,SECTION #a1 ,*APT] #d 
,! ,PROBLEM ( ,REPRODUCTION3 ,M>X'S ,S*EME ( ,SIMPLE ,REPRODUCTION 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,ROSA ,LUXEMBURG 

,TEXT 3 

,LET US N[ CONSID] ! =MULA C "4 V "4 S AS ! EXPRESSION ( ! SOCIAL PRODUCT AS A :OLE4 ,IS IT ONLY A !ORETICAL AB/RACTION1 OR DOES IT CONVEY ANY REAL MEAN+ :5 APPLI$ TO SOCIAL LIFE - HAS ! =MULA ANY OBJECTIVE EXI/5CE 9 RELATION TO SOCIETY AS A :OLE8 ,IT WAS LEFT TO ,M>X TO E/ABLI% ! FUNDAM5TAL IMPORTANCE ( C1 ! CON/ANT CAPITAL1 9 ECONOMIC !ORY4 ,YET ,ADAM ,SMI? BE=E HIM1 WORK+ EXCLUSIVELY ) ! CATEGORIES ( FIX$ & CIRCULAT+ CAPITAL1 9 EFFECT TRANS=M$ ?IS FIX$ CAPITAL 9TO CON/ANT CAPITAL1 ?\< HE WAS NOT AW>E ( HAV+ A*IEV$ ?IS RESULT4 ,?IS CON/ANT CAPITAL COMPRISES NOT ONLY ?OSE MEANS ( PRODUCTION :I* WE> \T 9 ! C\RSE ( YE>S1 BUT ALSO ?OSE :I* >E COMPLETELY ABSORB$ BY PRODUCTION 9 ANY ONE YE>4 ,HIS V]Y DOGMA ?AT ! TOTAL VALUE IS RESOLV$ 9TO V "4 S & HIS >GUM5TS ON ?IS PO9T LEAD ,SMI? TO DI/+UI% BETWE5 ! TWO CATEGORIES ( PRODUCTION - LIV+ LABOR & 9ANIMATE MEANS ( PRODUCTION4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 :5 HE TRIES TO CON/RUE ! SOCIAL PROCESS ( REPRODUCTION ON ! BASIS ( ! CAPITALS & 9COMES ( 9DIVIDUALS1 ! FIX$ CAPITAL HE CONCEIVES ( AS EXI/+ AP>T FROM !SE1 IS1 9 FACT1 CON/ANT CAPITAL4 

,EV]Y 9DIVIDUAL CAPITALI/ USES = ! PRODUCTION ( HIS COMMODITIES C]TA9 MAT]IAL MEANS ( PRODUCTION SU* AS PREMISES1 RAW MAT]IALS & 9/RUM5TS4 ,9 ORD] TO PRODUCE ! AGGREGATE ( COMMODITIES 9 A GIV5 SOCIETY1 AN AGGREGATE ( ALL MAT]IAL MEANS ( PRODUCTION US$ BY ! 9DIVIDUAL CAPITALI/S IS AN OBVI\S REQUISITE4 ,! EXI/5CE ( !SE MEANS ( PRODUCTION )9 ! SOCIETY IS A REAL FACT1 ?\< !Y !MSELVES EXI/ 9 ! =M ( PURELY PRIVATE 9DIVIDUAL CAPITALS4 ,?IS IS ! UNIV]SAL ABSOLUTE CONDITION ( SOCIAL PRODUCTION 9 ALL ITS HI/ORICAL =MS47#a7 

,! SPECIFIC CAPITALI/ =M MANIFE/S ITSELF 9 ! FACT ?AT ! MAT]IAL MEANS ( PRODUCTION FUNCTION AS C1 AS CON/ANT CAPITAL1 ! PROP]TY ( ?OSE :O DO NOT WORK2 IT IS ! OPPOSITE POLE TO PROLET>IANIZ$ LABOR P[]1 ! C\NT]P>T ( WAGE LABOR4 ,! V>IABLE CAPITAL1 V1 IS ! AGGREGATE ( WAGES ACTUALLY PAID 9 ! SOCIETY 9 ! C\RSE ( A YE>'S PRODUCTION4 ,?IS FACT1 TOO1 HAS REAL OBJECTIVE EXI/5CE1 AL?\< IT MANIFE/S ITSELF 9 AN 9NUM]ABLE MASS ( 9DIVIDUAL WAGES4 ,9 EV]Y SOCIETY ! AM\NT ( LABOR P[] ACTUALLY 5GAG$ 9 PRODUCTION & ! ANNUAL MA9T5ANCE ( ! WORK]S IS A QUE/ION ( DECISIVE IMPORTANCE4 ,:]E ?IS FACTOR TAKES ! SPECIFIC CAPITALI/ =M ( V1 ! V>IABLE CAPITAL1 IT FOLL[S ?AT ! MEANS ( SUBSI/5CE FIR/ COME TO ! WORK]S 9 =M ( A WAGE :I* IS ! PRICE ( ! LABOR P[] !Y HAVE SOLD TO ANO!R P]SON1 ! [N] ( ! MAT]IAL MEANS ( PRODUCTION :O DOES NOT WORK HIMSELF2 UND] ?IS ASPECT1 IT IS ! LATT]'S CAPITALI/ PROP]TY4 ,FUR!R1 V IS AN AGGREGATE ( MONEY1 ?AT IS TO SAY IT IS ! MEANS ( SUBSI/5CE = ! WORK]S 9 A =M ( PURE VALUE4 ,?IS CONCEPT ( V IMPLIES ?AT ! WORK]S >E FREE 9 A D\BLE S5SE - FREE 9 P]SON & FREE ( ALL MEANS ( PRODUCTION4 ,IT ALSO EXPRESSES ! FACT ?AT 9 A GIV5 SOCIETY ! UNIV]SAL =M ( PRODUCTION IS COMMODITY PRODUCTION4 

,F9ALLY1 S1 ! SURPLUS VALUE1 /&S = ! TOTAL ( ALL SURPLUS VALUES GA9$ BY ! 9DIVIDUAL CAPITALI/S4 ,EV]Y SOCIETY P]=MS SURPLUS LABOR1 & EV5 A SOCIALI/ SOCIETY WILL HAVE TO DO ! SAME4 ,IT MU/ P]=M SURPLUS LABOR 9 A ?REEFOLD S5SE3 IT HAS TO PROVIDE A QUANTITY ( LABOR = ! MA9T5ANCE ( NON-WORK]S 7?OSE :O >E UNABLE TO WORK1 SU* AS *ILDR51 OLD PEOPLE1 9VALIDS1 & ALSO CIVIL S]VANTS & ! SO-CALL$ LIB]AL PR(ESSIONS :O DO NOT TAKE AN IMM$IATE P>T 9 ! SATISFACTION ( MAT]IAL7#b7 WANTS71 IT HAS TO PROVIDE A FUND ( SOCIAL 9SURANCE AGA9/ ELEM5T>Y DISA/]S :I* MAY ?REAT5 ! ANNUAL PRODUCE1 SU* AS BAD H>VE/S1 =E/ FIRES & FLOODS2 & LA/LY IT MU/ PROVIDE A FUND = ! PURPOSE ( 9CREAS+ PRODUCTION1 EI!R BECAUSE ( AN 9CREASE 9 ! POPULATION1 OR BECAUSE HI<] /&>DS ( CIVILIZATION LEAD TO ADDITIONAL WANTS4 ,IT IS 9 TWO RESPECTS ?AT ! CAPITALI/ *>ACT] MANIFE/S ITSELF3 SURPLUS LABOR COMES 9TO BE+ 

AS SURPLUS VALUE1 I4E4 9 COMMODITY-=M1 REALIZABLE 9 CA%1 & 

AS ! PROP]TY ( NON-WORK]S1 ( ?OSE :O [N ! MEANS ( PRODUCTION4 

,SIMIL>LY1 IF WE CONSID] V "4 S1 !SE TWO AM\NTS TAK5 TOGE!R1 WE SEE ?AT !Y REPRES5T OBJECTIVE QUANTITIES ( UNIV]SAL VALIDITY3 ! TOTAL ( LIV+ LABOR ?AT HAS BE5 P]=M$ )9 A SOCIETY 9 ! C\RSE ( ONE YE>4 ,EV]Y HUMAN SOCIETY1 :ATEV] ITS HI/ORICAL =M1 MU/ TAKE NOTE ( ?IS DATUM1 ) REF]5CE TO BO? ! RESULTS ?AT HAVE BE5 A*IEV$1 & ! EXI/+ & AVAILABLE LABOR P[]4 ,! DIVISION 9TO V "4 S IS A UNIV]SAL PH5OM5ON1 9DEP5D5T ( ! SOCIETY'S P>TICUL> HI/ORICAL =M4 ,9 ITS CAPITALI/ =M1 ?IS DIVISION %[S ITSELF NOT ONLY 9 ! QUALITATIVE PECULI>ITIES ( BO? V & S AS ALREADY \TL9$1 BUT ALSO 9 !IR QUANTITATIVE RELATION%IP3 V T5DS TO BECOME DEPRESS$ TO A M9IMUM LEVEL1 JU/ SUFFICI5T = ! PHYSIOLOGICAL & SOCIAL EXI/5CE ( ! WORK]1 & S T5DS TO 9CREASE CONT9UALLY AT ! CO/ (1 & RELATIVE TO1 V4 

