,P>T #b1 ,*APT] #e 
,PROVISIONAL ,AUTONOM\S ,ZONE3 ,OR1 ,! ,<O/-,/ATE 9 ,MADAGASC> 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,DAVID ,GRAEB] 

,TEXT 3 

,P>T ,I,I -- ,PROVISIONAL ,AUTONOM\S ,ZONE3 ,DILEMMAS ( ,AU?ORITY 9 ,RURAL ,MADAGASC> 

  
#e -- ,PROVISIONAL ,AUTONOM\S ,ZONE3 OR1 ,! ,<O/-,/ATE 9 ,MADAGASC> 

  

,%ORTLY BE=E ,I LEFT = ,MADAGASC> ,I WAS TALK+ TO ,H5RY ,WRI<T1 AN >*AEOLOGI/ :O HAD WORK$ !RE = MORE ?AN A DECADE4 0,Y\ HAVE TO BE C>EFUL10 HE SAID1 0POK+ >\ND ! C\NTRYSIDE40 ,/ATE AU?ORITY WAS DISSOLV+4 ,9 MANY P>TS ( ! ISL&1 HE SAID1 IT HAD EFFECTIVELY CEAS$ TO EXI/4 ,EV5 9 ! REGION >\ND ! CAPITAL !RE W]E REPORTS ( FOKON'OLONA--VILLAGE ASSEMBLIES--BEG9N+ TO C>RY \T EXECUTIONS4 

,?IS WAS ONE ( ! MANY CONC]NS =GOTT5 ALMO/ AS SOON AS ,I ACTUALLY >RIV$ 9 ,MADAGASC>4 ,9 ! CAPITAL1 !RE WAS QUITE OBVI\SLY A FUNCTION+ GOV]NM5T2 ALMO/ EV]Y $UCAT$ P]SON SEEM$ TO WORK = IT4 ,:5 ,I MOV$ TO ,>IVONIMAMO1 A T[N AB\T AN H\R TO ! ,WE/1 ?+S DID NOT SEEM P>TICUL>LY DIFF]5T4 ,C]TA9LY1 PEOPLE TALK$ AB\T ! GOV]NM5T ALL ! TIME2 EV]YBODY ACT$ AS IF !RE WAS ONE4 ,!RE WAS AN ADM9I/RATIVE /RUCTURE1 (FICES :]E PEOPLE TYP$ UP DOCUM5TS1 REGI/]$ ?+S1 KEPT TRACK ( BIR?S & DEA?S & ! NUMB] ( PEOPLE'S CATTLE4 ,ONE EV5 HAD TO GET P]MISSION TO C>RY \T ! MO/ IMPORTANT RITUALS4 ,! GOV]NM5T RAN S*OOLS1 HELD NATIONAL EXAMS2 !RE W]E G5D>MES1 A PRISON1 AN AIRFIELD ) MILIT>Y JETS4 

,IT WAS ONLY AFT] ,I HAD BE5 9 ,>IVONIMAMO = SOME TIME--& EV5 MORE1 9 RETROSPECT1 AFT] ,I'D LEFT--?AT ,I BEGAN TO WOND] :E!R :AT HE TOLD ME MI<T ACTUALLY HAVE BE5 TRUE4 ,P]HAPS IT WAS SIMPLY MY [N BIAS1 ! FACT ?AT ,I HAD ALWAYS LIV$ UND] AN EFFICI5T & OMNIPRES5T GOV]NM5T1 ?AT MADE ME READ ! CUES ! WRONG WAY4 ,P]HAPS !RE REALLY WASN'T A /ATE 9 ,BETAFO AT ALL2 P]HAPS NOT EV5 9 ,>IVONIMAMO--OR ANYWAY1 NOT ONE ?AT BEHAVES 9 ANY WAY LIKE :AT ,I OR O!R ,WE/]N]S HAVE COME TO ASSUME A /ATE IS SUPPOS$ TO BEHAVE4 

,BE=E ,I EXPLA9 :AT ,I MEAN BY ?IS1 ?\<1 P]HAPS IT W\LD HELP TO SET ! SC5E4 

,>IVONIMAMO & ,BETAFO 

  

,I >RIV$ 9 ,MADAGASC> ON ,JUNE #a#f1 #a#i#h#i4 ,= ! FIR/ SIX MON?S1 ,I LIV$ 9 ,ANTANAN>IVO1 ! CAPITAL1 /UDY+ ! LANGUAGE & DO+ >*IVAL RESE>*4 ,! ,NATIONAL ,>*IVES 9 ,ANTANAN>IVO >E A REM>KABLE RES\RCE4 ,9 !IR COLLECTION >E ?\S&S ( DOCUM5TS FROM ! N9ETE5? C5TURY K+DOM ( ,MADAGASC>1 MO/ FROM ! HI<L& PROV9CE ( ,IM]9A1 :I* SURR\ND$ ! CAPITAL4 ,ALMO/ ALL ( IT WAS 9 ,MALAGASY4 ,I W5T ?R\< HUNDR$S ( FOLD]S1 C>EFULLY COPY+ \T EV]Y?+ CONC]N$ ) ! DI/RICT ( ,EA/]N ,IMAMO1 ! P>T ( ,IM]9A 9 :I* ,I 9T5D$ TO WORK4 ,EA/]N ,IMAMO SEEM$1 AT ! TIME1 TO HAVE BE5 A RA!R SLEEPY PLACE1 A RURAL H9T]L& F> FROM ! TUMULTU\S POLITICAL /RUGGLES ( ! CAPITAL1 BUT AT ! SAME TIME 9SULAT$ FROM ! UN/ABLE FR+ES ( ,IM]9A1 HALF-EMPTY T]RITORIES FULL ( RAID+ B&ITS1 9DU/RIAL PROJECTS1 & P]IODIC REVOLTS4 ,IT WAS A PLACE :]E NOT MU* EV] HAPP5$--&1 ?US1 ! P]FECT FIELD ON :I* TO /UDY ! SL[-MOV+ PROCESSES ( SOCIAL & CULTURAL *ANGE ,I WAS 9T]E/$ 94 

,ONCE ,I FELT ,I HAD A M9IMAL COMM& ( ,MALAGASY1 ,I SET \T = ,>IVONIMAMO1 ! MAJOR T[N ( ! REGION4 ,IT WAS NOT AT ALL DIFFICULT TO GET !RE3 ,>IVONIMAMO IS ONLY AN H\R FROM ! CAPITAL BY C>4 ,BE=E LONG ,I HAD E/ABLI%$ MYSELF 9 T[N1 & HAD BEGUN MAK+ REGUL> TRIPS TO ! SURR\ND+ C\NTRYSIDE1 GA!R+ ORAL HI/ORIES1 KEEP+ AN EYE \T = A LIKELY PLACE TO DO MORE DETAIL$ RESE>*4 

,>IVONIMAMO IS A T[N ( SOME T5 ?\S& PEOPLE ?AT CLU/]S >\ND A /RET* ( ! MA9 HI<WAY LEAD+ WE/ FROM ! CAPITAL4 ,9 ! #a#i#fS & #a#i#gS1 IT HAD BE5 ! HOME ( ! NATIONAL AIRPORT1 :I* SAT 9 A BROAD VALLEY TO ! S\? ( T[N2 BUT ?\< ! AIRPORT BR\<T MONEY & EMPLOYM5T1 IT NEV] SEEM$ TO BECOME AN 9TEGRAL P>T ( ! T[N'S ECONOMY4 ,IT WAS L>GELY A ?+ GRAFT$ ON4 ,! ROAD FROM ! AIRPORT DID NOT PASS ?R\< ,>IVONIMAMO ITSELF2 !RE WASN'T EV5 A PLACE = TRAVEL]S TO SP5D ! NI<T !RE4 ,9 #a#i#g#e1 ! AIRPORT WAS REPLAC$ BY ANO!R1 NE>] ! CAPITAL4 ,! OLD AIRPORT WAS GIV5 TO ! MILIT>Y1 :I* R>ELY1 H[EV]1 HAD ! FUNDS TO USE IT4 ,BY #a#i#i1 ALL ?AT REMA9$ TO %[ ?AT =EIGN]S HAD ONCE PASS$ ?R\< H]E WAS ! BATT]$ PLYWOOD %ELL ( AN EMPTY RE/AURANT1 /&+ :]E ! AIRPORT ROAD M]GES ) ! HI<WAY JU/ ON ! \TSKIRTS ( T[N4 

,! CURR5T T[N C5T]S ON A TAXI /ATION1 A WIDE ASPHALT EXPANSE FLANK$ BY TWO GREAT *UR*ES1 ,CA?OLIC & ,PROTE/ANT4 ,AT MO/ H\RS1 IT WAS CR[D$ ) VANS & /ATION WAGONS FILL+ UP ) PASS5G]S & BAGS & CRATES & HEAD+ (F ! CAPITAL1 OR FUR!R WE/ D[N ! HI<WAY4 ,ON ! S\!RN $GE ( ! TAXI /& IS A WIDE SPREAD+ AMONTANA TREE1 A V]Y ANCI5T SYCAMORE ?AT IS CONSID]$ ! SYMBOLIC C5T] ( ! T[N1 ! M>K ?AT IT WAS ONCE ! PLACE ( K+S4 ,TO ITS NOR? IS A M>KETPLACE ) FOOD /&S & R$-TIL$ >CADES1 :I* EV]Y ,FRIDAY FILLS TO OV]FL[+ ) RURAL PEOPLE & V5DORS UND] :ITE UMBRELLAS4 ,! T[N ITSELF CL+S TO ! ROAD 7! ONLY PLACE !RE IS ELECTRICITY72 ITS H\SES >E MO/LY TWO OR ?REE /ORIES1 ) GRACEFUL PILL>S SUPPORT+ V]&AS >\ND ! SECOND FLOOR1 & HI<-PIT*$ RO(S ( T9 OR TILE4 

,>IVONIMAMO IS ! CAPITAL ( AN ADM9I/RATIVE DI/RICT ( ! SAME NAME4 ,IT CONTA9S SEV]AL GOV]NM5T (FICES & ?REE HI< S*OOLS3 ONE /ATE S*OOL 7,C,E,G71 ONE ,CA?OLIC LYCEE1 & ONE ,PROTE/ANT ONE4 ,!RE IS A CL9IC &1 ON A HI< BLUFF SOME:AT TO ! WE/ ( T[N1 A SMALL PRISON4 ,TOGE!R ) A G5D>MES' B>RACKS NE>] ! OLD AIRPORT1 A PO/ (FICE1 & A BANK1 !SE CON/ITUTE ! GOV]NM5T PRES5CE4 ,!RE WAS ONCE A FACTORY NE>BY BUT IT HAD BE5 AB&ON$ = YE>S BY ! TIME ,I WAS !RE2 NO ONE ,I KNEW WAS QUITE SURE :AT1 IF ANY?+1 HAD EV] BE5 PRODUC$ !RE4 ,! T[N'S COMM]CIAL ECONOMY FELL ALMO/ COMPLETELY \TSIDE ! =MAL 7TAX$1 REGULAT$7 SECTOR3 !RE WAS A PH>MACY & TWO L>GE G5]AL /ORES1 BUT ?AT WAS AB\T IT4 ,O!RWISE1 ! POPULATION CON=M$ TO ! G5]AL RULE = ,MALAGASY T[NS3 ALMO/ EV]YBODY GR[S FOOD2 EV]YBODY SELLS SOME?+4 ,/REETS W]E FR+$ ) DOZ5S ( LITTLE BOO?S & /ORES1 ALL /OCK$ ) ! SAME N>R[ RANGE ( PRODUCTS3 SOAP1 RUM1 C&LES1 COOK+ OIL1 BISCUITS1 SODA1 BREAD4 ,ANYONE :O HAD A C> WAS A MEMB] ( ! TAXI COLLECTIVE2 ANYONE :O HAD A ,V,C,R WAS A !AT] OP]ATOR2 ANYONE :O HAD A SEW+ MA*9E WAS A MANUFACTUR] ( CLO?+4 

,! PROV9CE ( ,IM]9A HAS ALWAYS C5T]$ ON ! GIGANTIC IRRIGAT$ PLA9S SURR\ND+ ! NATIONAL CAPITAL1 ,ANTANAN>IVO1 :I* HAVE LONG HAD A V]Y D5SE POPULATION & BE5 ! C5T] ( P[]FUL K+DOMS4 ,9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 ! ,M]9A K+DOM CONQU]$ MO/ ( ,MADAGASC>2 S9CE ! ,FR5* CONQUE/ ( #a#h#i#e1 ,ANTANAN>IVO HAS REMA9$ ! C5T] ( ADM9I/RATION1 & ! SURR\ND+ T]RITORY REMA9S ! ANCE/RAL L&S ( MO/ ( ,MADAGASC>'S ADM9I/RATORS & $UCAT$ ELITE4 ,! T]RITORY ?AT N[ MAKES UP ! DI/RICT ( ,>IVONIMAMO WAS ALWAYS SOME:AT M>G9AL4 ,IT WAS LATE TO BE 9CORPORAT$ 9TO ! K+DOM1 & IT WAS NEV] MORE ?AN WEAKLY 9TEGRAT$ 9TO ! NETWORKS ( CA% & PATRONAGE C5T]$ ON ! CAPITAL4 ,SO IT REMA9S4 ,N[1 AS !N1 IT IS A POLITICAL & ECONOMIC M>G91 A PLACE :]E NOT MU* EV] HAPP5S4 

,TO ! NOR? ( ,>IVONIMAMO IS A ROLL+ C\NTRY ( 5DLESS R$ HILLS1 SOME COV]$ ONLY ) GRASS1 O!RS WOOD$ ) EUCALYPTUS TREES1 /RET*ES ( TAPIA--:I* LOOK LIKE DW>F OAKS--& OCCASIONAL /&S ( P9E4 ,! HILLS >E CUT BY N>R[ TWI/+ VALLEYS1 EA* C>EFULLY T]RAC$ = ! CULTIVATION ( IRRIGAT$ RICE4 ,H]E & !RE RISE GRANITE M\NTA9S1 SUPPOS$ TO HAVE BE5 ! SEATS ( ANCI5T K+S4 

