,P>T #b1 ,*APT] #g 
,LOVE ,MAGIC & ,POLITICAL ,MORALITY 9 ,C5TRAL ,MADAGASC>1 #a#h#g#e-#a#i#i 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,DAVID ,GRAEB] 

,TEXT 3 

#g -- ,LOVE ,MAGIC & ,POLITICAL ,MORALITY 9 ,C5TRAL ,MADAGASC>1 #a#h#g#e-#a#i#i 

  

,?IS ESSAY SETS \T FROM A SIMPLE QUE/ION4 ,:Y IS IT ?AT AT ! 5D ( ! LA/ C5TURY1 PEOPLE 9 ,IM]9A 9 C5TRAL ,MADAGASC> SEEM TO HAVE UNIV]SALLY ASSUM$ ?AT IT WAS M5 :O US$ ODY FITIA1 OR 0LOVE M$IC9E0--:ILE1 :5 ,I WAS LIV+ !RE BETWE5 #aihi & #a#i#i#a1 ABSOLUTELY EV]YONE ,I SPOKE TO TOOK IT = GRANT$ ?AT IT WAS WOM5 :O DID SO8 ,?IS QUE/ION IS L9K$ TO ANO!R4 ,9 BO? P]IODS1 LOVE M$IC9E WAS CLE>LY ! /UFF ( SC&AL4 ,BUT OV] ! LA/ HUNDR$ YE>S1 :AT IS SC&AL\S AB\T IT APPE>S TO HAVE *ANG$4 ,N9ETE5?-C5TURY TEXTS 9V>IABLY EMPHASIZ$ ?AT :AT W]E CALL$ LOVE M$IC9ES W]E REALLY =MS ( VIOL5CE3 NOT ONLY DID !Y HUMILIATE !IR VICTIMS1 (T5 9 SPECTACUL> WAYS1 !Y ALSO C\LD DO V]Y REAL PHYSICAL H>M4 ,! PEOPLE ,I KNEW W]E JU/ AS DISAPPROV+4 ,BUT :AT !Y DISAPPROV$ ( 9 LOVE M$IC9E WAS SOME?+ V]Y DIFF]5T3 ! FACT ?AT PEOPLE UND] ITS 9FLU5CE W\LD DO :ATEV] !IR 5*ANT] TOLD !M1 ?AT !Y W]E1 9 EFFECT1 5SLAV$4 

,! *ANGE IS ALL ! MORE DRAMATIC BECAUSE IF ONE LOOKS AT MO/ ( :AT WAS WRITT5 AB\T M$IC9E 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY--:AT WE W\LD ORD9>ILY CALL 0MAGIC0--IT'S ALMO/ EXACTLY ! SAME AS :AT PEOPLE SAY AB\T M$IC9E 9 ! PRES5T DAY4 ,Y\ SEE ! SAME LI/S ( *>MS & SPELLS1 ! SAME SORTS C]EMONIES & +R$I5TS3 BITS ( WOOD1 METAL ORNAM5TS1 ! SAME COLORS & V>IETIES ( MAGICAL BEADS4 ,:AT PEOPLE SAY AB\T ! SORTS ( M$IC9E US$ 9 PROTECT+ CROPS OR HELP+ ONE 9 LAWSUITS OR BUS9ESS DEALS HAS H>DLY *ANG$ AT ALL4 ,:AT PEOPLE SAY AB\T LOVE M$IC9E ON ! O!R H& SEEM$ TO HAVE TRANS=M$ COMPLETELY4 ,:Y8 ,:AT HAD HAPP5$ 9 ! MEANTIME8.<#a#c#f.> 

,! ,>GUM5T 

  

,= AN AN?ROPOLOGI/1 ONE ( ! MORE UNUSUAL ?+S AB\T ,MADAGASC> IS ?AT IT SEEMS TO LACK ANY S5SE ( A BYGONE MY?ICAL AGE4 ,MO/ SOCIETIES HAVE A FAIRLY CLE> S5SE ( A TIME ( ORIG9S1 A TIME :51 SAY1 ! DI/9CTIONS BETWE5 ANIMALS & HUMANS & GODS W]E NOT YET E/ABLI%$1 :5 CREATURES F> MORE P[]FUL ?AN EXI/ N[ADAYS W]E ABLE TO CREATE RIV]S & M\NTA9S & 9/ITUTIONS LIKE M>RIAGE1 OR EV5 LIFE ITSELF4 ,(T5 ?IS IS FOLL[$ BY A H]OIC AGE1 9 :I* HUMANS1 :ILE NO LONG] CAPABLE ( SU* COSMIC ACTS ( CREATIVITY1 W]E /ILL ABLE TO WIELD P[]S ?AT NO LONG] EXI/ 9 !SE CURR5T1 FALL51 TIMES4 ,9 ,MADAGASC> ?IS SORT ( VIEW ( HI/ORY WAS /RIK+LY ABS5T4 ,F\ND+ ANCE/ORS1 = EXAMPLE1 W]E ALMO/ NEV] REPRES5T$ AS BE+ 9 ANY WAY SUP]HUMAN3 !Y W]E SIMPLY M5 & WOM5 :O TRAVEL$1 F>M$1 & RAIS$ FAMILIES JU/ AS M5 & WOM5 DO TODAY4 

,?IS IS NOT TO SAY1 H[EV]1 ?AT AMAZ+ P[]S W]E NOT AVAILABLE 9 ! PA/4 ,FOLKTALES (T5 FEATURE MY?IC H]OES :O1 BY D9T ( !IR MAGIC *>MS1 OR ODY1 >E ABLE TO FLY ?R\< ! AIR1 TURN 9VISIBLE1 BECOME IMP]VI\S TO !IR 5EMIES1 OR EV5 TO BLA/ !M ) LI<TN+4 ,! PO9T IS ?AT NONE ( !SE P[]S >E SE5 AS LIMIT$ TO MY?IC TIMES4 ,ANY ODY M5TION$ 9 /ORIES >E ASSUM$ TO /ILL EXI/ & TO BE AVAILABLE TO ANYONE SUFFICI5TLY DET]M9$ TO OBTA9 !M4 ,SOME1 P]HAPS1 W]E MORE >CANE1 MORE DIFFICULT TO COME BY4 ,LOVE M$IC9E1 BY CONTRA/1 WAS ASSUM$ TO BE READILY AVAILABLE JU/ AB\T ANY:]E4 ,PRETTY MU* ANYONE C\LD1 IF !Y HAD ! MONEY OR CONNECTIONS1 GET HOLD ( ! KN[L$GE & +R$I5TS4 ,MO/ W]E PROBABLY AVAILABLE AT LOCAL M>KETS4 ,9S(> AS MY?IC TIMES EXI/$1 !N1 PEOPLE W]E /ILL POT5TIALLY 9 !M2 & ?IS MADE ! SOCIAL UNIV]SE UNUSUALLY DANG]\S4 ,! DANG] ?AT SOMEONE Y\ KNEW MI<T USE ODY FITIA WAS SOME?+ ANY REASONABLE P]SON HAD TO TAKE ACC\NT (4 ,TO TALK ( LOVE M$IC9E1 !N1 IS TO TALK AB\T FE>S3 AB\T ! DANG]\S P[]S PEOPLE SAW LURK+ 9 !IR SOCIAL 5VIRONM5T1 & AB\T H[ ?OSE FE>S F\ND %APE 9 />TL+ IMAGES ?AT1 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 C5T]$ ON WOM5 DRIV5 MAD BY SORC]Y1 RIPP+ (F !IR CLO!S TO RUN ?R\< ! /REETS1 &1 9 ! TW5TIE? C5TURY1 ON M5 RIDD5 LIKE HORSES BY NAK$ WIT*ES 9 ! NI<T4 ,?IS IS MY C5TRAL !SIS3 ?AT SU* FANTASIES >E ULTIMATELY FANTASIES AB\T P[]1 & ! ONLY WAY TO UND]/& !M IS BY CA/+ !M 9 A BROAD] POLITICAL CONTEXT4 

,BETWE5 ! 5D ( ! LA/ C5TURY1 :5 ,IM]9A WAS ! C5T] ( AN 9DEP5D5T K+DOM1 & ! TIME :5 ,I LIV$ !RE1 LIE SIXTY-FIVE YE>S ( ,FR5* COLONIAL OCCUPATION4 ,! EXP]I5CE ( COLONIAL RULE HAD A PR(\ND IMPACT ON POPUL> CONCEPTIONS ( P[] & AU?ORITY--BY :I* ,I MEAN1 ! WAYS 9 :I* IT WAS CONSID]$ POSSIBLE1 & LEGITIMATE1 TO 9FLU5CE O!RS4 ,N[1 ! AU?ORITY ( ANCE/ORS & ELD]S 9 HI<L& ,MADAGASC> HAD LONG BE5 CONCEIV$ 9 BASICALLY NEGATIVE T]MS3 AU?ORITY WAS SE5 MO/ ( ALL AS MATT] ( =BIDD+1 ( B9D+1 ( RE/RA9+ O!RS FROM ACT+ RA!R ?AN CAUS+ O!RS TO ACT4 ,TRUE1 IT WAS NOT ! ONLY K9D ( AU?ORITY PEOPLE RECOGNIZ$2 ! P[] ( K+S1 = 9/ANCE1 WAS CONCEIV$ QUITE DIFF]5TLY4 ,ONE EFFECT ( COLONIAL RULE1 ?\<1 WAS ?AT ?IS K9D ( AU?ORITY--,I WILL CALL IT 0NEGATIVE AU?ORITY0--CAME TO BE SE5 AS ! ONLY TRADITIONAL 0,MALAGASY0 ONE &1 AS SU*1 EXPLICITLY C\NT]POS$ TO RELATIONS ( COMM&1 :I* W]E ID5TIFI$ ) AN ALI51 MILIT>Y1 GOV]NM5T4 ,IT WAS ! ONLY K9D ( AU?ORITY ?AT WAS CONSID]$ 5TIRELY LEGITIMATE4 ,NOR WAS ?IS SIMPLY A MATT] ( AB/RACT IDEOLOGY4 ,?IS %IFT APPE>S TO HAVE 5TAIL$ A G5U9E *ANGE 9 ATTITUDES1 & ESPECIALLY1 9 ! /&>DS BY :I* PEOPLE JUDG$ EA* O!R'S ACTIONS4 ,IT WAS ?IS NEW SOCIAL WORLD :I* CREAT$ ! FE>S ?AT F\ND %APE 9 ! NEW IMAGES ( WIT*CRAFT & LOVE M$IC9E4 

,SU* AN >GUM5T IS A LITTLE UNCONV5TIONAL4 ,FEM9I/ S*OL>%IP HAS LONG CONT5D$ ?AT TRADITIONAL DI/9CTIONS BETWE5 0PUBLIC0 & 0PRIVATE0 DOMA9S >E PR(\NDLY DECEPTIVE1 & ?AT ! =MS ( P[] & AU?ORITY ASSUM$ TO BE *>ACT]I/IC ( EA* >E 5TIRELY 9T]DEP5D5T4 ,/ILL1 !RE IS A T5D5CY TO ASSUME ?AT IF1 SAY1 SEXUAL POLITICS1 OR ! FE>S & FANTASIES SURR\ND+ IMAG9$ DANG]S 9 DOME/IC LIFE HAVE ANY RELATION TO NATIONAL POLITICS1 IT WILL BE AS A K9D ( 9FRA/RUCTURE4 ,IT IS EASY TO IMAG9E H[ ! APPEAL ( A FASCI/ REGIME OR NATIONALI/ MOVEM5T MI<T ULTIMATELY BE BAS$ 9 MALE ANXIETIES AB\T A ?REAT5$ LOSS ( P[] 9 ! HOME2 MU* MORE DIFFICULT TO IMAG9E H[ AFFAIRS ( /ATE MI<T HAVE AN EFFECT ON PEOPLE'S MO/ 9TIMATE ANXIETIES4 ,BUT ?IS IS PRECISELY :AT ,I AM >GU+ H]E4 

,( C\RSE1 IT IS EASI] TO SEE H[ ?+S MI<T WORK ?IS WAY 9 ,MADAGASC>1 UND] A COLONIAL REGIME IMPOS$ BY =EIGN CONQUE/ & MA9TA9$ BY =CE1 :I* DID NOT HAVE TO MA9TA9 EV5 ! FICTION ( ! CONS5T ( ! GOV]N$4 ,BUT1 AS AN APPROA* TO COLONIAL HI/ORY1 ?IS IS A BIT UNUSUAL AS WELL4 ,FIR/ ( ALL1 ,I AM NOT PRIM>ILY 9T]E/$ 9 COLONIAL POLICY1 ) :AT ! ,FR5* REGIME 9 ,MADAGASC> ?\<T IT WAS DO+4 ,NOR AM ,I DEAL+ ) QUE/IONS ( HEGEMONY & RESI/ANCE1 ) ! DEGREE TO :I* COLONIAL 9/ITUTIONS LIKE S*OOLS & *UR*ES C\LD IMPOSE !IR DEF9ITIONS ( REALITY ON ! COLONIZ$1 OR ! DEGREE TO :I* ! COLONIZ$ W]E ABLE TO DEVELOP !IR [N C\NT]POS$ IDEOLOGIES4.<#a#c#g.> ,OR NOT EXACTLY4 ,C]TA9LY ,I DO RECOGNIZE ?AT ?IS HAPP5$3 ?AT PEOPLE 9 HI<L& ,MADAGASC> CAME TO R$EF9E !IR 5TIRE S5SE ( :AT IT MEANT TO BE ,MALAGASY 9 OPPOSITION TO :AT !Y SAW AS ! LOGIC ( ! COLONIAL REGIME4 ,BUT ,I ALSO WANT TO EMPHASIZE ?AT ?IS DID NOT OCCUR 9 A VACUUM4 ,BY FOCUS+ ON ! QUE/ION ( AU?ORITY1 ,I AM />T+ FROM AN EXI/+ MORAL ORD] ) ITS [N *>ACT]I/IC T5SIONS & DILEMMAS1 ITS [N WAYS ( >GU+ AB\T RI<T & WRONG4 ,DO+ SO CA/S ! PROBLEM NOT SO MU* AS H[ PEOPLE DEALT ) !IR CONQU]ORS--MO/1 9 FACT TRI$ AS F> AS POSSIBLE TO AVOID HAV+ TO DEAL ) !M AT ALL--BUT ON H[1 AS A RESULT1 !Y 5D$ UP HAV+ TO RECONSID] !IR RELATIONS ) EA* O!R4 

,ON ! ,E?ICS ( ,MAGICAL ,PRACTICE 

  

,MALAGASY FANAFODY1 OR 0M$IC9E0 CONSI/S MA9LY ( OBJECTS CALL$ ODY1 A WORD USUALLY TRANSLAT$ 0*>MS40 ,MO/ ODY CONSI/ ( BITS ( R>E WOOD1 (T5 ALONG ) O!R +R$I5TS1 PRES]V$ 9 AN OX-HORN1 WOOD5 BOX1 OR SIMIL> RECEPTACLE4 ,DIFF]5T +R$I5TS CAN ACT ON ! WORLD 9 DIFF]5T WAYS1 BUT ! P[] ?AT LIES BEH9D !M IS NOT SE5 TO COME FROM ANY 9TR9SIC PROP]TY ( ! +R$I5TS BUT FROM ! CONSCI\S AG5CY ( AN 9VISIBLE SPIRIT1 :I* ! US] HAS TO 9VOKE ) PRAY]S EA* TIME ! *>M IS US$4 ,9 ORD9>Y CONV]SATION1 ?\< 7& ?IS IS AS TRUE !N AS N[71 PEOPLE DO NOT T5D TO SPEAK ( ODY EI!R AS OBJECTS OR AS SPIRITS4 ,!Y SPEAK ( !M AS A =M ( KN[L$GE4 ,ONE NEV] SAYS1 = 9/ANCE1 ?AT ONE SUSPECTS SOME P]SON 0HAS AN0 ODY FITIA1 ONE SAYS ?AT ONE SUSPECTS !Y 0KN[ H[ TO USE0 ODY FITIA4 ,9 COMMON CONCEPTION1 ODY BECOME A K9D ( KN[L$GE ?AT EXT5DS !IR [N]'S P[]S TO ACT ON ! WORLD4.<#a#c#h.> ,?IS LATT] IS CRUCIAL4 ,*>MS >E ALMO/ NEV] SAID TO ACT ON ! US]S1 BUT ALWAYS ON SOMEONE1 OR SOME?+1 ELSE4 ,LOVE M$IC9E1 = EXAMPLE1 IS NEV] SAID TO MAKE ITS US] MORE ATTRACTIVE OR DESIRABLE BUT ALWAYS TO 9SPIRE DESIRE DIRECTLY 9 ANO!R4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 ODY >E MORE ?AN M]E EXT5SIONS ( !IR [N]S2 ODY1 OR AT LEA/ ! MORE IMPORTANT ONES1 HAVE !IR [N WILL & 9TELLIG5CE1 & !IR [N]S HAVE TO APPEAL TO !M1 SACRIFICE TO !M1 & G5]ALLY TREAT !M AS HI]>*ICAL SUP]IORS4 