,! PR$OM9ANT FEATURE ( CAPITALI/ PRODUCTION IS EXPRESS$ 9 ?IS LA/ CIRCUM/ANCE3 IT IS ! FACT ?AT ! CREATION & APPROPRIATION ( SURPLUS VALUE IS ! REAL PURPOSE (1 & ! 9C5TIVE TO1 PRODUCTION4 

,WE HAVE EXAM9$ ! RELATIONS UPON :I* ! CAPITALI/ =MULA ( ! AGGREGATE PRODUCT IS BAS$1 & HAVE F\ND !M UNIV]SALLY VALID4 ,9 EV]Y PLANN$ ECONOMY !Y >E MADE ! OBJECT ( CONSCI\S REGULATION ON ! P>T ( SOCIETY2 9 A COMMUNI/ SOCIETY BY ! COMMUNITY ( WORK]S & !IR DEMOCRATIC ORGANS1 & 9 A SOCIETY BAS$ UPON CLASS-RULE BY ! NUCLEUS ( [N]S & !IR DESPOTIC P[]4 ,9 A SY/EM ( CAPITALI/ PRODUCTION !RE IS NO SU* PLANN$ REGULATION4 ,! AGGREGATE ( ! SOCIETY'S CAPITALS & ! AGGREGATE ( ITS COMMODITIES ALIKE CONSI/ 9 REALITY ( 9NUM]ABLE FRAGM5TS ( 9DIVIDUAL CAPITALS & 9DIVIDUAL ITEMS ( M]*&ISE1 TAK5 TOGE!R4 

,?US ! QUE/ION >ISES :E!R !SE SUMS !MSELVES MEAN ANY?+ MORE 9 A CAPITALI/ SOCIETY ?AN A M]E /ATI/ICAL 5UM]ATION :I* IS1 MOREOV]1 9EXACT & FLUID4 ,APPLY+ ! /&>DS ( SOCIETY AS A :OLE1 WE P]CEIVE ?AT ! COMPLETELY 9DEP5D5T & SOV]EIGN 9DIVIDUAL EXI/5CE ( PRIVATE 5T]PRISES IS ONLY ! HI/ORICALLY CONDITION$ =M1 :]EAS IT IS SOCIAL 9T]CONNECTIONS ?AT PROVIDE ! F\NDATION4 ,AL?\< 9DIVIDUAL CAPITALS ACT 9 COMPLETE 9DEP5D5CE ( ONE ANO!R1 & A SOCIAL REGULATION IS COMPLETELY LACK+1 ! MOVEM5T ( CAPITALS =MS A HOMOG5E\S :OLE4 ,?IS MOVEM5T1 TOO1 APPE>S 9 SPECIFICALLY CAPITALI/ =MS4 ,9 EV]Y PLANN$ SY/EM ( PRODUCTION IT IS1 ABOVE ALL1 ! RELATION BETWE5 ALL LABOR1 PA/ & PRES5T1 & ! MEANS ( PRODUCTION 7BETWE5 V "4 S & C1 ACCORD+ TO \R =MULA71 OR ! RELATION BETWE5 ! AGGREGATE ( NECESS>Y CONSUM] GOODS 7AGA91 9 ! T]MS ( \R =MULA1 V "4 S7 & C :I* >E SUBJECT$ TO REGULATION4 ,UND] CAPITALI/ CONDITIONS1 ON ! O!R H&1 ALL SOCIAL LABOR NECESS>Y = ! MA9T5ANCE ( ! 9ANIMATE MEANS ( PRODUCTION & ALSO ( LIV+ LABOR P[] IS TREAT$ AS ONE 5TITY1 AS CAPITAL1 9 CONTRA/ ) ! SURPLUS LABOR ?AT HAS BE5 P]=M$1 I4E4 ) ! SURPLUS VALUE S4 ,! RELATION BETWE5 !SE TWO QUANTITIES C & 7V "4 S7 IS A PALPABLY REAL1 OBJECTIVE RELATION%IP ( CAPITALI/ SOCIETY3 IT IS ! AV]AGE RATE ( PR(IT2 EV]Y CAPITAL IS 9 FACT TREAT$ ONLY AS P>T ( A COMMON :OLE1 ! :OLE ( SOCIAL CAPITAL1 & ASSIGN$ ! PR(IT TO :I* IT IS 5TITL$1 ACCORD+ TO ITS SIZE1 \T ( ! SURPLUS VALUE WRE/$ FROM SOCIETY1 REG>DLESS ( ! QUANTITY :I* ?IS P>TICUL> CAPITAL HAS ACTUALLY CREAT$4 ,?US SOCIAL CAPITAL & ITS C\NT]P>T1 ! :OLE ( SOCIAL SURPLUS VALUE1 >E NOT M]ELY REAL QUANTITIES1 HAV+ AN OBJECTIVE EXI/5CE1 BUT1 :AT IS MORE1 ! RELATION BETWE5 !M1 ! AV]AGE PR(IT1 GUIDES & DIRECTS ! :OLE PROCESS ( EX*ANGE4 ,?IS IT DOES 9 ?REE WAYS3 

BY ! ME*ANISM ( ! LAW ( VALUE :I* E/ABLI%ES ! QUANTITATIVE RELATIONS ( EX*ANGE BETWE5 ! 9DIVIDUAL K9DS ( COMMODITIES 9DEP5D5TLY ( !IR SPECIFIC VALUE RELATION%IP2 

BY ! SOCIAL DIVISION ( LABOR1 ! ASSIGNM5T ( C]TA9 PORTIONS ( CAPITAL & LABOR TO ! 9DIVIDUAL SPH]ES ( PRODUCTION2 

BY ! DEVELOPM5T ( LABOR PRODUCTIVITY :I* ON ! ONE H& /IMULATES 9DIVIDUAL CAPITALS TO 5GAGE 9 PIONE]+ WORK = ! PURPOSE ( SECUR+ A HI<] PR(IT ?AN ! AV]AGE1 & ON ! O!R H& EXT5DS ! PROGRESS ?AT HAS BE5 A*IEV$ BY 9DIVIDUALS OV] ! :OLE FIELD ( PRODUCTION4 

,BY MEANS ( ! AV]AGE RATE ( PR(IT1 9 A WORD1 ! TOTAL CAPITAL ( SOCIETY COMPLETELY GOV]NS ! SEEM+LY 9DEP5D5T MOTIONS ( 9DIVIDUAL CAPITALS4 

,! =MULA C "4 V "4 S ?US APPLIES TO ! AGGREGATE ( COMMODITIES PRODUC$ 9 A SOCIETY UND] CAPITALISM NO LESS ?AN TO ! VALUE COMPOSITION ( EV]Y 9DIVIDUAL COMMODITY4 ,IT IS1 H[EV]1 ONLY ! VALUE-COMPOSITION = :I* ?IS HOLDS GOOD - ! ANALOGY CANNOT BE C>RI$ FUR!R4 