,9 ?IS BACK C\NTRY1 !RE >E NO PAV$ ROADS4 ,PEOPLE WALK--V]Y FEW CAN AF=D BICYCLES4 ,GOODS >E TRANSPORT$ 9 OX-C>TS1 ALONG MUD PA?S ?AT >E1 EV5 9 W9T]1 TOO RUTT$ = ANY BUT ! T\<E/ AUTOMOBILES4 ,) ! />T ( ! SUMM] RA9S1 !Y BECOME IMPASSABLE4 ,IT IS L>GELY BECAUSE ( ! DIFFICULTIES ( COMMUNICATION ?AT !RE IS NO L>GE-SCALE COMM]CIAL AGRICULTURE1 DESPITE ! PROXIMITY ( ! CAPITAL4 ,F>M]S DO 5D UP C>T+ A FAIR PROPORTION ( !IR CROPS TO M>KETS 9 T[N1 & MU* ( ?IS 5DS UP HELP+ TO FE$ ! POPULATION ( ,ANTANAN>IVO1 BUT IT'S ALL PIECEMEAL1 9DIVIDUAL CULTIVATORS SELL+ TO V]Y SMALL-SCALE M]*ANTS 9 AN 5DLESS MULTITUDE ( T9Y TRANSACTIONS1 ALMO/ AS IF PEOPLE W]E 9T5TIONALLY TRY+ TO 5SURE ?AT ! MEAG] PR(ITS TO BE HAD FROM BUY+ & SELL+ LOCAL PRODUCTS 5D$ UP DIVID$ BETWE5 AS MANY H&S AS POSSIBLE4 

,AS ,I HAVE SAID1 MY FIR/ WORK WAS ON ORAL HI/ORY3 ,I />T$ VISIT+ VILLAGES USUALLY ACCOMPANI$ BY ONE OR TWO ,MALAGASY FRI5DS FROM ,>IVONIMAMO4 ,I 5D$ UP FIX+ ON ! VILLAGE ( ,BETAFO 9 :I* TO C>RY \T MY 9T5SIVE FIELDWORK3 A COMMUNITY ?AT FASC9AT$ ME1 9 P>T1 BECAUSE IT WAS DIVID$ ALMO/ EV5LY BETWE5 &RIANA 7USUALLY TRANSLAT$ 0NOBLES07 & ! DESC5DANTS ( !IR =M] SLAVES4 ,BETAFO LIES ALONG ! S\!RN FLANK ( A LONG M\NTA9\S RIDGE CALL$ ,AMBOHIDRAIDIMBY1 MO/ ( IT ONLY A ?IRTY- TO =TY-M9UTE WALK FROM ! C5T] ( ,>IVONIMAMO4 ,IT IS CLOSE 5\< ?AT ONE CAN LIVE 9 T[N & /ILL CULTIVATE ONE'S FIELDS 9 ,BETAFO--AS MANY PEOPLE DO--OR HAVE A H\SE 9 BO? PLACES & MOVE FREELY BACK & =? BETWE5 !M4 

,MO/ RURAL COMMUNITIES 9 ,IM]9A HAVE SOME ECONOMIC SPECIALIZATION1 :I* OCCUPIES PEOPLE ESPECIALLY 9 W9T]4 ,9 ONE VILLAGE1 ! M5 WILL ALL BE BUT*]S1 9 ANO!R ! WOM5 ALL WEAVE BASKETS1 OR MAKE ROPE2 SPACES 9 ! M>KETPLACE 9 ,>IVONIMAMO >E MAPP$ \T AS MU* BY ! ORIG9 ( ! V5DORS AS BY ! GOODS !Y HAVE = SALE4 ,! PEOPLE ( ,BETAFO HAVE BE5 TRADITIONALLY KN[N AS BLACKSMI?S4 ,N[ADAYS1 R\<LY A ?IRD ( ITS H\SEHOLDS /ILL HAVE A SMI?Y \T BACK4 ,( ?OSE :O DO NOT1 A V]Y L>GE NUMB] >E 9VOLV$ 9 SUPPLY+ SMI?S ) IRON +OTS1 & SELL+ ! PL[S & %OVELS !Y PRODUCE 9 M>KETS & FAIRS 9 O!R P>TS ( ,IM]9A4 ,:AT HAD />T$ AS A LOCAL EF=T HAD1 BY ! TIME ,I WAS !RE1 EXP&$ DRAMATICALLY1 S9CE 9 MO/ ( ! REGION TO ! WE/ ( ! CAPITAL1 ,BETAFO WAS MA9LY KN[N = SELL+ PL[S1 DESPITE ! FACT ?AT NO ONE 9 ,BETAFO ITSELF ACTUALLY PRODUC$ PL[S--!Y W]E ALL MANUFACTUR$ 9 O!R VILLAGES 9 ! VIC9ITY ( ,>IVONIMAMO1 ) IRON SUPPLI$ BY SPECULATORS FROM ,BETAFO4 

,! 9T5SIFICATION ( COMM]CE IS ONE RESPONSE TO ! ECONOMIC CRUN* ?AT HAS CAUS$ A DRAMATIC FALL 9 /&>DS ( LIV+ ?R\<\T ,MADAGASC> S9CE ! #a#i#gS4 ,IT L$ TO A GREAT 9CREASE 9 SIDE OCCUPATIONS1 SO ?AT 9 ANY ONE H\SEHOLD1 ONE WOMAN MI<T BE SP5D+ MU* ( H] TIME RUNN+ A C(FEE /& 9 T[N1 OR WEAV+1 ANO!R MAK+ F]M5T$ MANIOC TO SELL TO V5DORS 9 ! M>KET1 ONE MAN DRIV+ AN OX-C>T P>T TIME & SP5D+ SEV]AL MON?S A YE> SELL+ P9EAPPLES 9 A DIFF]5T P>T ( ,IM]9A1 :ILE YET ANO!R MI<T ONLY DROP BY 9 ! C\NTRY OCCASIONALLY1 SP5D+ MO/ ( HIS DAYS REFILL+ DISPOSABLE LI<T]S NE> ! TAXI-/& 9 T[N4 ,ALL ?IS MAKES MEMB]%IP 9 A COMMUNITY LIKE ,BETAFO A BIT H>D TO DEF9E4 ,NOT ?AT ,I WAS TRY+ TO GA!R MU* 9 ! WAY ( /ATI/ICS4 ,9 FACT1 ONE ( ! PECULI> EFFECTS ( MY SITUATION WAS ?AT ,I HAD SOME FAIRLY DETAIL$ BITS ( 9=MATION AB\T ! DEMOGRAPHICS & PROP]TY-HOLD+S ( ! 9HABITANTS ( ,BETAFO 9 ! #a#h#dS & #a#i#bS1 CULL$ FROM ! >*IVES1 ,I NEV] MANAG$ TO GET SU* /ATI/ICAL 9=MATION = ! TIME ,I WAS ACTUALLY !RE4 ,?IS FACT IS IMPORTANT4 ,I ?9K IT REVEALS SOME?+ QUITE PR(\ND1 ACTUALLY1 AB\T :AT SORT ( PLACE ,I WAS ACTUALLY 94 

,:ILE ,I WAS LIV+ 9 ,>IVONIMAMO & WORK+ 9 ,BETAFO1 ,I SP5T A LOT ( TIME ?9K+ AB\T ! POLITICAL ASPECTS ( CONDUCT+ RESE>*4 ,ALMO/ ALL AN?ROPOLOGI/S DO4 ,9 MY CASE1 IT WAS ESPECIALLY H>D NOT TO BE A LITTLE SELF-CONSCI\S 9 A MILIEU :]E URBANITES SEEM$ TO F9D A SPECIAL JOY 9 TELL+ ME H[ T]RIFI$ C\NTRY FOLK W]E ( ,VAZAHA 7PEOPLE ( ,EUROPEAN /OCK1 SU* AS MYSELF7--& C\NTRY FOLK1 9 TELL+ ME H[ T]RIFI$ *ILDR5 W]E4 ,= MO/ ,MALAGASY1 ! V]Y WORD 0,VAZAHA0 EVOK$ ! ?REAT ( VIOL5CE4 ,=TUNATELY = ME1 IT ALSO HAD AS ITS PRIM>Y MEAN+ 0,FR5*MAN10 & 7AS ,I 5DLESSLY HAD TO EXPLA97 ,I DID NOT EV5 SPEAK ,FR5*4 ,SPEAK+ ONLY 9 ,MALAGASY TOOK A BIT ( ! $GE (F ?+S4 ,BUT EV5 MORE CRUCIAL3 CONDUCT+ RESE>* ITSELF HAD ASSOCIATIONS4 ,ON ! ONE H&1 ,IM]9A IS A HI<LY LIT]ATE SOCIETY3 NO ONE HAD ANY PROBLEM UND]/&+ :AT ,I MEANT IF ,I SAID ,I WAS AN ,AM]ICAN /UD5T C>RY+ \T RESE>* = HIS DOCTORATE 9 AN?ROPOLOGY4 ,NOR DID ANYONE SEEM TO D\BT ?AT ?IS WAS A LEGITIMATE1 EV5 AN ADMIRABLE ?+ TO BE DO+4 ,BUT TE*NIQUES ( KN[L$GE W]E V]Y CLOSELY ID5TIFI$ ) TE*NIQUES ( RULE1 & ,I QUICKLY GOT ! IMPRESSION ?AT !RE W]E C]TA9 SORTS ( 9QUIRY PEOPLE W]E MU* MORE COM=TABLE ) ?AN O!RS4 ,P]HAPS ,I WAS OV]LY S5SITIVE1 BUT AS SOON AS ,I GOT ! FEEL+ ,I WAS MOV+ ONTO T]RITORY SOMEONE DIDN'T WANT ME DELV+ 9TO1 ,I DESI/$4 ,I W\LD RA!R PEOPLE TALK$ TO ME AB\T ! ?+S !Y WANT$ TO TALK AB\T4 ,AS A RESULT1 ,I KN[ MORE AB\T ! DI/RIBUTION ( PROP]TY 9 ,BETAFO 9 #a#i#b#e--OR EV5 #a#h#h--?AN ,I DO = ! TIME ,I WAS !RE4 ,PROP]TY SURVEYS W]E ! SORT ( ! ?+ GOV]NM5TS W\LD C>RY \T1 BACK$ BY ! ?REAT ( =CE1 9 ORD] TO AID 9 ! =CIBLE EXTRACTION ( LABOR OR TAXES4 ,?IS MEANT ?AT !RE W]E EXT5SIVE RECORDS 9 ! >*IVES2 IT ALSO MEANT IT WAS EXACTLY :AT PEOPLE WANT$ TO BE SURE ,I WASN'T ULTIMATELY UP TO4 ,EV5 ! ACT ( SY/EMATICALLY GO+ FROM DOOR TO DOOR SURVEY+ H\SEHOLD SIZE W\LD HAVE BE5444 WELL1 NO?+ W\LD HAVE BE5 MORE GU>ANTE$ TO GET PEOPLE'S BACKS UP4 ,LACK ( H>D NUMB]S SEEM$ A M9OR PRICE TO PAY4 

,! ,V]Y ,EXI/5CE ( ! ,/ATE 

  

,LET ME RETURN1 !N1 TO ! 9ITIAL QUE/ION ( ! /ATE4 

,WAS !RE A GOV]NM5T 9 ,>IVONIMAMO & ! SURR\ND+ C\NTRYSIDE8 ,ON ONE LEVEL1 ! ANSW] WAS P]FECTLY OBVI\S4 ,( C\RSE !RE WAS4 ,!RE W]E GOV]NM5T P]SONNEL1 GOV]NM5T (FICES1 & AT LEA/ 9 T[N1 GOV]NM5T-RUN S*OOLS1 BANKS1 & HOSPITALS4 ,ALMO/ ALL ECONOMIC TRANSACTIONS--EV5 IF !Y W]E G5]ALLY (F ! BOOKS--W]E C>RI$ \T US+ GOV]NM5T-ISSU$ ,MALAGASY CURR5CY4 ,! T]RITORY AS A :OLE WAS CLAIM$ UND] ! SOV]EIGN AU?ORITY ( A ,MALAGASY /ATE ?AT WAS RECOGNIZ$ BY ALL O!R /ATES 9 ! WORLD1 & NO ONE1 9 ?IS T]RITORY1 WAS OP5LY CONTE/+ ?AT /ATE'S SOV]EIGN AU?ORITY4 ,C]TA9LY1 !RE WAS NOBODY ELSE CLAIM+ TO REPRES5T A DIFF]5T /ATE OR CLAIM+ TO REPRES5T A POLITICAL ALT]NATIVE3 !RE W]E NO 9SURRECTION>Y COMMUNITIES1 NO GU]RILLA MOVEM5TS1 NO POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS PURSU+ DUAL P[] /RATEGIES4 

,FROM A DIFF]5T P]SPECTIVE1 ?\<1 ! SITUATION LOOK$ QUITE DIFF]5T4 ,BECAUSE ! ,MALAGASY /ATE1 9 ?IS REGION AT LEA/--& ?IS WAS A REGION QUITE CLOSE TO ITS C5T] ( P[] 9 ! CAPITAL--WAS EI!R UN9T]E/$ 91 OR 9CAPABLE (1 C>RY+ \T MANY ( :AT WE CONSID] TO BE A /ATE'S MO/ ELEM5T>Y1 DEF9ITIONAL FUNCTIONS4 

,! KEY ISSUE 9 MO/ ,WE/]N DEF9ITIONS ( ! /ATE IS ITS P[] TO CO]CE4 ,/ATES EMPLOY 0=CE0--A EUPHEMI/IC T]M = ! ?REAT ( VIOL5CE--TO 5=CE ! LAW4 ,! CLASSIC DEF9ITION H]E IS ,WEB]'S3 0,A COMPULSORY POLITICAL ASSOCIATION ) CONT9U\S ORGANIZATION WILL BE CALL$ A '/ATE' IF & 9 SO F> AS ITS ADM9I/RATIVE /AFF SUCCESSFULLY UPHOLDS A CLAIM TO ! MONOPOLY ( ! LEGITIMATE USE ( PHYSICAL =CE 9 ! 5=CEM5T ( ITS ORD]0 7#a#i#f#h ,I3 #e#d74 ,BUT ,WEB]'S DEF9ITION WAS ITSELF REALLY JU/ A MATT] ( REPEAT+ ! CONV5TIONAL JURAL WISDOM ( HIS DAY4 ,9 FACT1 HE SEEMS TO HAVE BE5 DRAW+ DIRECTLY ON ! WORK ( AN E>LI] ,G]MAN LEGAL !ORI/ NAM$ ,RUDOLPH VON ,IH]+1 :O 9 #ahgg HAD DEF9$ ! /ATE ?IS WAY3  
  