,JU/ AB\T EV]YONE ,I TALK$ TO1 & EV]Y S\RCE ,I CONSULT$1 AGRE$ ON ONE ?+4 ,M$IC9E IS GOV]N$ BY ONE ABSOLUTE MORAL PR9CIPLE3 TO USE IT TO H>M O!R PEOPLE IS ALWAYS WRONG4 ,SU* BEHAVIOR CAN NEV] BE JU/IFI$4 ,IT IS WIT*CRAFT1 & WIT*ES 7MPAMOSAVY7 >E ! V]Y DEF9ITION ( EVIL4 ,IF M$IC9E HAS ALWAYS HAD A SOME:AT MORALLY DUBI\S CA/ TO IT1 !N IT IS BECAUSE IT HAS SU* A TREM5D\S POT5TIAL TO CAUSE H>M4 ,ONLY FI>OVANA1 OR M$IC9E US$ = PROTECTION FROM H>M1 IS 5TIRELY ABOVE SUSPICION4 ,AS A RESULT1 PEOPLE WILL ALWAYS TRY TO REPRES5T !IR M$IC9E AS A =M ( PROTECTION IF IT IS AT ALL POSSIBLE TO DO SO4 

,E>LY S\RCES SPEAK ( ODY ?AT CAN PROTECT !IR [N]S FROM HAIL1 CROCODILES1 GUNS1 ?IEVES1 WIT*ES1 KNIVES1 LOCU/S1 FIRE1 & AN 5DLESS ASSORTM5T ( O!R DANG]S4 ,I HE>D PRACTICALLY ID5TICAL LI/S MYSELF4 ,BUT1 !N AS N[1 ! PROTECTION SU* *>MS AF=D$ TOOK A DI/9CTLY ACTIVE =M4 ,RA!R ?AN =TIFY+ ! US] OR H] POSSESSIONS AGA9/ H>M1 !Y W]E ALMO/ ALWAYS SAID TO 9T]V5E TO PREV5T OR DISRUPT ! H>MFUL ACTIONS ( O!RS1 ?\< NEV] 9 SU* A WAY ?AT !Y C\LD BE SAID TO BE ACTUALLY ATTACK+ !M4 ,AN ODY ?AT PROVID$ PROTECTION AGA9/ BULLETS1 = 9/ANCE1 DID NOT MAKE ! BE>]S' SK9 9VULN]ABLE3 IT MADE ?OSE %OOT+ AT !M MISS1 OR TURN$ !IR BULLETS 9TO WAT]4 ,*>MS EMPLOY$ 9 LAWSUITS NEV] MADE ! BE>]'S [N WORDS MORE P]SUASIVE1 BUT ALWAYS PREV5T$ HIS ANTAGONI/ FROM >GU+ EFFECTIVELY1 OR AT ALL4 

,!RE IS A V]Y FAM\S BOOK CALL$ ,LE ,TS9Y ET LE ,TODY DANS LA P5SEE ,MALGA*E .<,BLAME & ,RETRIBUTION 9 ,MALAGASY ,?\<T.>1 WRITT5 9 #aieg BY ,RI*>D ,&RIAMANJATO1 !N A Y\NG ,PROTE/ANT PA/OR 7HE HAS S9CE BECOME A MAJOR FIGURE 9 NATIONAL POLITICS74 ,9 IT ,&RIAMANJATO >GU$ ?AT S9CE TRADITIONAL ,MALAGASY ?\<T ASSUMES ?AT ANY?+ ONE MI<T DO WILL 9EVITABLY BR+ AT LEA/ 9DIRECT H>M TO SOMEONE ELSE1 ALL ACTION IS 9TR9SICALLY PROBLEMATIC4 ,ONE CAN EASILY IMAG9E ! E?ICS ( PROTECTION AS A K9D ( COROLL>Y3 IF ACT+ IS SO PROBLEMATIC1 !N AT LEA/ 9 >EAS 9 :I* ONE IS WIELD+ EXTRAORD9>Y P[]S--= 9/ANCE1 ! 9VISIBLE P[]S ( M$IC9E--ACTIONS C\LD ONLY BE 5TIRELY ABOVE QUE/ION IF MEANT TO PREV5T ! EV5 MORE H>MFUL ACTIONS ( SOMEONE ELSE4 ,! SAME LOGIC APPLI$ TO ! MORE PUBLIC P[]S 9VOLV$ 9 COMMUNAL AU?ORITY AS WELL4 ,9 MY EXP]I5CE1 ! ROLE ( ELD]S WAS NEV] REPRES5T$ AS A MATT] ( 9ITIAT+ OR EV5 COORD9AT+ COMMUNAL PROJECTS1 BUT ( IMPOS+ PROHIBITIONS1 & /EPP+ 9 TO PREV5T Y\NG] PEOPLE FROM TAK+ ACTIONS LIKELY TO %ATT] ! SOLID>ITY ( ! COMMUNITY4 ,ANCE/ORS >E SE5 AS ACT+ 9 MU* ! SAME WAY1 IMPOS+ TABOOS OR RULES ( CONDUCT ?AT W]E ALWAYS /AT$ 9 ! NEGATIVE4 ,?IS IS A PO9T :I* WILL BECOME V]Y IMPORTANT AS ! >GUM5T DEVELOPS2 = N[1 SUFFICE IT TO SAY ?AT ?IS MEANT LOVE M$IC9E1 :I* C\LD H>DLY BE REPRES5T$ AS A =M ( PROTECTION1 WAS SE5 AS LY+ AT LEA/ ON ! BORD]S ( MORALITY4 

,ON ! ,9DUCEM5T ( ,/ATES ( 0,AMOR\S ,MADNESS0 

  

0,! LOVE *>M10 ONE MISSION>Y WROTE1 0GIVES ! WE>] CONTROL OV] ! AFFECTIONS ( ANY P]SON HE DESIRES1 & IS *IEFLY 9 REQUISITION BY UN=TUNATE ILL-LOOK+ Y\?S 9 SE>* ( A WIFE1 OR BY PR(LIGATE *>ACT]S SEEK+ TO S$UCE !IR PREY0 7,HAILE #a#h#i#c3 #a#b-#a#c74 ,! ASSUMPTION H]E1 AS 9 ALL ! N9ETE5?-C5TURY S\RCES1 IS ?AT IT WAS TYPICALLY M5 :O MADE USE ( ODY FITIA1 EV5 IF SOME ADD$ ?AT WOM5 C\LD DO SO ON OCCASION4 

,! REIGN+ ASSUMPTION A HUNDR$ YE>S LAT]1 :5 ,I WAS LIV+ 9 ! T[N ( ,>IVONIMAMO 9 WE/]N ,IM]9A 9 #a#i#i-#i#a1 WAS PRECISELY ! OPPOSITE4 ,SEV]AL WOM51 9 FACT1 MADE A GREAT PO9T ( ?IS TO ME1 SUGGE/+ IT PROVID$ A PR(\ND 9SI<T 9TO ! DIFF]5CE BETWE5 MALE & FEMALE PSY*OLOGY4 ,IF A GIRL1 !Y SAID1 IS ATTRACT$ TO A BOY BUT F9DS HE HAS NO 9T]E/ 9 H]1 H] 9/9CT WILL BE TO TRY TO MAKE HIM *ANGE HIS M9D2 IF %E APPEALS TO M$IC9E1 %E'LL TRY TO F9D SOME?+ ?AT WILL MAKE HIM LOVE H] AS MU* AS HE POSSIBLY CAN4 ,IF A BOY IS TURN$ D[N BY A GIRL1 HE'S MU* MORE LIKELY TO GET ANGRY & LOOK = M$IC9E ?AT WILL 5ABLE HIM TO TAKE REV5GE1 SAY1 BY BLA/+ H] ) LI<TN+ OR DRIV+ H] 9SANE4 ,:ILE EV]YONE CONC$$ ?AT M5 HAD BE5 KN[N TO USE LOVE M$IC9E1 ?IS WAS CONSID]$ AN EXCEPTION4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 AMBALAVELONA1 A =M ( SORC]Y :I* CAUS$ ITS VICTIM TO BE POSSESS$ BY AN EVIL <O/ & ?US DRIV5 9SANE1 WAS (T5 SAID TO BE EMPLOY$ BY M5 AGA9/ WOM5 :O HAD REJECT$ !IR SEXUAL ADVANCES4.<#a#c#i.> 

,?IS IS USEFUL TO BE> 9 M9D :ILE CONSID]+ N9ETE5?-C5TURY ACC\NTS1 BECAUSE ! ODY FITIA DESCRIB$ 9 !M CAN BE SE5 AS A COMB9ATION ( ! TWO3 ?AT IS1 !Y PUNI%$ WOM5 BY DRIV+ !M 9SANE AT ! SAME TIME !Y W]E SAID TO EVOKE LOVE & DESIRE4 

,! GREATE/ S\RCE ON N9ETE5?-C5TURY ,M]9A M$IC9E IS A BOOK BY A ,NORWEGIAN ,LU!RAN MISSION>Y NAM$ ,L>S ,VIG1 :O LIV$ 9 ! F> S\? ( ,IM]9A BETWE5 #ahge & #a#i#b4 ,IT WAS COMMON PRACTICE = NEW CONV]TS TO TURN 9 !IR ODY TO ! LOCAL MISSION>IES1 BUT ,VIG SEEMS TO HAVE BECOME AN 5?USIA/IC COLLECTOR1 QUIZZ+ !IR =M] [N]S ON !IR +R$I5TS & MANN] ( USE1 & LAT] PUBLI%+ HIS NOTES4 ,( ! #ac *>MS OR ELEM5TS ( *>MS ,VIG LI/S1 TW5TY-F\R >E DESCRIB$ AS LOVE *>MS4 ,SOME ( !SE W]E MEANT TO /R5G!N1 OR DISRUPT1 EXI/+ RELATION%IPS2 BUT ! MAJORITY--& !SE W]E ! >*ETYPICAL ONES--W]E MEANT TO >\SE PASSION 9 A WOMAN.<#a#d.> :O HAD PROV$ RESI/ANT TO ! US]'S ADVANCES4 

,! IMPLICIT SC5>IO SEEMS TO HAVE BE5 R\<LY SIMIL> TO ! ONE ASSUM$ BY ! PEOPLE ,I TALK$ TO 9 ,>IVONIMAMO3 A MAN MAKES ADVANCES1 ! WOMAN IS 0PR\D0 79 O!R WORDS %E IS NOT 9T]E/$71 HE RESORTS TO M$IC9E4 ,! *>M ,IMAHAKA1 = EXAMPLE1  
  

HELP$ TO OV]COME ! RESI/ANCE ( A 0PR\D0 WOMAN444 .<,IT.> WAS SUPPOS$ TO HAVE ! P[] TO R5D] WOM5 MAD1 ( PROVOK+ AMOR\S MADNESS4 ,?IS IS ! PRAY] ONE MAKES TO IT3 0,LI/5 O ,IMAHAKA4 ,!RE'S A WOMAN :O IS PR\D T[>DS ME3 R5D] H] MAD1 DEM5T$ LIKE A RABID DOG444 ,MAKE IT SO ?AT H] HE>T MOVES1 BUBBLES1 BOILS1 SO ?AT %E CAN NO LONG] BE KEPT BACK BY H] FA!R1 BY H] MO!R1 BY H] K90 7,VIG #a#i#f#i3 #c-#c#a74.<#a#d#a.>  
  

,! WOMAN W\LD ?US BE COMPELL$ TO ! CA/]'S B$4 ,?IS SORT ( 0AMOR\S MADNESS0 WAS SAID TO BE A FEATURE ( ALMO/ ALL SU* *>MS1 BUT ! DESCRIPTIONS (T5 SUGGE/1 NOT A P]SON CAU<T UP BY A FR5ZY ( DESIRE1 BUT ONE SIMPLY TORN AWAY AGA9/ H] WILL4 ,(T51 IT SEEMS AS IF ! 5*ANT] IS ACT+ \T ( A V9DICTIVE DESIRE TO HUMBLE & HUMILIATE ! WOMAN :O HAD REJECT$ HIM4 ,CONSID]1 = 9/ANCE1 ! PRAY] TO ANO!R *>M3  
  

0444EV5 :5 ! WOMAN IS BE=E ! EYES ( H] BRO!R1.<#a#d#b.> OR 9 PUBLIC1 MAY Y\ R5D] H] SO MAD AS TO ?R[ (F H] CLO?+ TO RUN TO ME4 ,EV5 IF ! RIV]S >E DEEP & ! CURR5T /RONG1 EV5 IF ! DAY IS D>K & ! PLACE %E LIVES V]Y DI/ANT1 MAY %E BE OBLIG$ TO COME4 ,EV5 IF %E IS HIDD5 AWAY & A ?\S& M5 LET =? A CRY ( W> TO RETA9 H]1 MAKE IT SO !Y CAN DO NO?+0 

,! POOR 5*ANT$ WOMAN W\LD BE LIKE A RABID DOG1 LIKE A MAD ?+2 0! FOAM W\LD KEEP COM+ FROM H] M\? LIKE A RABID DOG1 & LIKE A RABID DOG %E W\LD FL+ H]SELF AB\T1 RUN & RUN )\T AIM OR REASON1 & ALL ! :ILE RAV+ LIKE A LUNATIC4 ,?IS /ATE W\LD CONT9UE UNTIL %E CAME TO ! MAN :O HAD 5*ANT$ H] US+ ! *>M0 7#a#i#f#i3 #h#g-#h#h74 

,IF HELD BACK OR CONF9$ 9 H] H\SE1 ! WOMAN W\LD BE OV]:ELM$ BY FITS ( TREMBL+ & BREA?LESSNESS2 %E W\LD WEEP UNCONTROLLABLY2 %E W\LD BE RAVAG$ BY FEV]S ( MAL>IAL 9T5SITY1 UNABLE TO MOVE FROM H] B$ BUT HE>+ H] 5*ANT]'S VOICE 9 EV]Y ROO/]'S CR[ \TSIDE2 OR ELSE1 %E MI<T SUDD5LY BECOME SO OV]P[]+LY /RONG ?AT IT WAS IMPOSSIBLE TO HOLD H] BACK FROM RUNN+ (F TO HIM 7#a#i#f#i3 #h#d-#i#g74  
  