,! =MULA IS 9DE$ P]FECTLY EXACT IF WE REG>D ! TOTAL PRODUCT ( A CAPITALI/ICALLY PRODUC+ SOCIETY AS ! \TPUT ( ONE YE>'S LABOR1 & WI% TO ANALYZE IT 9TO ITS RESPECTIVE COMPON5TS4 ,! QUANTITY C %[S H[ MU* ( ! LABOR ( =M] YE>S HAS BE5 TAK5 OV] T[>DS ! PRODUCT ( ! PRES5T YE> 9 ! =M ( MEANS ( PRODUCTION4 ,QUANTITIES V "4 S %[ ! VALUE COMPON5TS ( ! PRODUCT CREAT$ BY NEW LABOR DUR+ ! LA/ YE> ONLY2 ! RELATION BETWE5 V & S F9ALLY %[S US H[ ! ANNUAL LABOR PROGRAM ( SOCIETY IS APPORTION$ TO ! TWO TASKS ( MA9TA9+ ! WORK]S & MA9TA9+ ?OSE :O DO NOT WORK4 ,?IS ANALYSIS REMA9S VALID & CORRECT ALSO ) REG>D TO ! REPRODUCTION ( 9DIVIDUAL CAPITAL1 NO MATT] :AT MAY BE ! MAT]IAL =M ( ! PRODUCT ?IS CAPITAL HAS CREAT$4 ,ALL ?REE1 C1 V1 & S1 APPE> ALIKE TO A CAPITALI/ ( ! MA*9]Y 9DU/RY 9 ! =M ( MA*9]Y & ITS P>TS2 TO ! [N] ( A MUSIC HALL !Y >E REPRES5T$ BY ! *>MS ( ! DANC]S & ! SKILL ( ! ACROBATS4 ,SO LONG AS ! PRODUCT IS LEFT UNDIFF]5TIAT$1 C1 V1 & S DIFF] FROM ONE ANO!R ONLY 9 SO F> AS !Y >E ALIQUOT COMPON5TS ( VALUE4 ,?IS IS QUITE SUFFICI5T = ! REPRODUCTION ( 9DIVIDUAL CAPITAL1 AS SU* REPRODUCTION BEG9S ) ! VALUE-=M ( CAPITAL1 A C]TA9 AM\NT ( MONEY ?AT HAS BE5 GA9$ BY ! REALIZATION ( ! MANUFACTUR$ PRODUCT4 ,! =MULA C "4 V "4 S !N IS ! GIV5 BASIS = ! DIVISION ( ?IS AM\NT ( MONEY ONE P>T = ! PUR*ASE ( ! MAT]IAL MEANS ( PRODUCTION1 A SECOND P>T = ! PUR*ASE ( LABOR P[]1 & A ?IRD P>T - 9 ! CASE ( SIMPLE REPRODUCTION ASSUM$ 9 ! FIR/ 9/ANCE - = ! CAPITALI/'S P]SONAL CONSUMPTION4 ,9 ! CASE ( EXP&+ REPRODUCTION P>T ?REE IS FUR!R SUBDIVID$1 ONLY A FRACTION ( IT BE+ DEVOT$ TO ! CAPITALI/'S P]SONAL CONSUMPTION1 ! REMA9D] TO 9CREAS+ HIS CAPITAL4 ,9 ORD] TO REPRODUCE HIS CAPITAL ACTUALLY1 ! CAPITALI/ MU/1 ( C\RSE1 TURN AGA9 TO ! COMMODITY M>KET ) ! CAPITAL HE HAS DIVID$ 9 ?IS MANN]1 SO ?AT HE CAN ACQUIRE ! MAT]IAL PR]EQUISITES ( PRODUCTION SU* AS RAW MAT]IALS1 9/RUM5TS1 & SO ON4 ,IT SEEMS A MATT] ( C\RSE TO ! 9DIVIDUAL CAPITALI/ AS WELL AS TO HIS SCI5TIFIC IDEOLOGI/1 ! 'VULG> ECONOMI/'1 ?AT HE %\LD 9 FACT F9D !RE JU/ ?OSE MEANS ( PRODUCTION & LABOR P[] HE NE$S = HIS BUS9ESS4 

,! POSITION IS DIFF]5T AS REG>DS ! TOTAL PRODUCTION ( A SOCIETY4 ,FROM ! PO9T ( VIEW ( SOCIETY AS A :OLE1 ! EX*ANGE ( COMMODITIES CAN ONLY EFFECT A %IFT+ >\ND1 :]EBY ! 9DIVIDUAL P>TS ( ! TOTAL PRODUCT *ANGE H&S4 ,! MAT]IAL COMPOSITION ( ! PRODUCT1 H[EV]1 CANNOT BE *ANG$ BY ?IS PROCESS4 ,AFT] ?IS *ANGE ( PLACES1 AS WELL AS BE=E IT1 !RE CAN BE REPRODUCTION ( TOTAL CAPITAL1 IF1 & ONLY IF1 !RE IS 9 ! TOTAL PRODUCT ( ! PREC$+ P]IOD3 FIR/1 A SUFFICI5T QUANTITY ( MEANS ( PRODUCTION1 SECONDLY1 ADEQUATE PROVISIONS TO MA9TA9 ! SAME AM\NT ( LABOR AS HI!RTO1 &1 LA/ BUT NOT LEA/1 ! GOODS NECESS>Y TO MA9TA9 ! CAPITALI/ CLASS & ITS HANG]S-ON 9 A MANN] SUITABLE TO !IR /ATION4 ,?IS BR+S US TO A NEW PLANE3 WE >E N[ CONC]N$ ) MAT]IAL PO9TS ( VIEW 9/EAD ( PURE RELATIONS ( VALUE4 ,IT IS ! USE-=M ( ! TOTAL SOCIAL PRODUCT ?AT MATT]S N[4 ,:AT ! 9DIVIDUAL CAPITALI/ CONSID]S NOBODY ELSE'S BUS9ESS BECOMES A MATT] ( GRAVE CONC]N = ! TOTALITY ( CAPITALI/S4 ,:]EAS IT DOES NOT MAKE ! SLI<TE/ DIFF]5CE TO ! 9DIVIDUAL CAPITALI/ :E!R HE PRODUCES MA*9]Y1 SUG>1 >TIFICIAL MANURE OR A PROGRESSIVE NEWSPAP] - PROVID$ ONLY ?AT HE CAN F9D A BUY] = HIS COMMODITY SO ?AT HE CAN GET BACK HIS CAPITAL PLUS SURPLUS VALUE - IT MATT]S 9F9ITELY TO ! 'TOTAL CAPITALI/' ?AT HIS TOTAL PRODUCT %\LD HAVE A DEF9ITE USE-=M4 ,BY ?AT WE MEAN ?AT IT MU/ PROVIDE ?REE ESS5TIALS3 ! MEANS ( PRODUCTION TO R5EW ! LABOR PROCESS1 SIMPLE PROVISIONS = ! MA9T5ANCE ( ! WORK]S1 & PROVISIONS ( HI<] QUALITY & LUXURY GOODS = ! PRES]VATION ( ! 'TOTAL CAPITALI/' HIMSELF4 ,HIS DESIRE 9 ?IS RESPECT IS NOT G5]AL & VAGUE1 BUT DET]M9$ PRECISELY & QUANTITATIVELY4 ,IF WE ASK :AT QUANTITIES ( ALL ?REE CATEGORIES >E REQUIR$ BY ! 'TOTAL CAPITALI/'1 ! VALUE-COMPOSITION ( LA/ YE>'S TOTAL PRODUCT GIVES US A DEF9ITE E/IMATE1 AS LONG1 ?AT IS1 AS WE CONF9E \RSELVES TO SIMPLE REPRODUCTION1 :I* WE HAVE TAK5 = \R />T+ PO9T4 ,HI!RTO WE HAVE CONCEIV$ ( ! =MULA C "4 V "4 S AS A M]ELY QUANTITATIVE DIVISION ( ! TOTAL VALUE1 APPLICABLE ALIKE TO TOTAL CAPITAL & TO 9DIVIDUAL CAPITAL1 & REPRES5T+ ! QUANTITY ( LABOR CONTA9$ 9 ! ANNUAL PRODUCT ( SOCIETY4 ,N[ WE SEE ?AT ! =MULA IS ALSO ! BASIS ( ! MAT]IAL COMPOSITION ( ! PRODUCT4 ,OBVI\SLY ! 'TOTAL CAPITALI/'1 IF HE IS TO TAKE UP REPRODUCTION TO ! SAME EXT5T AS BE=E1 MU/ F9D 9 HIS NEW TOTAL PRODUCT AS MANY MEANS ( PRODUCTION AS CORRESPOND TO ! SIZE ( C1 AS MANY SIMPLE PROVISIONS = ! WORK]S AS CORRESPOND TO ! SUM ( WAGES V1 & AS MANY PROVISIONS ( BETT] QUALITY = HIMSELF & HIS HANG]S-ON AS CORRESPOND TO S4 ,9 ?IS WAY \R ANALYSIS ( ! VALUE ( ! SOCIETY'S AGGREGATE PRODUCT IS TRANSLAT$ 9TO A G5]AL RECIPE = ?IS PRODUCT AS FOLL[S3 ! TOTAL C ( SOCIETY MU/ BE REEMBODI$ 9 AN EQUAL QUANTITY ( MEANS ( PRODUCTION1 ! V 9 PROVISIONS = ! WORK]S1 & ! S 9 PROVISIONS = ! CAPITALI/S1 9 ORD] ?AT SIMPLE REPRODUCTION MAY TAKE PLACE4 