,! ,/ATE IS ! ONLY COMPET5T AS WELL AS ! SOLE [N] ( SOCIAL CO]CIVE =CE--! RI<T TO CO]CE =MS ! ABSOLUTE MONOPOLY ( ! ,/ATE4 ,EV]Y ASSOCIATION ?AT WI%ES TO REALIZE ITS CLAIMS UPON ITS MEMB]S BY MEANS ( ME*ANICAL CO]CION IS DEP5D5T UPON ! COOP]ATION ( ! ,/ATE1 & ! ,/ATE HAS 9 ITS P[] TO FIX ! CONDITIONS UND] :I* IT WILL GRANT SU* AID 7CIT$ 9 ,TURN] @& ,FACTOR #a#i#i#d3 #a#c-#a#d74  
  

,A DEF9ITION LIKE ?IS IS MA9LY A WAY TO FOCUS ! M9D2 IT IS NOT ( ?AT MU* USE = DET]M9+ :E!R OR NOT ANY P>TICUL> ORGANIZATION IS A /ATE1 S9CE = ?AT1 EV]Y?+ DEP5DS ON :E!R OR NOT ONE FEELS A W\LD-BE /ATE HAS BE5 0SUCCESSFUL0 9 CLAIM+ ITS MONOPOLY4 ,NONE!LESS1 !SE DEF9ITIONS DO CAPTURE ! IMPLICIT COMMON S5SE BEH9D MOD]N ,WE/]N 9/ITUTIONS ( GOV]NM5T--ONE 9 NO WAY =EIGN TO ! ,MALAGASY /ATE1 :I* WAS ORGANIZ$ V]Y MU* ON ?IS SAME MODEL UND] ! ,FR5* COLONIAL REGIME1 & :OSE CURR5T =M IS BAS$ L>GELY ON COLONIAL 9/ITUTIONS4 ,& MO/ ,MALAGASY1 ,I ?9K1 W\LD HAVE AGRE$ ?AT ! ABILITY TO APPLY =CE 9 ?IS WAY WAS1 ESS5TIALLY1 :AT MADE A /ATE :AT IT WAS4 ,?IS MADE IT ALL ! MORE /RIK+ ?AT1 9 MO/ ( ! ,MALAGASY C\NTRYSIDE1 ! /ATE HAD BECOME ALMO/ COMPLETELY UNWILL+ TO DO SO4 ,F> FROM MA9TA9+ AN ABSOLUTE MONOPOLY ( ! RI<T TO CO]CE1 OR TO AU?ORIZE O!RS TO DO SO1 ! /ATE SIMPLY DID NOT EX]CISE :AT WAS O/5SIBLY ITS PRIM>Y FUNCTION !RE AT ALL4 

,9 ! CAPITAL1 !RE W]E POLICE4 ,>\ND ,>IVONIMAMO ! CLOSE/ ?+ TO A POLICE =CE WAS A UNIT ( G5D>MES :O HAD A B>RACKS SOME:AT TO ! WE/ ( T[N4 ,MA9LY1 !Y PATROLL$ ! HI<WAY4 ,OCCASIONALLY1 ,I WAS TOLD1 !Y W\LD FI<T B&ITS FUR!R WE/2 BUT !Y DID NOT LIKE TO TRAVEL (F ! PAV$ ROADS1 OV] ! RUTT$ DIRT TRACKS ?AT L$ 9TO ! C\NTRYSIDE :]E ALMO/ EV]YONE ACTUALLY LIV$4 ,9 ! C\NTRYSIDE1 G5D>MES W\LD NEV] %[ UP UNLESS SOMEONE HAD BE5 MURD]$4 ,EV5 !N1 IT W\LD USUALLY REQUIRE SOME?+ DRA/IC--LIKE A L>GE NUMB] ( WITNESSES APPE>+ AT !IR DOOR/EP DEM&+ !Y TAKE ACTION1 &1 USUALLY1 HAV+ ALREADY R\ND$ UP ! CULPRIT7S7 !MSELVES--BE=E !Y W\LD ACTUALLY COME & TAKE ANYONE AWAY4 

,EV5 9 T[N1 !Y DID NOT ACT MU* LIKE POLICE4 ,9 ,>IVONIMAMO ,I HE>D A LOT AB\T A BULLY NAM$ ,H5RI1 A L>GE & P[]FULLY BUILT MAN1 P]HAPS 9SANE 7SOME SAID HE WAS JU/ PRET5D+71 :O HAD T]RORIZ$ ITS 9HABITANTS = YE>S4 ,H5RI US$ TO HELP HIMSELF TO M]*&ISE AT ! LOCAL %OPS1 D>+ ANYONE TO /OP HIM2 HE WAS A P>TICUL> DANG] TO ! T[N'S Y\NG WOM51 :O LIV$ 9 CON/ANT FE> ( SEXUAL ASSAULT4 ,AFT] MU* DISCUSSION1 ! Y\NG M5 ( ! T[N F9ALLY DECID$ TO JO9 TOGE!R & KILL HIM4 ,?IS TOOK SOME TIME TO >RANGE BECAUSE1 9 FACT1 !RE WAS AN 9=MAL TRADITION 9 ?AT P>T ( ! HI<L&S ?AT IF ONE WI%ES TO LYN* SOMEONE1 ONE HAS TO GET !IR P>5T'S P]MISSION FIR/4 ,NORMALLY ?IS IS JU/ AN EFFECTIVE WAY TO RE9=CE P>5TAL AU?ORITY1 A K9D ( ULTIMATE SANCTION--OR1 A WAY ( ALL[+ SOMEONE'S MO!R OR FA!R TO 9=M !M ?AT IT'S REALLY TIME ONE %\LD BE GETT+ \T ( T[N--BUT 9 ?IS CASE1 AFT] MANY VA9 EF=TS TO APPRIZE HIS SON ( ! S]I\SNESS ( ! MATT]1 ,H5RI'S FA!R ?REW UP HIS H&S & ALL[$ ?+S TO TAKE !IR C\RSE4 ,! NEXT TIME HE PROVOK$ A FI<T1 A CR[D IMM$IATELY APPE>$ >M$ ) KNIVES & AGRICULTURAL IMPLEM5TS4 ,AS IT TURN$ \T1 !Y DIDN'T QUITE SUCCE$ 9 KILL+ HIM3 BADLY W\ND$1 ,H5RI MANAG$ TO TAKE REFUGE 9 ! ,CA?OLIC *UR* & DEM&$ SANCTU>Y1 CLAIM+ P]SECUTION DUE TO M5TAL ILLNESS4 ,!RE1 NO ONE WAS WILL+ TO FOLL[ HIM4 ,! ,ITALIAN PRIE/ HID HIM 9 ! BACK ( A VAN & SMUGGL$ HIM \T TO AN 9SANE ASYLUM4 ,HE WAS SOON DIS*>G$ 7HE BEAT ! O!R PATI5TS71 BUT DIDN'T D>E %[ HIS FACE AGA9 9 ,>IVONIMAMO = MANY YE>S TO COME4 ,! FIR/ TIME ,I HE>D ! /ORY ,I WAS MA9LY 9T]E/$ 9 ! DETAILS ( P>5TAL P]MISSION4 ,ONLY LAT] DID IT OCCUR TO ME ?AT ?IS EV5T TOOK PLACE 9 A T[N ) AN ACTUAL POLICE /ATION4 ,H[ C\LD ,H5RI HAVE MANAG$ TO T]RORIZE ! T[N = YE>S )\T ANY?+ BE+ DONE AB\T HIM8 0,:Y HADN'T ! G5D>MES DONE ANY?+10 ,I ASK$8 0,HAV5'T Y\ SE5 ,H5RI10 PEOPLE W\LD REPLY4 0,HE'S 5ORM\S60 

0,BUT ! G5D>MES HAD GUNS60 

0,YES1 BUT EV5 SO40 

,EV5TS LIKE ?IS W]E 9 EV]Y WAY EXCEPTIONAL4 ,! MO/ SIGNIFICANT ?+ AB\T VIOL5CE >\ND ,>IVONIMAMO WAS ?AT !RE WAS V]Y LITTLE ( IT4 ,MURD]S W]E %OCK+1 ISOLAT$ EV5TS2 !RE W]E V]Y FEW ,H5RIS4 ,NONE!LESS1 RURAL ASSEMBLIES HAD TO DEVELOP ALL SORTS ( CREATIVE /RATEGIES TO OV]COME ! RELUCTANCE ( ! =CES ( ORD] TO 5=CE ! LAWS4 ,T[>DS ! 5D ( MY /AY1 !RE WAS A FOKON'OLONA MEET+ 9 ,BETAFO--A VILLAGE ASSEMBLY--TO DEAL ) AN 9/ANCE ( VIOL5CE4 ,A MAN NAM$ ,B5JA1 NOTORI\S = HIS FI]Y TEMP]1 HAD A QU>REL ) HIS SI/] OV] SOME MUTUAL BUS9ESS >RANGEM5T1 &1 ! /ORY W5T1 HAD BEAT5 H] TO )9 AN 9* ( H] LIFE4 ,ACTUALLY1 /ORIES V>I$ CONSID]ABLY AB\T H[ BADLY %E WAS REALLY BEAT51 BUT ! MATT] WAS CONSID]$ A V]Y S]I\S AFFAIR REQUIR+ IMM$IATE ATT5TION4 ,AFT] MU* DELIB]ATION1 ! FOKON'OLONA ORD]$ ,B5JA TO WRITE AN UNDAT$ LETT] CONFESS+ TO HAV+ MURD]$ HIS SI/]1 & !N1 BR\<T ! CONFESSION D[N TO BE LODG$ AT ! LOCAL G5D>ME /ATION 9 T[N4 ,?AT WAY1 IF HIS SI/] WAS EV] TO BE F\ND ! VICTIM ( F\L PLAY1 HE W\LD ALREADY HAVE CONFESS$ & C\LD SIMPLY BE DELIV]$ TO ! AU?ORITIES4 ,! MESSAGE WAS ?AT HIS SI/]'S SAFETY & WELL-BE+ W]E TO BE HIS P]SONAL RESPONSIBILITY FROM !N ON4 ,9 ?IS CASE1 ! /ATE WAS BE+ US$ AS A K9D ( <O/-IMAGE ( AU?ORITY1 A PR9CIPLE BUT NOT A ?REAT1 S9CE IF HIS SI/] WAS F\ND DEAD1 ! FOKON'OLONA !MSELVES W\LD HAVE TO BE ! ONES TO >RE/ HIM & C>RY HIM D[N TO ! G5D>MES' (FICE2 ! PAP]S W\LD M]ELY MAKE IT MU* MORE LIKELY ?AT HE W\LD !N HAVE TO SP5D SOME TIME 9 JAIL4 ,9 O!R CASES1 ! /ATE AU?ORITIES W]E BYPASS$ 5TIRELY4 ,! #a#i#hS1 = EXAMPLE1 BEGAN TO SEE ! REVIVAL ( COLLECTIVE ORDEALS4 ,9 A CASE ( !FT--= 9/ANCE1 9 ,BETAFO1 AFT] SOMEONE HAD MADE (F ) ! 5TIRE CONT5TS ( A RICE /ORAGE PIT BELONG+ TO A PROM95T ELD]--ELD]S W\LD GA!R A :OLE COMMUNITY TOGE!R1 & EA* W\LD DR9K FROM A SPECIALLY PREP>$ B[L OR EAT A PIECE ( A SPECIALLY PREP>$ LIV]1 & CALL ON !IR ANCE/ORS TO /RIKE !M D[N IF !Y W]E GUILTY4 ,! NEXT P]SON :O DI$ A SUDD5 DEA? WAS ?US PRESUM$ TO BE A VICTIM ( ANCE/RAL V5GEANCE4 ,TWO SU* COLLECTIVE ORDEALS HAD BE5 HELD 9 ,BETAFO ALONE 9 ! DECADE BE=E ,I CAME !RE4 ,!RE W]E EV5 RUMORS1 FUR!R \T 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE1 ( ! REVIVAL ( ACTUAL POISON ORDEALS4 ,EV]Y:]E1 ONE BEGAN TO HE> AB\T 9VISIBLE P[]S 5=C+ JU/ICE--BURI$ *>MS1 /&+ /ONES1 ANCI5T PLACES ( SACRIFICE NEWLY *>G$ ) ! P[] TO DETECT & PUNI% EVIL-DO]S4 ,ALMO/ ANYONE ( ANY WEAL? OR POLITICAL PROM95CE />T$ TO BEG9 H9T+ ?AT !Y MI<T HAVE ACCESS TO DANG]\S MAGICAL P[]S3 HAIL OR LI<TN+ *>MS1 V9DICTIVE <O/S1 ACCESS TO ! PROTECTION ( ANCI5T K+S4 ,ANYONE :O 9T5D$ TO AMASS--OR MA9TA9--A GREAT DEAL ( WEAL? HAD ALMO/ BY DEF9ITION TO BE ABLE TO AT LEA/ CREATE ! SUSPICION 9 O!RS' M9DS ?AT !Y MI<T HAVE ACCESS TO DANG]\S HIDD5 P[]S ( SOME SORT OR ANO!R4 ,BUT IT WAS A V]Y DELICATE GAME3 S9CE ANYONE :O BOA/$ OP5LY ( SU* P[]S WAS ASSUM$ ALMO/ BY DEF9ITION NOT TO REALLY HAVE !M1 & ANYONE :O EMPLOY$ DANG]\S MAGIC AGA9/ !IR FELL[ VILLAG]S WAS BY DEF9ITION A WIT*4 ,I EV5 HE>D RUMORS ( WEAL?Y M5 DEEP 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE :O SO 9FURIAT$ !IR NEI<BORS BY D>K H9TS ( MAGICAL P[]S ?AT ?OSE NEI<BORS EV5TUALLY S\<T C\NT]-M$IC9E1 DISGUIS$ !MSELVES AS B&ITS1 & ATTACK$ & RANSACK$ !IR POSSESSIONS4 

,! ,/ATE AS ,GU>ANTOR ( ,PROP]TY ,RELATIONS 

  

