ,POS+ ! />K PROSPECT ( WORK]S' REVOLUTION BE=E ! NOSES ( ! SMALL BUS9ESS1 PR(ESSIONAL & MANAG]IAL CLASSES PROVOK$ ANG] & FE> 9 !SE SECTORS4 ,YET1 ! FAILURE TO C>RY ?R\< ON ! OPPORTUNITY = SOCIAL TRANS=MATION LEFT ! SY/EM ) ! BREA?+ SPACE TO MOBILIZE FASCI/ 0ANTIBODIES0 FROM )9 ?OSE MIDDLE /RATA 9 ORD] TO CRU% ! LABOR MOVEM5T ) BRUTAL =CE4 

.<#a.> ,MY ACC\NT ( ! ,ITALIAN %OP /EW>DS' MOVEM5T & ! OCCUPATION ( ! FACTORIES IS MO/LY BAS$ ON ,LYNN ,WILLIAMS' ,PROLET>IAN ,ORD] 7,PLUTO ,PRESS1 #a#i#g#e74 ,WILLIAMS' BOOK IS SYMPA!TIC TO ! LIB]T>IAN CONTRIBUTION TO ! ,ITALIAN MOVEM5T AFT] ,WORLD ,W> ,I & ,I HI<LY RECOMM5D IT4 ,PAULO ,SPRIANO'S ,! ,OCCUPATION ( ! ,FACTORIES 7,PLUTO ,PRESS1 #a#i#g#e7 IS CONSID]$ TO BE A FAIRLY DEF9ITIVE ACC\NT ( ! MOVEM5T4 ,DANIEL ,GU]9'S ,FASCISM & ,BIG ,BUS9ESS 7,PA?F9D] ,PRESS7 HAS A GOOD EXPLANATION ( ! RISE ( ! ,MUSSOL9I REGIME 9 ! AFT]MA? ( ! FACTORY OCCUPATIONS4 

.<#b.> ,! ,ITALIAN ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY 7,P,S,I7 WAS A MASS LABOR P>TY BAS$ ON ! ,C,G,L TRADE UNIONS1 ! COOP]ATIVE MOVEM5T1 & A PRACTICE ( ELECTORAL POLITICS AT ! NATIONAL & LOCAL LEVEL4 ,REFLECT+ ! CLASS-CONSCI\SNESS & REBELLI\SNESS ( ! ,ITALIAN WORK+ CLASS1 ! ,P,S,I WAS MORE PRONE TO FLI<TS ( RADICAL RHETORIC ?AN ITS ,NOR!RN ,EUROPEAN C\S9S4 ,BUT ! ,P,S,I'S PRACTICE & ORGANIZATION WAS TYPICAL ( TURN-(-!-C5TURY ,EUROPEAN SOCIAL-DEMOCRACY4 ,! GR[+ S5SE ( IMM95T SOCIAL *ANGE AMONG WORK+ PEOPLE 9 ,ITALY AFT] ,WORLD ,W> ,I WAS REFLECT$ 9 ! RISE ( ! ,P,S,I'S VOTE -- 9CREAS+ FROM #a#a.0 9 #aiac TO #c.0 9 #a#i#a#i4 ,BY #aib ! ,P,S,I HAD BECOME ! L>GE/ P>TY 9 ! ,ITALIAN P>LIAM5T & CONTROLL$ ONE-F\R? ( ! CITY GOV]NM5TS 9 ,ITALY4 ,! ,P,S,I AFFILIAT$ TO ! ,COMMUNI/ ,9T]NATIONAL 9 #aiai & EV5TUALLY *ANG$ ITS NAME TO 0,ITALIAN ,COMMUNI/ ,P>TY40 

