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,:Y ,I ,*OOSE ,OPTIMISM OV] ,DESPAIR 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,NOAM ,*OMSKY 

,TEXT 3 

,:Y ,I ,*OOSE ,OPTIMISM OV] ,DESPAIR 

  

,C4 ,J4 ,P,O,L,Y,*,R,O,N,I,\3 ,NOAM1 Y\R BOOK ,:AT ,K9D ( ,CREATURES ,>E ,WE8 7,COLUMBIA ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS1 #b#a#e7 BR+S TOGE!R Y\R 9VE/IGATION 9TO LANGUAGE & ! M9D & LONG-HELD VIEWS ( Y\RS ON SOCIETY & POLITICS4 ,LET ME />T BY ASK+ Y\ AS TO :E!R Y\ FEEL ?AT ! BIOL+UI/IC APPROA* TO LANGUAGE ?AT Y\ HAVE DEVELOP$ 9 ! C\RSE ( ! PA/ FIFTY YE>S OR SO IS /ILL OP5 TO FUR!R EXPLORATION &1 IF SO1 :AT SORT ( QUE/IONS REMA9 UNANSW]$ AB\T ! ACQUISITION ( LANGUAGE4 

,N,O,A,M ,*,O,M,S,K,Y3 ,NOT JU/ ME1 BY ANY MEANS4 ,QUITE A FEW PEOPLE4 ,ONE ( ! REAL PIONE]S WAS ! LATE ,]IC ,L5NEB]G1 A CLOSE FRI5D FROM ! E>LY #a#i#eS :5 !SE IDEAS W]E BREW+4 ,HIS BOOK ,BIOLOGICAL ,F\NDATIONS ( ,LANGUAGE IS AN 5DUR+ CLASSIC4 

,! PROGRAM IS V]Y MU* OP5 TO FUR!R EXPLORATION4 ,!RE >E UNANSW]$ QUE/IONS RI<T AT ! BORD]S ( 9QUIRY1 ! K9DS ?AT >E CRUCIAL = ADVANC+ :AT ,TOM ,KUHN CALL$ 0NORMAL SCI5CE40 ,& QUE/IONS ?AT LIE BEYOND >E TRADITIONAL & TANTALIZ+4 

,ONE TOPIC ?AT IS BEG9N+ TO BE OP5 TO S]I\S 9VE/IGATION IS ! REALIZATION ( ! CAPACITY = LANGUAGE & ITS USE 9 ! BRA94 ,?AT'S V]Y H>D TO /UDY4 ,SIMIL> QUE/IONS >E EXTREMELY DIFFICULT EV5 9 ! CASE ( 9SECTS1 & = HUMANS1 !Y >E 9COMP>ABLY H>D]1 NOT ONLY BECAUSE ( ! VA/LY GREAT] COMPLEXITY ( ! BRA94 ,WE KN[ A GOOD DEAL AB\T ! HUMAN VISUAL SY/EM1 BUT ?AT IS BECAUSE IT IS MU* ! SAME AS ! VISUAL SY/EMS ( CATS & MONKEYS1 & 7RI<TLY OR NOT7 WE P]MIT 9VASIVE EXP]IM5TATION ) !SE ANIMALS4 ,?AT IS IMPOSSIBLE = HUMANS BECAUSE ! HUMAN LANGUAGE CAPACITY IS SO ISOLAT$ BIOLOGICALLY4 ,!RE >E NO RELEVANT ANALOGS ELSE:]E 9 ! BIOLOGICAL WORLD--A FASC9AT+ TOPIC 9 ITSELF4 

,NEV]!LESS1 NEW NON9VASIVE TE*NOLOGIES >E BEG9N+ TO PROVIDE IMPORTANT EVID5CE1 :I* SOMETIMES EV5 IS BEG9N+ TO BE> ON OP5 QUE/IONS AB\T ! NATURE ( LANGUAGE 9 9T]E/+ WAYS4 ,!SE >E AMONG ! TOPICS AT ! BORD]S ( 9QUIRY1 ALONG ) A HUGE & *ALL5G+ MASS ( PROBLEMS AB\T ! PROP]TIES ( LANGUAGE & ! PR9CIPLES ?AT EXPLA9 !M4 ,LY+ F>1 F> BEYOND--MAYBE EV5 BEYOND HUMAN REA*-->E ! K9DS ( QUE/IONS ?AT ANIMAT$ TRADITIONAL ?\<T 7& WOND]7 AB\T ! NATURE ( LANGUAGE1 9CLUD+ SU* GREAT FIGURES AS ,GALILEO1 ,DESC>TES1 VON ,HUMBOLDT1 & O!RS3 PRIM>Y AMONG !M1 :AT HAS BE5 CALL$ 0! CREATIVE ASPECT ( LANGUAGE USE10 ! ABILITY ( EV]Y HUMAN TO CON/RUCT 9 ! M9D & COMPREH5D AN UNB\ND$ NUMB] ( NEW EXPRESSIONS EXPRESS+ !IR ?\<TS1 & TO USE !M 9 WAYS APPROPRIATE TO BUT NOT CAUS$ BY CIRCUM/ANCES1 A CRUCIAL DI/9CTION4 