,!ORIES ( SOCIAL CLASS ALMO/ ALWAYS ASSUME ?AT A KEY ROLE ( ! /ATE--P]HAPS1 ITS MO/ IMPORTANT ROLE--IS TO UND]P9 PROP]TY RELATIONS4 ,= A ,M>XI/1 C]TA9LY1 ?IS IS A /ATE'S PRIM>Y REASON = BE+4 ,CONTRACTUAL1 M>KET RELATIONS CAN ONLY EXI/ BECAUSE !IR BASIC GR\ND1 ! BASIC RULES ( ! GAME1 >E 5%R9$ 9 LAW2 ?OSE LAWS 9 TURN >E EFFECTIVE ONLY 9 SO F> AS EV]YONE KN[S !Y WILL BE BACK$ UP--9 ! LA/ 9/ANCE--BY CLUBS & GUNS & PRISONS4 ,&1 ( C\RSE1 IF ! ULTIMATE GU>ANTOR ( PROP]TY RELATIONS IS /ATE VIOL5CE1 !N ! SAME IS TRUE ( SOCIAL CLASSES AS WELL4 

,BUT1 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE >\ND ,>IVONIMAMO1 ! /ATE SIMPLY DID NOT PLAY ?IS ROLE4 ,I CANNOT IMAG9E A SITUATION UND] :I* IT W\LD DISPAT* >M$ M5 TO UPHOLD ONE P]SON'S RI<T TO EXCLUDE ANO!R FROM !IR L&--LET ALONE TO 5=CE A CONTRACT OR 9VE/IGATE A ROBB]Y4 ,?IS1 TOO1 WAS SOME?+ :OSE FULL SIGNIFICANCE DAWN$ ON ME ONLY AFT]W>DS1 BECAUSE EV]YONE ACT$ AS IF ! GOV]NM5T DID PLAY A CRUCIAL ROLE 9 SU* MATT]S4 ,! GOV]NM5T KEPT TRACK ( :O [N$ EA* PIECE ( L&3 :5EV] SOMEONE DI$1 ! DIVISION ( !IR FIELDS & O!R PROP]TY WAS METICUL\SLY RECORD$ AT ! APPROPRIATE (FICES4 ,REGI/]+ PROP]TY1 ALONG ) BIR?S & DEA?S1 WAS ONE ( ! MA9 ?+S SU* (FICES DID4 ,!RE W]E ALL SORTS ( LAWS CONC]N+ L&1 & NO ONE OP5LY CONTE/$ !M1 JU/ AS :5 TALK+ 9 ! AB/RACT1 !Y ALWAYS SPOKE AS IF !Y FELT L& REGI/RATION DID GIVE AN ACCURATE PICTURE ( :O HAD ULTIMATE RI<TS TO :AT4 ,9 PRACTICE1 H[EV]1 LEGAL PR9CIPLES W]E USUALLY ONLY ONE1 RELATIVELY M9OR1 CONSID]ATION4 ,IF !RE WAS A DISPUTE1 LEGALITIES HAD TO BE WEI<$ AGA9/ A WELT] ( 0TRADITIONAL0 PR9CIPLES 7:I* USUALLY PROVID$ MORE ?AN ONE POSSIBLE SOLUTION TO ANY GIV5 PROBLEM71 ! 9T5TIONS ( =M] [N]S1 & NOT LEA/1 BY PEOPLE'S BROAD] S5SE ( JU/ICE--! FEEL+1 = 9/ANCE1 ?AT NO ACCEPT$ MEMB] ( ! COMMUNITY %\LD BE COMPLETELY DEPRIV$ ( ! MEANS ( MAK+ A LIV+4 ,C]TA9LY NO ONE W\LD ?9K ( TAK+ ! MATT] TO C\RT--EXCEPT 9 A FEW R>E CASES :]E ONE ( ! DISPUTANTS WAS AN \TSID]4 ,EV5 !N1 ! C\RT S]V$ MA9LY AS A NEUTRAL M$IATOR2 EV]YONE KNEW NO POLICE OR ANY O!R >M$ (FICIAL W\LD 5=CE A C\RT DECISION4.<#h#e.> 

,9 ,>IVONIMAMO1 9 FACT1 !RE WAS ONE MAN ) A G5D>ME'S UNI=M :O W\LD OCCASIONALLY R5T HIMSELF \T TO MONEY-L5D]S OR M]*ANTS TO 9TIMIDATE PEOPLE 9TO PAY+ DEBTS OR SURR5D]+ COLLAT]AL4 ,AN ACQUA9TANCE ( M9E FROM ,BETAFO WAS T]RIFI$ ONE DAY :5 HE %[$ UP 9 ! COMPANY ( A NOTORI\S LOAN-%>K--EV5 AFT] HIS NEI<BORS EXPLA9$ TO HIM ?AT ! MAN C\LD H>DLY BE A REAL POLICEMAN1 BECAUSE1 EV5 IF Y\ C\LD F9D AN (FIC] WILL+ TO TRUDGE \T 9TO ! C\NTRY ON SU* A TRIVIAL MATT]1 L5D+ MONEY AT 9T]E/ WAS AGA9/ ! LAW = PRIVATE 9DIVIDUALS & A REAL G5D>ME W\LD HAVE HAD JU/ AS MU* CAUSE TO >RE/ HIS CR$ITOR AS HE4 ,?IS /RUCK ME AS A P>TICUL>LY TELL+ CASE1 BECAUSE IT UND]L9$ JU/ H[ LITTLE ! =CES ( ORD] C>$ AB\T ECONOMIC AFFAIRS4 ,NORMALLY1 !RE IS NO?+ MORE GU>ANTE$ TO 9FURIATE POLICE ?AN ! KN[L$GE ?AT SOMEONE IS GO+ >\ND IMP]SONAT+ AN (FIC]4 ,DO+ SO /RIKES AT ! V]Y ESS5CE ( !IR AU?ORITY4 ,IF ?IS P>TICUL> IMPO/OR GOT AWAY ) IT--AS HE APP>5TLY DID--IT APPE>$ TO BE BECAUSE HE CONF9$ HIS ACTIVITIES TO A DOMA9 9 :I* ! G5D>MES HAD NO 9T]E/4 ,AFT] ALL1 ! G5D>MES NEV] DID ANY?+ TO PROTECT %OPKEEP]S FROM ,H5RI1 EI!R--& ?AT WAS 9 T[N2 ! C\NT]FEIT (FIC] SEEMS TO HAVE CONF9$ HIS ACTIVITIES ALMO/ EXCLUSIVELY TO ! C\NTRYSIDE4 

,!RE >E V>I\S WAYS ONE MI<T *OSE TO ASSESS ?IS SITUATION4 ,ONE W\LD BE TO CONCLUDE ?AT PEOPLE ( RURAL ,IM]9A1 OR 9 ,MADAGASC> 9 G5]AL1 HAD A DIFF]5T CONCEPTION ( ! /ATE ?AN ,M>XI/S & ,WEB]IANS >E US$ TO4 ,MAYBE ! PROTECTION ( PROP]TY IS SIMPLY NOT ONE ( ! FUNCTIONS ANYONE EXPECTS A GOV]NM5T TO FULFILL4 ,TO ! EXT5T PEOPLE SEEM$ TO SAY O!RWISE1 !Y MI<T JU/ BE PAY+ LIP S]VICE TO ALI5 PR9CIPLES IMPOS$ BY ! ,FR5* COLONIAL REGIME4 ,BUT1 9 FACT1 ! PRE-COLONIAL ,M]9A /ATE WAS V]ITABLY OBSESS$ ) PROTECT+ PROP]TY4 ,K+ ,&RIANAMPO9IM]9A1 ITS F\ND]1 EMPHASIZ$ ?IS ROLE CON/ANTLY 9 HIS SPEE*ES 7,L>SON #b3 #a#i#b74 ,LAW CODES1 BEG9N+ ) HIS [N1 ALWAYS MADE ! REGULATION ( 9H]ITANCE1 RULES AB\T BUY+ & R5T+1 & ! LIKE1 ONE ( !IR MO/ IMPORTANT >EAS ( CONC]N4 ,EV5 ! REGI/RATION ( L&S PR$ATES ! COLONIAL P]IOD2 RECORDS BEGAN TO BE KEPT 9 #a#h#g#h1 SEV5TE5 YE>S BE=E ! ,FR5* 9VASION4 

,ON ! O!R H&1 EXI/+ EVID5CE GIVES US NO REASON TO BELIEVE ?AT PEOPLE !N PAID MU* MORE ATT5TION TO ?IS ELABORATE LEGAL /RUCTURE ?AN !Y DO TODAY--AL?\< NEI!R IS !RE ANY RECORD ( ANYONE OP5LY *ALL5G+ IT4 ,LEGAL SY/EMS HAVE ALWAYS BE5 ACCEPT$ 9 PR9CIPLE1 & APPEAL$ TO ONLY V]Y SELECTIVELY 9 PRACTICE4 ,MO/LY1 PEOPLE GO AB\T !IR BUS9ESS MU* AS !Y HAD DONE BE=E4 ,IT IS ?IS PH5OM5ON1 ,I ?9K1 :I* GIVES ! BE/ H9T AS TO :AT'S REALLY GO+ ON4 

,LET ME MAKE A BROAD G5]ALIZATION4 ,CONFRONT$ ) SOMEONE B5T ON IMPOS+ UNWANT$ AU?ORITY1 A TYPICAL ,MALAGASY RESPONSE WILL BE TO AGREE HE>TILY ) :ATEV] DEM&S ?AT P]SON MAKES1 & !N1 AS SOON AS !Y >E GONE1 TO TRY TO GO ON LIV+ ONE'S LIFE AS IF ! 9CID5T HAD NEV] HAPP5$4 ,ONE MI<T EV5 SAY ?IS WAS ! >*ETYPALLY ,MALAGASY WAY ( DEAL+ ) AU?ORITY3 ONE'S FIR/ L9E ( DEF5SE IS SIMPLY TO D5Y ?AT ! EV5T 9 QUE/ION 7A GOV]NM5T (FICIAL COM+ TO C\NT CATTLE & ANN\NCE ! REQUIR$ TAX PAYM5TS1 OR NEGOTIATE ! REQUISITION+ ( LABOR]S TO REPLANT TREES OR BUILD A ROAD7 EV] OCCURR$4 ,ADMITT$LY1 IT IS H>DLY A /RATEGY LIMIT$ TO ,MADAGASC>4 ,SOME?+ ALONG !SE L9ES IS (T5 CONSID]$ A TYPICALLY 0PEASANT0 /RATEGY3 IT IS AN OBVI\S C\RSE TO TAKE :5 ONE IS 9 NO WAY ECONOMICALLY DEP5D5T ON ?OSE TRY+ TO TELL ONE :AT TO DO4 ,BUT !RE >E MANY O!R R\TES TO TAKE1 ALL SORTS ( POSSIBLE COMB9ATIONS ( CONFRONTATION1 NEGOTIATION1 SUBV]SION1 ACQUIESC5CE4 ,9 ,MADAGASC>1 :]E !RE IS (T5 A /RONG DI/A/E = OP5 CONFRONTATION 9 DAILY LIFE 9 G5]AL1 ! PREF]R$ APPROA* HAS ALWAYS BE5 TO DO :ATEV] IT TAKES TO MAKE ! ANNOY+ \TSID] HAPPY UNTIL HE GOES AWAY2 !N1 9SI/ ?AT HE HAD NEV] BE5 !RE TO BEG9 )1 OR IF ?AT DOESN'T WORK1 TO SIMPLY IGNORE :ATEV] ONE HAS AGRE$ ) & SEE :AT ! CONSEQU5CES MI<T BE4 ,IT EV5 TAKES ON A COSMOLOGICAL DIM5SION4 ,MALAGASY MY?S ON ! ORIG9S ( DEA? CLAIM ?AT LIFE ITSELF WAS WON FROM ,GOD 9 A DEAL ?AT HUMANS NEV] REALLY 9T5D$ TO KEEP 7H5CE1 IT IS SAID1 ,GOD KILLS US74 ,H]E IS ONE1 DRAWN E>LY 9 ! C5TURY FROM ! ,BETSIMIS>AKA ( ! EA/ COA/4 ,!RE >E 5DLESS V>IATIONS1 MO/ OBVI\SLY TONGUE-9-*EEK1 ) ! ,CREATOR (T5 BE>+ AN UNCANNY RESEMBLANCE TO ! SORT ( PASS+ COLONIAL (FICIAL :O W\LD P]IODICALLY %[ UP 9 VILLAGES1 ) >M$ RETA9]S1 DEM&+ ! PAYM5T ( TAXES3  
  

,ONCE UPON A TIME1 A ,VAZIMBA .<ABORIG9AL.> C\PLE W]E ! ONLY TWO OCCUPANTS ( ! E>?4 ,!Y W]E SAD BECAUSE !Y HAD NO *ILDR51 SO ONE DAY !Y F\ND SOME CLAY & GAVE IT HUMAN =M4 ,!Y MADE TWO FIGURES1 ONE A LITTLE BOY1 ! O!R A LITTLE GIRL4 ,! WOMAN BLEW 9 !IR NOSES TO ANIMATE !M BUT %E WASN'T ABLE TO GIVE !M LIFE4 ,!N1 ONE DAY1 %E HAPP5$ TO MEET A GOD :O WAS TRAVEL+ ON ! E>?4 ,! WOMAN ASK$ HIM TO GIVE LIFE TO ! TWO /ATUES & PROMIS$ HIM1 IF HE SUCCE$$1 TWO C[S & A SUM ( MONEY4 ,SO HE DID SO4 

,:5 ! *ILDR5 GREW UP1 ! P>5TS M>RI$ !M TO ONE ANO!R4 ,!N ! GOD RETURN$ TO CLAIM HIS PAYM5T4 

0,WE HAVE NO MONEY10 ! P>5TS SAID1 0BECAUSE WE'RE OLD1 BUT 9 TWELVE YE>S \R *ILDR5 WILL PAY Y\40 

0,BECAUSE Y\ HAVE TRICK$ ME10 REPLI$ ! GOD1 0,I WILL KILL Y\40 ,& HE DID4 

,AFT] TWELVE YE>S ! GOD RETURN$ TO AGA9 ASK ! *ILDR5 = HIS PAYM5T4 

0,Y\'VE KILL$ \R P>5TS10 SAID ! C\PLE1 0SO ! MONEY WE'VE GA!R$ UP TO PAY Y\ HAS ALL BE5 SP5T4 ,WE HAVE TO ASK Y\ = T5 MORE YE>S TO ACQUIT \R DEBT40 