,VIG HIMSELF T5D$ TO D[NPLAY ! PUNITIVE1 SADI/IC OV]TONES 9 !SE DESCRIPTIONS4 ,NOT+ ?AT = A WOMAN TO BE TOO CONSI/5TLY 0PR\D0 WAS CONSID]$ AN AFFRONT TO SOCIABILITY1 HE SUGGE/S ?AT ?OSE SPURN$ C\LD REPRES5T !MSELVES AS ACT+ )9 !IR RI<TS4.<#a#d#c.> ,P]HAPS SO3 BUT !RE IS LITTLE REASON TO ?9K ?AT ANYONE ELSE W\LD HAVE TAK5 SU* CLAIMS S]I\SLY4 ,ELSE:]E1 ,VIG HIMSELF ADMITS ?AT LOVE M$IC9E WAS ALWAYS CONSID]$ TO BE V]Y CLOSE TO SIMPLE V9DICTIVE WIT*CRAFT1 & REPORTS ?AT ,QUE5 ,RANAVALONA ,I 7#a#h#b#h-#a#h#f#a7 WAS SAID TO HAVE TAK5 SU* UMBRAGE AGA9/ ! IDEA ?AT M5 W]E DRIV+ WOM5 MAD ) LOVE M$IC9E ?AT %E S5T EMISS>IES >\ND ! C\NTRY TO HAVE EV]Y KN[N PRACTITION] R\ND$ UP & KILL$4 

,A ,PR(ESSIONAL ,P]SPECTIVE 

  

,! ONE ,MALAGASY S\RCE WE HAVE FROM ?IS P]IOD1 AN ACC\NT ( ! DIV9]'S >T PRES]V$ 9 A COLLECTION ( DOCUM5TS CALL$ ! ,TANT>A NY ,&RIANA1 IS QUITE DIFF]5T 9 ITS TONE--F> LESS S5SATIONALI/IC--?\< ?IS IS H>DLY SURPRIS+1 S9CE IT APPE>S TO HAVE BE5 WRITT5 BY A MPISIKIDY1 A DIV9] & SPECIALI/ 9 ! >TS ( M$IC9E4 ,ACTUALLY1 SAYS ! AU?OR1 !RE >E TWO V]Y DIFF]5T SORTS ( ODY FITIA4 ,ONE IS 9DE$ A =M ( SORC]Y4 ,9SPIR$ BY ! DESIRE = REV5GE1 IT DRIVES ITS VICTIMS 9SANE &1 UNLESS TREAT$ BY A SKILL$ DIV9]1 WILL ULTIMATELY KILL !M4 ,BUT !RE IS ALSO A SECOND K9D ?AT DOES NOT CAUSE AMOR\S MADNESS BUT 9/EAD 9SPIRES 5DUR+ MUTUAL LOVE4 ,?IS1 ! DIV9] HIMSELF CAN PROVIDE3 AS HE MI<T1 = 9/ANCE1 :5 A BOY WI%ES TO M>RY A GIRL AGA9/ ! WI%ES ( H] P>5TS 7,CALLET #a#i#h3 #a#f-#a#g74 

,?IS MODEL W\LD SEEM TO LEAVE LITTLE PLACE = MO/ ( ! ODY ,VIG COLLECT$ FROM HIS P>I%ION]S1 ALL :I* W]E APP>5TLY ?\<T TO CAUSE ONLY TEMPOR>Y MADNESS & W]E C]TA9LY NEV] FATAL4 ,BUT AS A DIV9]--& POT5TIAL VICTIM ( ONE ( ,RANAVALONA'S PURGES--HE W\LD H>DLY HAVE WANT$ TO LEAVE OP5 ! POSSIBILITY ?AT ! SORT ( LOVE M$IC9E HE HIMSELF C\LD PROVIDE C\LD POSSIBLY H>M ANYONE4 ,?US HIS SEP>ATION ( LOVE & V5GEANCE1 :I* HE TAKES SO F> AS TO MAKE IT IMPOSSIBLE TO TELL :AT HIS EVIL 0LOVE M$IC9E0 HAS TO DO ) LOVE AT ALL4 ,:AT ,VIG'S MAT]IAL SUGGE/S IS ?AT1 = MO/ PEOPLE1 ?+S W]E NOT NE>LY SO CLE>-CUT2 MO/ BELIEV$ ?AT EV5 M$IC9E US$ TO 9SPIRE DESIRE 9 O!RS C\LD HAVE VIOL5T1 PUNITIVE EFFECTS TO ! PRECISE MEASURE ?AT ! US]'S DESIRES W]E MIX$ ) W\ND$ PRIDE & DESIRE = REV5GE4 

,! DIV9]'S TEXT FLE%ES \T C]TA9 O!R DETAILS LEFT AMBIGU\S 9 ,VIG3 = EXAMPLE1 CONC]N+ ! PSY*IC ME*ANISMS ?AT W]E SE5 AS LY+ BEH9D ! ODY'S P[]4 ,9 N9ETE5?-C5TURY ,IM]9A EA* P]SON WAS 7AT LEA/ ACCORD+ TO PR(ESSIONAL CUR]S7 SAID TO HAVE AN AMBIROA OR AVELO--A 0D\BLE0 OR 0REFLECTION0--A K9D ( ACTIVE1 DETA*ABLE S\L ?AT W&]$ 9 DREAMS & AT TIMES C\LD W&] (F 5TIRELY4 ,S\L-LOSS L$ TO DIZZ9ESS1 ]RATIC1 CONFUS$ BEHAVIOR & EV5TUALLY TO ILLNESS & DEA?4 ,ONE ( ! MO/ COMMON WAYS SORC]]S HAD ( KILL+ !IR VICTIMS WAS TO SEP>ATE !M FROM !IR AMBIROA1 & ONE ( ! MO/ COMMON TASKS = CUR]S ( ! TIME WAS TO RETRIEVE !M4 ,!RE W]E A WIDE V>IETY ( RITUALS US$ TO ACCOMPLI% ?IS1 BUT ! MO/ COMMON 5D$ ) ! PATI5T CONTEMPLAT+ HIS [N REFLECTION 9 A B[L ( WAT]--A B[L ?AT WAS !N SUDD5LY SLAPP$ BY ! CUR]1 CAUS+ ! REFLECTION TO VANI% &--IDEALLY--! S\L TO LEAP BACK 9TO ! />TL$ PATI5T'S BODY 7,VIG #a#i#f#i3 #i#b-#c74.<#a#d#d.> ,ACCORD+ TO ! AU?OR ( ! PASSAGE 9 ! ,TANT>A 7,CALLET #a#i#h3 #a#f2 CF4 ,VIG #a#i#f#i3 #h#d1 #h#f1 #h#i71 ! RITUAL A MPISIKIDY W\LD P]=M TO CURE A WOMAN SMITT5 BY LOVE M$IC9E WORK$ BY ! EXACTLY SAME PR9CIPLE4 ,IT WAS NECESS>Y TO CALL ! WOMAN'S SPIRIT BACK AGA9 FROM :]E IT HAD BE5 TAK5 BY H] S$UC]1 & IT O!RWISE TOOK EXACTLY ! SAME =M4 ,9 O!R WORDS1 ! SYMPTOMS ( 0AMOR\S MADNESS0 ,VIG DESCRIBES W]E ACTUALLY PROVOK$ BY DRAW+ ! VICTIM'S S\L TO ! MAN WORK+ ! *>M1 ?US CAUS+ ! VICTIM H]SELF FIR/ ( ALL TO BE 9 A /ATE ( S\L-LOSS 7H5CE DIZZ9ESS & CONFUSION71 & AS A RESULT1 TO BE SEIZ$ BY A FRANTIC DESIRE TO UNITE ) H] 5*ANT]--ULTIMATELY1 AS A WAY ( RE/OR+ ! DISRUPT$ UNITY ( H] [N SELF4.<#a#d#e.> 

,?IS SAME DIV9] PROVIDES CLOSE/ ONE CAN F9D TO A N9ETE5?-C5TURY REF]5CE TO WOM5 US+ ODY FITIA 9 A RA!R UNUSUAL MORAL TIRADE AB\T Y\NG M5 FROM ! HI<L&S :O LEAVE !IR WIVES & FAMILIES TO 5GAGE 9 PETTY COMM]CE ON ! COA/1 TAKE LOCAL MI/RESSES TO HELP !M ) !IR BUS9ESS1 & !N ULTIMATELY AB&ON !M4 ,(T51 HE SAYS1 !SE COA/AL WOM5 KN[ H[ TO PLACE ODY ON !IR LOV]S :I* WILL ONLY BEG9 TO WORK ONCE ! M5 HAVE RETURN$ TO !IR WIVES & *ILDR5 9 ! HI<L&S4 ,:5 !Y DO1 ! EFFECTS >E SPECTACUL>4 ,! VICTIM LOSES ALL S5SATION 9 ! L[] HALF ( HIS BODY1 HE BECOMES 9CONT95T1 HE IS IMPOT5T1 HE SOILS ! FLOOR & ! B$4 ,EV5TUALLY1 HE DIES4.<#a#d#f.> ,:ILE ! AU?OR NEV] ACTUALLY REF]S TO !SE *>MS AS ODY FITIA1 !Y >E TREAT$ AS P>T ( ! SAME BROAD CATEGORY1 & HE REPRES5TS ! WOM5 AS ACT+ \T ( EXACTLY ! SAME MOTIVES ( JEAL\S SPITE & DESIRE = RETRIBUTION4 ,9 FACT1 ! WORDS HE PUTS 9 !IR M\?1 0IF HE WON'T BE M9E1 HE WON'T BE ANYBODY ELSE'S0 7TSY HO AHY1 TSY HO AN'OLONA71 >E ! EXACT WORDS HE PLACES 9 ! M\?S ( US]S ( V9DICTIVE ODY FITIA 7,CALLET #a#i#h3 #a#f1#a#h74 ,& AS 9 ! CASE ( ODY FITIA1 RETRIBUTION TAKES ! MO/ VISC]AL1 TANGIBLE1 & HUMILIAT+ =M4 

,V>IETIES ( ,ODY ,FITIA ,TODAY3 OR1 ,! ,BORD]S ( ,MORALITY ,REVISIT$ 

  

,9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 !N1 LOVE M$IC9E LAY ON ! BORD]S ( WIT*CRAFT = ! SIMPLE REASON ?AT IT WAS MO/ (T5 EMPLOY$ :5 SEXUAL DESIRE WAS MIX$ ) DESIRE = REV5GE4 ,EV5 :5 ! O/5SIBLE PURPOSE WAS W9N+ A WOMAN'S AFFECTIONS1 !RE WAS LIKELY TO BE A V]Y /RONG CURR5T ( RETRIBUTIVE VIOL5CE 9 ITS EFFECTS4 ,AFT] ALL1 !RE W\LD BE LITTLE REASON TO SUSPECT ANYONE HAD ACTUALLY US$ ODY FITIA 9 ! FIR/ PLACE UNLESS SOMEONE--TYPICALLY A Y\NG WOMAN--BEGAN TO SUFF] FROM SUGGE/IVE SYMPTOMS2 9 :I* CASE1 H] FAMILY'S FIR/ REACTION W\LD PRESUMABLY BE TO ASK IF !RE W]E ANY M5 :OSE ADVANCES %E HAD REC5TLY TURN$ D[N4 

,:5 ,I WAS LIV+ 9 ,>IVONIMAMO1 ON ! O!R H&1 IF A WOMAN DEVELOP$ SIMIL> SYMPTOMS1 ! ASSUMPTION W\LD HAVE BE5 ?AT SOMEONE WAS TRY+ TO DRIVE H] 9SANE BY MEANS ( A MALEVOL5T <O/4.<#a#d#g.> ,! T]M ODY FITIA WAS NORMALLY CONF9$ TO *>MS MEANT TO 9SPIRE LOVE1 EI!R AS A MEANS ( S$UCTION OR AS A WAY TO 9SPIRE SELFLESS DEVOTION 9 ONE'S CURR5T SP\SE OR LOV]4 ,9 PRACTICE1 IT WAS UNDUE DEVOTION ?AT PEOPLE MA9LY T5D$ TO REM>K UPON4 ,IF A MAN SUDD5LY BECAME 9FATUAT$1 IT MI<T NEV] OCCUR TO ANYONE TO WOND] IF M$IC9E WAS 9VOLV$4 ,BUT IF HE WAS SE5 TO BE SLAVI%LY 9DULG5T ( HIS WIFE OR LOV]1 & MO/ ( ALL1 IF %E C\LD BE SAID TO BE 5RI*+ H]SELF OR O!RWISE EXPLOIT+ HIM AS A RESULT1 !N RUMORS ( ODY FITIA W\LD 9EVITABLY BEG9 TO CIRCULATE4 ,?IS WAS ! REASON PEOPLE ,I TALK$ TO AB\T ! MATT]1 M5 AS WELL AS WOM51 W\LD (T5 PO9T \T ?AT ! MOTIVATIONS ( WOM5 :O US$ ?IS K9D ( M$IC9E (T5 HAD LESS TO DO ) LOVE ?AN ) A DESIRE = WEAL? & P[]4 

,9 ONE VILLAGE ,I KNEW WELL1 !RE WAS A WOMAN 9 H] =TIES :O HAD M>RI$ 9TO ! COMMUNITY SOME EI<T OR N9E YE>S BE=E2 BO? %E & H] HUSB& HAD *ILDR5 FROM PREVI\S M>RIAGES4 ,AFT] SEV]AL YE>S1 ! MAN--:O1 HAD ACCORD+ TO HIS NEI<BORS1 ALL ?IS TIME GR[N 9CREAS+LY MOODY & CONT5TI\S--ABRUPTLY DIS9H]IT$ HIS [N *ILDR5 BY HIS =M] M>RIAGE & ADOPT$ H]S4 ,:ATEV] HIS WIFE TELLS HIM1 !Y SAID1 HE DOES )\T QUE/ION4 ,?IS ALONE WAS EVID5CE 5\< TO COMPEL SEV]AL WOM5 TO MAKE ME PROMISE NEV]1 IF ,I VISIT$ !IR HOME1 TO ACCEPT ANY FOOD OR DR9K %E MI<T (F] ME4 ,AFT] ALL1 !Y PO9T$ \T1 %E /ILL HAD SEV]AL UNM>RI$ DAU<T]S1 & %E OBVI\SLY KNEW H[ TO USE ODY FITIA4 

,AN EV5 MORE DRAMATIC CASE HAD OCCURR$ A FEW YE>S E>LI]4 ,ONE ( ! WEAL?IE/ M5 9 ! VILLAGE1 A MAN ( V]Y MODE/ ORIG9S :O HAD RAIS$ HIMSELF TO PROM95CE BY M>RY+ A LOCAL HEIRESS1 HAD SUDD5LY DECID$ AT ! AGE ( FIFTY TO DIVORCE HIS WIFE & M>RY A MU* Y\NG] WOMAN HE HAD MET :ILE (F ON BUS9ESS 9 ! NE>BY T[N ( ,ANALAVORY4 ,NO SOON] HAD ! WOMAN MOV$ 9 ) HIM ?AN %E BEGAN SELL+ (F HIS PROP]TY--H\SES1 FIELDS1 CATTLE1 EV]Y?+ %E C\LD LAY H] H&S ON--AS HE DUTIFULLY SIGN$ ! PAP]S1 REFUS+ TO DISCUSS ! MATT] ) O!R MEMB]S ( HIS FAMILY4 ,:5 AFT] A FEW YE>S !RE WAS NO?+ LEFT TO SELL1 %E LEFT HIM = AN IT9]ANT ,T&ROY CATTLE M]*ANT1 & EV5TUALLY MOV$ BACK TO H] OLD HOME 9 ,ANALAVORY4 ,AT ?IS PO9T ! MAN HAD NO?+ LEFT TO HIS NAME EXCEPT = ?REE C[S4 ,ONE BY ONE1 ,I WAS TOLD1 HE SOLD !M1 EA* TIME US+ ! MONEY TO FUND A TRIP TO ,ANALAVORY TO BEG HIS WIFE TO RETURN TO HIM4 ,EA* TIME %E S5T HIM AWAY4 ,! ?IRD TIME1 HE COLLAPS$ 9 EXHAU/ION ON ! ROAD BACK TO ,>IVONIMAMO1 HAD TO BE C>RI$ HOME TO HIS VILLAGE1 & DI$ !RE ! NEXT DAY4 ,ALMO/ EV]YONE CONCLUD$ %E HAD NOT ONLY US$ LOVE M$IC9E1 BUT F9ALLY PLAC$ SOME K9D ( *>M ON HIM ?AT W\LD KILL HIM AS SOON AS HE GOT HOME4 