,H]E WE COME UP AGA9/ PALPABLE DIFF]5CES BETWE5 ! 9DIVIDUAL CAPITALI/ & ! TOTAL CAPITALI/4 ,! MANN] 9 :I* ! =M] ALWAYS REPRODUCES HIS CON/ANT & V>IABLE CAPITAL AS WELL AS HIS SURPLUS VALUE IS SU* ?AT ALL ?REE P>TS >E CONTA9$ 9 ! SAME MAT]IAL =M )9 HIS HOMOG5E\S PRODUCT1 ?AT ?IS MAT]IAL =M1 MOREOV]1 IS COMPLETELY IRRELEVANT & MAY HAVE DIFF]5T QUALITIES 9 ! CASE ( EA* 9DIVIDUAL CAPITALI/4 ,! 'TOTAL CAPITALI/'1 = HIS P>T1 REPRODUCES EV]Y COMPON5T ( ! VALUE ( HIS ANNUAL PRODUCT 9 A DIFF]5T MAT]IAL =M1 C AS MEANS ( PRODUCTION1 V AS PROVISIONS = ! WORK]S1 & S AS PROVISIONS = ! CAPITALI/S4 ,9 ! CASE ( ! REPRODUCTION ( 9DIVIDUAL CAPITALS1 !RE IS NO DISCREPANCY BETWE5 RELATIONS ( VALUE & MAT]IAL PO9TS ( VIEW4 ,BESIDES1 IT IS QUITE CLE> ?AT 9DIVIDUAL CAPITAL MAY CONC5TRATE ON ASPECTS ( VALUE1 ACCEPT+ MAT]IAL CONDITIONS AS A LAW FROM HEAV51 AS SELF-EVID5T PH5OM5A ( COMMODITY EX*ANGE1 :]EAS ! 'TOTAL CAPITALI/' HAS TO RECKON ) MAT]IAL PO9TS ( VIEW4 ,IF ! TOTAL C ( SOCIETY W]E NOT REPRODUC$ ANNUALLY 9 ! =M ( AN EQUAL AM\NT ( MEANS ( PRODUCTION1 EV]Y 9DIVIDUAL CAPITALI/ W\LD BE DOOM$ TO SE>* ! COMMODITY M>KET 9 VA9 ) HIS C REALIZ$ 9 CA%1 UNABLE TO F9D ! REQUISITE MAT]IALS = HIS 9DIVIDUAL REPRODUCTION4 ,FROM ! PO9T ( VIEW ( REPRODUC+ ! TOTAL CAPITAL1 ! =MULA C "4 V "4 S IS 9ADEQUATE4 ,?IS AGA9 IS PRO( ( ! FACT ?AT ! CONCEPT ( TOTAL CAPITAL IS SOME?+ REAL & DOES NOT M]ELY P>APHRASE ! CONCEPT ( PRODUCTION4 ,WE MU/1 H[EV]1 MAKE G5]AL DI/9CTIONS 9 \R EXPOSITION ( TOTAL CAPITAL3 9/EAD ( %[+ IT AS A HOMOG5E\S :OLE1 WE MU/ DEMON/RATE ITS ?REE MA9 CATEGORIES2 & WE %ALL NOT VITIATE \R !ORY IF1 = ! SAKE ( SIMPLICITY1 WE CONSID] = ! PRES5T ONLY TWO DEP>TM5TS ( TOTAL CAPITAL3 ! PRODUCTION ( PRODUC] GOODS1 & ?AT ( CONSUM] GOODS = WORK]S & CAPITALI/S4 ,WE HAVE TO EXAM9E EA* DEP>TM5T SEP>ATELY1 ADH]+ TO ! FUNDAM5TAL CONDITIONS ( CAPITALI/ PRODUCTION 9 EA* CASE4 ,AT ! SAME TIME1 WE MU/ ALSO EMPHASIZE ! MUTUAL CONNECTIONS BETWE5 !SE TWO DEP>TM5TS FROM ! PO9T ( VIEW ( REPRODUCTION4 ,= ONLY IF EA* IS REG>D$ 9 CONNECTION ) ! O!R1 DO !Y MAKE UP ! BASIS ( ! SOCIAL CAPITAL AS A :OLE4 

,WE MADE A />T BY 9VE/IGAT+ 9DIVIDUAL CAPITAL4 ,BUT WE MU/ APPROA* ! DEMON/RATION ( TOTAL CAPITAL & ITS TOTAL PRODUCT 9 A SOME:AT DIFF]5T MANN]4 ,QUANTITATIVELY1 AS A QUANTITY ( VALUE1 ! C ( SOCIETY CONSI/S PRECISELY 9 ! TOTAL ( 9DIVIDUAL CON/ANT CAPITALS1 & ! SAME APPLIES TO ! O!R AM\NTS1 V & S4 ,BUT ! \TW>D %APE ( EA* HAS *ANG$ - ! C ( CON/ANT CAPITALS REEM]GES FROM ! PROCESS ( PRODUCTION AS AN ELEM5T ( VALUE ) 9F9ITELY V>I$ FACETS1 COMPRIS+ A HO/ ( V>IEGAT$ OBJECTS = USE1 BUT 9 ! TOTAL PRODUCT IT APPE>S1 AS IT W]E1 CONTRACT$ 9TO A C]TA9 QUANTITY ( MEANS ( PRODUCTION4 ,SIMIL>LY ) V & S1 :I* 9 ! CASE ( ! 9DIVIDUAL CAPITALI/ REEM]GE AS ITEMS 9 A MO/ COLORFUL JUMBLE ( COMMODITIES1 BE+ PROVISIONS 9 ADEQUATE QUANTITIES = ! WORK]S & CAPITALI/S4 ,ADAM ,SMI? CAME V]Y CLOSE TO RECOGNIZ+ ?IS FACT :5 HE OBS]V$ ?AT ! CATEGORIES ( FIX$ & CIRCULAT+ CAPITAL & ( REV5UE 9 RELATION TO ! 9DIVIDUAL CAPITALI/ DO NOT CO9CIDE ) !SE CATEGORIES 9 ! CASE ( SOCIETY4 

,WE HAVE COME TO ! FOLL[+ CONCLUSIONS3 

,! =MULA C "4 V "4 S S]VES TO EXPRESS ! PRODUCTION ( SOCIETY VIEW$ AS A :OLE1 AS WELL AS ! PRODUCTION ( 9DIVIDUAL CAPITALI/S4 

,SOCIAL PRODUCTION IS DIVID$ 9TO TWO DEP>TM5TS1 5GAG$ 9 ! PRODUCTION ( PRODUC] & CONSUM] GOODS RESPECTIVELY4 

,BO? DEP>TM5TS WORK ACCORD+ TO CAPITALI/ ME?ODS1 ?AT IS TO SAY !Y BO? AIM AT ! PRODUCTION ( SURPLUS VALUE1 & ?US ! =MULA C "4 V "4 S WILL APPLY TO EA* ( !M4 

,! TWO DEP>TM5TS >E 9T]DEP5D5T1 & >E !RE=E B\ND TO DISPLAY A C]TA9 QUANTITATIVE RELATION%IP1 NAMELY ! ONE DEP>TM5T MU/ PRODUCE ALL MEANS ( PRODUCTIONS ! O!R ALL PROVISIONS = ! WORK]S & CAPITALI/S ( BO? DEP>TM5TS4 

,PROCE$+ FROM ?IS PO9T ( VIEW1 ,M>X DEVIS$ ! FOLL[+ DIAGRAM ( CAPITALI/ REPRODUCTION3 

 ,I4 #d1C "4 #a1V "4 #a1S "7 #f1 MEANS ( PRODUCTION 

,I,I4 #b1C "4    #eV "4    #eS "7 #c1 >TICLES ( CONSUMPTION47#c7 

,! FIGURES 9 ?IS DIAGRAM EXPRESS QUANTITIES ( VALUE1 AM\NTS ( MONEY :I* >E *OS5 >BITR>ILY1 BUT !IR RATIOS >E EXACT4 ,EA* DEP>TM5T IS *>ACT]IZ$ BY ! USE-=M ( ! COMMODITIES PRODUC$4 ,!IR MUTUAL CIRCULATION TAKES PLACE AS FOLL[S3 ,DEP>TM5T ,I SUPPLIES ! MEANS ( PRODUCTION = ! 5TIRE PRODUCTIVE PROCESS1 = ITSELF AS WELL AS = ,DEP>TM5T ,I,I4 ,FROM ?IS ALONE IT FOLL[S1 ?AT = ! UNDI/URB$ CONT9UANCE ( REPRODUCTION - = WE /ILL PRESUME SIMPLE REPRODUCTION ON ! OLD SCALE - ! TOTAL PRODUCE ( ,DEP>TM5T ,I 7,I #f17 MU/ HAVE ! SAME VALUE AS ! SUM ( CON/ANT CAPITALS 9 BO? DEP>TM5TS3 7,I #d1C "4 ,I,I #b1C74 ,SIMIL>LY1 ,DEP>TM5T ,I,I SUPPLIES PROVISIONS = ! :OLE ( SOCIETY1 = ITS [N WORK]S & CAPITALI/S AS WELL AS = ! WORK]S & CAPITALI/S ( ,DEP>TM5T ,I4 ,H5CE IT FOLL[S ?AT = ! UNDI/URB$ C\RSE ( CONSUMPTION & PRODUCTION & ITS R5EWAL ON ! OLD SCALE IT IS NECESS>Y ?AT ! TOTAL QUANTITY ( PROVISIONS SUPPLI$ BY ,DEP>TM5T ,I,I %\LD EQUAL 9 VALUE ALL ! 9COMES ( ! EMPLOY$ WORK]S & CAPITALI/S ( SOCIETY .<H]E ,I,I #c1 "7 ,I7#a1V "4 #a1S "4 ,I,I7#eV "4 #eS7.>4 