,T5 YE>S LAT]1 ! GOD RETURN$ & ! C\PLE HAD ?REE *ILDR5 BUT NO MONEY4 

0,I WILL KILL Y\10 SAID ! GOD1 0Y\ & Y\R DESC5DANTS1 :E!R Y\ BE OLD OR Y\NG40 

,S9CE ?AT DAY1 HUMANS HAVE BE5 MORTAL1 & :5 ONE QUITS LIFE1 ,MALAGASY PEOPLE SAY1 0!Y >E TAK5 BY ! GOD ?AT MADE !M40 7,R5EL #aia ,I,I,I3 #a#g-#a#h2 MY TRANSLATION FROM ! ,FR5*74  
  

,! MY?OLOGICAL PO9T IS1 TO SAY ! LEA/1 SUGGE/IVE4 ,ONE MI<T WELL >GUE ?AT ?IS :OLE ATTITUDE IS ULTIMATELY ONE ) ! LOGIC ( SACRIFICE1 :I* AT LEA/ 9 ,MADAGASC> IS (T5 EXPLICITLY PHRAS$ AS A WAY ( FOBB+ (F ! ,DIV9E ,P[]S ) A PORTION ( :AT IS RI<TFULLY !IRS1 SO AS TO W9 ! RE/ = LIV+ PEOPLE4 ,! LIFE ( ! ANIMAL1 IT IS (T5 SAID1 GOES TO ,GOD2 H5CE 7IMPLICITLY71 WE GET TO KEEP \R [N4 ,CONSID]1 !N1 ! CURI\S FACT ?AT ALL OV] ,MADAGASC>1 SACRIFICIAL RITUALS--OR !IR FUNCTIONAL EQUIVAL5TS1 SU* AS ! FAMADIHANA 7REBURIAL7 RITUALS ( ,IM]9A--ALWAYS SEEM TO REQUIRE GOV]NM5T P]MITS4 ,! FACT ?AT ?IS P]MIT HAS BE5 RECEIV$1 ?AT ! PAP]WORK HAS BE5 PROP]LY DONE1 IS (T5 MADE MU* ( DUR+ ! C]EMONY ITSELF4 ,H]E IS A FRAGM5T ( A ,BETSIMIS>AKA SPEE*1 SPOK5 OV] ! BODY ( A SACRIFICIAL OX3  
  

,= ?IS OX IS NOT ! K9D ( OX ?AT LAZES 9 ITS P5 OR %ITS ANY:]E ON 5T]+ ! VILLAGE4 ,ITS BODY IS H]E ) US1 BUT ITS LIFE IS ) Y\1 ! GOV]NM5T4 ,Y\1 ! GOV]NM5T1 >E LIKE A GREAT BEA/ LY+ ON ITS BACK3 HE :O TURNS IT OV] SEES ITS HUGE JAWS2 SO WE1 COMRADES1 CANNOT TURN ?AT BEA/ OV]6 ,IT IS ?IS (FICIAL P]MIT ?AT IS ! KNIFE ?AT D>ES TO CUT ITS HIDE1 ! AX ?AT D>ES TO BREAK ITS BONES1 :I* COMES FROM Y\ :O HOLD POLITICAL AU?ORITY 7,ALY #a#i#h#d3 #e#i-#f74  
  

,NOT ONLY IS ! /ATE FIGUR$ SIMULTANE\SLY AS A POT5TIAL =CE ( VIOL5CE & ITS VICTIM2 ! ACT ( ACQUIR+ A P]MIT BECOMES EQUAT$ ) ! ACT ( SACRIFICE ITSELF4 ,! MA9 PO9T ,I AM TRY+ TO MAKE H]E IS AB\T AUTONOMY4 ,FILL+ \T =MS1 REGI/]+ L&1 EV5 PAY+ TAXES1 MI<T BE CONSID]$ ! EQUIVAL5TS ( SACRIFICE3 LITTLE RITUALIZ$ ACTIONS ( PROPITIATION BY :I* ONE W9S ! AUTONOMY TO CONT9UE ) ONE'S LIFE4 

,?IS !ME ( AUTONOMY CROPS UP 9 ANY NUMB] ( O!R /UDIES ( COLONIAL & PO/COLONIAL ,MADAGASC>--NOTABLY1 ?OSE ( ,G]ALD ,AL?ABE 7#a#i#f#i1 #b71 AB\T !SE SAME ,BETSIMIS>AKA1 & ,GILLIAN ,FEELEY-,H>NIK 7#a#i#h#b1 #a#i#h#d1 #a#i#i#a7 ON ! ,SAKALAVA ( ! NOR?WE/ COA/4 ,BUT 9 !SE AU?ORS IT TAKES ON A SORT ( ADD$ TWI/1 S9CE BO? SUGGE/ ?AT1 9 ,MADAGASC>1 ! MO/ COMMON WAY TO A*IEVE AUTONOMY IS BY CREAT+ A FALSE IMAGE ( DOM9ATION4 ,! LOGIC SEEMS TO BE ?IS3 A COMMUNITY ( EQUALS CAN ONLY BE CREAT$ BY COMMON SUBORD9ATION TO SOME OV]>*+ =CE4 ,TYPICALLY1 IT IS CONCEIV$ AS >BITR>Y & POT5TIALLY VIOL5T 9 MU* ! SAME WAY AS ! TRADITIONAL ,MALAGASY ,GOD4 ,BUT IT CAN ALSO BE EQUALLY F> FROM EV]YDAY HUMAN CONC]NS4 ,ONE ( ! MO/ DRAMATIC RESPONSES TO COLONIAL RULE1 AMONG BO? PEOPLES1 WAS ! MASSIVE DIFFUSION ( SPIRIT POSSESSION2 9 EV]Y COMMUNITY1 WOM5 BEGAN TO BE POSSESS$ BY ! S\LS ( ANCI5T K+S1 :OSE WILL WAS CONSID]$ 7AT LEA/ 9 !ORY7 TO HAVE ALL ! AU?ORITY IT W\LD HAVE1 HAD !Y BE5 ALIVE4 ,BY RELEGAT+ ULTIMATE SOCIAL AU?ORITY TO 5TRANC$ WOM5 SPEAK+ ) ! VOICES ( DEAD K+S1 ! P[] TO CON/ITUTE COMMUNITIES IS DISPLAC$ TO A ZONE :]E ,FR5* (FICIALS & POLICE W\LD HAVE NO WAY TO OP5LY CONFRONT IT4 ,9 EI!R CASE1 !RE WAS ! SAME K9D ( MOVE3 ONE MANAGES TO CREATE A SPACE = FREE ACTION1 9 :I* TO LIVE ONE'S LIFE \T ( ! GRIP ( P[]1 ONLY BY CREAT+ ! IMAGE ( ABSOLUTE DOM9ATION--BUT ONE :I* IS ULTIMATELY ONLY ?AT1 AN IMAGE1 A PHANTASM1 COMPLETELY MANIPULABLE BY ?OSE IT O/5SIBLY SUBJECTS4 

,TO PUT ! MATT] CRUDELY1 ONE MI<T SAY ?AT ! PEOPLE ,I KNEW W]E 5GAG$ 9 A K9D ( SCAM4 ,!IR IMAGE ( GOV]NM5T HAD1 AT LEA/ S9CE ! COLONIAL P]IOD1 BE5 ONE ( SOME?+ ESS5TIALLY ALI51 PR$ATORY1 CO]CIVE4 ,! PR9CIPAL EMOTION IT 9SPIR$ WAS FE>4 ,UND] ! ,FR5*1 ! GOV]NM5T APP>ATUS WAS PRIM>ILY AN 5G9E = EXTRACT+ MONEY & =C$ LABOR FROM ITS SUBJECTS2 IT PROVID$ RELATIVELY LITTLE 9 WAY ( SOCIAL B5EFITS = ! RURAL POPULATION 7C]TA9LY1 FROM ! PO9T ( VIEW ( ! RURAL POPULATION IT DIDN'T74 ,9 SO F> AS IT DID CONC]N ITSELF ) ITS SUBJECTS' DAILY NE$S1 IT WAS ) ! CONSCI\S 9T5TION ( CREAT+ NEW ONES1 ( TRANS=M+ !IR DESIRES SO AS TO CREATE A MORE DEEPLY ROOT$ DEP5D5CE4 ,NOR DID MATT]S *ANGE MU* AFT] 9DEP5D5CE 9 #a#i#f1 S9CE ! FIR/ ,MALAGASY REGIME MADE V]Y FEW *ANGES 9 ITS POLICY OR MODE ( OP]ATION4 ,= ! VA/ MAJORITY ( ! POPULATION1 ! COMMON-S5SE ATTITUDE WAS ?AT ! /ATE WAS SOME?+ TO BE PROPITIAT$1 !N AVOID$1 9 SO F> AS IT WAS 9 ANY WAY POSSIBLE TO DO SO4 

,IT WAS ONLY AFT] ! REVOLUTION ( #aigb ?AT ?+S REALLY BEGAN TO *ANGE4 

,AN ANTI-COLONIAL REVOLT 9 ITS ORIG9S1 ! #aigb EV5TS 9TRODUC$ A SUCCESSION ( /ATE-CAPITALI/1 MILIT>Y-BAS$ REGIMES--FROM #aige UNTIL #a#i#i#a1 DOM9AT$ BY ! FIGURE ( ,PRESID5T ,DIDI] ,RATSIRAKA4 ,RATSIRAKA F\ND HIS POLITICAL 9SPIRATION 9 ,KIM ,IL ,SUNG ( ,NOR? ,KOREA4 ,9 !ORY1 HIS REGIME WAS D$ICAT$ TO A V]Y C5TRALIZ$ V]SION ( SOCIALI/ DEVELOPM5T & MOBILIZATION4 ,FROM ! BEG9N+1 ?\<1 HE WAS UN9T]E/$ 9 :AT HE CONSID]$ A /AGNANT1 TRADITIONAL PEASANT SECTOR ) LITTLE REVOLUTION>Y POT5TIAL4 ,9 AGRICULTURE AS 9 9DU/RY1 HIS GOV]NM5T CONC5TRAT$ ITS EF=TS ON A S]IES ( COLOSSAL DEVELOPM5T S*EMES1 (T5 H]OIC 9 SCALE1 9VOLV+ MASSIVE 9VE/M5T1 FUND$ BY =EIGN LOANS4 ,LOANS W]E EASY 5\< TO GET 9 ! #a#i#gS4 ,BY #a#i#h#a1 ! GOV]NM5T WAS 9SOLV5T4 ,EV] S9CE1 ,MALAGASY ECONOMIC HI/ORY HAS MA9LY BE5 ! /ORY ( NEGOTIATIONS ) ! ,I,M,F4 

,!RE IS NO ROOM H]E TO 5T] 9TO DETAILS ON ! EFFECTS ( ,I,M,F-ORD]$ AU/]ITY PLANS4 ,SUFFICE IT TO SAY !IR IMM$IATE RESULT WAS A CATA/ROPHIC FALL 9 LIV+ /&>DS1 ACROSS ! BO>D4 ,H>DE/ HIT W]E ! CIVIL S]VICE & O!R GOV]NM5T EMPLOYES 7:O MADE UP ! BULK ( ! MIDDLE CLASS7 BUT--ASIDE FROM A N>R[ ELITE SURR\ND+ ! ,PRESID5T HIMSELF1 :O /OLE LIB]ALLY--PAUP]IZATION HAS BE5 WELL-NI< UNIV]SAL4 ,MADAGASC> IS N[ ONE ( ! POORE/ C\NTRIES ON E>?4 

,= ,RATSIRAKA'S 0PEASANT SECTOR0--RURAL >EAS NOT PRODUC+ KEY COMMODITIES--?IS :OLE P]IOD WAS M>K$ BY ! GRADUAL )DRAWAL ( ! /ATE4 ,! MO/ ON]\S TAXES FROM ! ,FR5* P]IOD--! HEAD TAX1 CATTLE TAX1 H\SE TAX--9T5D$ TO =CE F>M]S TO SELL !IR PRODUCTS & ?US TO GOAD !M 9TO ! CA% ECONOMY1 W]E ABOLI%$ IMM$IATELY AFT] ! REVOLUTION4 ,RATSIRAKA'S REGIME FIR/ IGNOR$ RURAL ADM9I/RATION2 AFT] #a#i#h#a1 IT 9CREAS+LY BECAME ! OBJECT ( TRIAGE4 ,! /ATE1 ITS RES\RCES EV] MORE LIMIT$ AS BUDGETS W]E 5DLESSLY SLA%$1 WAS R$UC$ TO ADM9I/]+ & PROVID+ M9IMAL SOCIAL S]VICES TO ?OSE T[NS & T]RITORIES ITS RUL]S F\ND ECONOMICALLY IMPORTANT3 MA9LY1 ?OSE :I* G5]AT$ SOME K9D ( =EIGN EX*ANGE4 ,PLACES LIKE ,>IVONIMAMO1 :]E ALMO/ ALL PRODUCTION & DI/RIBUTION WAS C>RI$ \T \TSIDE ! =MAL SECTOR ANYWAY1 W]E ( NO 9T]E/ TO !M4 ,9DE$1 IT IS H>D TO IMAG9E ANY?+ ?AT C\LD HAPP5 !RE--%ORT ( ! >EA BECOM+ ! BASE = >M$ GU]RILLAS 7H>DLY A POSSIBILITY7--?AT W\LD S]I\SLY ?REAT5 ! 9T]E/S ( ! M5 :O REALLY RAN ! C\NTRY4.<#h#f.> 

,RES\RCES = RURAL >EAS DRI$ UP4 ,BY ! TIME ,I WAS 9 ,>IVONIMAMO1 ! ONLY SECTOR ( ADM9I/RATION ?AT WAS RECEIV+ ANY SIGNIFICANT FUND+ WAS ! $UCATION SY/EM4 ,EV5 H]E ! SUMS W]E PALTRY3 ! MA9 GOV]NM5T ROLE WAS TO PO/ ! TEA*]S 7:O W]E SOMETIMES PAID1 AT LEA/ 9 P>T1 BY P>5TS' ASSOCIATIONS71 PROVIDE CURRICULA1 & ADM9I/] ! TE/S4 ,! LATT]1 P>TICUL>LY ! BACCALAUREATE EXAM9ATION1 W]E ( P>TICUL> CONC]N TO ! C5T] BECAUSE !Y W]E ! GATEWAY 9TO ! =MAL1 /ATE SECTOR3 ?OSE :O PASS$ !IR BACCALAUREATE W]E OBLIG$ TO UND]GO SEV]AL WEEKS ( MILIT>Y TRA9+ & !N C>RY \T A YE>'S 0,NATIONAL ,S]VICE10 ?\<--AS ,I'VE PO9T$ \T--?IS MA9LY CONSI/$ ( L\NG+ >\ND 9 MEAN+LESS MAKE-WORK JOBS4 ,BUT ,NATIONAL ,S]VICE WAS1 ,I ?9K1 IMPORTANT4 ,IT WAS A WAY ( M>K+ PASSAGE 9TO A DOMA9 :]E EFFECTIVE AU?ORITY REALLY DID EXI/1 :]E ORD]S HAD TO BE OBEY$4 ,= ?OSE NOT 5SCONC$ 9 ! $UCATIONAL SY/EM1 ! GOV]NM5T PROVID$ NO?+1 BUT IT ALSO HAD ALMO/ NO IMM$IATE P[] OV] !IR LIVES4.<#h#g.> 