,O!R ODY W]E REF]R$ TO AS 0K9DS ( ODY FITIA03 ! TWO MO/ FAM\S W]E FANA+A LAVITRA 70FET*+ FROM AF>07 & TSY MIHOABONGA 70DOES NOT PASS BEYOND ! M\NTA9074 ,! FIR/ WAS US$ TO SUMMON A P]SON TO ! CA/]2 ONCE !Y FALL UND] ITS EFFECTS1 ,I WAS TOLD1 :]EV] !Y W]E OR :ATEV] !Y MI<T BE DO+1 !Y W\LD FALL 9TO A TRANCE1 DROP EV]Y?+1 & IMM$IATELY TRAVEL TO ! CA/] BY ! QUICKE/ POSSIBLE MEANS AVAILABLE1 NOT REGA9+ CONSCI\SNESS UNTIL !Y >RIV$4 ,TSIMIHOA-BONGA ON ! O!R H& ACTS TO CONF9E ITS VICTIM )9 A C]TA9 P]IMET]4 ,IF ! VICTIM TRI$ TO WALK \T ( A VILLAGE !Y W]E CONF9$ TO1 !Y W\LD SUDD5LY F9D !MSELVES TURN+ BACK AGA9 )\T BE+ AW>E ( DO+ SO2 IF =CIBLY REMOV$1 !Y W\LD GR[ S]I\SLY ILL OR EV5 DIE4 ,:ILE ! >*ETYPICAL US]S ( FANA+A LAVITRA W]E WOMAN TRY+ TO =CE LOV]S TO RETURN TO !M1 & ,I HE>D SEV]AL REPORTS ( RURAL WOM5 :O W]E SUPPOS$ TO HAVE US$ TSIMIHOA-BONGA TO KEEP GOV]NM5T FUNCTION>IES PO/$ TO !IR VILLAGES FROM RETURN+ TO !IR WIVES1 !SE =MS ( M$IC9E W]E (T5 US$ 9 CONTEXTS :I* HAD NO?+ TO DO ) 0LOVE40.<#a#d#h.> 

,AS !SE EXAMPLES W\LD SUGGE/1 LOVE M$IC9E WAS TYPICALLY ! /UFF ( SC&AL4 ,MO/ CONSID]$ FANA+A LAVITRA TO BE WIT*CRAFT PURE & SIMPLE1 NO MATT] :AT ! PRETEXT = ITS USE4.<#a#d#i.> ,BUT IF ! MORAL /&+ ( ODY FITIA HAD NOT MU* *ANG$ S9CE ,VIG'S TIME1 ! ISSUES 9VOLV$ SEEM TO BE 5TIRELY DIFF]5T4 ,NO ONE EV5 SUGGE/$ ?AT FANA+A LAVITRA WAS WRONG BECAUSE ( ! H>M IT C\LD BR+ TO ITS VICTIMS2 9 FACT1 IT (T5 DID NO IMM$IATE H>M TO !M AT ALL4 ,:AT !Y /RESS$ WAS ?AT SU* M$IC9E CAUSES ITS VICTIMS TO LOSE !IR AUTONOMY1 TO ACT LIKE SLAVES1 TO BE COMPLETELY AT ! WILL & BIDD+ ( ANO!R4 ,& ?IS IS PRECISELY :AT !Y /RESS$ AB\T MORE CONV5TIONAL =MS ( ODY FITIA AS WELL4 0,IF A MAN ALWAYS DOES :ATEV] HIS WIFE TELLS HIM10 ONE WOMAN TOLD ME1 0ESPECIALLY IF %E HAS HIM CON/ANTLY \T WORK+1 LOOK+ = NEW WAYS TO GET H] MONEY--?AT'S H[ Y\ CAN TELL %E PROBABLY KN[S H[ TO USE ODY FITIA40 

,BE> 9 M9D ?AT MO/ ,MALAGASY M$IC9E IS NOT SAID TO MAKE ITS VICTIMS DO ANY?+4 ,LEGITIMATE M$IC9E PREV5TS O!RS FROM ACT+2 WIT*CRAFT ATTACKS !M4 ,9 FACT1 ALMO/ ALL =MS ( M$IC9E :I* >E SAID TO HAVE A DIRECT EFFECT !IR VICTIMS' BEHAVIOR >E CONSID]$ V>IETIES ( ODY FITIA4 ,& ! ONE OR TWO EXCEPTIONS ?AT DO EXI/ >E LOOK$ ON ) MU* ! SAME ATTITUDE ( SUSPICION4 ,A GOOD CASE 9 PO9T >E ODY US$ TO PROTECT CROPS FROM !FT4 ,N[1 ?IS IS A PURPOSE :I* W\LD SEEM ON ! FACE ( IT AB\T AS 9TR9SICALLY LEGITIMATE AS ONE C\LD GET4 ,ALMO/ ALL F>M]S 9 ,IM]9A USE SOME V>IETY ( M$IC9E TO PROTECT !IR CROPS1 & MO/ FIELDS >E DECORAT$ ) KIADY1 FLAGS ( BRI<TLY COLOR$ /RIPS ( CLO? & PLA/IC OR POLES TOPP$ ) BUNDL$ /RAW4 ,!SE USUALLY CONTA9 M$IC9E SAID TO GU>D AGA9/ BIRDS OR ANIMALS1 & P]HAPS ALSO TO PREV5T ?IEVES FROM 5T]+ ! FIELD OR AL]T ! [N] IF !Y DO4 ,SOME D[NPLAY$ ! IMPORTANCE ( ! M$IC9E 9 KIADY ALTOGE!R1 SAY+ !Y W]E MA9LY JU/ M>KS ( [N]%IP4 ,ALMO/ EV]YONE /RESS$ ?AT ANY M$IC9E !Y DID CONTA9 WAS LIKELY TO BE V]Y MILD 9 ITS EFFECTS4 ,! REALLY POT5T M$IC9E1 CALL$ KALO1 T5D$ TO BE BURI$ 9 ! GR\ND RA!R ?AN PLAC$ >\ND ! FIELD ON POLES4 ,SOME KALO MADE ?IEVES SICK3 IF ANYONE ATE FOOD TAK5 FROM ! FIELD PROTECT$ BY SU* A KALO1 ,I WAS TOLD1 !IR FEET OR /OMA* W\LD SWELL UP TO TWICE !IR NORMAL SIZE4 ,(T5 !Y W\LD DIE AS A RESULT4 ,ALMO/ EV]YONE ,I TALK$ TO CONSID]$ ?IS SIMPLE WIT*CRAFT1 NOT A LEGITIMATE WAY TO PROTECT ONE'S CROPS4 ,A MORE ACCEPTABLE =M ( KALO TRAPP$ 9TRUD]S3 HAV+ 5T]$ ! FIELD1 A W\LD-BE ?IEF W\LD F9D HIMSELF UNABLE TO LEAVE IT UNTIL ! [N] RETURN$ TO RELEASE HIM4 ,?IS MO/ CONSID]$ 9(F5SIVE2 BUT IT WAS ONLY ONE /EP FROM H]E TO ! MO/ NOTORI\S V>IETY ( ALL1 CALL$ KALO MAMPIASA OR 0KALO :I* MAKE ONE WORK40 ,A PROPRIETOR C\LD LEAVE A %OVEL OR BASKET \T ON HIS PROP]TY BE=E HEAD+ HOME2 IF ANYONE 5T]$ ! FIELD 9T5D+ TO MAKE (F ) !M1 OR ) ! CROPS1 HE W\LD F9D HIMSELF COMPELL$ TO GRAB ! TOOLS & />T WORK+ !RE1 DIGG+ ! [N]'S DIT*ES OR C>RY+ HIS F]TILIZ] = AS LONG AS IT TOOK HIM TO RETURN4 ,!SE W]E CLE>LY WIT*CRAFT1 ALMO/ AS REPREH5SIBLE AS POISON+ ONE'S VICTIMS \TRI<T1 & MO/ ( ! PEOPLE ,I KNEW CA/ QUITE A JAUNDIC$ EYE ON ANYONE RUMOR$ TO HAVE ANY?+ TO DO ) !M4 

,BACKGR\ND3 ,ROYAL ,S]VICE & ,SLAV]Y 

  

,I HAVE SUGGE/$ ?AT !SE NEW CONC]NS W]E ! RESULT ( A G5]AL REEVALUATION ( MODES ( P[] & AU?ORITY :I* FOLL[$ ! ,FR5* CONQUE/ ( ,MADAGASC>4 ,P]HAPS ! EASIE/ WAY TO UND]/& :AT HAPP5$ IS TO FOLL[ ! *ANG+ MEAN+ ( ! T]M FANOMPOANA1 USUALLY TRANSLAT$ 0S]VICE10 :I* IS US$ ?R\<\T ,MADAGASC> TO DESCRIBE ! OBLIGATIONS ( SUBJECTS TO !IR RUL]S &1 SECOND>ILY1 SLAVES TO !IR MA/]S4 ,9 E>LY ,IM]9A1 AS 9 MO/ ,MALAGASY K+DOMS1 OBLIGATIONS TO RUL]S C5T]$ ON C]TA9 C]EMONIAL TASKS1 P>TICUL>LY ! BUILD+ & REBUILD+ ( ROYAL H\SES & TOMBS4 ,BUT1 9 PR9CIPLE1 SU* OBLIGATIONS W]E UNLIMIT$2 & UND] ! ,M]9A GOV]NM5T ?AT RUL$ MO/ ( ,MADAGASC> DUR+ ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 FANOMPOANA WAS US$ TO JU/IFY ANY NUMB] ( NEWLY CREAT$ OBLIGATIONS1 9CLUD+ A PROGRAM ( =C$ LABOR APPLI$ ON A MASSIVE SCALE BO? 9 ! PROV9CES & 9 ,IM]9A4 ,AFT] ! ,FR5* CONQUE/1 COLONIAL AU?ORITIES CONT9U$ ! USE ( =C$ LABOR1 :I* !Y TOO REF]R$ TO AS FANOMPOANA4 

,9 MO/ ( ,MADAGASC>1 ! ,FR5* USAGE WAS NOT TAK5 V]Y S]I\SLY4 ,GILLIAN ,FEELEY-,H>NIK REPORTS ?AT ! ,SAKALAVA PEOPLE ( WE/]N ,MADAGASC> NEV] REF]R$ TO COLONIAL CORVEE LABOR AS FANOMPOANA1 RES]V+ ! T]M 9/EAD = ! RITUAL LABOR !Y CONT9U$ TO P]=M ON ROYAL TOMBS & DWELL+S4 ,BY CONT9U+ TO C>RY \T !SE RITUALS UND] ,FR5* RULE1 %E SUGGE/S1 !Y W]E 9 EFFECT MAK+ COV]T ASS]TIONS AB\T :AT !Y CONSID]$ LEGITIMATE AU?ORITY TO BE 7,FEELEY-,H>NIK #a#i#i#a3 #c#d#i74.<#a#e.> ,9 ,IM]9A1 :AT HAPP5$ WAS 5TIRELY DIFF]5T4 ,!RE1 ! MEAN+ ( FANOMPOANA HAD ALREADY BE5 BROAD5$ BE=E ! ,FR5* >RIV$ TO 9CLUDE MO/ ( ! 9/ITUTIONS--*UR*1 S*OOL1 & GOV]NM5T--?AT W]E SOON TO BECOME ! BASIS ( COLONIAL RULE4 ,MO/ ,M]9A1 !RE=E1 SEEM TO HAVE ACCEPT$ ?AT :AT ! ,FR5* IMPOS$ ON !M WAS1 9DE$1 A K9D ( FANOMPOANA4 ,C]TA9LY1 UNLIKE ,FEELEY-,H>NIK'S ,SAKALAVA1 !Y /ILL REF] TO IT AS SU* TODAY4 ,! RESULT WAS ?AT ! CONCEPT ( FANOMPOANA ITSELF WAS ?OR\<LY DISCR$IT$4 ,IT CAME TO BE ?\<T ( NOT AS S]VICE BUT AS S]VITUDE1 AS SOME?+ TANTAM\NT TO SLAV]Y4 

,?IS *ANGE ( MEAN+S HAD PR(\ND CONSEQU5CES1 9 P>T BECAUSE FANOMPOANA HAD PROVID$ P]HAPS ! ONLY CONTEXT 9 :I* IT WAS CONSID]$ APPROPRIATE = ADULTS TO GIVE DIRECT ORD]S TO EA* O!R4 ,)9 LOCAL COMMUNITIES & AMONG K91 AU?ORITY HAD LONG BE5 SE5 MO/ ( ALL AS A MATT] ( IMPOS+ TABOOS OR O!RWISE PREV5T+ O!RS FROM ACT+1 RA!R ?AN TELL+ PEOPLE :AT TO DO4.<#a#e#a.> ,BE=E ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 ! DI/9CTION BETWE5 ! TWO WAYS ( EX]CIS+ AU?ORITY MI<T HAVE BE5 LITTLE NOTIC$2 BUT AFT] ! ,FR5* CONQUE/1 ONCE FANOMPOANA HAD BECOME 9EXTRICABLY CAU<T UP 9 NOTIONS ( S]VITUDE & =EIGN DOM9ATION1 IT BEGAN TO TAKE ON A BROAD] POLITICAL MEAN+4 ,TRADITIONAL1 ANCE/RAL AU?ORITY--:AT ,I HAVE CALL$ NEGATIVE AU?ORITY--BECAME ! ONLY K9D :I* PEOPLE ACCEPT$ AS FULLY LEGITIMATE4 ,IT HAS COME TO BE SE5 AS ! 0,MALAGASY0 WAY ( DO+ ?+S1 & EXPLICITLY OPPOS$ TO RELATIONS ( COMM&1 :I* >E SE5 AS TYPICAL ( =EIGN]S & ! ,FR5*4 

,9 O!R WORDS1 :]E O!R ,MALAGASY HAVE US$ RELATIONS ( DOM9ATION & CONTROL 7& TO BE POSSESS$ BY A SPIRIT IS TO BE UND] ! CONTROL ( ANO!R 9 AB\T AS TOTAL A =M AS IS IMAG9ABLE7 TO DEF9E A SORT ( AUTONOM\S 0,MALAGASY0 SPH]E = !MSELVES 9 OPPOSITION TO ! COLONIZ]1 0,MALAGASY0 ID5TITY 9 ,IM]9A HAS 9/EAD COME TO BE BAS$ ON ! V]Y REJECTION ( SU* RELATIONS4 

,IT IS WOR? PO9T+ \T AGA9 ?AT ALL ?IS WAS NOT SIMPLY IDEOLOGY1 A UTOPIAN IMAGE ( A ,MALAGASY ID5TITY :I* C\LD BE C\NT]POS$ TO ! ,FR5* REGIME 7OR1 LAT]1 TO ! NATIONAL GOV]NM5T ?AT REPLAC$ IT47 ,9 FACT1 IT WAS NOT REALLY A SELF-CONSCI\SLY =MULAT$ IDEOLOGY AT ALL4 ,IT HAS ALWAYS REMA9$ SOME:AT IMPLICIT1 IMMAN5T 9 ! MORAL /&>DS BY :I* PEOPLE JUDGE EA* O!R'S ACTIONS1 ! TRAITS !Y S+LE \T = CRITICISM 9 O!RS4 ,I NEV] HE>D ANYONE SAY 0WE ,MALAGASY DO NOT GIVE EA* O!R ORD]S0 7SU* A /ATEM5T W\LD HAVE BE5 OBVI\SLY UNTRUE72 BUT ! :OLE ISSUE ( GIV+ ORD]S HAD CLE>LY BECOME A TREM5D\S PROBLEM1 & ?IS 9 TURN HAS HAD ALL SORTS ( EFFECTS ON DOME/IC & POLITICAL RELATIONS4 ,!SE W]E ! ISSUES & ANXIETIES ?AT TOOK %APE 9 FE>S ( ODY FITIA4 