,H]E WE HAVE 9DE$ EXPRESS$ RELATION%IPS ( VALUE :I* >E ! F\NDATION NOT ONLY ( CAPITALI/ REPRODUCTION BUT ( REPRODUCTION 9 EV]Y SOCIETY4 ,9 EV]Y PRODUC+ SOCIETY1 :ATEV] ITS SOCIAL =M1 9 ! PRIMITIVE SMALL VILLAGE COMMUNITY ( ! ,BAKAIRI ( ,BRAZIL1 9 ! OIKOS ( A ,TIMON ( ,A!NS ) ITS SLAVES1 OR 9 ! IMP]IAL CORVEE F>M ( ,*>LEMAGNE1 ! LABOR P[] AVAILABLE = SOCIETY MU/ BE DI/RIBUT$ 9 SU* AWAY ?AT MEANS ( PRODUCTION AS WELL AS PROVISIONS >E PRODUC$ 9 ADEQUATE QUANTITIES4 ,! =M] MU/ SUFFICE = ! IMM$IATE PRODUCTION ( PROVISIONS AS WELL AS = ! FUTURE R5EWAL ( ! MEANS ( PRODUCTION !MSELVES1 & ! PROVISIONS 9 !IR TURN MU/ SUFFICE = ! MA9T5ANCE ( ! WORK]S OCCUPI$ 9 ! PRODUCTION ALIKE ( !SE SAME PROVISIONS & ( ! MEANS ( PRODUCTION1 & MOREOV] = ! MA9T5ANCE ( ALL ?OSE :O DO NOT WORK4 

,9 ITS BROAD \TL9E1 ,M>X'S S*EME CORRESPONDS ) ! UNIV]SAL & ABSOLUTE F\NDATION ( SOCIAL REPRODUCTION1 ) ONLY ! FOLL[+ SPECIFICATIONS3 SOCIALLY NECESS>Y LABOR APPE>S H]E AS VALUE1 ! MEANS ( PRODUCTION AS CON/ANT CAPITAL1 ! LABOR NECESS>Y = ! MA9T5ANCE ( ! WORK]S AS V>IABLE CAPITAL & ?AT NECESS>Y = ! MA9T5ANCE ( ?OSE :O DO NOT WORK AS SURPLUS VALUE4 

,9 CAPITALI/ SOCIETY1 H[EV]1 ! CONNECTIONS BETWE5 !SE TWO GREAT DEP>TM5TS DEP5D UPON EX*ANGE ( COMMODITIES1 ON ! EX*ANGE ( EQUIVAL5TS4 ,! WORK]S & CAPITALI/S ( ,DEP>TM5T ,I CAN ONLY OBTA9 AS MANY PROVISIONS FROM ,DEP>TM5T ,I,I AS !Y CAN DELIV] ( !IR [N COMMODITIES1 ! MEANS ( PRODUCTION4 ,! DEM& ( ,DEP>TM5T ,I,I = MEANS ( PRODUCTION1 ON ! O!R H&1 IS DET]M9$ BY ! SIZE ( ITS CON/ANT CAPITAL4 ,IT FOLL[S !RE=E ?AT ! SUM ( ! V>IABLE CAPITAL & ( ! SURPLUS VALUE 9 ! PRODUCTION ( PRODUC] GOODS .<H]E ,I7#a1V "4 #a1S7.> MU/ EQUAL ! CON/ANT CAPITAL 9 ! PRODUCTION ( PROVISIONS .<H]E ,I,I7#b1C7.>4 

,AN IMPORTANT PROVISO REMA9S TO BE ADD$ TO ! ABOVE S*EME4 ,! CON/ANT CAPITAL :I* HAS BE5 SP5T BY ! TWO DEP>TM5TS IS 9 REALITY ONLY P>T ( ! CON/ANT CAPITAL US$ BY SOCIETY4 ,?IS CON/ANT CAPITAL IS DIVID$ 9TO TWO P>TS2 ! FIR/ IS FIX$ CAPITAL - PREMISES1 TOOLS1 LABOR+ CATTLE - :I* FUNCTIONS 9 A NUMB] ( P]IODS ( PRODUCTION1 9 EV]Y ONE ( :I*1 H[EV]1 ONLY P>T ( ITS VALUE IS ABSORB$ BY ! PRODUCT1 ACCORD+ TO ! AM\NT ( ITS WE> & TE>4 ,! SECOND IS CIRCULAT+ CAPITAL SU* AS RAW MAT]IALS1 AUXILI>Y SEMI-F9I%$ PRODUCTS2 FUEL & LI<T+ - ITS :OLE VALUE IS COMPLETELY ABSORB$ BY ! NEW PRODUCT 9 EV]Y P]IOD ( PRODUCTION4 ,YET ONLY ?AT P>T ( ! MEANS ( PRODUCTION IS RELEVANT = REPRODUCTION :I* IS ACTUALLY ABSORB$ BY ! PRODUCTION ( VALUE2 )\T BECOM+ LESS CORRECT1 AN EXACT EXPOSITION ( SOCIAL CIRCULATION MAY DISREG>D ! REMA9+ P>T ( ! FIX$ CAPITAL :I* HAS NOT BE5 ABSORB$ BY ! PRODUCT1 ?\< IT %\LD NOT COMPLETELY =GET IT4 ,?IS IS EASY TO PROVE4 

,LET US ASSUME ?AT ! CON/ANT CAPITAL1 #f1C1 9 ! TWO DEP>TM5TS1 :I* IS 9 FACT ABSORB$ BY ! ANNUAL PRODUCT ( !SE DEP>TM5TS1 CONSI/S ( #a1#eC FIX$ & #d1#eC CIRCULAT+ CAPITAL1 ! #a1#eC ( FIX$ CAPITAL REPRES5T+ H]E ! ANNUAL WE> & TE> ( ! PREMISES1 MA*9]Y & LABOR+ CATTLE4 ,?IS ANNUAL WE> & TE> EQUALS1 SAY1 #a P] C5T ( ! TOTAL VALUE ( ! FIX$ CAPITAL EMPLOY$4 ,!N ! TOTAL SOCIAL CAPITAL W\LD REALLY CONSI/ ( #a#i1#eC "4 #a1#eV1 ! CON/ANT CAPITAL 9 BO? DEP>TM5TS BE+ #a1#eC ( FIX$ & AGGREGATE FIX$ CAPITAL1 ) #a P] C5T WE> & TE>1 IS T5 YE>S EX HYPO!SI1 ! FIX$ CAPITAL NE$S R5EWAL ONLY AFT] ! LAPSE ( T5 YE>S4 ,MEAN:ILE ONE-T5? ( ITS VALUE 5T]S 9TO SOCIAL PRODUCTION 9 EV]Y YE>4 ,IF ALL ! FIX$ CAPITAL ( A SOCIETY1 ) ! SAME RATE ( WE> & TE>1 W]E ( EQUAL DURABILITY1 IT W\LD1 ON \R ASSUMPTION1 NE$ COMPLETE R5EWAL ONCE )9 T5 YE>S4 ,?IS1 H[EV]1 IS NOT ! CASE4 ,SOME ( ! V>I\S USE-=MS :I* >E P>T ( ! FIX$ CAPITAL MAY LA/ LONG] & O!RS %ORT]1 WE> & TE> & DURATION ( LIFE >E QUITE DIFF]5T 9 ! DIFF]5T K9DS & 9DIVIDUAL REPRES5TATIONS ( FIX$ CAPITAL4 ,9 CONSEQU5CE1 FIX$ CAPITAL NE$ NOT BE R5EW$ - REPRODUC$ 9 ITS CONCRETE USE-=M - ALL AT ONCE1 BUT P>TS ( IT >E CONT9UALLY R5EW$ AT V>I\S /AGES ( SOCIAL PRODUCTION1 :ILE O!R P>TS /ILL FUNCTION 9 !IR OLD] =M4 ,\R ASSUMPTION ( A FIX$ CAPITAL ( #a#e1C ) A #a P] C5T RATE ( WE> & TE> DOES NOT MEAN ?AT ?IS MU/ BE R5EW$ ALL AT ONCE EV]Y T5 YE>S1 BUT ?AT AN ANNUAL AV]AGE R5EWAL & REPLACEM5T MU/ BE EFFECT$ ( A P>T ( ! TOTAL FIX$ SOCIAL CAPITAL CORRESPOND+ TO ONE-T5? ( ITS VALUE2 ?AT IS TO SAY1 ,DEP>TM5T ,I :I* HAS TO SATISFY ! NE$S ( SOCIETY = MEANS ( PRODUCTION MU/ REPRODUCE1 YE> BY YE>1 NOT ONLY ALL ITS RAW & P>TLY F9I%$ MAT]IALS1 ETC41 ITS CIRCULAT+ CAPITAL TO ! VALUE ( #d1#e1 BUT MU/ ALSO REPRODUCE ! USE-=MS ( ITS FIX$ CAPITAL - PREMISES1 MA*9]Y1 & ! LIKE - TO ! EXT5T ( #a1#e1 CORRESPOND+ ) ! ANNUAL WE> & TE> ( FIX$ CAPITAL4 ,IF ,DEP>TM5T ,I CONT9UES 9 ?IS MANN] TO R5EW ONE-T5? ( ! FIX$ CAPITAL 9 ITS USE-=M EV]Y YE>1 ! RESULT WILL BE ?AT EV]Y T5 YE>S ! TOTAL FIX$ CAPITAL ( SOCIETY WILL HAVE BE5 REPLAC$ ?R\<\T BY NEW ITEMS2 ?US IT FOLL[S ?AT ! REPRODUCTION ( ?OSE P>TS DISREG>D$ SO F> IS ALSO COMPLETELY ACC\NT$ = 9 ! ABOVE S*EME4 