,/ILL1 EV5 9 ! C\NTRYSIDE1 GOV]NM5T (FICES CONT9U$ TO EXI/4 ,! TYPEWRIT]S W]E (T5 CRUMBL+1 FUNCTION>IES W]E (T5 R$UC$ TO BUY+ !IR [N PAP]1 S9CE !Y C\LD NO LONG] REQUISITION ANY1 BUT PEOPLE DUTIFULLY CONT9U$ TO FILL \T =MS1 REQUE/+ P]MISSION BE=E UPROOT+ TREES OR EXHUM+ ! DEAD1 REPORT+ BIR?S & DEA?S1 & REGI/]+ ! NUMB] ( !IR CATTLE4 ,!Y MU/ HAVE REALIZ$ ?AT1 HAD !Y REFUS$1 NO?+ W\LD HAVE HAPP5$4 ,SO3 :Y DID !Y PLAY ALONG8 

,ONE MI<T1 ,I SUPPOSE1 CALL IT 9]TIA1 %E] =CE ( HABIT3 PEOPLE W]E /ILL RUNN+ ! SAME SCAM1 PROPITIAT+ ! /ATE )\T HAV+ NOTIC$ ITS HUGE JAWS W]E TOO?LESS4 ,C]TA9LY1 MEMORIES ( COLONIAL VIOL5CE W]E /ILL VIVID4 ,I WAS TOLD MANY TIMES ( ! E>LY DAYS ( MASS EXECUTIONS1 OR ( H[ T]RIFI$ RURAL PEOPLE US$ TO BE :5 !Y HAD TO 5T] A GOV]NM5T (FICE1 ( ! 5DLESS PRESSURE ( TAXATION4 ,BUT ,I ?9K ! REAL ANSW] IS MORE SUBTLE4 

,MEMORIES ( VIOL5CE W]E MA9LY IMPORTANT BECAUSE !Y DEF9$ :AT PEOPLE IMAG9$ A /ATE TO BE AB\T4 ,I F\ND LITTLE NOTION ?AT ! /ATE 7= ALL ITS SOCIALI/ PRET5SIONS7 EXI/$ TO PROVIDE S]VICES2 AT LEA/1 NO ONE MU* COMPLA9$ AB\T ! LACK ( !M4 ,PEOPLE SEEM$ TO ACCEPT ?AT A GOV]NM5T WAS ESS5TIALLY AN >BITR>Y1 PR$ATORY1 CO]CIVE P[]4 ,BUT ! ONE !ME ( (FICIAL IDEOLOGY EV]YONE DID SEEM TO TAKE S]I\SLY WAS ! IDEA ( ,MALAGASY UNITY4 ,9 ! HI<L&S1 AT LEA/1 PEOPLE SAW !MSELVES AS 0,MALAGASY02 !Y H>DLY EV] REF]R$ TO !MSELVES AS 0,M]9A40 ,MALAGASY UNITY WAS A CON/ANT !ME 9 RHETORIC2 IT WAS ! REAL MEAN+1 ,I ?9K1 ( ! ,MALAGASY FLAGS ?AT 9EVITABLY ACCOMPANI$ ANY MAJOR RITUAL 7:OSE (FICIAL MEAN+ WAS TO M>K ?AT ! =MS HAD BE5 FILL$ \T1 ! EV5T APPROV$74 ,IT SEEMS TO ME ?AT IT WAS ! V]Y EMPT9ESS ( ! /ATE :I* MADE IT ACCEPTABLE AS A UNIFY+ =CE4 ,:5 IT WAS P[]FUL1 ! /ATE 9 ,IM]9A WAS ESS5TIALLY SE5 AS SOME?+ ,FR5*--?IS REMA9$ TRUE EV5 9 ! E>LY YE>S ( 9DEP5D5CE4 ,! #aigb REVOLUTION WAS FIR/ & =EMO/ AN EF=T TO A*IEVE G5U9E 9DEP5D5CE1 TO MAKE ! /ATE TRULY ,MALAGASY4 ,= ! HI<L& POPULATION1 ,I W\LD SAY1 ?IS EF=T WAS L>GELY SUCCESSFUL--IF ONLY BECAUSE1 AT ! SAME TIME1 ! /ATE WAS /RIPP$ ( ALMO/ ALL EFFECTIVE P[]4 ,9 O!R WORDS1 ! GOV]NM5T BECAME SOME?+ ALONG ! SAME L9ES AS ! ANCI5T K+S DISCUSS$ BY ,AL?ABE & ,FEELEY-,H>NIK3 ABSOLUTE1 >BITR>Y P[]S ?AT CON/ITUTE ?OSE !Y SUBJUGATE AS A COMMUNITY BY VIRTUE ( !IR COMMON SUBJUGATION1 :ILE AT ! SAME TIME1 EXTREMELY CONV5I5T P[]S TO BE RUL$ BY1 BECAUSE1 9 ANY IMM$IATE PRACTICAL S5SE1 !Y DO NOT EXI/4 

,PROVISIONAL ,AUTONOM\S ,ZONE 

  

,9 CONTEMPOR>Y AN>*I/ CIRCLES IT HAS BECOME COMMON TO TALK ( ! 0,T,A,Z10 OR 0TEMPOR>Y AUTONOM\S ZONES0 7,BEY #a#i#i#a74 ,! IDEA IS ?AT1 :ILE !RE MAY NO LONG] BE ANY PLACE ON E>? 5TIRELY UNCOLONIZ$ BY ,/ATE & ,CAPITAL1 P[] IS NOT COMPLETELY MONOLI?IC3 !RE >E ALWAYS TEMPOR>Y CRACKS & FISSURES1 EPHEM]AL SPACES 9 :I* SELF-ORGANIZ$ COMMUNITIES CAN & DO CONT9UALLY EM]GE LIKE ]UPTIONS1 COV]T UPRIS+S4 ,FREE SPACES FLICK] 9TO EXI/5CE & !N PASS AWAY4 ,IF NO?+ ELSE1 !Y PROVIDE CON/ANT TE/IMONY TO ! FACT ?AT ALT]NATIVES >E /ILL CONCEIVABLE1 ?AT HUMAN POSSIBILITIES >E NEV] FIX$4 

,9 RURAL ,IM]9A1 IT MI<T BE BETT] TO TALK AB\T A 0PROVISIONAL AUTONOM\S ZONE10 RA!R ?AN A 0TEMPOR>Y0 ONE3 9 P>T1 TO EMPHASIZE ?AT IT DOES NOT /& QUITE SO DEFIANTLY \TSIDE P[] AS ! IMAGE ( A ,T,A,Z IMPLIES2 BUT ALSO1 BECAUSE !RE IS NO REASON TO NECESS>ILY ASSUME ITS 9DEP5D5CE IS ALL ?AT TEMPOR>Y4 ,BETAFO1 EV5 TO A L>GE EXT5T ,>IVONIMAMO1 /OOD \TSIDE ! DIRECT CONTROL ( ! /ATE APP>ATUS3 EV5 IF ! PEOPLE :O LIVE !RE PASS$ BACK & =? BETWE5 !M & ZONES1 SU* AS ! CAPITAL1 :I* >E V]Y MU* UND] ! DOM9ATION ( ! /ATE4 ,!IR AUTONOMY WAS T5TATIVE1 UNC]TA94 ,IT MI<T BE L>GELY SWEPT AWAY ! MOM5T A NEW 9FUSION ( GUNS & MONEY RE/ORES ! APP>ATUS2 BUT !N AGA91 IT MI<T NOT4 ,SOME MI<T CONSID] ! CURR5T SITUATION SC&AL\S4 ,MYSELF1 ,I CONSID] IT A REM>KABLE ACCOMPLI%M5T4 ,AFT] ALL1 AU/]ITY PLANS HAVE BE5 IMPOS$ ON NATIONS ALL OV] ! WORLD2 FEW GOV]NM5TS HAVE REACT$ BY AB&ON+ ! BULK ( ! POPULATION TO GOV]N !MSELVES2 NOR W\LD MANY POPULATIONS HAVE BE5 SO WELL PREP>$ TO DO SO4 

,:Y W]E !Y ABLE TO DO SO8 ,I W\LD GUESS !RE >E V>I\S REASONS4 ,ONE IS ! MA9T5ANCE ( ACTIVE TRADITIONS ( SELF-GOV]NANCE1 & :AT W\LD1 IF IT W]E OBS]V$ 91 SAY1 ,EUROPEAN OR ,LAT9 ,AM]ICAN SOCIAL MOVEM5TS1 UND\BT$LY BE CALL$ A CULTURE ( DIRECT DEMOCRACY4 ,! >T ( COM+ TO DECISIONS BY CONS5SUS WAS SOME?+ EV]YONE SIMPLY LE>N$ AS P>T ( GR[+ UP4 ,IT WAS SO MU* A P>T ( EV]YDAY COMMON S5SE ?AT IT WAS DIFFICULT1 AT FIR/1 = AN \TSID] TO EV5 NOTICE IT4 ,= 9/ANCE1 !RE WAS A G5]AL PR9CIPLE ?AT NO C\RSE ( ACTION ?AT MI<T HAVE NEGATIVE CONSEQU5CES ON O!RS %\LD LEGITIMATELY BE C>RI$ \T )\T ?OSE O!RS' PRIOR CONS5T2 ! RESULTANT MEET+S W]E CALL$ 0FOKON'OLONA0 MEET+S--MEAN+1 BASICALLY1 0EV]YBODY0--BUT DESPITE ! CONSI/5T MISUND]/&+ ( COLONIAL E?NOGRAPHY1 0!0 FOKON'OLONA WAS NOT A =MAL 9/ITUTION1 BUT A FLEXIBLE PR9CIPLE ( DELIB]ATION BY GR\PS ?AT C\LD V>Y FROM FIVE TO A ?\S&1 DEP5D+ ON ! DIM5SIONS ( ! PROBLEM !Y W]E COLLECTIVELY TRY+ TO SOLVE4 ,)9 ?OSE MEET+S1 H[EV]1 ANYONE1 MALE OR FEMALE1 OLD OR Y\NG1 =MALLY HAD EQUAL RI<T TO SPEAK3 ! ONLY CRIT]IA WAS TO BE OLD 5\< TO BE ABLE TO =MULATE AN 9TELLIG5T OP9ION4.<#h#h.> ,:AT'S MORE1 ANYONE 5GAG$ 9 AN ONGO+ PROJECT HAD ! P[] TO 5GAGE 9 :AT W\LD 9 CONTEMPOR>Y CONS5SUS PROCESS BE REF]R$ TO AS A 0BLOCK03 ONE C\LD SIMPLY DECL>E 0,I AM NO LONG] 9 AGREEM5T0 7TSY MANAIKY AHO7 ) ! G5]AL DIRECTION ( ?+S1 & IT W\LD CAUSE A G5]AL CRISIS UNTIL ONE'S CONC]NS HAD BE5 PUBLICLY ADDRESS$4 ,SUFFICE IT TO SAY1 !N1 ?AT EV5 DUR+ ! COLONIAL P]IOD1 :5 ALL POLITICAL GA!R+S W]E TE*NICALLY ILLEGAL1 ORD9>Y PEOPLE HAD MA9TA9$ 9/ITUTIONAL /RUCTURES & POLITICAL HABITS ?AT ALL[$ !M TO GOV]N !IR [N AFFAIRS ) M9IMAL APPEAL TO \TSIDE =CE4 ,!Y HAD ALSO MANAG$ TO DEVELOP =MS ( RESI/ANCE SUFFICI5TLY SUBTLE ?AT1 :5 ! /ATE WAS EMPTI$ ( ITS SUB/ANCE1 !Y W]E ABLE TO ALL[ IT TO EFFECTIVELY COLLAPSE ) M9IMAL LOSS ( FACE4 

,I DON'T MEAN TO ROMANTICIZE ! SITUATION4 ,:AT AUTONOMY RURAL COMMUNITIES HAVE HAS BE5 WON AT ! CO/ ( GR9D+ POV]TY2 IT IS H>D TO 5JOY ONE'S FRE$OM IF ONE IS 9 A CON/ANT SCRAMBLE TO HAVE 5\< TO EAT4 ,9/ITUTIONS ( RULE--MO/ OBVI\SLY S*OOLS & ,*RI/IAN *UR*ES--/ILL FUNCTION$1 & 9 ! SAME HI]>*ICAL WAY AS EV]1 EV5 IF !Y DID N[ L>GELY LACK$ ! P[] TO BACK UP !IR EF=TS ) ! ?REAT ( PHYSICAL =CE4 ,!RE W]E C]TA9LY PR(\ND SOCIAL 9EQUALITIES )9 MANY ( !SE RURAL COMMUNITIES1 NOT TO M5TION 9 T[N3 BO? DIFF]5CES ( WEAL? 7P]HAPS M9OR BY WORLD /&>DS1 BUT NONE!LESS REAL71 & EV5 MORE1 DIVISIONS BETWE5 :AT W]E CALL$ 0:ITE0 & 0BLACK0 PEOPLE1 DESC5DANTS ( NOBLES OR COMMON]S 9 ! ANCI5T K+DOM1 & !IR =M] SLAVES4 ,9 ORD] TO UND]/& :AT PLACES LIKE ,BETAFO W]E LIKE1 !N1 ONE MU/ FIR/ UND]/& ?AT IT WAS A PLACE ?AT /OOD \TSIDE /ATE P[]2 !N1 ?AT IT DID NOT /& 5TIRELY \TSIDE IT4 ,= ALL ! EF=TS TO MA9TA9 ZONES ( AUTONOMY1 ! REALITY ( CO]CION HAS BY N[ RE%AP$ ! T]MS BY :I* PEOPLE DEAL ) EA* O!R2 9 C]TA9 WAYS1 IT HAS BECOME EMB$D$ 9 ! V]Y /RUCTURE ( EXP]I5CE4 