,=MS ( ,LABOR 

  

,!SE ISSUES & ANXIETIES ALSO HAD !IR ROOTS 9 ,IM]9A'S HI/ORICAL EXP]I5CE4 ,K+ ,&RIANAMPO9IM]9A 7#a#g#h#i-#a#h#a7 HAD ALREADY 9VOK$ ! PR9CIPLE ( FANOMPOANA TO DRAFT HIS SUBJECTS 9TO VA/ IRRIGATION PROJECTS >\ND ! CAPITAL2 BUT ! REIGN ( HIS SON ,RADAMA 7#a#h#a-#a#h#b#h7 M>KS ! REAL BREAK ) PA/ TRADITIONS4 ,AFT] ! ,BRITI% GOV]NOR ( ,MAURITIUS AGRE$ TO PROVIDE HIM ) MILIT>Y TRA9]S1 MISSION>Y TEA*]S1 & >TISANS1 ,RADAMA US$ ! PR9CIPLE ( FANOMPOANA AS ! BASIS = RECRUIT+ Y\NG M5 = A /&+ >MY1 9DU/RIAL PROJECTS1 & MISSION S*OOLS4 ,! >MY ALL[$ ,RADAMA TO EXP& ,M]9A RULE ACROSS MO/ ( ,MADAGASC> &1 OV] ! NEXT SEV]AL DECADES1 TO BR+ HOME A /EADY SUPPLY ( CAPTIVES TO BE SOLD AS SLAVES4 ,! 9FLUX ( SLAVES1 9 TURN1 WAS TO P]MAN5TLY TRANS=M ! DEMOGRAPHY ( ,IM]9A4 ,PROP]TY C5SUSES C>RI$ \T 9 ! E>LY #a#h#dS 9DICATE ?AT SLAVES ALREADY MADE UP AB\T #d.0 ( ! ,M]9A POPULATION1 & [N]%IP WAS REM>KABLY WIDESPREAD4.<#a#e#b.> ,GREAT] ACCESS TO SLAVE LABOR ALL[$ ! /ATE1 9 TURN1 TO MAKE EV]-GREAT] DEM&S ON ! FREE POPULATION4 ,FROM ! TIME ( ,RADAMA ,I1 ADULT MALES NOT S]V+ 9 ! MILIT>Y W]E ORGANIZ$ 9TO BRIGADES ?AT W]E CALL$ UP REGUL>LY = MON?S ( FANOMPOANA4 ,AFT] ,QUE5 ,RANAVALONA ,I,I CONV]T$ TO ,PROTE/ANT ,*RI/IANITY 9 #a#h#f#i1 ! SCOPE ( FANOMPOANA EXP&$ EV5 FUR!R TO 9CLUDE COMPULSORY $UCATION 9 MISSION S*OOLS1 BUILD+ ( & ATT5DANCE 9 LOCAL *UR*ES1 & A HO/ ( NEW LABOR OBLIGATIONS4 ,MO/ ( !SE APPE> TO HAVE BE5 WIDELY RES5T$1 EV5 :ILE MO/ ,M]9A CONT9U$ TO ACCEPT ! UND]LY+ PR9CIPLE ( P]SONAL S]VICE TO ! ,SOV]EIGN4 

,! IMM$IATE EFFECT ON DAILY LIFE WAS UND\BT$LY A VA/ GR[? 9 ! SCOPE ( RELATIONS *>ACT]IZ$ BY ! DIRECT GIV+ & TAK+ ( ORD]S4 ,IT IS IMPORTANT TO REMEMB] ?AT ! N9ETE5?-C5TURY ,M]9A GOV]NM5T WAS ESS5TIALLY A MILIT>Y GOV]NM5T4 ,ALMO/ ALL IMPORTANT (FICIALS1 EV5 9 ! CIVIL ADM9I/RATION1 HELD MILIT>Y RANK1 & CIVILIAN FANOMPOANA BRIGADES W]E ORGANIZ$ 9 EXACTLY ! SAME WAY AS MILIT>Y UNITS4 ,EV5 ! S*OOLS--PRIM>Y $UCATION BECAME COMPULSORY BY ! LATE #a#h#gS--ACT$ MA9LY AS RECRUIT+ C5T]S = ! MILIT>Y4 ,FROM ! BEG9N+1 !RE IS EVID5CE ?AT !SE PR9CIPLES ( ORGANIZATION & CONDUCT W]E CONSID]$ PR(\NDLY ALI5 FROM ?OSE :I* APPLI$ 9 EV]YDAY AFFAIRS1 :]E AU?ORITY WAS /ILL IMAG9$ TO BE MA9LY A MATT] ( PREV5T+ H>MFUL ACTIONS4 ,! ,MALAGASY LANGUAGE DID NOT EV5 HAVE A WORD = 0ORD]0 OR 0COMM&10 & ! T]M CO9$1 BAIKO1 HAD ! ADDITIONAL MEAN+ ( 0=EIGN SPEE*40 

,BUT1 EV5 )9 H\SEHOLDS1 ?IS WAS A TIME :5 MORE & MORE ( ! DAILY 9T]ACTION WAS TAK+ PLACE BETWE5 MA/]S & SLAVES4 

,9 ! E>LY YE>S1 ! SLAVE POPULATION WAS MADE UP OV]:ELM+LY ( WOM5 & *ILDR51 :O W]E G5]ALLY UND] ! DIRECT AU?ORITY ( !IR [N]S4 ,BUT AS ! FL[ ( SLAVES 9TO ,IM]9A TAP]$ (F 9 ! #a#h#eS & ! PROPORTION ( SLAVES BORN TO !IR CONDITION 9CREAS$1 SO TOO DID ! PROPORTION ( ADULT MALES4 ,APP>5TLY1 [N]S F\ND IT EXTREMELY DIFFICULT TO KEEP GR[N M5 UND] !IR SY/EMATIC CONTROL4 ,:ILE ! MATT] NE$S MU* FUR!R RESE>*1 MO/ MALE & A SUB/ANTIAL PROPORTION ( FEMALE SLAVES APPE> TO HAVE WON A L>GE MEASURE ( AUTONOMY1 BECOM+ A FLOAT+ /RATUM ( IT9]ANT CRAFTSM51 PORT]S1 LABOR]S1 & PETTY TRAD]S1 ONLY OCCASIONALLY UND] ! DIRECTION ( !IR MA/]S4.<#a#e#c.> ,9 ADDITION1 IT APPE>S ?AT SLAVES W]E ALMO/ ! ONLY PEOPLE WILL+ TO WORK AS WAGE LABOR]S4 ,= 9/ANCE1 9 ! #a#h#hS1 :5 ABOLITIONI/S 9 ,5GL& W]E SC&ALIZ$ TO DISCOV] ?AT ,PROTE/ANT MISSION>IES W]E REGUL>LY BE+ C>RI$ >\ND BY SLAVES & EMPLOY+ SLAVES AS DOME/IC S]VANTS1 ! MISSION>IES 9SI/$ ?AT DESPITE !IR BE/ EF=TS !Y HAD F\ND IT IMPOSSIBLE TO F9D ANYONE ELSE WILL+ TO WORK = WAGES4.<#a#e#d.> 

,9 #a#h#i#e1 A ,FR5* EXP$ITION>Y =CE SEIZ$ ! ,M]9A CAPITAL1 ,ANTANAN>IVO4 ,)9 A YE>1 ,MADAGASC>'S NEW RUL]S HAD ISSU$ A S]IES ( $ICTS :I* ABOLI%$ VIRTUALLY ALL ! 9/ITUTIONS ?AT HAD BE5 ! BASIS ( ! ,M]9A /ATE3 ! MON>*Y1 >I/OCRATIC PRIVILEGES1 & F9ALLY & MO/ DRAMATICALLY1 ! 9/ITUTION ( SLAV]Y ITSELF4 ,FANOMPOANA1 9 FACT1 WAS AB\T ! ONLY MAJOR 9/ITUTION LEFT 9 PLACE4 ,IF ANY?+1 =C$ LABOR PROBABLY 9T5SIFI$ 9 ! FIR/ YE>S ( COLONIAL RULE1 ) ! MASS LEVY+ ( M5 = SU* PROJECTS AS ! BUILD+ ( ROADS & BRIDGES4 ,( C\RSE1 UND] ! COLONIAL REGIME1 LABOR OBLIGATIONS APPLI$ EQUALLY TO EV]Y 9HABITANT ( ,IM]9A1 REG>DLESS ( !IR =M] /ATUS2 = MA/]S & SLAVES TO HAVE TO WORK SIDE BY SIDE UND] =EIGN OV]SI<T MU/ HAVE MADE AN 5ORM\S IMPRESSION AS A TANGIBLE EXPRESSION ( !IR NEWF\ND EQUALITY 9 COMMON SUBJUGATION TO ! ,FR5*4.<#a#e#e.> ,9 !ORY1 FANOMPOANA WAS ONLY MA9TA9$ = A FEW YE>S4 ,9 REALITY1 =C$ LABOR CONT9U$ 9 ONE =M OR ANO!R UNTIL ! LATE #a#i#dS1 MA9TA9$ BY AN EV]-*ANG+ S]IES ( LAWS & LEGAL SUBT]FUGES4 ,&1 S9CE COLONI/S F\ND IT EXTREMELY DIFFICULT TO F9D ANYONE WILL+ TO SIGN LABOR CONTRACTS1 ADDITIONAL LAWS W]E ISSU$ EXEMPT+ ?OSE HOLD+ SU* CONTRACTS FROM CORVEE4 ,?IS ALL[$ EMPLOY]S TO SET PRETTY MU* :ATEV] T]MS !Y C>$ TO1 & MADE WAGE-LABOR APPE>1 FROM ! ,MALAGASY PO9T ( VIEW1 A M]E EXT5SION ( =C$ LABOR1 :I* 9 EFFECT IT WAS 7,FREMIGACCI #a#i#g#e1 #a#i#g#h2 ,RAISON #a#i#h#d3 #a#h-#h#d74 

,DUR+ ! FIR/ G5]ATION ( COLONIAL RULE1 ! OLD RURAL ELITE L>GELY AB&ON$ ! C\NTRYSIDE1 F9D+ !MSELVES PLACES 9 ! ADM9I/RATION1 COMM]CE1 OR LIB]AL PR(ESSIONS & LEAV+ !IR RICE FIELDS TO BE %>ECROPP$ BY =M] SLAVES4 ,?OSE :O REMA9$ QUICKLY FELL 9TO A FAIRLY UNI=M POV]TY4 ,P>TIBLE 9H]ITANCE & CON/ANT MIGRATION TO NEW L&S MAY HAVE PREV5T$ ANY EXTREME DISP>ITIES ( WEAL? FROM REEM]G+1 BUT ! /EADY 9CREASE ( POPULATION ALSO 5SUR$ ?AT MO/ FAMILIES DID NOT HAVE ACCESS TO 5\< L& TO SUPPORT !MSELVES4 ,?IS PROCESS ONLY 9T5SIFI$ ) 9DEP5D5CE1 BY :I* TIME ALMO/ EV]YONE 9 ,IM]9A WAS =C$ TO COMB9E F>M+ ) CRAFTS1 PETTY COMM]CE1 WAGE-LABOR1 OR SOME COMB9ATION ( ! ?REE4 

,WAGE-LABOR IS BY F> ! LEA/ POPUL> ALT]NATIVE4 ,MO/ DESC5DANTS ( FREE PEOPLE WILL ONLY FALL BACK ON AGRICULTURAL DAY-LABOR :5 !RE IS ABSOLUTELY NO ALT]NATIVE1 & EV5 !N1 PREF] TO WORK = K9 ON A TEMPOR>Y BASIS4 ,9 ! C\NTRYSIDE & SMALL T[NS :]E ! VA/ MAJORITY ( ,M]9A LIVE1 LONG-T]M RELATIONS ( WAGE-LABOR BETWE5 ADULTS BASICALLY DO NOT EXI/4 ,EV5 9 ! CITY !Y >E R>E1 \TSIDE ( ! V]Y LIMIT$ =MAL SECTOR1 :I* CONSI/S MA9LY ( ! GOV]NM5T ITSELF1 & O!R COLONIAL 9/ITUTIONS4 ,! ONLY /RATUM ( ! POPULATION :O DOES NOT %>E ?IS AV]SION TO WAGE-LABOR IS COMPOS$ ( ! DESC5DANTS ( SLAVES2 /ILL A ?IRD ( ! POPULATION1 & /ILL CONSID]$ A CA/E AP>T1 :O DO NOT1 G5]ALLY SPEAK+1 9T]M>RY ) ! DESC5DANTS ( =M] SLAVE-[N]S4 ,) LITTLE ACCESS TO L& OR O!R RES\RCES1 !Y FOLL[ MU* ! SAME OCCUPATIONS !Y DID AT ! 5D ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY4 ,!Y REMA9 ! ONLY PEOPLE :O >E NORMALLY WILL+ TO WORK = WAGES4 

,FANOMPOANA AS ,SLAV]Y 

  

,TWO YE>S AFT] ! EMANCIPATION ( #a#h#i#f1 A COLONIAL (FICIAL WROTE ?AT3  
  

,QUE/ION$ ON ?IS OCCASION1 A WOMAN ( ! HI<E/ CA/E ( NOBILITY1 RI*1 ! [N] ( NUM]\S SLAVES1 RESPOND$ ) MELAN*OLY3 0,:AT DOES IT MATT] IF \R SLAVES HAVE BE5 FRE$8 ,HAV5'T ALL ,MALAGASY1 BEG9N+ ) ! ,QUE51 N[ BECOME SLAVES ( ! ,FR5*80 7,C>OL #a#h#i#h3 #c#h-#c#i7  
  

,IF ?IS WAS A M]E FIGURE ( SPEE*1 IT HAS PROV$ A REM>KABLY 5DUR+ ONE4 ,EV5 :5 TALK+ ) V]Y WELL-$UCAT$ PEOPLE ,I W\LD (T5 HE> COMM5TS LIKE 0! ,FR5* Y\ KN[ TREAT$ !IR SLAVES MU* BETT] ?AN ! ,BRITI%0--REF]R+ BY ?IS TO POLICIES ( COLONIAL RULE4 ,DISCUSSIONS ( *ATTEL SLAV]Y W\LD SLIP SEAMLESSLY 9TO DISCUSSIONS ( COLONIALISM & BACK4 ,9 FACT1 ALMO/ ALL POLITICAL RELATION%IPS1 9CLUD+ ?OSE ID5TIFI$ ) ! ,M]9A K+DOM ITSELF1 APPE> TO HAVE BE5 REEVALUAT$ & L>GELY RE%AP$ 9 ! POPUL> IMAG9ATION ?R\< ASSIMILATION ) SLAV]Y4 ,9 MOD]N ,MALAGASY1 ! MEAN+ ( ! WORD FANOMPOANA IS CLOS] TO ! ,5GLI% T]M 0S]VITUDE0 ?AN IT IS TO 0S]VICE02 IT IMPLIES WORK C>RI$ \T UND] ?REAT ( CO]CION1 & IS MO/ (T5 US$ AS A EUPHEMISM = SLAV]Y4.<#a#e#f.> ,!RE W]E ANY NUMB] ( SU* EUPHEMISMS4 ,ONE ( ! MORE /RIK+ WAS 0SOLDI]40 ,IT TOOK ME SOME TIME TO FIGURE \T ?AT :5 SOMEONE REC\NT+ ORAL TRADITIONS REF]R$ TO A LORD'S 0SOLDI]S10 !Y USUALLY MEANT HIS SLAVES4 ,9 FACT1 ! T]MS 0SOLDI]0 & 0SLAVE0 W]E (T5 US$ 9T]*ANGEABLY--A />TL+ ID5TIFICATION1 S9CE 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 SLAVES W\LD HAVE BE5 ! LA/ PEOPLE EV] ALL[$ TO C>RY GUNS4 ,! CONNECTION SEEM$ TO BE SIMPLY ?AT BO? W]E PEOPLE :O OBEY ORD]S4 ,9 ORAL TRADITIONS1 HI/ORICAL RELATIONS ( COMM& ALWAYS T5D$ TO BE TREAT$ AS SO MANY REFRACTIONS ( SLAV]Y1 & !RE=E AS ESS5TIALLY UNJU/4 