,WE >E 09CIT$ & 9CL9$0 BUT NOT 0COMPELL$10 9 ,C>TESIAN T]M9OLOGY4 ,!SE >E NOT MATT]S RE/RICT$ TO LANGUAGE1 BY ANY MEANS4 ,! ISSUE IS PUT GRAPHICALLY BY TWO LEAD+ NEUROSCI5TI/S :O /UDY VOLUNT>Y MOTION1 ,EMILIO ,BIZZI & ,ROB]T ,AJEMIAN4 ,REVIEW+ ! CURR5T /ATE ( ! >T1 !Y OBS]VE ?AT WE >E BEG9N+ TO UND]/& SOME?+ AB\T ! PUPPET & ! /R+S1 BUT ! PUPPETE] REMA9S A TOTAL MY/]Y4 ,BECAUSE ( ITS C5TRALITY TO \R LIVES1 & ITS CRITICAL ROLE 9 CON/RUCT+1 EXPRESS+1 & 9T]PRET+ ?\<T1 ! NORMAL USE ( LANGUAGE ILLU/RATES !SE MY/]I\S CAPACITIES 9 A P>TICUL>LY DRAMATIC & COMPELL+ WAY4 ,?AT IS :Y NORMAL LANGUAGE USE1 = ,DESC>TES1 WAS A PRIM>Y DI/9CTION BETWE5 HUMANS & ANY ANIMAL OR MA*9E1 & A BASIS = HIS M9D-BODY DUALISM--:I*1 CONTR>Y TO :AT IS (T5 BELIEV$1 WAS A LEGITIMATE & S5SIBLE SCI5TIFIC HYPO!SIS 9 HIS DAY1 ) AN 9T]E/+ FATE4 

,:AT W\LD Y\ SAY IS ! PHILOSOPHICAL RELEVANCE ( LANGUAGE8 

,! COMM5TS ABOVE BEG9 TO DEAL ) ?AT QUE/ION4 ,IT HAS BE5 TRADITIONALLY RECOGNIZ$ ?AT HUMAN LANGUAGE IS A SPECIES PROP]TY1 COMMON TO HUMANS AP>T FROM SEV]E PA?OLOGY1 & UNIQUE TO HUMANS 9 ESS5TIALS4 ,ONE ( ,L5NEB]G'S CONTRIBUTIONS WAS TO BEG9 TO GR\ND ?IS RADICAL DISCONT9UITY 9 S\ND MOD]N BIOLOGY1 & ! CONCLUSION HAS ONLY BE5 /R5G!N$ BY SUBSEQU5T WORK 7A MATT] ?AT IS HOTLY CONTE/$1 BUT MI/AK5LY SO1 ,I BELIEVE74 ,FUR!RMORE1 WORK ?AT ,L5NEB]G ALSO 9ITIAT$ REVEALS ?AT ! HUMAN LANGUAGE CAPACITY APPE>S TO BE DISSOCIAT$ QUITE %>PLY FROM O!R COGNITIVE CAPACITIES4 ,IT IS1 FUR!RMORE1 NOT ONLY ! VEHICLE ( ?\<T1 BUT ALSO PROBABLY ! G5]ATIVE S\RCE ( SUB/ANTIAL P>TS ( \R ?9K+4 