.<#c.> ,REFLECT+ ! REVOLUTION>Y SITUATION 9 ,ITALY1 H[EV]1 ! ,U,S,I WAS A MU* L>G] PROPORTION ( ! LABOR MOVEM5T ?AN ! ,I,W,W WAS 9 ! ,U4,S4 ,9 #aiad ! ,C,G,L F$]ATION HAD #c1 MEMB]S :ILE ! ,U,S,I WAS HALF AS L>GE1 ) #a#e1 MEMB]S4 ,AT ?AT TIME ! ,CA?OLIC UNION F$]ATION HAD #a1 MEMB]S4 ,BY ,SEPT4 #aib ,U,S,I WAS CLAIM+ #h1 MEMB]S :ILE ! ,C,G,L HAD CLIMB$ TO AB\T #b MILLION & ! ,CA?OLIC UNION HAD #a MILLION4 ,BUT 9 ?IS C\NTRY1 ! ,I,W,W AT ITS HEI<T WAS ALWAYS LESS ?AN #a.0 ! SIZE ( ! ,A,F,L4 

.<#d.> ,TOGLIATTI1 ,GRAMSCI & ,T]RAC9I HAD GOTT5 9VOLV$ 9 ! SOCIALI/ MOVEM5T :ILE /UD5TS AT ! ,UNIV]SITY ( ,TUR94 ,!Y W]E ACTIVE 9 ! WORK]S $UCATION C5T]S4 ,TOGLIATTI EV5TUALLY BECAME A LEAD] ( ! ,ITALIAN ,COMMUNI/ ,P>TY AFT] ,WORLD ,W> ,I,I1 ,T]RAC9I BECAME A FAM\S LAWY]1 :ILE ,GRAMSCI DI$ 9 A FASCI/ PRISON4 

.<#e.> ,O!R DISSID5T UNIONS W]E ! ,CA?OLIC ,C,I,L1 F\ND$ 9 #a#i#a#d1 & ! PR[>1 NATIONALI/ ,U,I,L1 :I* HAD SPLIT (F FROM ! ,U,S,I 9 #a#i#a#e4 ,?\< MEMB]S ( !SE ORGANIZATIONS W]E NOT EXCLUD$ FROM P>TICIPATION 9 WORKPLACE ASSEMBLIES & ELECTION ( %OP /EW>DS1 !Y W]E NOT ALL[$ TO BE C&IDATES = %OP /EW>D & ! ,%OP ,/EW>DS' ,PROGRAM CALL$ UPON 0LABOR COMRADES TO BREAK AWAY FROM ?OSE ORGANIZATIONS :I* >E BUILT ON RELIGI\S OR NATIONALI/ PR9CIPLES40 

.<#f.> ,! ,%OP ,/EW>DS' ,PROGRAM IS REPR9T$ ON PP4 #a#b#b-#a#b#c ( ,PROLET>IAN ,ORD]4 

.<#g.> ,! MA9 POLITICAL ORGANIZATION ( ,ITALIAN AN>*I/S WAS ! ,ITALIAN ,AN>*I/ ,UNION 7,U,A,I71 :OSE PUBLICATION WAS ! DAILY ,UMANITA ,NOVA4 ,! ,U,A,I WAS ! MA9 POLITICAL 9FLU5CE 9 ! ,U,S,I4 

.<#h.> ,PROLET>IAN ,ORD]1 P4 #a#b#d4 

.<#i.> ,UNIONS & ,C\NCILS4 

.<#a.> ,:AT ,S]RATI ACTUALLY SAID WAS3 0,! DICTATOR%IP ( ! PROLET>IAT IS ! CONSCI\S DICTATOR%IP ( ! ,SOCIALI/ ,P>TY40 ,S]RATI WAS H]E US+ ! T]M 0DICTATOR%IP0 9 ITS #a#i? C5TURY M>XI/ S5SE2 ?AT IS1 ANY /ATE1 H[EV] =MALLY 0DEMOCRATIC0 IT MAY SEEM1 IS ! 0DICTATOR%IP0 ( A SOCIAL CLASS1 9 ,M>X'S VIEW1 BECAUSE IT 5ABLES !M TO DICTATE ! CONFIGURATION ( SOCIETY4 