,9 ,IM]9A1 JU/ AB\T EV]YONE CONSID]S !MSELVES A ,*RI/IAN 7AB\T TWO ?IRDS ( ! POPULATION IS ,PROTE/ANT1 ONE ?IRD ,CA?OLIC74 ,MANY REGUL>LY ATT5D *UR*4 ,! GOV]NM5T MAY NO LONG] HAVE ! MEANS TO COMPEL *ILDR5 TO ATT5D S*OOL1 BUT ATT5DANCE IS /ILL CLOSE TO UNIV]SAL1 AT LEA/ ON ! PRIM>Y LEVEL4 ,AT ! SAME TIME1 H[EV]1 !RE IS A C]TA9 AMBIVAL5CE AB\T BO? !SE 9/ITUTIONS1 P>TICUL>LY ! S*OOLS4 ,AS ,I ALREADY REM>K$ :5 SPEAK+ ( ! POLITICS ( RESE>*1 ! $UCATIONAL SY/EM 9 ,IM]9A HAS ALWAYS BE5 SE5 AS A TOOL ( P[]1 & ALWAYS1 TOO1 ID5TIFI$ ) ,VAZAHA4 ,! PRES5T $UCATIONAL SY/EM TOOK =M UND] ! ,FR5* COLONIAL REGIME4 ,IT IS IMPORTANT TO BE> 9 M9D ?AT ?IS WAS NOT A REGIME ?AT C\LD EV] MAKE ! MO/ REMOTE/ CLAIM TO BE+ ! EXPRESSION ( POPUL> WILL4 ,IT WAS A REGIME IMPOS$ BY CONQUE/1 MA9TA9$ ONLY BY ! CON/ANT ?REAT ( =CE4 

,IT IS WOR? CONSID]+ = A MOM5T :AT MA9TA9+ A CR$IBLE ?REAT ( =CE ACTUALLY REQUIRES4 ,IT IS NOT M]ELY A MATT] ( HAV+ AN ADEQUATE NUMB] ( M5 WILL+ TO USE VIOL5CE2 NOT EV5 A MATT] ( >M+ & TRA9+ !M4 ,MO/LY1 IT IS A MATT] ( COORD9ATION4 ,! CRUCIAL ?+ IS TO BE ABLE TO 5SURE ?AT A SUFFICI5T NUMB] ( SU* VIOL5T M5 WILL ALWAYS BE ABLE TO %[ UP1 :5EV] & :]EV] !RE IS AN OP5 *ALL5GE TO ONE'S AU?ORITY--& ?AT EV]YONE KN[S ?AT !Y WILL 9DE$ DO SO4 ,BUT ?IS1 9 TURN1 REQUIRES A GREAT DEAL4 ,IT REQUIRES AN EXT5SIVE CADRE ( TRA9$ FUNCTION>IES CAPABLE ( PROCESS+ 9=MATION1 NOT TO M5TION AN 9FRA/RUCTURE ( ROADS1 TELEPHONES1 TYPEWRIT]S1 B>RACKS1 REPAIR %OPS1 PETROLEUM DEPOTS--& ! /AFF TO MA9TA9 !M4 ,ONCE BUILT1 SU* AN 9FRA/RUCTURE CAN & D\BTLESS WILL S]VE O!R PURPOSES AS WELL4 ,ROADS BUILT TO TRANSPORT SOLDI]S WILL ALSO 5D UP C>RY+ *ICK5S TO M>KET & PEOPLE TO VISIT !IR AIL+ RELATIVES4 ,BUT1 IF IT WASN'T = ! SOLDI]S1 ! ROADS W\LD NEV] HAVE BE5 !RE1 & AT LEA/ 9 ,MADAGASC>1 PEOPLE SEEM$ P]FECTLY WELL AW>E ( ?AT4 

,MO/ ( ! PEOPLE :O WORK 9 A /ATE BUREAUCRACY--PRETTY MU* ANY /ATE BUREAUCRACY1 ANY:]E-->E1 ON A DAY TO DAY LEVEL1 MU* MORE CONC]N$ ) PROCESS+ 9=MATION ?AN ) BREAK+ PEOPLE'S SKULLS4 ,BUT ! SAME IS TRUE ( SOLDI]S & POLICE4 ,RA!R ?AN SEE ?IS FACT AS PRO( ?AT VIOL5CE PLAYS A M9OR ROLE 9 ! OP]ATION ( A /ATE1 IT MI<T BE BETT] TO ASK ONESELF H[ MU* !SE TE*NOLOGIES ( 9=MATION >E !MSELVES P>T ( ! APP>ATUS ( VIOL5CE1 ESS5TIAL ELEM5TS 9 5SUR+ ?AT SMALL H&FUL ( PEOPLE WILL+ & ABLE TO BREAK SKULLS WILL ALWAYS BE ABLE TO %[ UP AT ! RI<T PLACE AT ! RI<T TIME4 ,SURVEILLANCE1 AFT] ALL1 IS A TE*NIQUE ( W>1 & ,F\CAULT'S ,PANOPTICON WAS A PRISON1 ) >M$ GU>DS4 

,VIEW$ FROM ,MADAGASC>1 ! ESS5TIALLY VIOL5T NATURE ( ! /ATE IS MU* H>D] TO D5Y4 ,?IS WAS NOT ONLY BECAUSE ( ITS COLONIAL HI/ORY4 ,IT WAS ALSO BECAUSE MO/ ,MALAGASY--AT LEA/ ! ONES ,I KNEW--W]E ACCU/OM$ TO DIFF]5T /&>DS ( P]CEPTION4 ,! BE/ WAY TO PUT IT IS ?AT1 UNLIKE MO/ ,AM]ICANS1 !Y DID NOT SEE ANY?+ P>TICUL>LY %AMEFUL AB\T FE>4 ,?IS WAS ONE ( ! ?+S IT TOOK ME LONGE/ TO GET US$ TO !RE3 SEE+ GR[N M51 = 9/ANCE1 GAZ+ 9TO ! /REET & CASUALLY REM>K+ 0SC>Y C>S10 0,I'M SC>$ ( ?OSE OX540 ,= SOMEONE BR\<T UP AS ,I HAD BE5 IT WAS V]Y DISCONC]T+4 ,I MAY NOT COME FROM A P>TICUL>LY MA*O BACKGR\ND1 BY ,AM]ICAN /&>DS1 BUT ,I HAD BE5 BR\<T UP TO ASSUME CONFESSIONS ( FE>1 AT LEA/ FE> ( BE+ PHYSICALLY H>M$ BY O!RS1 W]E AT LEA/ A LITTLE BIT EMB>RASS+4 ,MO/ ,MALAGASY SEEM$ TO F9D ! SUBJECT PLEASANT & AMUS+2 !Y TOOK A V]ITABLE DELI<T 9 TELL+ ME H[ AFRAID SOME PEOPLE W]E ( ,VAZAHA1 SOMETIMES1 EV51 H[ MU* !Y !MSELVES W]E4 ,?AT GOV]NM5TS WORK L>GELY ?R\< 9SPIR+ FE> 9 !IR SUBJECTS WAS SIMPLY OBVI\S TO !M4 ,IT SEEMS TO ME ?AT1 9 SO F> AS ,WE/]N SOCIAL SCI5CE HAS A T5D5CY TO D[NPLAY ! IMPORTANCE ( CO]CION1 IT IS P>TLY BECAUSE ( A HIDD5 EMB>RASSM5T2 WE F9D IT %AMEFUL TO ADMIT ! DEGREE TO :I* \R [N DAILY LIVES >E FRAM$ BY ! FE> ( PHYSICAL =CE4.<#h#i.> 

,S*OOLS1 ANYWAY1 >E ULTIMATELY A P>T ( ?IS APP>ATUS ( VIOL5CE4 

,9 ,MALAGASY1 ONE DOES NOT SPEAK ( $UCATION AS CONVEY+ FACTS & 9=MATION SO MU* AS SKILLS3 ! WORD US$1 FAHAIZANA1 MEANS 0SKILLS1 KN[-H[1 PRACTICAL KN[L$GE40 ,! K9D ( FAHAIZANA ONE ACQUIRES AT S*OOL H[EV] WAS SE5 AS AN ESS5TIALLY =EIGN ONE1 A FAHAIZANA ,VAZAHA1 OPPOS$1 AS SU*1 TO ,MALAGASY =MS ( KN[-H[4 ,! TE*NIQUES TAU<T 9 S*OOL W]E SE5 AS1 ESS5TIALLY1 TE*NIQUES ( RULE4 ,9 P>T ?IS IS BECAUSE ! S*OOL SY/EM WAS ITSELF P>T ( ! 9FRA/RUCTURE ( VIOL5CE3 IT WAS DESIGN$ PRIM>ILY TO TRA9 FUNCTION>IES2 SECOND>ILY1 TE*NICIANS4 ,! /YLE ( TEA*+ WAS 5TIRELY AU?ORIT>IAN1 ) A HEAVY EMPHASIS ON ROTE MEMORIZATION1 & ! SKILLS ?AT W]E TAU<T W]E TAU<T ) ! EXPECTATION !Y W]E TO BE EMPLOY$ 9 (FICES1 WORK%OPS1 OR CLASSROOMS ORGANIZ$ >\ND C]TA9 =MS ( SOCIAL RELATION--:AT MI<T BE REF]R$ TO AS RELATIONS ( COMM&4 ,! ASSUMPTION WAS ALWAYS ?AT SOME PEOPLE W\LD BE GIV+ ORD]S1 O!RS W]E !RE TO OBEY4 ,9 O!R WORDS1 NOT ONLY WAS ?IS SY/EM DESIGN$ TO PRODUCE ! COMPET5CES REQUIR$ TO MA9TA9 AN 9FRA/RUCTURE ( VIOL5CE1 IT WAS PREMIS$ ON SOCIAL RELATIONS COMPLETELY UNLIKE ?OSE CURR5T 9 O!R ASPECTS ( DAILY LIFE1 ONES ?AT C\LD ONLY BE MA9TA9$ BY A CON/ANT ?REAT ( PHYSICAL H>M4 

,! AMBIVAL5CE T[>DS RESE>* & BOOK LE>N+1 !N1 WAS BAS$ ON A P]FECTLY S5SIBLE APPRECIATION ( ! SITUATION4 ,EV]YONE CONSID]$ KN[L$GE 9 ITSELF A VALUABLE1 EV5 A PLEASANT1 ?+4 ,EV]YONE RECOGNIZ$ ?AT ! SKILLS ONE LE>N$ 9 S*OOL OP5$ SPH]ES ( EXP]I5CE ?AT W\LD NOT O!RWISE BE AVAILABLE1 TO TYPES ( 9=MATION & NETWORKS ( COMMUNICATION ?AT SPANN$ ! GLOBE4 ,BUT !SE SKILLS W]E ALSO TE*NIQUES ( REPRESSION4 ,BY TRA9+ PEOPLE 9 C]TA9 ME?ODS ( ORGANIZATION & NOT O!RS 7H[ TO KEEP LI/S & 9V5TORIES1 H[ TO CONDUCT A MEET+44471 ! SY/EM 5SUR$ ?AT NO MATT] :AT !IR PURPOSES1 ANY L>GE-SCALE NETWORK !Y PUT TOGE!R CAPABLE ( COORD9AT+ ANY?+--:E!R IT BE AN HI/ORICAL PRES]VATION SOCIETY1 OR A REVOLUTION>Y P>TY--WILL ALMO/ 9EVITABLY 5D UP OP]AT+ SOME:AT LIKE A CO]CIVE BUREAUCRACY4 ,C]TA9LY1 ONE CAN1 & MANY DID1 TRY TO REWORK !SE DEVICES TO OP]ATE 9 A MORE CONS5SUAL1 DEMOCRATIC MANN]4 ,IT CAN BE DONE1 BUT IT IS EXTREMELY DIFFICULT2 & ! T5D5CY1 ! DRIFT1 IS = ANY SY/EM CREAT$ BY PEOPLE TRA9$ 9 !SE COMPET5CIES1 NO MATT] H[ REVOLUTION>Y !IR 9T5TIONS1 TO 5D UP LOOK+ AT LEA/ A LITTLE LIKE ! ,FR5* COLONIAL REGIME4 ,H>DLY SURPRIS+ !N ?AT MO/ PEOPLE WROTE !SE TE*NIQUES (F AS 9H]5TLY =EIGN1 & TRI$ AS MU* AS !Y C\LD TO ISOLATE !M FROM 0,MALAGASY0 CONTEXTS4 

,BUT1 AT ! SAME TIME1 !RE WAS ANO!R1 P]HAPS MORE SUBTLE EFFECT ( ! EXI/5CE ( !SE HI]>*ICAL 9/ITUTIONS4 ,!Y ALL[$ PEOPLE TO MAKE CLE> DI/9CTIONS BETWE5 EV]Y?+ ?AT WAS 0GASY0--,MALAGASY--& EV]Y?+ ?AT WAS CONSID]$ 0,VAZAHA10 ALI51 AU?ORIT>IAN1 REPRESSIVE1 ,FR5*4 ,!Y GU>ANTE$ ?AT EV]YONE HAD AT LEA/ SOME EXP]I5CE ( ! LATT]1 ?AT ZONE :]E ! /ATE WAS 0! ONLY COMPET5T AS WELL AS ! SOLE [N] ( SOCIAL CO]CIVE =CE03 EV5 IF IT WAS SIMPLY A MATT] ( BE+ =C$ TO /& 9 UNCOM=TABLE L9ES AS A *ILD1 JUMP AT ORD]S 9 GYM CLASS1 & DUTIFULLY COPY & MEMORIZE BOR+ & APP>5TLY PO9TLESS LESSONS4 ,! EXP]I5CE ( /ATE-LIKE DISCIPL9E BECAME A WAY ( CON/ANTLY REM9D+ ONESELF :AT WAS1 9 CONTRA/1 CONSID]$ 0,MALAGASY0--! HABITS ( CONS5SUS DECISION-MAK+1 = EXAMPLE1 ! RELUCTANCE TO GIVE ORD]S TO FELL[ ADULTS1 ! G5]AL SUSPICION ( ANY?+ ?AT SMACK$ ( CONFRONTATION OR EV5 *>ISMATIC LEAD]%IP 7COMP>E ,BLO* #a#i#g#a74 ,IT IS FAIRLY CLE> ?AT MANY ( !SE TRAITS HAD NOT ALWAYS BE5 CONSID]$ QU9TESS5TIALLY ,MALAGASY1 MU* ?\< ,I SUSPECT ?AT ,MALAGASY HAD1 FROM ! V]Y BEG9N+ ( !IR SETTLEM5T ( ! ISL&1 ALWAYS T5D$ TO DEF9E !MSELVES AGA9/ =EIGN]S ( SOME K9D OR ANO!R4.<#i.> ,9 ?IS WAY1 P>ADOXICALLY 5\<1 ! PROVISIONAL NATURE ( LOCAL AUTONOMY ACTUALLY BECOMES1 9 A S5SE1 SELF-SU/A9+4 ,WE ALL LIVE 9 A L>G] WORLD ( GROSS 9EQUALITIES ( WEAL? & P[]4 ,MALAGASY RICE F>M]S & BLACKSMI?S & SEAM/RESSES & VIDEO OP]ATORS W]E ALL WELL AW>E ( ?AT4 ,BUT PRECISELY ?R\< SU* CON/ANT REM9D]S1 PEOPLE MANAG$1 TO A L>GE DEGREE1 TO 9SULATE !MSELVES AS WELL4 