,9 PRACTICE1 ! PROC$URE IS ?AT EV]Y CAPITALI/ SETS ASIDE FROM HIS ANNUAL PRODUCTION1 FROM ! REALIZATION ( HIS COMMODITIES1 A C]TA9 AM\NT = ! R$EMPTION ( HIS FIX$ CAPITAL4 ,!SE 9DIVIDUAL ANNUAL D$UCTIONS MU/ AM\NT TO A C]TA9 QUANTITY ( CAPITAL1 !RE=E ! CAPITALI/ HAS 9 FACT R5EW$ HIS FIX$ CAPITAL1 ?AT IS1 HE HAS REPLAC$ IT BY NEW & MORE EFFICI5T ITEMS4 ,?IS ALT]NAT+ PROC$URE ( BUILD+ UP ANNUAL RES]VES ( MONEY = ! R5EWAL ( FIX$ CAPITAL & ( ! P]IODICAL EMPLOYM5T ( ! ACCUMULAT$ AM\NTS = ! ACTUAL R5EWAL ( FIX$ CAPITAL V>IES ) ! 9DIVIDUAL CAPITALI/1 SO ?AT SOME >E ACCUMULAT+ RES]VES1 :ILE O!RS HAVE ALREADY />T$ !IR R5EWALS4 ,?US EV]Y YE> P>T ( ! FIX$ CAPITAL IS ACTUALLY R5EW$4 ,! MONET>Y PROC$URE H]E ONLY DISGUISES ! REAL PROCESS :I* *>ACT]IZES ! REPRODUCTION ( FIX$ CAPITAL4 

,ON CLOS] OBS]VATION WE SEE ?AT ?IS IS AS IT %\LD BE4 ,! :OLE ( ! FIX$ CAPITAL TAKES P>T 9 ! PROCESS ( PRODUCTION1 = PHYSICALLY ! MASS ( USABLE OBJECTS1 PREMISES1 MA*9]Y1 LABOR+ CATTLE1 >E COMPLETELY EMPLOY$4 ,IT IS !IR PECULI>ITY AS FIX$ CAPITAL1 ON ! O!R H&1 ?AT ONLY P>T ( ! VALUE IS ABSORB$ 9 ! PRODUCTION ( VALUE1 S9CE 9 ! PROCESS ( REPRODUCTION 7AGA9 PO/ULAT+ SIMPLE REPRODUCTION71 ALL ?AT MATT]S IS TO REPLACE 9 !IR NATURAL =M ! VALUES :I* HAVE BE5 ACTUALLY US$ UP AS MEANS ( SUBSI/5CE & PRODUCTION DUR+ A YE>'S PRODUCTION4 ,!RE=E1 FIX$ CAPITAL NE$ ONLY BE REPRODUC$ TO ! EXT5T ?AT IT HAS 9 FACT BE5 US$ UP 9 ! PRODUCTION ( COMMODITIES4 ,! REMA9+ PORTION ( VALUE1 EMBODI$ 9 ! TOTAL USE-=M ( FIX$ CAPITAL1 IS ( DECISIVE IMPORTANCE = PRODUCTION AS A LABOR PROCESS1 BUT DOES NOT EXI/ = ! ANNUAL REPRODUCTION ( SOCIETY AS A PROCESS ( VALUE-=MATION4 

,BESIDES1 ?IS PROCESS :I* IS H]E EXPRESS$ BY RELATIONS ( VALUE APPLIES EQUALLY TO EV]Y SOCIETY1 EV5 TO A COMMUNITY :I* DOES NOT PRODUCE COMMODITIES4 ,IF ONCE UPON A TIME1 = 9/ANCE1 SAY T5 YE>S' LABOR ( #a1 FELLAHE5 WAS REQUIR$ = ! CON/RUCTION ( ! FAM\S ,LAKE ,MO]IS & ! RELAT$ ,NILE CANALS - ?AT MIRACUL\S LAKE1 :I* ,H]ODOTUS TELLS US WAS MADE BY H& - & IF = ! MA9T5ANCE ( ?IS1 ! MO/ MAGNIFIC5T DRA9AGE SY/EM ( ! WORLD1 ! LABOR ( A FUR!R #a FELLAHE5 WAS ANNUALLY REQUIR$ 7! FIGURES1 ( C\RSE1 >E *OS5 AT R&OM71 WE MI<T SAY ?AT AFT] EV]Y HUNDR$ YE>S ! ,MO]IS DAM & ! CANALS W]E REPRODUC$ ANEW1 AL?\< 9 FACT ! 5TIRE SY/EM WAS NOT CON/RUCT$ AS A :OLE 9 EV]Y C5TURY4 ,?IS IS MANIFE/LY TRUE4 ,:51 AMID ! /ORMY 9CID5TS ( POLITICAL HI/ORY & ALI5 CONQUE/S1 ! USUAL CRUDE NEGLECT ( OLD MONUM5TS ( CULTURE SET 9 - AS DISPLAY$1 E4G4 BY ! ,5GLI% 9 ,9DIA :5 ! REPRODUCTIONAL NE$S ( ANCI5T CIVILIZATIONS W]E UND]/OOD NO LONG] - !N 9 ! C\RSE ( TIME ! :OLE ,LAKE ,MO]IS1 ITS WAT]1 DIKES & CANALS1 ! TWO PYRAMIDS 9 ITS MID/1 ! COLOSSUS UPON IT & O!R M>VEL\S ]ECTIONS1 DISAPPE>$ )\T A TRACE1 AS ?\< !Y HAD NEV] BE5 BUILT4 ,ONLY T5 L9ES 9 ,H]ODOTUS1 A DOT ON ,PTOLEMY'S MAP ( ! WORLD1 TRACES ( OLD CULTURES1 & ( VILLAGES & CITIES BE> WITNESS ?AT AT ONE TIME RI* LIFE SPRANG FROM ?IS MAGNIFIC5T IRRIGATION SY/EM1 :]E TO-DAY !RE >E ONLY /RET*ES ( >ID DES]T 9 9N] ,LYBIA1 & DESOLATE SWAMPS ALONG ! COA/4 ,!RE IS ONLY ONE PO9T :]E ,M>X'S S*EME ( SIMPLE REPRODUCTION MAY APPE> UNSATISFACTORY OR 9COMPLETE 9 RELATION TO CON/ANT CAPITAL1 & ?AT IS :5 WE GO BACK TO ?AT P]IOD ( PRODUCTION1 :5 ! TOTAL FIX$ CAPITAL WAS FIR/ CREAT$4 ,9DE$1 SOCIETY POSSESSES TRANS=M$ LABOR AM\NT+ TO MORE ?AN ?OSE P>TS ( FIX$ CAPITAL :I* >E ABSORB$ 9TO ! VALUE ( ! ANNUAL PRODUCT & >E 9 TURN REPLAC$ BY IT4 ,9 ! FIGURES ( \R EXAMPLE1 ! TOTAL SOCIAL CAPITAL DOES NOT CONSI/ ( #f1C "4 #a1#eV1 AS 9 ! DIAGRAM1 BUT ( #a#i1#eC "4 #a1#eV4 ,?\< #a1#e ( ! FIX$ CAPITAL 7:I*1 ON \R ASSUMPTION1 AM\NTS TO #a#e17 >E ANNUALLY REPRODUC$ 9 ! =M ( APPROPRIATE MEANS ( PRODUCTION1 AN EQUAL AM\NT IS ALSO CONSUM$ BY ! SAME PRODUCTION EA* YE>1 ?\< ! :OLE ( ! FIX$ CAPITAL AS A USE-=M1 AN AGGREGATE ( OBJECTS1 HAS BE5 R5EW$4 ,AFT] T5 YE>S1 SOCIETY POSSESSES 9 ! ELEV5?1 JU/ AS 9 ANY O!R YE>1 A FIX$ CAPITAL ( #a#e11 :]EAS IT HAS ANNUALLY A*IEV$ ONLY #a1#eC2 & ITS CON/ANT CAPITAL AS A :OLE IS #a#i1#e1 :]EAS IT HAS CREAT$ ONLY #f14 ,OBVI\SLY1 S9CE IT MU/ HAVE CREAT$ ?IS SURPLUS ( #a#c1#e FIX$ CAPITAL BY ITS LABOR1 IT POSSESSES MORE ACCUMULAT$ PA/ LABOR ?AN \R S*EME ( REPRODUCTION W>RANTS4 ,EV5 AT ?IS /AGE1 ! ANNUAL LABOR ( SOCIETY MU/ BE BAS$ ON SOME PREVI\S ANNUAL LABOR ?AT HAS BE5 HO>D$4 ,?IS QUE/ION ( PA/ LABOR1 H[EV]1 AS ! F\NDATION ( ALL PRES5T LABOR1 BR+S US TO ! V]Y FIR/ BEG9N+ :I* IS AS MEAN+LESS ) REG>D TO ! ECONOMIC DEVELOPM5T ( MANK9D AS IT IS = ! NATURAL DEVELOPM5T ( MATT]4 ,! S*EME ( REPRODUCTION GRASPS ! SOCIAL PROCESS AS P]PETUALLY 9 MOTION1 AS A L9K 9 ! 5DLESS *A9 ( EV5TS1 IT NEI!R WANTS TO DEMON/RATE ITS 9ITIAL ORIG91 NOR %\LD IT DO SO4 ,! SOCIAL REPRODUCTIVE PROCESS IS ALWAYS BAS$ ON PA/ LABOR1 WE MAY TRACE IT BACK AS F> AS WE LIKE4 ,SOCIAL LABOR HAS NO BEG9N+1 JU/ AS IT HAS NO 5D4 ,LIKE ! HI/ORICAL ORIG9 ( ,H]ODOTUS' ,LAKE ,MO]IS1 ! BEG9N+S ( ! REPRODUCTIVE PROCESS 9 ! HI/ORY ( CIVILIZATION >E LO/ 9 ! TWILI<T ( LEG5D4 ,) ! PROGRESS ( TE*NIQUES & ) CULTURAL DEVELOPM5T1 ! MEANS ( PRODUCTION *ANGE !IR =M1 CRUDE PALEOLI?S >E REPLAC$ BY %>P5$ TOOLS1 /ONE IMPLEM5TS BY ELEGANT BRONZE & IRON1 ! >TISAN'S TOOL BY /EAM-DRIV5 MA*9]Y4 ,YET1 ?\< ! MEANS ( PRODUCTION & ! SOCIAL ORGANIZATION ( ! PRODUCTIVE PROCESS CONT9UALLY *ANGE !IR =M1 SOCIETY ALREADY POSSESSES = ITS LABOR PROCESS A C]TA9 AM\NT ( PA/ LABOR S]V+ AS ! BASIS = ANNUAL REPRODUCTION4 