,! CLOSE /UDY ( LANGUAGE ALSO PROVIDES MU* 9SI<T 9TO CLASSICAL PHILOSOPHICAL PROBLEMS AB\T ! NATURE ( CONCEPTS & !IR RELATION TO M9D-EXT]NAL 5TITIES1 A MATT] MU* MORE 9TRICATE ?AN (T5 ASSUM$4 ,& MORE G5]ALLY1 IT SUGGE/S WAYS TO 9VE/IGATE ! NATURE ( HUMAN KN[L$GE & JUDGM5T4 ,9 ANO!R DOMA91 IMPORTANT REC5T WORK BY ,JOHN ,MIKHAIL & O!RS HAS PROVID$ SUB/ANTIAL SUPPORT = SOME NEGLECT$ IDEAS ( ,JOHN ,RAWLS ON RELATIONS ( \R 9TUITIVE MORAL !ORIES TO LANGUAGE /RUCTURE4 ,& MU* MORE4 ,!RE IS GOOD REASON :Y /UDY ( LANGUAGE HAS ALWAYS BE5 A C5TRAL P>T ( PHILOSOPHICAL DISC\RSE & ANALYSIS1 & NEW DISCOV]IES & 9SI<TS1 ,I ?9K1 BE> DIRECTLY ON MANY ( ! TRADITIONAL CONC]NS4 

,! WELL-KN[N ,UNIV]SITY ,COLLEGE ,LONDON L+UI/ ,NEIL ,SMI? >GU$ 9 HIS BOOK ,*OMSKY3 ,IDEAS & ,IDEALS 7,CAMBRIDGE ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS1 #a#i#i#i7 ?AT Y\ PUT TO RE/ ! M9D-BODY PROBLEMATIC NOT BY %[+ ?AT WE HAVE A LIMIT$ UND]/&+ ( ! M9D BUT ?AT WE CANNOT DEF9E :AT ! BODY IS4 ,:AT CAN HE POSSIBLY MEAN BY ?IS8 

,I WASN'T ! P]SON :O PUT IT TO RE/4 ,F> FROM IT4 ,ISAAC ,NEWTON DID4 ,E>LY MOD]N SCI5CE1 FROM ,GALILEO & HIS CONTEMPOR>IES1 WAS BAS$ ON ! PR9CIPLE ?AT ! WORLD IS A MA*9E1 A MU* MORE COMPLEX V]SION ( ! REM>KABLE AUTOMATA !N BE+ CON/RUCT$ BY SKILL$ CRAFTSM51 :I* EXCIT$ ! SCI5TIFIC IMAG9ATION ( ! DAY1 MU* AS COMPUT]S & 9=MATION PROCESS+ DO TODAY4 ,! GREAT SCI5TI/S ( ! TIME1 9CLUD+ ,NEWTON1 ACCEPT$ ?IS 0ME*ANICAL PHILOSOPHY0 7MEAN+ ! SCI5CE ( ME*ANICS7 AS ! F\NDATION ( !IR 5T]PRISE4 ,DESC>TES BELIEV$ HE HAD PRETTY MU* E/ABLI%$ ! ME*ANICAL PHILOSOPHY1 9CLUD+ ALL ! PH5OM5A ( BODY1 ?\< HE RECOGNIZ$ ?AT SOME PH5OM5A LAY BEYOND ITS REA*1 9CLUD+1 CRUCIALLY1 ! 0CREATIVE ASPECT ( LANGUAGE USE0 DESCRIB$ ABOVE4 ,HE !RE=E1 PLAUSIBLY1 PO/ULAT$ A NEW PR9CIPLE--9 ! METAPHYSICS ( ! DAY1 A NEW SUB/ANCE1 RES COGITANS1 0?9K+ SUB/ANCE1 M9D40 ,HIS FOLL[]S DEVIS$ EXP]IM5TAL TE*NIQUES TO TRY TO DET]M9E :E!R O!R CREATURES HAD ?IS PROP]TY1 &1 LIKE ,DESC>TES1 W]E CONC]N$ TO DISCOV] H[ ! TWO SUB/ANCES 9T]ACT$4 

,NEWTON DEMOLI%$ ! PICTURE4 ,HE DEMON/RAT$ ?AT ! ,C>TESIAN ACC\NT ( BODY WAS 9CORRECT &1 FUR!RMORE1 ?AT !RE C\LD BE NO ME*ANICAL ACC\NT ( ! PHYSICAL WORLD3 ! WORLD IS NOT A MA*9E4 ,NEWTON REG>D$ ?IS CONCLUSION AS SO 0ABSURD0 ?AT NO ONE ( S\ND SCI5TIFIC UND]/&+ C\LD POSSIBLY 5T]TA9 IT--?\< IT WAS TRUE4 ,ACCORD+LY1 ,NEWTON DEMOLI%$ ! CONCEPT ( BODY 7MAT]IAL1 PHYSICAL1 & SO ON71 9 ! =M ?AT IT WAS !N UND]/OOD1 & !RE REALLY IS NO?+ TO REPLACE IT1 BEYOND 0:ATEV] WE MORE OR LESS UND]/&40 ,! ,C>TESIAN CONCEPT ( M9D REMA9$ UNAFFECT$4 ,IT HAS BECOME CONV5TIONAL TO SAY ?AT WE HAVE RID \RSELVES ( ! MY/ICISM ( 0! <O/ 9 ! MA*9E40 ,QUITE ! CONTR>Y3 ,NEWTON EXORCIZ$ ! MA*9E :ILE LEAV+ ! <O/ 9TACT1 A CONSEQU5CE UND]/OOD V]Y WELL BY ! GREAT PHILOSOPH]S ( ! P]IOD1 LIKE ,JOHN ,LOCKE4 