.<#a#a.> ,PROLET>IAN ,ORD]1 P4 #aeg 

.<#a#b.> ,PROLET>IAN ,ORD]1 P4 #a#d#a4 

.<#a#c.> ,PROLET>IAN ,ORD]1 PP4 #a#i#e-#a#i#f4 

.<#a#d.> ,PROLET>IAN ,ORD]1 P4 #a#f#g4 

.<#a#e.> ,QUOT$ 9 ,PROLET>IAN ,ORD]1 PP4 #b#c#h-#b#c#i4 

.<#a#f.> ,PROLET>IAN ,ORD]1 P4 #b#d#a4 

.<#a#g.> ,QUOT$ 9 ,PROLET>IAN ,ORD]1 P4 #b#d4 

.<#a#h.> ,PROLET>IAN ,ORD]1 PP4 #b#d#i-#b#e4 

.<#a#i.> ,>M&O ,BOR<I1 AN>*I/ G5]AL SECRET>Y ( ! ,U,S,I1 QUOT$ 9 ,! ,OCCUPATION ( ! ,FACTORIES1 P4 #h#e4 

.<#b.> ,! ,OCCUPATION ( ! ,FACTORIES1 P4 #i#b4 

.<#b#a.> ,IMM$IATELY AFT] ! ,C,G,L VOTE1 ! ,U,S,I HELD AN 0,9T]-,PROLET>IAN ,CONV5TION0 ) ! 9DEP5D5T RAIL & M>ITIME UNIONS4 ,! CONV5TION D5\NC$ ! VOTE AS 0M9ORIT>IAN & NULL0 & CALL$ = FUR!R ACTION4 ,NONE!LESS1 !Y ALSO RECOGNIZ$ ?AT ! REVOLUTION REQUIR$ A MAJORITY ( ! WORK+ CLASS3 0WE CAN'T DO IT BY \RSELVES40 7,! ,OCCUPATION ( ! ,FACTORIES1 P4 #i#d47 

.<#b#b.> ,ITALY AFT] ,WORLD ,W> ,I WAS A C\NTRY :]E CAPITALISM HAD DEVELOP$ MU* F>!R ?AN 9 ! ,RUSSIA ( #a#i#a#g4 ,?IS WAS REFLECT$ NOT ONLY 9 ! HI<] PROPORTION ( ! WORK=CE EMPLOY$ 9 9DU/RY 7#b#h.07 BUT ALSO 9 ! FACT ?AT ,ITALIAN AGRICULTURE -- AT LEA/ 9 ! ,NOR? -- WAS MORE COMM]CIAL4 ,! 9DU/RIAL AGRICULTURE ( ! ,PO ,VALLEY HAD WITNESS$ 9T5SE /RUGGLES BETWE5 GR[]S & WAGE-WORK]S4 ,( ! WORK=CE 9 ,ITALIAN AGRICULTURE1 #f.0 W]E WAGE-LABOR]S OR T5ANT-F>M]S4 ,! HUGE GR[? ( RURAL UNIONISM 9 ,ITALY AFT] ,WORLD ,W> ,I -- 5ROLL+ #a4#f MILLION WAGE-WORK]S1 T5ANT F>M]S & PEASANTS -- REFLECT$ ?IS REALITY4 

,FROM 3 ,!,AN>*I/,LIBR>Y4ORG4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,JANU>Y #b#c1 #bba 3 ,! ,ITALIAN FACTORY OCCUPATIONS ( #aib -- ,ADD$4 
,JANU>Y #f1 #bbb 3 ,! ,ITALIAN FACTORY OCCUPATIONS ( #aib -- ,UPDAT$4 

 FILE G5]AT$ FROM 3  
HTTP3_/_/REVOLTLIB4COM_/