,UND] CAPITALI/ ME?ODS ( PRODUCTION PA/ LABOR ( SOCIETY PRES]V$ 9 ! MEANS ( PRODUCTION TAKES ! =M ( CAPITAL1 & ! QUE/ION ( ! ORIG9 ( ?IS PA/ LABOR :I* =MS ! F\NDATION ( ! REPRODUCTIVE PROCESS BECOMES ! QUE/ION ( ! G5ESIS ( CAPITAL4 ,?IS IS MU* LESS LEG5D>Y1 9DE$ IT IS WRIT 9 LETT]S ( BLOOD 9 MOD]N HI/ORY4 ,! V]Y FACT1 H[EV]1 ?AT WE CANNOT ?9K ( SIMPLE REPRODUCTION UNLESS WE ASSUME A HO>D ( PA/ LABOR1 SURPASS+ 9 VOLUME ! LABOR ANNUALLY P]=M$ = ! MA9T5ANCE ( SOCIETY1 T\*ES ! SORE SPOT ( SIMPLE REPRODUCTION2 & IT %[S ?AT SIMPLE REPRODUCTION IS A FICTION NOT ONLY = CAPITALI/ PRODUCTION BUT ALSO = ! PROGRESS ( CIVILIZATION 9 G5]AL4 ,IF WE M]ELY WI% TO UND]/& ?IS FICTION PROP]LY1 & TO R$UCE IT TO A S*EME1 WE MU/ PRESUME1 AS ITS S9E QUA NON1 RESULTS ( A PA/ PRODUCTIVE PROCESS :I* CANNOT POSSIBLY BE RE/RICT$ TO SIMPLE REPRODUCTION BUT 9EXORABLY PO9TS T[>DS 5L>G$ REPRODUCTION4 ,BY WAY ( ILLU/RATION1 WE MI<T COMP>E ! AGGREGATE FIX$ CAPITAL ( SOCIETY ) A RAILWAY4 ,! DURABILITY & CONSEQU5TLY ! ANNUAL WE> & TE> ( ITS V>I\S P>TS IS V]Y DIFF]5T4 ,P>TS SU* AS VIADUCTS & TUNNELS MAY LA/ = C5TURIES1 /EAM 5G9ES = DECADES1 BUT O!R ROLL+ /OCK WILL BE US$ UP 9 A %ORT TIME1 9 SOME 9/ANCES 9 A FEW MON?S4 ,YET IT IS POSSIBLE TO WORK \T AN AV]AGE RATE ( WE> & TE>1 SAY ?IRTY YE>S1 SO ?AT ! VALUE ( ! :OLE IS ANNUALLY DEPRECIAT$ BY ONE ?IRTIE?4 ,?IS LOSS ( VALUE IS N[ CONT9UALLY MADE GOOD BY P>TIAL REPRODUCTION ( ! RAILWAY 7:I* MAY C\NT AS REPAIRS71 SO ?AT A COA* IS R5EW$ TO-DAY1 P>T ( ! 5G9E TO-MORR[1 & A SECTION ( SLEEP]S ! DAY AFT]4 ,ON \R ASSUMPTION !N1 ! OLD RAILWAY IS REPLAC$ BY A NEW ONE AFT] ?IRTY YE>S1 A SIMIL> AM\NT ( LABOR BE+ P]=M$ EA* YE> BY ! SOCIETY SO ?AT SIMPLE REPRODUCTION TAKES PLACE4 ,BUT ! RAILWAY CAN ONLY BE REPRODUC$ 9 ?IS MANN] - IT CANNOT BE SO PRODUC$4 ,9 ORD] TO MAKE IT FIT = USE & TO MAKE GOOD ITS GRADUAL WE> & TE>1 ! RAILWAY MU/ HAVE BE5 COMPLET$ 9 ! FIR/ PLACE4 ,?\< ! RAILWAY CAN BE REPAIR$ 9 P>TS1 IT CANNOT BE MADE FIT = USE PIECEMEAL1 AN AXLE TO-DAY & A COA* TO-MORR[4 ,9DE$1 ! V]Y ESS5CE ( FIX$ CAPITAL IS ALWAYS TO 5T] 9TO ! PRODUCTIVE PROCESS 9 ITS 5TIRETY1 AS A MAT]IAL USE-VALUE4 ,9 ORD] TO GET ?IS USE-=M READY 9 ! FIR/ PLACE1 SOCIETY MU/ APPLY A MORE CONC5TRAT$ AM\NT ( LABOR TO ITS MANUFACTURE4 ,9 T]MS ( \R EXAMPLE1 ! LABOR ( ?IRTY YE>S ?AT IS US$ = REPAIRS1 MU/ BE COMPRESS$ 9TO1 SAY1 TWO OR ?REE YE>S4 ,DUR+ ?IS P]IOD ( MANUFACTURE1 SOCIETY MU/ !RE=E EXP5D AN AM\NT ( LABOR F> GREAT] ?AN ! AV]AGE1 ?AT IS TO SAY IT MU/ HAVE REC\RSE TO EXP&+ REPRODUCTION2 LAT]1 :5 ! RAILWAY IS F9I%$1 IT MAY RETURN TO SIMPLE REPRODUCTION4 ,?\< WE NE$ NOT VISUALIZE ! AGGREGATE FIX$ CAPITAL AS A S+LE COH]5T USE-OBJECT OR A CONGLOM]ATION ( OBJECTS :I* MU/ BE PRODUC$ ALL AT ONCE1 ! MANUFACTURE ( ALL ! MORE IMPORTANT MEANS ( PRODUCTION1 SU* AS BUILD+S1 TRANSPORT FACILITIES1 & AGRICULTURAL /RUCTURES1 REQUIRES A MORE CONC5TRAT$ APPLICATION ( LABOR1 &1 ?IS IS TRUE = ! MOD]N RAILWAY OR /EAM%IP AS MU* AS IT WAS = ! R\< /ONE-AX & ! H&MILL4 ,!RE=E IT IS ONLY 9 !ORY ?AT SIMPLE REPRODUCTION CAN BE CONCEIV$ AS ALT]NAT+ ) 5L>G$ REPRODUCTION2 ! LATT] IS NOT ONLY A G5]AL CONDITION ( A PROGRESSIVE CIVILIZATION & AN EXP&+ POPULATION1 BUT ALSO ! S9E QUA NON = ! ECONOMIC =M ( FIX$ CAPITAL1 OR ?OSE MEANS ( PRODUCTION :I* 9 EV]Y SOCIETY CORRESPOND TO ! FIX$ CAPITAL4 