,LOCKE W5T ON TO SPECULATE 79 ! ACCEPT$ !OLOGICAL IDIOM7 ?AT JU/ AS ,GOD HAD ADD$ TO MATT] PROP]TIES ( ATTRACTION & REPULSION ?AT >E 9CONCEIVABLE TO US 7AS DEMON/RAT$ BY 0! JUDICI\S ,MR4 ,NEWTON071 SO HE MI<T HAVE 0SUP]ADD$0 TO MATT] ! CAPACITY ( ?\<T4 ,! SUGGE/ION 7KN[N AS 0,LOCKE'S SUGGE/ION0 9 ! HI/ORY ( PHILOSOPHY7 WAS PURSU$ EXT5SIVELY 9 ! EI<TE5? C5TURY1 P>TICUL>LY BY PHILOSOPH] & *EMI/ ,JOSEPH ,PRIE/LEY1 ADOPT$ BY ,D>W91 & R$ISCOV]$ 7APP>5TLY )\T AW>5ESS ( ! E>LI] ORIG9S7 9 CONTEMPOR>Y NEUROSCI5CE & PHILOSOPHY4 

,!RE IS MU* MORE TO SAY AB\T !SE MATT]S1 BUT ?AT1 9 ESS5CE1 IS :AT ,SMI? WAS REF]R+ TO4 ,NEWTON ELIM9AT$ ! M9D-BODY PROBLEM 9 ITS CLASSIC ,C>TESIAN =M 7IT IS NOT CLE> ?AT !RE IS ANY O!R COH]5T V]SION71 BY ELIM9AT+ BODY1 LEAV+ M9D 9TACT4 ,& 9 DO+ SO1 AS ,DAVID ,HUME CONCLUD$1 0,:ILE ,NEWTON SEEM$ TO DRAW ! VEIL FROM SOME ( ! MY/]IES ( NATURE1 HE %[$ AT ! SAME TIME ! IMP]FECTIONS ( ! ME*ANICAL PHILOSOPHY 444 & !REBY RE/OR$ .<NATURE'S.> ULTIMATE SECRETS TO ?AT OBSCURITY1 9 :I* !Y EV] DID & EV] WILL REMA940 

,:5 Y\ MADE Y\R BREAK?R\< 9TO ! /UDY ( L+UI/ICS1 ,B4 ,F4 ,SK9N]'S V]BAL BEHAVIOR APPROA* DOM9AT$ ! FIELD & WAS WIDELY EMPLOY$ 9 ! FIELD ( M>KET+ & PROMOTIONS4 ,Y\R CRITIQUE ( ,SK9N]'S APPROA* NOT ONLY OV]?REW ! PREVAIL+ P>ADIGM AT ! TIME BUT ALSO E/ABLI%$ A NEW APPROA* TO L+UI/ICS4 ,YET1 IT SEEMS ?AT BEHAVIORALISM /ILL DOM9ATES ! PUBLIC REALM :5 IT COMES TO M>KET+ & CONSUM] BEHAVIOR4 ,Y\R EXPLANATION = ?IS APP>5T ANT9OMY8 

,BEHAVIORAL ME?ODS 7?\< NOT EXACTLY ,SK9N]'S7 MAY WORK REASONABLY WELL 9 %AP+ & CONTROLL+ ?\<T & ATTITUDES1 H5CE SOME BEHAVIOR1 AT LEA/ AT ! SUP]FICIAL LEVEL ( M>KET+ & 9DUC+ CONSUM]ISM4 ,! NE$ TO CONTROL ?\<T IS A LEAD+ DOCTR9E ( ! HUGE ,P,R 9DU/RY1 :I* DEVELOP$ 9 ! FREE/ C\NTRIES 9 ! WORLD1 ,BRITA9 & ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES1 MOTIVAT$ BY ! RECOGNITION ?AT PEOPLE HAD WON TOO MANY RI<TS TO BE CONTROLL$ BY =CE1 SO IT WAS NECESS>Y TO TURN TO O!R MEANS3 :AT ONE ( ! F\ND]S ( ! 9DU/RY1 ,$W>D ,B]NAYS1 CALL$ 0! 5G9E]+ ( CONS5T40 