,IF SLAV]Y HAD ! IMPORTANCE IT DID 9 SETT+ ! MEASURE ( ALL O!R RELATIONS1 ?IS DID NOT MEAN IT WAS A SUBJECT ANYONE 5JOY$ DISCUSS+4 ,IT WAS MORE ! SORT ( ISSUE ?AT NO ONE WANT$ TO TALK AB\T BUT EV]YONE ALWAYS SEEM$ TO 5D UP TALK+ AB\T ANYWAY1 IF ONLY 9 HU%$ TONES & EUPHEMI/IC LANGUAGE1 :5EV] !Y TALK$ AB\T ! PA/4 ,IT WAS AS IF ! CONT9U+ PRES5CE ( A POPULATION ( EX-SLAVES1 LIV+ 9 CLOSE1 IF (T5 UNCOM=TABLE1 PROXIMITY ) ! DESC5DANTS ( !IR =M] MA/]S1 HAD MADE ! :OLE ISSUE SO TR\BL+ ?AT IT HAD TO BE CONT9UALLY HIDD51 UNTIL1 9 ! 5D1 IT BEGAN TO BE SE5 AS ! HIDD5 REALITY BEH9D EV]Y?+4.<#a#e#g.> 

,?IS ATTITUDE WAS ALMO/ C]TA9LY ! LEGACY ( ! E>LY YE>S ( COLONIAL OCCUPATION4 ,BY ! TIME ! ,FR5* APPE>$ ON ! SC5E1 ! MEAN+ ( FANOMPOANA HAD ALREADY BE5 BROAD5$ TO 9CLUDE OBLIGATIONS TO PAY TAXES1 P]=M MILIT>Y S]VICE1 ATT5D /ATE S*OOLS & EV5 *UR*ES--ALL ! 9/ITUTIONS ?AT W]E SOON TO BECOME ! BULW>KS ( ! COLONIAL /ATE4 ,! ORGANIZATION ( SU* 9/ITUTIONS WAS ALREADY SE5 AS ESS5TIALLY MILIT>Y1 BAS$ ON RELATIONS 9 :I* SOME W]E GIV+ ORD]S & O!RS W]E EXPECT$ TO OBEY )\T QUE/ION1 & !RE=E1 AS /&+ AT A C]TA9 REMOVE FROM DAILY LIFE4 ,AFT] ! ,FR5* CONQUE/1 ?IS REMOVE BECAME A *ASM4 ,COLONIAL PHRASE BOOKS1 = 9/ANCE1 LEAVE ONE ) ! IMPRESSION ?AT ,FR5* (FICIALS & COLONI/S H>DLY SPOKE TO !IR SUBJECTS 9 ANY?+ BUT ! IMP]ATIVE VOICE4 ,9 LIT]>Y ,MALAGASY1 ,FR5* IS /ILL KN[N AS NY T5Y BAIKO3 0! LANGUAGE ( COMM&40 ,ONE IS ALSO REM9D$ ( ! PROV]B AZA MANAO ,VAZAHA FITO ANTRANO4 ,A ,MALAGASY V]SION ( 0TOO MANY COOKS SPOIL ! BRO?10 IT LIT]ALLY MEANS 0DON'T ACT LIKE SEV5 ,FR5* PEOPLE ALL 9 ! SAME H\SE0--! IDEA BE+ ?AT1 IF ?IS W]E TO HAPP51 EV]YONE W\LD JU/ SIT >\ND GIV+ EV]YONE ELSE ORD]S & NO?+ W\LD GET DONE4 ,AT ! SAME TIME1 9 ! SMALL T[NS & RURAL VILLAGES :]E MO/ ( ! POPULATION LIV$1 PEOPLE APPE> TO HAVE BECOME 9CREAS+LY AV]SE TO US+ IMP]ATIVE =MS AT ALL4 ,:5 ,EL9OR ,O*S C>RI$ \T A SOCIOL+UI/IC /UDY 9 A ,M]9A VILLAGE 9 ! LATE #a#i#fS1 H] 9=MANTS 9SI/$ ?AT GIV+ DIRECT ORD]S TO ANO!R P]SON WAS NOT A 0,MALAGASY0 WAY TO BEHAVE1 EXPLICITLY CONTRA/+ IT ) ! MANN]S ( ! CITY1 & ! ,FR5* 7,O*S #a#i#g#d3 #a#c#a-#a#c#d2 #a#i#g#e74 

,I %\LD PO9T \T H]E ?AT1 :ILE ,I HAVE BE5 FOLL[+ CONV5TIONAL USAGE & CALL+ !SE PEOPLE ,M]9A1 ,I NEV] HE>D ANYONE !RE SPONTANE\SLY REF] TO !MSELVES AS SU*4 ,!Y ALWAYS SPOKE ( !MSELVES AS 0,MALAGASY02 JU/ AS !Y SPOKE ( 0,MALAGASY0 CU/OMS1 0,MALAGASY0 BELIEFS1 & 0,MALAGASY0 =MS ( KN[L$GE1 ALL ( :I* !Y DEF9$ 9 CONTRA/ TO ?OSE !Y CONSID]$ =EIGN1 ,EUROPEAN OR ,FR5*4 ,AFT] ! ,FR5* CONQUE/1 !N1 ALL !SE 9/ITUTIONS 7=C$ LABOR1 WAGE-LABOR1 MILIT>Y1 S*OOLS7 CAME TO BE SE5 AS SO MANY TOK5S ( =EIGN DOM9ATION1 ANALOG\S ) SLAV]Y1 & PEOPLE'S ID5TITY AS ,MALAGASY BECAME 9 L>GE P>T DEF9$ 9 OPPOSITION TO !M4 ,ONE REASON ! CON/ANT REM9D]S ( SLAV]Y 9 DAILY LIFE BECAME SO EMB>RASS+1 !N1 WAS ?AT !Y MADE CLE> ?AT ,M]9A HAD ONCE TREAT$ !IR FELL[ ,MALAGASY 9 ! SAME WAY ?AT =EIGN]S W]E N[ TREAT+ !M4 ,IT HAD BECOME AN ACUTE CONTRADICTION )9 !IR S5SE ( NATIONAL ID5TITY4 

,?IS POLITICAL ID5TITY BECAME EMB$D$ 9 DAILY LIFE & /&>DS ( MORAL JUDGM5T4 ,! RELUCTANCE TO COMM& O!RS OP5LY IS P>T ( A MORE G5]AL AV]SION TO ANY RELATION%IP 9 :I* ONE P>TY IS SE5 AS DIRECT+ ! ACTIONS ( ANO!R4 ,I ?9K ?IS AV]SION IS ! REAL EXPLANATION = ! RELUCTANCE TO 5GAGE 9 WAGE-LABOR4 ,MO/ RURAL PEOPLE N[ADAYS WILL OCCASIONALLY HIRE !MSELVES \T AS DAY LABOR]S2 BUT1 :5 !Y DO1 !Y WORK 9 TEAMS ?AT OP]ATE AUTONOM\SLY4 ,(T5 ,I F\ND MYSELF WAT*+ WORK]S HIR$ TO REPLANT OR H>VE/ SOMEONE ELSE'S RICE FIELDS ANIMAT$LY DISCUSS+ H[ BE/ TO PROCE$1 :ILE !IR EMPLOY] WAT*$ SIL5TLY FROM A FEW Y>DS AWAY1 NOT PRESUM+ TO TELL !M H[ TO GO AB\T !IR TASK4 ,EV5 FA!RS W\LD AVOID OP5LY DIRECT+ !IR ADULT *ILDR52 9 FACT1 ( ALL ! 9HABITANTS ( A RURAL COMMUNITY1 ! OLD] M5 :O W]E ITS PRIM>Y FIGURES ( AU?ORITY W]E ALSO ! LEA/ LIKELY TO BE SE5 GIV+ ORD]S 9 PUBLIC4 ,!IR QU9TESS5TIAL ROLE WAS SE5 TO LIE 9 PREV5T+ ANY ACTION ?AT MI<T PROVE DISRUPTIVE TO SOLID>ITY3 BREAK+ UP FI<TS OR 0ADMONI%+0 ! Y\NG :5 !IR 9DIVIDUALI/IC PROJECTS SEEM LIKELY TO LEAD TO CONFLICT4 

,P]HAPS IF ONE HAD %[N UP 9 A ,M]9A VILLAGE TWO HUNDR$ YE>S AGO1 ?+S W\LD HAVE NOT LOOK$ V]Y DIFF]5T4 ,BUT ONCE ! PR9CIPLE ( FANOMPOANA BEGAN TO BE ID5TIFI$ ) =EIGN DOM9ATION1 ?IS SORT ( NEGATIVE AU?ORITY BECAME ! ONLY K9D PEOPLE TOOK TO BE :OLLY LEGITIMATE4 ,TO BE ,MALAGASY CAME TO MEAN REJECT+ 5TANGLEM5T 9 RELATIONS ( COMM& AS F> AS IT WAS PRACTICAL TO DO SO4 

,MADAGASC>1 ( C\RSE1 IS NO LONG] A ,FR5* COLONY1 BUT !SE ATTITUDES HAVE BY NO MEANS DISAPPE>$4 ,! RURAL POPULATION 7& = ?AT MATT] ! BULK ( ! URBAN POOR7 /ILL T5D TO SEE ! GOV]NM5T & GOV]N+ CLASS AS EXI/+ AT A C]TA9 FUNDAM5TAL REMOVE FROM 0,MALAGASY0 LIFE4 ,AS ONE MI<T EXPECT1 ! $UCAT$1 URBAN ELITE1 :O LIVE !IR LIVES 9 A CONTEXT ( CA% EMPLOYM5T1 HAVE A MU* MORE ACCEPT+ ATTITUDE T[>DS RELATIONS ( COMM&4.<#a#e#h.> ,EV5 9 ! C\NTRY1 ?\<1 RELATIONS ( COMM& HAVE NOT BE5 BY ANY MEANS ELIM9AT$4 ,!Y CONT9UE TO EXI/1 IF (T5 9 RA!R EUPHEMI/IC =MS1 9 ANY NUMB] ( DIFF]5T ASPECTS ( DAILY LIFE4 ,TEA*]S & BUREAUCRATS HAVE AFFECT$ A MORE CONS5SUAL1 0,MALAGASY0 /YLE S9CE 9DEP5D5CE1 BUT ! S*OOLS & (FICES >E BASICALLY ! SAME4 ,MALAGASY DO HIRE ONE ANO!R1 IF R>ELY = V]Y LONG2 ELD]S DO DIRECT O!R PEOPLE'S ACTIONS1 IF USUALLY 9DIRECTLY OR UND] A CONS5SUAL V5E]4 ,LIKE MEMORIES ( SLAV]Y1 RELATIONS ( COMM& 9 EV]YDAY LIFE T5D TO BE SUPPRESS$ & HIDD5 &1 AS SU*1 !Y BECOME SOCIAL ISSUES MU* MORE IMPORTANT ?AN !Y W\LD O!RWISE HAVE BE54 

,WIT*ES ,:O ,GO ,\T AT ,NI<T 

  

,FROM H]E1 IT'S EASY TO SEE H[ ! PIECES FALL TOGE!R4 ,:ILE SOME?+ LIKE AN E?IC ( NEGATIVE AU?ORITY HAD LONG EXI/$ 9 ,IM]9A1 DUR+ ! TW5TIE? C5TURY IT CAME TO BE EXPLICITLY FRAM$ AS ! TRUE 0,MALAGASY0 E?IC & OPPOS$ TO RELATIONS ( COMM&1 :I* W]E 9CREAS+LY CONCEIV$ AS 9TR9SICALLY =EIGN1 MILIT>Y1 OPPRESSIVE1 & UNJU/4 ,H[EV]1 SU* A POSITION WAS FULL ( OBVI\S CONTRADICTIONS4 ,FIR/ ( ALL1 EV]YONE WAS P]FECTLY WELL AW>E ?AT ,MALAGASY PEOPLE DID US$ TO TREAT EA* O!R ?IS WAY3 !RE W]E ONCE K+S1 & SLAVES1 & BO? /ILL HAD DESC5DANTS :OSE TYPICAL OCCUPATIONS W]E NOT SO V]Y DIFF]5T FROM !IR ANCE/ORS'4 ,MORE IMM$IATELY3 !RE IS A REASON :Y ALL LANGUAGES HAVE IMP]ATIVE =MS4 ,IT IS ABSURD TO IMAG9E A SOCIETY 9 :I* NO ONE EV] TOLD ANYONE ELSE :AT TO DO4 

,NOT ONLY WAS ! IDEAL ( NEGATIVE AU?ORITY PRACTICALLY IMPOSSIBLE2 IT ALSO CREAT$ A SOCIAL WORLD RIFE ) HIDD5 PURPOSES1 9 :I* EV]YONE--ELD]S MO/ ( ALL1 P]HAPS--W]E TRY+ TO 9FLU5CE O!RS TO DO ?+S )\T BE+ ABLE TO FULLY ACKN[L$GE !Y W]E DO+ IT4 ,IT WAS 9 ?IS SOCIAL 5VIRONM5T ?AT PEOPLE 9 T[NS & VILLAGES ACROSS ,IM]9A BEGAN TO GR[ 9CREAS+LY CONC]N$ ) ! PROSPECT ( WOM5 5SLAV+ M5 BY MEANS ( M$IC9E2 ) IMAGES ( PEOPLE SEIZ$ BY FANA+A LAVITRA1 COMPELL$ TO TRAVEL TO !IR SUMMON]S2 ) ?IEVES =C$ TO SP5D ! NI<T C>RY+ BASKETS ( MANURE = !IR 9T5D$ VICTIMS4 ,NOT ALL ( !SE DANG]S W]E ID5TIFI$ ) WOM51 BUT MANY W]E4 ,P]HAPS ! MO/ DRAMATIC *ANGE1 9 FACT1 9VOLV$ IMAGES ( WIT*ES1 :I* DUR+ ! COLONIAL P]IOD BECAME 9CREAS+LY 9T]WOV5 ) IDEAS AB\T ODY FITIA4 

,I %\LD EXPLA9 H]E ?AT ! T]M MPAMOSAVY1 :I* ,I HAVE R5D]$ 0WIT*0 OR 0SORC]]10 HAS ALWAYS HAD TWO SOME:AT DIFF]5T MEAN+S4 ,ON ! ONE H&1 IT CAN REF] TO ANYONE-->*ETYPALLY1 M5--DRIV5 BY 5VY1 SPITE1 & RES5TM5T TO H>M O!RS BY MEANS ( M$IC9E4 ,BUT !RE >E ALSO 0WIT*ES :O GO \T AT NI<T10 CREATURES ( ABSOLUTE DEPRAVITY :O PR[L$ ! SURR\ND+S ( ,M]9A VILLAGES AFT] DUSK4 ,!SE W]E ! ULTIMATE IMAGE ( MORAL EVIL4 ,EV5 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 !Y W]E ALSO SE5 AS PR$OM9ANTLY WOM53  
  

,NO VILLAGE IS FREE FROM SUPPOS$ WIT*ES1 :O >E SAID TO TAKE !IR WALKS ABROAD AT MIDNI<T TO VISIT ! TOMBS1 ON TOP ( :I* !Y DANCE & REVILE ! DEAD4 ,!Y >E SAID TO BE MA9LY ELD]LY FEMALES ( S9I/] ASPECT1 JO9$ BY Y\NG WOM5 ( BAD *>ACT]1 ) OCCASIONAL MALE ASSOCIATES444 ,AT ! DEAD ( NI<T !Y KNOCK AT ! DOORS ( NEI<BORS !Y WI% TO 9JURE1 & %\LD !RE BE ANYONE SICK1 !Y H[L MO/ DISMALLY >\ND ! H\SE 7,HAILE #a#h#i#c3 #a#a74.<#a#e#i.>  
  