,A ,F9AL ,QUE/ION 

  

,I D\BT ?AT ! H9T]L& ( ,>IVONIMAMO IS AN ISOLAT$ CASE4 ,AS ,H5RY ,WRI<T HAD PO9T$ \T TO ME1 SIMIL> ?+S W]E HAPP5+ ALL OV] ,MADAGASC>3 9 FACT1 PROBABLY !Y HAD BE5 = MU* LONG] & 9 MORE PR(\ND WAYS 9 MANY O!R P>TS ( ! ISL&1 S9CE ,>IVONIMAMO WAS1 AFT] ALL1 ) ITS MILIT>Y AIRPORT & G5D>MES & PRISON1 AN H\R AWAY FROM ! CAPITAL1 ONE ( ! LA/ PLACES ONE W\LD EXPECT ! /ATE AU?ORITY TO DISAPPE>4 ,9 ,MADAGASC> ITSELF1 /ATE AU?ORITY APPE>S TO HAVE EBB$ & FL[$1 SOMETIMES ASS]T+ ITSELF1 SOMETIMES RETREAT+1 9 ! 9T]V5+ YE>S2 BUT 9 MU* ( ! C\NTRY--P>TICUL>LY >EAS ?AT1 LIKE ,>IVONIMAMO1 DO NOT CONTA9 VANILLA PLANTATIONS1 BAUXITE M9ES1 OR NATURE PRES]VES--! SITUATION HAS REMA9$ ESS5TIALLY UN*ANG$4 ,ONE WOND]S IF !RE MI<T NOT BE HUNDR$S1 EV5 ?\S&S1 ( SIMIL> COMMUNITIES 9 O!R P>TS ( ! WORLD--COMMUNITIES ?AT HAVE )DRAWN FROM OR DRIFT$ AWAY FROM ! EFFECTIVE CONTROL ( NATIONAL GOV]NM5TS & BECOME TO ALL 9T5TS & PURPOSES SELF-GOV]N+1 BUT :OSE MEMB]S >E /ILL P]=M+ ! EXT]NAL =M & TOK5S ( OBEISANCE 9 ORD] TO DISGUISE ?AT FACT4 

,IT IS A QUE/ION WE MI<T WELL POND] :5 READ+ ! CONTEMPOR>Y LIT]ATURE ON 0FAIL$ /ATES0 & P>TICUL>1 ! CRISIS ( /ATE AU?ORITY 9 ,AFRICA4 ,AS ,JAMES ,F]GUSON HAS REC5TLY NOT$ 7#b#f71 9 MANY P>TS ( ,AFRICA1 AB\T ! ONLY SIGNIFICANT MEAN+ ( 0/ATE SOV]EIGNTY0 LEFT IS 9T]NATIONAL RECOGNITION ( A GOV]NM5T'S LEGAL RI<T TO REPRES5T ITS CITIZ5S 9 9T]NATIONAL >5AS1 & P>TICUL>LY1 TO GU>ANTEE CONTRACTS CONC]N+ ACCESS TO RES\RCES )9 ITS T]RITORY1 = ?OSE FROM O!R /ATES4 ,FEW EV5 PRET5D TO MA9TA9 A MONOPOLY ( VIOL5CE 9 ! MANN] DESCRIB$ BY ,RUDOLPH VON ,IH]+ OR ,MAX ,WEB]4 ,! )DRAWAL ( RES\RCES1 ! AB&ONM5T ( ANY S5SE ?AT ! GOV]NM5T CAN OR W\LD EV5 WI% TO PROVIDE EQUALLY = ! BASIC NE$S ( ALL ITS CITIZ5S1 HAS HAD DEVA/AT+ EFFECTS ON HEAL?1 $UCATION1 & LIVELIHOOD4 ,BUT AT ! SAME TIME1 EV5 ,I,M,F-IMPOS$ AU/]ITY PLANS HAVE BE5 KN[N TO HAVE !IR CURI\S UN9T5D$ SIDE-EFFECTS4 

,IT IS1 9 FACT1 SOME?+ ( AN IRONY ?AT IT IS ONLY :5 0AN>*Y10 9 ! S5SE ( ! BREAKD[N ( /ATE P[]1 RESULTS 9 *AOS1 VIOL5CE1 & DE/RUCTION--AS 9 ! CASE ( SAY1 ,SOMALIA 9 ! #a#i#iS1 OR MANY P>TS ( S\!RN & C5TRAL ,AFRICA TODAY--?AT NON-,AFRICANS >E LIKELY TO HE> AB\T IT4 ,:AT ,I OBS]V$ 9 ,MADAGASC> SUGGE/S ?AT = EV]Y SU* CASE1 !RE MI<T WELL BE DOZ5S1 EV5 HUNDR$S ?AT \TSID]S SIMPLY DO NOT KN[ AB\T1 PRECISELY BECAUSE LOCAL PEOPLE MANAG$ TO MAKE ! TRANSITION PEACEFULLY4 ,LIKE ,MALAGASY VILLAG]S1 !Y AVOID$ CONFRONTATION1 5SUR$ ?AT /ATE REPRES5TATIVES NEV] HAD TO FEEL PUBLICLY HUMILIAT$ OR TO LOSE FACE1 BUT AT ! SAME TIME1 MADE IT AS DIFFICULT AS POSSIBLE = !M TO GOV]N1 & EASY AS POSSIBLE TO SIMPLY PLAY ALONG ) ! FACADE4 ,NEI!R IS ?IS /RATEGY1 OR ! EXI/5CE ( NEWLY AUTONOM\S COMMUNITIES1 LIKELY TO BE LIMIT$ TO ,AFRICA4 ,!RE >E MANY P>TS ( ! WORLD--9 S\!A/ ,ASIA1 ,OCEANIA1 MO/ NOTABLY1 BUT EV51 SAY1 P>TS ( ,LAT9 ,AM]ICA--:]E ! PRES5CE ( ! /ATE HAS ALWAYS BE5 A SOME:AT SPORADIC PH5OM5ON4 ,ITS VISITS HAVE1 P]HAPS1 ALWAYS BORNE LESS RESEMBLANCE TO ! =MS ( CON/ANT MONITOR+ & SURVEILLANCE WE >E FAMILI> ) 9 BO? TOTALIT>IAN /ATES OR 9DU/RIAL DEMOCRACIES1 & MORE ! OCCASIONAL1 IF (T5 DISA/R\S1 APPE>ANCE ( A V9DICTIVE ,MALAGASY GOD4 ,SO1 (T51 ) ! WORLD-SY/EM AS A :OLE4 ,SU* GODS CAN R>ELY BE ELIM9AT$ 5TIRELY1 ANY MORE ?AN ! MONSOONS OR E>?QUAKES ?AT !Y >E (T5 SE5 TO RESEMBLE4 ,BUT !IR VISITATIONS CAN BE R5D]$ EQUALLY OCCASIONAL4 

,( C\RSE1 ! 9/ITUTIONAL /RUCTURE DID REMA93 !RE W]E S*OOLS1 BANKS1 HOSPITALS4 ,!Y 5SUR$ ?AT ! 0/ATE =M01 AS ,M>IO ,TRONTI = 9/ANCE CALLS IT1 WAS ALWAYS PRES5T3 EV]YONE HAD SOME IDEA :AT IT WAS LIKE TO LIVE 9SIDE 9/ITUTIONS ?AT W]E PREMIS$ ON CO]CION1 EV5 IF = ! MO/ P>T !SE W]E <O/LY %AD[S ( REAL /ATE 9/ITUTIONS1 S9CE ! ACTUAL VIOL5CE HAD BE5 /RIPP$ AWAY4 ,OR P]HAPS ONE %\LD BE MORE PRECISE H]E4 ,! VIOL5CE WAS /ILL !RE4 ,IT HAD SIMPLY RETREAT$4 ,!RE W]E C]TA9LY /ILL POLICE 9 ! CITY1 OR ANY:]E :]E !RE WAS1 SAY1 A BAUXITE M9E1 OR O!R RES\RCE ?AT G5]AT$ SIGNIFICANT =EIGN EX*ANGE4 ,EV5 MORE1 ! GLOBAL ALLOCATION ( RES\RCES--:AT M$IC9ES & EQUIPM5T ACTUALLY APPE>$ 9 ! LOCAL HOSPITAL1 = EXAMPLE--WAS MA9TA9$ BY ! SY/EMATIC ?REAT ( VIOL5CE TO 5=CE PROP]TY >RANGEM5TS4 ,9 A PLACE LIKE ,>IVONIMAMO1 H[EV]1 ONE C\LD ONLY DEAL ) ITS DI/ANT EFFECTS1 & /RANGE1 HOLL[ 9/ITUTIONS ?AT L>GELY S]V$ TO REM9D LOCAL PEOPLE ( PRECISELY H[ !Y W]E NOT SUPPOS$ TO ORD9>ILY BEHAVE4 

,BIBLIOGRAPHY 

  
  

,AL?ABE1 ,G]>D 

#aifi ,OPPRESSION ET ,LIB]ATION DANS L',IMAG9AIRE3 LES COMMUNAUTES VILLAGEOISES DE LA COTE ORI5TALE DE ,MADAGASC>4 ,P>IS3 ,MASP]O4 

#b ,AN?ROPOLOGIE POLITIQUE D'UNE DECOLONIZATION4 ,P>IS3 ,L',H>MATTAN4 

,ALY1 ,JACQUES 

#aihd 0,LE ,DISC\RS ,RITUEL *EZ LES ,BETSIMIS>AKA DE LA ,COTE ,E/ DE ,MADAGASC>40 ,PRES5CE ,AFRICA9E #a#c#b3 #e#d-#f#a4 

,&RIAMANJATO1 ,RI*>D 

#aieg ,LE ,TS9Y ET LE ,TODY DANS LA P5SEE ,MALGA*E4 ,P>IS3 ,PRES5CE ,AFRICA9E4 

,BEY1 ,HAKIM 

#aiia ,T4,A4,Z3 ,! ,TEMPOR>Y ,AUTONOM\S ,ZONE1 ,ONTOLOGICAL ,AN>*Y1 ,POETIC ,T]RORISM4 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,AUTONOM$IA4 

,BLO*1 ,MAURICE 

#aiga 0,DECISION-MAK+ 9 ,C\NCILS ,AMONG ! ,M]9A0 ,9 ,C\NCILS 9 ACTION 7,AUDREY ,RI*>DS & ,ADAM ,KUP]1 $S474 ,CAMBRIDGE ,PAP]S 9 ,SOCIAL ,AN?ROPOLOGY4 ,CAMBRIDGE3 ,CAMBRIDGE ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

,DEZ1 ,JACQUES 

#aige 0,PREMI]E /RUCTURE D'5CADREM5T RURAL3 LE ,FOKONOLONA40 ,ASIE DU ,SUD ,E/ ET ,MONDE ,9SUL9DI5 #f3 #c#a-#f#i4 

,FEELEY-,H>NIK1 ,GILLIAN 

#aihb 0,! ,K+'S ,M5 9 ,MADAGASC>3 ,SLAV]Y1 ,CITIZ5%IP & ,SAKALAVA ,MON>*Y40 ,AFRICA #e#b3 #c#a-#e4 

#aihd 0,! ,POLITICAL ,ECONOMY ( ,DEA?3 ,COMMUNICATION & ,*ANGE 9 ,MALAGASY ,COLONIAL ,HI/ORY40 ,AM]ICAN ,E?NOLOGI/ #h3 #b#c#a-#b#e#d4 

#aiia ,A ,GRE5 ,E/ATE3 ,RE/OR+ ,9DEP5D5CE 9 ,MADAGASC>4 ,WA%+TON3 ,SMI?SONIAN 

,F]GUSON1 ,JAMES 

#bf ,GLOBAL ,%AD[S3 ,AFRICA 9 ! ,NEOLIB]AL ,WORLD ,ORD]4 ,DURHAM3 ,DUKE ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

,L>SON1 ,PI] 

#b ,HI/ORY & ,MEMORY 9 ! ,AGE ( ,5SLAVEM5T3 ,BECOM+ ,M]9A 9 ,HI<L& ,MADAGASC>1 #a#g#g-#a#h#b#b 7,SOCIAL ,HI/ORY ( ,AFRICA74 ,PORTSM\?3 ,HE9EMANN4 

,R5EL1 ,*>LES 

#aia ,CONTES DE ,MADAGASC> 7#c VOLUMES74 ,P>IS3 ,]NE/ ,L]\X4 

,TURN]1 ,/EPH51 & ,REGIS ,FACTOR 

#aiid ,MAX ,WEB]3 ,! ,LAWY] AS ,SOCIAL ,?9K]4 ,LONDON3 ,R\TL$GE4 

,WEB]1 ,MAX 

#aifh ,ECONOMY & ,SOCIETY3 ,AN ,\TL9E ( ,9T]PRETIVE ,SOCIOLOGY4 #b VOLS4 7,GU5!R ,RO? & ,CLAUS ,WITTI*1 $S42 ,EPHRAIM ,FIS*(F1 TRANS474 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,B$M9/] ,PRESS4 

,FROM 3 ,!,AN>*I/,LIBR>Y4ORG4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,JANU>Y #g1 #bba 3 ,P>T #b1 ,*APT] #e -- ,ADD$4 
,JANU>Y #a#g1 #bbb 3 ,P>T #b1 ,*APT] #e -- ,UPDAT$4 

 FILE G5]AT$ FROM 3  
HTTP3_/_/REVOLTLIB4COM_/