,M>X DEALS ) ?IS CONFLICT BETWE5 ! =MATION ( FIX$ CAPITAL & SIMPLE REPRODUCTION BUT 9DIRECTLY1 9 CONNECTION ) FLUCTUATIONS 9 ! WE> & TE> ( ! FIX$ CAPITAL1 MORE RAPID 9 SOME YE>S ?AN 9 O!RS4 ,H]E HE EMPHASIZES ! NE$ = P]PETUAL 'OV]-PRODUCTION'1 I4E4 5L>G$ REPRODUCTION1 S9CE A /RICT POLICY ( SIMPLE REPRODUCTION W\LD P]IODICALLY LEAD TO REPRODUCTIVE LOSSES4 ,9 %ORT1 HE REG>DS 5L>G$ REPRODUCTION UND] ! ASPECT ( AN 9SURANCE FUND = ! FIX$ CAPITAL ( ! SOCIETY1 RA!R ?AN 9 ! LI<T ( ! ACTUAL PRODUCTIVE PROCESS47#d7 

,9 QUITE A DIFF]5T CONTEXT ,M>X APPE>S TO 5DORSE ! OP9ION EXPRESS$ ABOVE4 ,9 ,!ORIES ON ! ,SURPLUS ,VALUE1 VOL4II1 P>T #b1 ANALYZ+ ! CONV]SION ( REV5UE 9TO CAPITAL1 HE SPEAKS ( ! PECULI> REPRODUCTION ( ! FIX$ CAPITAL1 ! REPLACEM5T ( :I* 9 ITSELF ALREADY PROVIDES A FUND = ACCUMULATION4 ,HE DRAWS ! FOLL[+ CONCLUSION3 

',! PO9T WE HAVE 9 M9D IS AS FOLL[S3 EV5 IF ! AGGREGATE CAPITAL EMPLOY$ 9 MA*9E MANUFACTURE W]E JU/ L>GE 5\< TO MAKE GOOD ! ANNUAL WE> & TE> ( ! MA*9ES1 MANY MORE MA*9ES C\LD BE ANNUALLY PRODUC$ ?AN >E REQUIR$1 S9CE ! WE> & TE> IS 9 P>TS M]ELY IDEALIT] & MU/ BE MADE GOOD REALIT]1 9 NATURA1 ONLY AFT] A C]TA9 NUMB] ( YE>S4 ,CAPITAL SO EMPLOY$ SUPPLIES EA* YE> A MASS ( MA*9]Y :I* BECOMES AVAILABLE =1 & ANTICIPATES NEW1 CAPITAL 9VE/M5TS4 ,LET US SUPPOSE1 = 9/ANCE1 A MA*9E MANUFACTUR] :O />TS PRODUCTION ?IS YE>4 ,DUR+ ?IS YE>1 HE SUPPLIES MA*9ES = ,G,B,P#a#b14 ,IF HE W]E M]ELY TO REPRODUCE ! MA*9ES HE HAS MANUFACTUR$1 HE W\LD HAVE TO PRODUCE1 DUR+ ! SUBSEQU5T ELEV5 YE>S1 MA*9ES = ,G,B,P#a1 ONLY1 & EV5 !N1 A YE>'S PRODUCTION W\LD NOT BE CONSUM$ )9 ! YE>4 ,/ILL LESS C\LD IT BE CONSUM$1 IF HE W]E TO EMPLOY ! :OLE ( HIS CAPITAL4 ,TO KEEP ?IS CAPITAL WORK+1 TO KEEP IT REPRODUC+ ITSELF EV]Y YE>1 A NEW & CONT9U\S EXPANSION ( ! BRAN*ES ( MANUFACTURE ?AT REQUIRE !SE MA*9ES1 IS 9DISP5SABLE4 ,?IS APPLIES EV5 MORE1 IF ! MA*9E MANUFACTUR] HIMSELF ACCUMULATES4 ,9 CONSEQU5CE1 EV5 IF ! CAPITAL 9VE/$ 9 ONE P>TICUL> BRAN* ( PRODUCTION IS SIMPLY BE+ REPRODUC$17#e7 A CONT9U\S ACCUMULATION 9 ! O!R BRAN*ES ( PRODUCTION MU/ GO ) IT4'7#f7 

,WE MI<T TAKE ! MA*9E MANUFACTUR] ( ,M>X'S EXAMPLE AS ILLU/RAT+ ! PRODUCTION ( FIX$ CAPITAL4 ,!N ! 9F]5CE IS ?AT IF SOCIETY MA9TA9S SIMPLE REPRODUCTION 9 ?IS SPH]E1 EMPLOY+ EA* YE> A SIMIL> AM\NT ( LABOR = ! PRODUCTION ( FIX$ CAPITAL 7A PROC$URE :I* IS1 ( C\RSE1 IMPOSSIBLE 9 PRACTICAL LIFE71 !N ANNUAL PRODUCTION 9 ALL O!R SPH]ES MU/ EXP&4 ,BUT IF H]E1 TOO1 SIMPLE REPRODUCTION IS TO BE MA9TA9$1 !N1 IF ! FIX$ CAPITAL ONCE CREAT$ IS TO BE M]ELY R5EW$1 ONLY A SMALL P>T ( ! LABOR EMPLOY$ 9 ITS CREATION CAN BE EXP5D$4 ,OR1 TO PUT IT ! O!R WAY R\ND3 IF SOCIETY IS TO PROVIDE = 9VE/M5T 9 FIX$ CAPITAL ON A L>GE SCALE1 IT MU/1 EV5 ASSUM+ SIMPLE REPRODUCTION TO PREVAIL ON ! :OLE1 RESORT P]IODICALLY TO 5L>G$ REPRODUCTION4 

,) ! ADVANCE ( CIVILIZATION1 !RE >E *ANGES NOT ONLY 9 ! =M ( ! MEANS ( PRODUCTION BUT ALSO 9 ! QUANTITY ( VALUE !Y REPRES5T - OR BETT]1 *ANGES 9 ! SOCIAL LABOR /OR$ UP 9 !M4 ,AP>T FROM ! LABOR NECESS>Y = ITS IMM$IATE PRES]VATION1 SOCIETY HAS 9CREAS+LY MORE LABOR TIME & LABOR P[] TO SP>E1 & IT MAKES USE ( !SE = ! MANUFACTURE ( MEANS ( PRODUCTION ON AN EV] 9CREAS+ SCALE4 ,H[ DOES ?IS AFFECT ! PROCESS ( REPRODUCTION8 ,H[1 9 T]MS ( CAPITALISM1 DOES SOCIETY CREATE \T ( ITS ANNUAL LABOR A GREAT] AM\NT ( CAPITAL ?AN IT =M]LY POSSESS$8 ,?IS QUE/ION T\*ES UPON 5L>G$ REPRODUCTION1 & IT IS NOT YET TIME TO DEAL ) IT4 

,FOOTNOTES 

7#a7 ,= ! SAKE ( SIMPLICITY1 WE %ALL FOLL[ G5]AL USAGE & SPEAK H]E & 9 ! FOLL[+ ( ANNUAL PRODUCTION1 ?\< ?IS T]M1 /RICTLY SPEAK+1 APPLIES 9 G5]AL TO AGRICULTURE ONLY4 ,! P]IODS ( 9DU/RIAL PRODUCTION1 OR ( ! TURNOV] ( CAPITALS1 NE$ NOT CO9CIDE ) CAL5D> YE>S4 

7#b7 ,! DI/9CTION BETWE5 9TELLECTUAL & MAT]IAL LABOR NE$ NOT 9VOLVE SPECIAL CATEGORIES ( ! POPULATION 9 A PLANN$ SOCIETY1 BAS$ ON COMMON [N]%IP ( ! MEANS ( PRODUCTION4 ,IT WILL ALWAYS F9D EXPRESSION 9 ! EXI/5CE ( A C]TA9 NUMB] ( SPIRITUAL LEAD]S :O MU/ BE MAT]IALLY MA9TA9$4 ,! SAME 9DIVIDUALS MAY EX]CISE !SE V>I\S FUNCTIONS AT DIFF]5T TIMES4 

7#c7,CAPITAL1 VOL4II1 P4#d#e#i4 

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7#e7 ,M>X'S ITALICS4 

7#f7,!ORI5 UB] D5 ,MEHRW]T1 VOL4II1 P>T #b1 P4#b#d#h4 

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