,9 HIS BOOK ,PROPAG&A1 A F\ND+ DOCUM5T ( ! 9DU/RY1 ,B]NAYS EXPLA9$ ?AT 5G9E]+ CONS5T & 0REGIM5TATION0 W]E NECESS>Y 9 DEMOCRATIC SOCIETIES SO AS TO 5SURE ?AT ! 09TELLIG5T M9ORITY0 WILL BE ABLE TO ACT 7( C\RSE1 = ! B5EFIT ( ALL7 )\T ! 9T]F]5CE ( ! ANNOY+ PUBLIC1 :O MU/ BE KEPT PASSIVE1 OB$I5T1 & DIV]T$2 PASSIONATE CONSUM]ISM IS ! OBVI\S DEVICE1 BAS$ ON 0CREAT+ WANTS0 BY V>I\S MEANS4 

,AS EXPLA9$ BY HIS CONTEMPOR>Y & FELL[ LIB]AL 9TELLECTUAL ,WALT] ,LIPPMANN1 ! LEAD+ PUBLIC 9TELLECTUAL ( ! DAY1 ! 0IGNORANT M$DLESOME \TSID]S0--! G5]AL PUBLIC--MU/ BE 0PUT 9 !IR PLACE0 AS 0SPECTATORS10 NOT 0P>TICIPANTS10 :ILE 0! RESPONSIBLE M50 MU/ BE PROTECT$ FROM 0! TRAMPL+ & ! RO> ( A BEWILD]$ H]D40 ,?IS IS AN ESS5TIAL PR9CIPLE ( PREVAIL+ DEMOCRATIC !ORY4 ,M>KET+ TO 5G9E] CONS5T BY CONTROL ( ?\<T1 ATTITUDES1 & BEHAVIOR IS A CRUCIAL LEV] TO A*IEVE !SE 5DS--& 79CID5TALLY7 TO KEEP PR(ITS FL[+4 

,MANY MA9TA9 ! VIEW ?AT1 AS HUMANS1 WE HAVE A PROP5SITY = AGGRESSION & VIOL5CE1 :I* 9 ACTUALITY EXPLA9S ! RISE ( OPPRESSIVE & REPRESSIVE 9/ITUTIONS ?AT HAVE DEF9$ MU* ( HUMAN CIVILIZATION ?R\<\T ! WORLD4 ,H[ DO Y\ RESPOND TO ?IS D>K VIEW ( HUMAN NATURE8 

,S9CE OPPRESSION & REPRESSION EXI/1 !Y >E REFLECTIONS ( HUMAN NATURE4 ,! SAME IS TRUE ( SYMPA?Y1 SOLID>ITY1 K9DNESS1 & CONC]N = O!RS--& = SOME GREAT FIGURES1 LIKE ,ADAM ,SMI?1 !SE W]E ! ESS5TIAL PROP]TIES ( HUMANS4 ,! TASK = SOCIAL POLICY IS TO DESIGN ! WAYS WE LIVE & ! 9/ITUTIONAL & CULTURAL /RUCTURE ( \R LIVES SO AS TO FAVOR ! B5IGN & TO SUPPRESS ! H>% & DE/RUCTIVE ASPECTS ( \R FUNDAM5TAL NATURE4 

,:ILE IT IS TRUE ?AT HUMANS >E SOCIAL BE+S & ?US \R BEHAVIOR DEP5DS ON ! SOCIAL & POLITICAL >RANGEM5TS 9 \R LIVES1 IS !RE SU* A ?+ AS A COMMON GOOD = ALL HUMAN BE+S ?AT GOES BEYOND BASIC ASPIRATIONS LIKE ! NE$ = FOOD1 %ELT]1 & PROTECTION FROM EXT]NAL ?REATS8 

,!SE >E :AT ,M>X ONCE CALL$ \R 0ANIMAL NE$S10 :I*1 HE HOP$1 W\LD BE PROVID$ BY REALIZATION ( COMMUNISM1 FREE+ US TO TURN PRODUCTIVELY TO \R 0HUMAN NE$S10 :I* F> TRANSC5D !SE 9 SIGNIFICANCE--?\< WE CANNOT =GET ,BRE*T'S ADMONITION3 0,FIR/1 FE$ ! FACE40 