,WIT*ES W]E SAID TO GA!R TOGE!R TO PLAN & C>RY \T !IR MORE ELABORATE ACTS ( SORC]Y1 OR T]RORIZE ?OSE KEEP+ VIGIL OV] ! DEAD1 ACCOMPANI$ BY WILD CATS & [LS4 ,!Y W5T AB\T NAK$1 !IR CLO?+ BUNDL$ ON !IR HEADS & !IR F+]S TIPP$ ) POISONS4 ,!Y HAD TREM5D\S1 UNCANNY /R5G?1 C\LD SPAN GREAT DI/ANCES ALMO/ 9/ANTLY1 DOVE 9TO MOATS OR \T ( W9D[S & L& UNSCA!D4 

,AS = H[ !SE WOM5 BECAME WIT*ES1 ONLY ONE S\RCE--,VIG AGA9--SUGGE/S AN EXPLANATION4 0,ACCORD+ TO ,MALAGASY IDEAS1 :OEV] L5DS HIMSELF TO ! ADORATION ( A *>M IS DRAWN IRRESI/IBLY TO DO :ATEV] ?AT *>M'S TASK MAY BE40 ,! P[] ( ODY1 ! READ] WILL RECALL1 WAS SE5 AS COM+ FROM AN 9VISIBLE SPIRIT1 :I* GAVE IT A CONSCI\SNESS & AG5CY ( ITS [N4 ,WIT*ES1 !N1 W]E PEOPLE TAK5 OV] BY !IR [N EVIL M$IC9E2 PEOPLE :O W]E DRIV5 BY SPITE & RES5TM5T TO H>M O!RS UNTIL F9ALLY ! P[] ( !IR ODY DROVE !M TO B& TOGE!R ) O!RS ( ! SAME K9D & WORK EVIL = ITS [N SAKE4 ,9DE$1 MO/ N9ETE5?-C5TURY DESCRIPTIONS ( WIT*ES FOCUS ON ! ELABORATE C]EMONIES B&S ( WIT*ES W\LD UND]TAKE AT NI<T1 9CLUD+ ELABORATE MOCK FUN]ALS1 TO MAKE NEW VICTIMS WA/E AWAY & DIE4 

,MANY ( !SE DETAILS /ILL APPE> 9 DESCRIPTIONS ( MOD]N-DAY ,M]9A WIT*ES2 WIT*ES /ILL DANCE ON TOMBS1 = 9/ANCE1 & !Y /ILL HAVE ! SAME EXTRAORD9>Y PHYSICAL P[]S4 ,BUT ! EMPHASIS ON MALICI\S SORC]Y1 MOCK FUN]ALS1 & ! LIKE HAS V]Y MU* FAD$ 9TO ! BACKGR\ND4 ,9/EAD1 ALMO/ EV]YONE 9SI/$ TO ME ?AT1 IF WOM5 5D$ UP PR[L+ ! \TSKIRTS ( VILLAGES AT NI<T1 IT WAS NOT BECAUSE ( ! ABUSE ( MALICI\S M$IC9E BUT BECAUSE ( ! ABUSE ( ODY FITIA4 

,! WAY IT WAS COMMONLY EXPRESS$ WAS ?IS3 IF A WOMAN USES TOO MU* LOVE M$IC9E OR GETS LOVE M$IC9E ?AT'S 0TOO P[]FUL0 %E MAY 9 ! 5D BE OV]:ELM$ BY ! P[] ( H] [N M$IC9E4.<#a#f.> ,:5 NI<T FALLS1 ! ODY'S SPIRIT WILL TAKE POSSESSION ( ITS [N] 9 MU* ! SAME WAY AN EVIL <O/ POSSESSES A VICTIM ( AMBALAVELONA1 OR ! S\L ( AN ANCI5T K+ POSSESSES A M$IUM4 ,SU* WIT*ES >E NO LONG] 9 CONTROL ( !IR [N ACTIONS3 BY SOME ACC\NTS !Y >E NOT EV5 CONSCI\S ( !M4 0,C>RI$0 BY ! P[] ( !IR ODY1 !Y /RIP (F !IR CLO!S & AB&ON !IR H\SES TO F9D & MEET ) O!R WIT*ES & WORK EVIL4.<#a#f#a.> ,WOM5 W\LD USUALLY 9SI/ ?AT ! TYPICAL WIT* WAS AN OLD WOM52 BUT ,I SUSPECT ?IS MA9LY REFLECTS ! FACT ?AT OLD] WOM51 P>TICUL>LY ?OSE :O HEAD H\SEHOLDS OR >E O!RWISE 9DEP5D5T1 W]E ! MO/ LIKELY TO BE SUSPECT$ BY !IR NEI<BORS ( 0GO+ \T AT NI<T40 ,JU/ AB\T EV]YONE ,I TALK$ TO :O CLAIM$ TO HAVE !MSELVES HAD RUN-9S ) WIT*ES W]E M51 & !Y ALWAYS SEEM$ TO HAVE A MORE SEXUALIZ$ IMAGE ( A Y\NG] WOMAN 9 M9D4 

,AS = :AT HAPP5S TO A MAN UN=TUNATE 5\< TO MEET UP ) A WIT* AT NI<T3 H]E1 ACC\NTS W]E PRETTY MU* UNANIM\S4 ,IF Y\ SEE ! WIT* BE=E %E SEES Y\1 !N1 G5]ALLY SPEAK+1 Y\'LL BE ABLE TO GET AWAY4 ,BUT IF %E SEES Y\ FIR/1 %E WILL IMM$IATELY MAKE USE ( H] ODY & Y\ WILL SUDD5LY F9D Y\RSELF UNABLE TO MOVE1 OR EV5 TO CRY \T4 ,ONCE CAPTUR$1 ! HELPLESS VICTIM MAY BE TORM5T$ BY ! WIT*--OR MORE LIKELY BY A GR\P ( !M--9 V>I\S 7USUALLY VAGUELY SPECIFI$7 WAYS4 ,BUT :AT WIT*ES >E REALLY FAM\S = IS RID+ M5 LIKE HORSES4 7,?IS IS ALWAYS SOME?+ WOM5 DO TO M5--PEOPLE W\LD LAU< :5 ,I SO MU* AS SUGGE/$ O!R POSSIBILITIES74 ,!Y M\NT !IR VICTIMS' BACKS & DRIVE !M ALONG UNTIL DAWN1 !Y MAKE !M EAT DIRT OR ABASE !MSELVES 9 WAYS TOO HORRIBLE TO EV5 M5TION1 & F9ALLY AB&ON !M1 FIL?Y & EXHAU/$1 ON !IR DOOR/EPS BE=E DAWN4 ,(T51 ! VICTIM AWAKES ) ONLY DI/ANT MEMORIES ( HIS ORDEAL2 SOMETIMES HE IS MUTE = DAYS AFT]W>DS & CANNOT SPEAK ( IT2 9 EXTREME CASES1 HIS /R5G? NEV] RETURNS TO HIM & HE DIES4 

,9 ! LA/ C5TURY1 WIT*CRAFT WAS A NI<TM>E IMAGE ( HUMAN MALEVOL5CE C>RI$ TO ITS ULTIMATE EXTREMES4 ,9 ! TW5TIE? C5TURY1 IT HAS BECOME AN EXT5SION ( LOVE M$IC9E4 ,& IF /ORIES AB\T LOVE M$IC9E TOLD N[ADAYS CAN BE SAID TO REFLECT A DEEP-SEAT$ SUSPICION ( ANY SORT ( ANY RELATION%IP 9 :I* ONE P]SON GA9S COMPLETE CONTROL ( ! ACTIONS ( ANO!R1 ! IMAGE ( A WOMAN 0C>RI$0 BY H] M$IC9E RID+ A MAN :O IS 0C>RI$ BY0 H]1 ( A MAN POSSESS$ BY A WOMAN :O IS H]SELF POSSESS$ BY A *>M1 IS ONE ( CONTROL /RIPP$ ( ANY RATIONALE OR EV5 ( ANY AG5T4 ,AN ODY1 AFT] ALL1 HAS NO ID5TITY AP>T FROM ITS PURPOSE1 SO ?AT A WIT*'S ODY IS REALLY A PURE AB/RACTION1 ! %E] DESIRE TO DOM9ATE O!RS & NO?+ ELSE4 ,/ORIES AB\T WOM5 :O TRY TO W9 OV] M5 ?R\< M$IC9E1 BUT :O 5D UP RID+ M5 AT NI<T1 >E FANTASIES AB\T ! PR9CIPLE ( CONTROL BUR/+ ALL POSSIBLE B\ND>IES--/ORIES :I*1 H[EV]1 ?R\< AN ELABORATE S]IES ( REV]SALS & DISPLACEM5TS1 5D UP 9 A RA!R SIMIL> PLACE TO ?OSE AB\T N9ETE5?-C5TURY ODY FITIA3 9 A HI<LY SEXUALIZ$ IMAGE ( DEGRADATION & CRUELTY4 

,SO3 ,:Y ,WOM58 

  

,:Y1 F9ALLY1 %\LD IT BE WOM5 9 P>TICUL> :O >E SE5 AS EMBODY+ ! FRI<T5+ P[] ( COMM&--A P[] :I*1 AFT] ALL1 IS O!RWISE LOCAT$ MA9LY 9 IMAGES ( SLAVE-[N+ LORDS & ,FR5* COLONIAL (FICIALS8 ,?IS IS A SUBTLE QUE/ION1 & NO D\BT !RE >E MANY REASONS1 BUT ONE IS OBVI\S3 ,M]9A WOM5 T5D TO USE ! IMP]ATIVE =M MU* MORE ?AN M54 

,O*S MAKES A GREAT PO9T ( ?IS 9 H] ANALYSIS ( SPEE* PATT]NS4 ,AVOID+ GIV+ O!RS ORD]S 9 PUBLIC1 %E SAID1 WAS P>T ( A BROAD] FEEL+ ?AT ONE %\LD NEV] PLACE O!RS 9 A SITUATION :I* MI<T PROVE PUBLICLY EMB>RASS+4 ,BUT IT WAS M5 9 P>TICUL>1 & MO/ ( ALL1 OLD] M5 9 POSITIONS ( AU?ORITY1 :O W]E EXPECT$ TO BEHAVE ?IS WAY4 ,M5 W]E ASSUM$ TO BE BY NATURE MORE DISCRETE1 %Y1 & LESS COMPETITIVE ?AN WOM51 :OSE BEHAVIOR EV5 9 PUBLIC WAS MORE ASS]TIVE & DIRECT4 ,?IS WAS EV5 MORE TRUE )9 ! H\SEHOLD1 :]E WOM5 >E V]Y MU* 9 *>GE4 ,OLD] WOM5 ESPECIALLY SP5D MU* ( !IR TIME ISSU+ ORD]S & COORD9AT+ TASKS1 CASUALLY DISPAT*+ SIBL+S & *ILDR5 (F ON ]R&S4 ,R>ELY IF EV] DID ,I SEE A MAN GIV+ A DIRECT ORD] TO A WOMAN2 BUT ,I V]Y (T5 SAW WOM5 US+ ! IMP]ATIVE =M :5 SPEAK+ ) M54 ,HAV+ READ ,O*S' WORK BE=E ,I >RIV$ 9 ,MADAGASC>1 ,I WAS RA!R SURPRIS$ TO DISCOV] H[ (T5 ! IMP]ATIVE =M ACTUALLY WAS US$ 9 SU* CONTEXTS4 ,:5 ,I ASK$ WOM5 :Y M5 W]E SO MU* MORE RES]V$ 9 PUBLIC & WOM5 SO =?RI<T1 !Y W\LD ALMO/ 9V>IABLY REPLY ?AT WOM5 W]E RESPONSIBLE = RUNN+ H\SEHOLDS & HAD TO BE ASS]TIVE 9 ORD] TO DO SO4 

,BUT AS ,MAURICE ,BLO* HAS PO9T$ \T1 IT IS PRECISELY ?R\< SU* MILD PO/URES ?AT OLD] M5 ASS]T !IR AU?ORITY3 BY ACT+ ?IS WAY1 !Y >E SE5 AS EMBODY+ 9 !IR [N COMPORTM5T ! SOLID>ITY & MORAL UNITY ( ! COMMUNITY AS A :OLE4.<#a#f#b.> ,9 PUBLIC =A1 IT IS WOM5'S V]Y DIRECT MANN]S1 !IR GREAT] PROP5SITY1 IF NOT TO ISSUE COMM&S1 !N AT LEA/ TO MAKE DIRECT DEM&S ON O!RS1 TO PROPOSE S*EMES ( ACTION1 :I* 5SURES !Y WILL NOT BE SE5 AS REAL FIGURES ( AU?ORITY4 ,!RE >E FEW =MAL B>RI]S TO WOM5 BECOM+ ELD]S1 BUT 9 FACT !Y ONLY R>ELY DO4 ,?IS IS NOT ONLY BECAUSE ( /YLES ( ACTION4 ,IT IS ALSO BECAUSE IT IS PRECISELY ?OSE WOM5 :O >E ! MO/ OBVI\S C&IDATES = AN 9DEP5D5T POLITICAL ROLE1 ESPECIALLY1 ! V5]ABLE WOM5 HEADS ( L>GE FAMILIES OR O!R OLD]1 9DEP5D5T WOM51 :O >E MO/ LIKELY TO BE ACCUS$ ( 0KN[+ ODY FITIA0 OR EV5 0GO+ \T AT NI<T10 SUFFICI5T T>NI% ON ANYONE'S *>ACT] TO 5SURE !Y CAN NEV] BE TAK5 S]I\SLY AS PUBLIC FIGURES4 ,= MO/ WOM5 ! ONLY SAFE WAY TO A*IEVE A POSITION ( PUBLIC 9FLU5CE IS 9DIRECT1 AS ! WIFE1 MO!R1 OR DAU<T] ( SOME SIGNIFICANT MAN4 ,! 5D RESULT ( C\RSE IS ?AT ,M]9A WOM5 7LIKE ANY GR\P ) LITTLE OR NO ACCESS TO ! =MAL ME*ANISMS ( P[]7 T5D TO ACQUIRE A REPUTATION AS MANIPULATORS1 :I*1 9 TURN1 5DS UP RE9=C+ ! IMPRESSION ?AT !Y >E MORE LIKELY ?AN M5 TO HAVE ACCESS TO MY/]I\S P[]S TO 9FLU5CE O!RS ?R\< 9VISIBLE MEANS4 

,WE >E LEFT ) AN IMAGE ( ?REE SOCIAL LEVELS1 EA* ) ITS [N >*ETYPAL FIGURE ( AU?ORITY4 ,ON ! LEVEL ( ! H\SEHOLD1 ?IS WAS ! WOMAN GIV+ ORD]S1 DIRECTLY OV]SEE+ H\SEHOLD TASKS2 ON ! COMMUNAL LEVEL1 MO/ CLOSELY ID5TIFI$ ) 0,MALAGASY0 TRADITION1 ! MILD & SELF-EFFAC+ MALE ELD]1 READY TO /EP 9 TO BREAK UP DISPUTES & IMPOSE RE/RICTIONS BUT O!RWISE A PASSIVE EMBODIM5T ( SOLID>ITY2 ON ! LEVEL ( ! OV]>*+ /ATE1 A :OLE PLE?ORA ( IMAGES--! COLONIAL (FICIAL B>K+ ORD]S2 ! MILIT>Y (FIC]1 OR G5D>ME2 OR ANCI5T K+ ) HIS RET9UE ( 0SOLDI]S0--9 EV]Y CASE1 ( FIGURES :O OP]ATE )9 =MAL HI]>*IES ( COMM&4 ,IF NO?+ ELSE1 ?IS MAKES IT EASI] TO UND]/& ! POLITICAL COLOR ?AT TALK ( ODY FITIA ALWAYS SEEM$ TO TAKE4 ,A WOMAN :O US$ LOVE M$IC9E 9 FACT WAS (T5 SAID TO 0RULE0 OV] H] HUSB& 7! SAME WORD US$ = K+S OR GOV]NM5TS7 OR EV5 TO 05?RALL$0 HIM4.<#a#f#c.> ,EV5 9 ITS MO/ FANTA/IC =MS1 :]E IT DETA*$ ITSELF FROM ANY HUMAN PURPOSES & BECAME A %E] =CE ( DOM9ATION ?AT TURN$ ITS [N]S 9TO NI<T-RID+ WIT*ES1 IT WAS /ILL BASICALLY A POLITICAL IMAGE1 ( A C]TA9 TYPE ( P[] DI/ILL$ TO ITS PURE/ =M &1 9 SO F> AS IT WAS ALSO AN IMAGE ( UTT] EVIL1 P]HAPS ! S+LE MO/ DRAMATIC /ATEM5T ( ! E?OS ( NEGATIVE AU?ORITY4 ,IT WAS AS IF ! MOM5T A WOMAN WAS 9 A POSITION TO EX]T ANY REAL AU?ORITY OR EV5 9FLU5CE ON ! COMMUNAL LEVEL1 %E WAS LIKELY TO BE ACCUS$ ( SECRETLY DRAW+ ON >CANE P[]S TO EX]T A %AD[Y V]SION ( ! V]Y K9D ( =EIGN AU?ORITY AGA9/ :I* ! COMMUNAL SPH]E DEF9$ ITSELF4 

,ALL ?IS1 ( C\RSE1 IS SOME?+ ( AN AB/RACTION2 POLITICAL REALITY IS MU* MORE COMPLICAT$4 ,= ONE ?+1 IT IS OV]:ELM+LY WOM5 :O ACTUALLY TELL !SE /ORIES4 ,ON ! ONE H&1 ?IS SEEMS TO MAKE ! N>RATORS PRIME AG5TS 9 !IR [N POLITICAL SUPPRESSION1 BUT S9CE WOM5 BY SU* MEANS CONTROL MU* ( ! MORAL DISC\RSE AB\T PUBLIC AFFAIRS1 IT IS ALSO ONE ( ! MA9 WAYS 9 :I* WOM5 DO EX]T POLITICAL 9FLU5CE4 ,:ILE !RE IS H>DLY ROOM H]E TO GO 9TO ! SUBTLETIES ( PRACTICE1 IT MI<T HELP TO 5D ) AN ILLU/RATION4 ,A FRI5D ( M9E FROM ,>IVONIMAMO TOLD ME ?AT1 :5 %E WAS EI<T OR N9E1 H] FA!R1 !N A WEAL?Y & RESPECT$ TEA*]1 BECAME OBSESS$ ) ANO!R WOMAN4 ,BE=E LONG HE HAD MOV$ 9 ) H]1 & BEGAN RUNN+ ?R\< HIS SAV+S TO %[] H] ) GIFTS1 ALL ! TIME S5D+ HIS WIFE & NUM]\S SMALL *ILDR5 BACK EMPTY-H&$ :5EV] !Y W\LD COME BEGG+ = SUPPORT4 ,:AT %E P>TICUL>LY REMEMB]S AB\T ?OSE TRIPS1 %E SAID1 WAS ?AT AT D9N]1 ! WOMAN W\LD BE OP5LY SCRAP+ BITS ( WOOD 9TO HIS FOOD4 ,! PSY*OLOGY WAS NO D\BT COMPLEX1 BUT AT ! V]Y LEA/1 BY DO+ SO %E PROVID$ HIM ) A READY-MADE ALIBI TO EXCUSE HIS BEHAVIOR 9 ! EYES ( HIS FAMILY4 

,NOT ?AT IT WAS COMPLETELY SUCCESSFUL4 ,HE CAME BACK TO HIS FAMILY A YE> OR TWO LAT]1 BUT HIS DAU<T] HAS B>ELY SPOK5 TO HIM S9CE4 

,CONCLUSIONS 

  

,9 ! BEG9N+ ( ?IS ESSAY1 ,I SUGGE/$ ?AT ! FANTASIES SURR\ND+ ODY FITIA HAVE ALWAYS BE5 FANTASIES AB\T P[]4 ,/ORIES AB\T M$IC9E W]E P]HAPS ! CLOSE/ ?+ !RE WAS TO AN AB/RACT IDIOM 9 :I* ! NATURE ( P[] ITSELF C\LD BE DEF9$4 ,9 BO? P]IODS1 IMAGES ( P[] 9 ! RAW W]E ALMO/ ALWAYS IMAGES ( WOM53 IF ?AT IS H[ ONE CAN 9T]PRET ! N9ETE5?-C5TURY IMAGE ( ! WOMAN 9VE/$ ) SUDD5 & OV]:ELM+ /R5G?1 TE>+ H]SELF FROM ! >MS ( H] FAMILY 7FROM !IR 5TIRELY VA9 EF=T1 ONE MI<T SAY1 TO EX]T NEGATIVE AU?ORITY71 OR ( NI<T WIT*ES1 ) !IR UNCANNY SPE$ & PHYSICAL /R5G?4 ,!SE /ORIES W]E NOT JU/ A M$IUM ?R\< :I* PEOPLE C\LD ?9K AB\T ! NATURE ( P[]3 EV5 MORE1 !Y W]E A M$IUM ?R\< :I* !Y C\LD >GUE AB\T ITS RI<TS & WRONGS4 ,IT WAS ?R\< 5DLESS >GUM5TS AB\T HIDD5 P[]S & HIDD5 MOTIVES--AB\T 5VY1 SEXUAL DESIRE1 PRIDE1 GRE$1 RES5TM5T--?AT PEOPLE WORK$ \T !IR COMMON UND]/&+S ( H[ IT WAS LEGITIMATE = HUMAN BE+S TO 9FLU5CE EA* O!R4 ,9 ?IS LI<T1 IT IS NOT SURPRIS+ ?AT ! BASIC LOGIC ( :AT ,I HAVE BE5 CALL+ NEGATIVE AU?ORITY WAS FIR/ MADE EXPLICIT 9 ! E?IC ( PROTECTION1 ?AT IS1 9 WAYS ( TALK+ AB\T ! MORALITY ( M$IC9E1 LONG BE=E IT EM]G$ AS A WAY ( IMAG9+ A TRADITIONAL ,MALAGASY WAY ( EX]CIS+ P[] OV] O!RS4 ,?IS ALSO MAKES IT EASI] TO UND]/& H[ 9TIMATE ANXIETIES & DOME/IC POLITICS C\LD HAVE BE5 TRANS=M$ AS A RESULT4 ,AFT] ALL1 !SE MI<T HAVE BE5 WAYS ( IMAG9+ P[] & AU?ORITY1 BUT !Y W]E NOT AB/RACTIONS3 !Y W]E ! K9D ( REPRES5TATIONS1 ONE MI<T SAY1 ?AT HELP$ TO BR+ 9TO BE+ ! ?+S !Y REPRES5T$4 ,POLITICAL REALITY--& H]E ,I AM REF]R+ TO EV]Y SORT ( POLITICS1 DOME/IC OR COMMUNAL1 NATIONAL OR SEXUAL--CAN NEV]1 REALLY1 BE DI/+UI%$ FROM ITS REPRES5TATIONS1 IF ONLY BECAUSE POLITICS ITSELF IS L>GELY A MATT] ( MANIPULAT+ & >GU+ AB\T REPRES5TATIONS1 ( CIRCULAT+ /ORIES & TRY+ TO CONTROL H[ ?OSE /ORIES >E 9T]PRET$4 

,?IS WAS A GAME 9 :I* ,M]9A WOM5 W]E C]TA9LY AS MU* PLAY]S AS W]E M54 ,YET AT ! SAME TIME1 !Y LABOR$ UND] A PECULI> DISADVANTAGE4 ,(T51 9 FACT1 WOM5 SEEM$ TO ACT AS AG5TS ( !IR [N ULTIMATE REPRESSION3 CIRCULAT+ /ORIES ?AT S]V$ AS PR(\ND M$ITATIONS ON ! NATURE ( DESIRE & HUMAN DEC5CY1 BUT :I*1 AT ! SAME TIME1 HAD ! ULTIMATE EFFECT ( REFLECT+ & RE9=C+ M5'S FE>S ( WOM51 & RADICALLY CIRCUMSCRIB+ ! ABILITY ( WOM5--ANY WOM5--TO BECOME RESPECT$ FIGURES ( AU?ORITY4 ,IT WAS ALMO/ AS IF !Y W]E1 SOMEH[1 ! VICTIMS ( !IR [N PSY*OLOGICAL 9SI<T4 ,C]TA9LY1 JU/ AS MO/ ( ! BE/ /ORY-TELL]S ,I KNEW 9 ,>IVONIMAMO W]E WOM51 SO W]E MO/ ( ! MO/ ACUTE SOCIAL PSY*OLOGI/S & SOCIAL !ORI/S4 ,TO SOME DEGREE1 ( C\RSE1 !IR S5SITIVITY TO !IR SURR\ND+S WAS ITSELF AN EFFECT ( !IR RELATIVE LACK ( SOCIAL P[]3 A L>GE P>T ( PRIVILEGE1 ANY:]E1 IS ! LUXURY ( BE+ ABLE TO REMA9 OBLIVI\S TO MU* ( :AT GOES ON >\ND ONE4 ,! MO/ TR\BL+ QUE/IONS1 IT SEEMS TO ME1 >E TWO-FOLD4 ,! FIR/ IS H[ ?AT GREAT] P]CEPTIV5ESS & S5SITIVITY TO ONE'S SOCIAL 5VIRONM5T ITSELF SEEMS TO CONTRIBUTE TO WOM5'S ULTIMATE SUBORD9ATION4 ,! SECOND IS H[ ?IS /ILL SEEMS TO HAPP5 :]E WOM5'S MORAL REFLECTIONS >E ONE ( ! PR9CIPAL M$IA = SOCIAL *ANGES ?AT 9 ALMO/ EV]Y O!R WAY DRAMATICALLY ANTI-AU?ORIT>IAN4 ,:AT HAS HAPP5$ 9 RURAL ,IM]9A OV] ! LA/ C5TURY C\LD EV51 BY C]TA9 DEF9ITIONS1 BE DESCRIB$ AS A REVOLUTION4 ,! TRAUMA ( COLONIAL RULE SP>K$ A PR(\ND REASSESSM5T ( ! V]Y NATURE ( P[] & AU?ORITY4 ,?AT REASSESSM5T WAS C\*$ 9 ! T]MS ALREADY FAMILI> TO RURAL PEOPLE--SU* AS ! LOGIC ( PROTECTION--BUT AS A RESULT1 RURAL PEOPLE'S RELATIONS ) ONE ANO!R G5U9ELY *ANG$4 ,ALL ?IS 5SUR$ ?AT :5 ! P[] ( COLONIAL 7& COLONIAL-9SPIR$7 REGIMES W5T 9TO RETREAT1 9 P>T 9 ! FACE ( P]SI/5T PASSIVE RESI/ANCE1 POLITICAL LIFE ITSELF HAD *ANG$ AS WELL4 ,IT HAD BECOME 9 MO/ WAYS F> MORE EGALIT>IAN ?AN IT APPE>S TO HAVE BE5 91 SAY1 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY4 ,WOM5 PLAY$ A CRUCIAL ROLE 9 ALL ( ?IS2 YET AT ! SAME TIME1 !Y DID SO 9 WAYS ?AT 5D$ UP GU>ANTEE+ ?AT G5D] RELATIONS REMA9 AMONG ! LEA/ AFFECT$ BY ! *ANGE4 

,BIBLIOGRAPHY 

  
  

,AL?ABE1 ,G]>D 

#aifi ,OPPRESSION ET LIB]ATION DANS L'IMAG9AIRE3 LES COMMUNAUTES VILLAGEOISES DE LA COTE ORI5TALE DE ,MADAGASC>4 ,P>IS3 ,MASP]O4 

,&RIAMANJATO1 ,RI*>D 

#aieg ,LE ,TS9Y ET LE ,TODY DANS LA P5SEE ,MALGA*E4 ,P>IS3 ,PRES5CE ,AFRICA9E4 

,B]N>D-,?I]RY1 ,S4 

#aiei 0,P]LES MAGIQUES A ,MADAGASC>0 9 ,J\RNAL DES ,AFRICANI/ES1 #b#i3 #c#c-#i4 

,BLO*1 ,MAURICE 

#aiga ,PLAC+ ! ,DEAD3 ,TOMBS1 ,ANCE/RAL ,VILLAGES1 & ,K9%IP ,ORGANIZATION 9 ,MADAGASC>4 ,LONDON3 ,SEM9> ,PRESS4 

#aihb 0,DEA?1 ,WOM5 & ,P[]40 ,9 ,DEA? & ! ,REG5]ATION ( ,LIFE 7,M4 ,BLO* & ,J4 ,P>RY1 $S474 ,CAMBRIDGE3 ,CAMBRIDGE ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

#aihf ,FROM ,BLESS+ TO ,VIOL5CE3 ,HI/ORY & ,IDEOLOGY 9 ! ,CIRCUMCISION ,RITUAL ( ! ,M]9A ( ,MADAGASC>4 ,CAMBRIDGE3 ,CAMBRIDGE ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

#aihi 0,! ,RITUAL ( ! ,ROYAL ,BA? 9 ,MADAGASC>3 ,! ,DISSOLUTION ( ,DEA?1 ,BIR?1 & ,F]TILITY 9TO ,AU?ORITY40 ,9 ,RITUAL1 ,HI/ORY & ,P[]3 ,SELECT$ ,PAP]S 9 ,AN?ROPOLOGY4 ,LONDON3 ,A?LONE ,PRESS4 

,CALLET1 ,R4,P4 

#aih ,TANT>A NY ,&RIANA ,ETO ,MADAGASIK>A4 ,TANAN>IVE3 ,ACADEMIE ,MALGA*E4 

,C>OL1 ,JEAN 

#ahih ,*EZ LES ,HOVA 7AU PAYS R\GE74 ,P>IS3 ,PAVANNE4 

,C\S9S1 ,WILLIAM 

#ahif 0,! ,ABOLITION ( ,SLAV]Y 9 ,MADAGASC>3 ) ,SOME ,REM>KS ON ,MALAGASY ,SLAV]Y ,G5]ALLY0 ,ANTANAN>IVO ,ANNUAL & ,MALAGASY ,MAGAZ9E #b#a3 #d#d#f-#e4 

,DAHLE1 ,L>S 

#a#h#h#f-#h#h 0,SIKIDY & ,V9TANA3 ,HALF-,H\RS ) ,MALAGASY ,DIV9]S0 ,ANTANAN>IVO ,ANNUAL & ,MALAGASY ,MAGAZ9E1 #aa 7#a#h#h#f73 #b#a#h-#c#d2 #ab 7#a#h#h#g73 #c#a#e-#b#d2 #ac 7#a#h#h#h73 #d#e#g-#f#g4 

,DANIELLI1 ,M>Y 

#aidg 0,! ,WIT*ES ( ,MADAGASC>10 ,FOLKLORE #e#h3 #b#f#a-#g#f4 

,$MUNDS1 ,WILLIAM 

#ahig 0,*>MS & ,SUP]/ITIONS 9 ,S\!A/ ,IM]9A40 ,ANTANAN>IVO ,ANNUAL & ,MALAGASY ,MAGAZ9E1 #b#b3 #f#a-#f#g4 

,FEELEY-,H>NIK1 ,GILLIAN 

#aiia ,A ,GRE5 ,E/ATE3 ,RE/OR+ ,9DEP5D5CE 9 ,MADAGASC>4 ,WA%+TON1 ,D,C3 ,SMI?SONIAN4 

,FREMIGACCI1 ,JEAN 

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