,ALL 9 ALL1 H[ W\LD Y\ DEF9E HUMAN NATURE--OR1 ALT]NATIVELY1 :AT K9D ( CREATURES >E WE8 

,I OP5 ! BOOK BY SAY+ ?AT 0,I AM NOT DELUD$ 5\< TO ?9K ,I CAN PROVIDE A SATISFACTORY ANSW]0 TO ?IS QUE/ION--GO+ ON TO SAY ?AT 0IT SEEMS REASONABLE TO BELIEVE ?AT 9 SOME DOMA9S AT LEA/1 P>TICUL>LY ) REG>D TO \R COGNITIVE NATURE1 !RE >E 9SI<TS ( SOME 9T]E/ & SIGNIFICANCE1 SOME NEW1 & ?AT IT %\LD BE POSSIBLE TO CLE> AWAY SOME ( ! OB/ACLES ?AT HAMP] FUR!R 9QUIRY1 9CLUD+ SOME WIDELY ACCEPT$ DOCTR9ES ) F\NDATIONS ?AT >E MU* LESS /ABLE ?AN (T5 ASSUM$40 ,I HAV5'T BECOME LESS DELUD$ S9CE4 

,Y\ HAVE DEF9$ Y\R POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY AS LIB]T>IAN SOCIALISM_/AN>*ISM1 BUT REFUSE TO ACCEPT ! VIEW ?AT AN>*ISM AS A VISION ( SOCIAL ORD] FL[S NATURALLY FROM Y\R VIEWS ON LANGUAGE4 ,IS ! L9K !N PURELY CO9CID5TAL8 

,IT'S MORE ?AN CO9CID5TAL BUT MU* LESS ?AN D$UCTIVE4 ,AT A SUFFICI5T LEVEL ( AB/RACTION1 !RE IS A COMMON ELEM5T--:I* WAS SOMETIMES RECOGNIZ$1 OR AT LEA/ GLIMPS$1 9 ! ,5LI<T5M5T & ,ROMANTIC ]AS4 ,9 BO? DOMA9S1 WE CAN P]CEIVE1 OR AT LEA/ HOPE1 ?AT AT ! CORE ( HUMAN NATURE IS :AT ,BAKUN9 CALL$ 0AN 9/9CT = FRE$OM10 :I* REVEALS ITSELF BO? 9 ! CREATIVE ASPECT ( NORMAL LANGUAGE USE & 9 ! RECOGNITION ?AT NO =M ( DOM9ATION1 AU?ORITY1 HI]>*Y IS SELF-JU/IFY+3 EA* MU/ JU/IFY ITSELF1 & IF IT CANNOT1 :I* IS USUALLY ! CASE1 !N IT %\LD BE DISMANTL$ 9 FAVOR ( GREAT] FRE$OM & JU/ICE4 ,?AT SEEMS TO ME ! CORE IDEA ( AN>*ISM1 D]IV+ FROM ITS CLASSICAL LIB]AL ROOTS & DEEP] P]CEPTIONS--OR BELIEFS1 OR HOPES--AB\T ESS5TIAL HUMAN NATURE4 ,LIB]T>IAN SOCIALISM MOVES FUR!R TO BR+ 9 IDEAS AB\T SYMPA?Y1 SOLID>ITY1 MUTUAL AID1 ALSO ) ,5LI<T5M5T ROOTS & CONCEPTIONS ( HUMAN NATURE4 

,BO? ! AN>*I/ & ! ,M>XI/ VISIONS HAVE FAIL$ TO GA9 GR\ND 9 \R [N TIME1 & 9 FACT IT C\LD BE >GU$ ?AT ! PROSPECTS = ! HI/ORICAL OV]COM+ ( CAPITALISM APPE> TO HAVE BE5 BRI<T] 9 ! PA/ ?AN !Y DO TODAY4 ,IF Y\ DO AGREE ) ?IS ASSESSM5T1 :AT FACTORS CAN EXPLA9 ! FRU/RAT+ SETBACK = ! REALIZATION ( AN ALT]NATIVE SOCIAL ORD]1 ?AT IS1 ONE BEYOND CAPITALISM & EXPLOITATION8 

,PREVAIL+ SY/EMS >E P>TICUL> =MS ( /ATE CAPITALISM4 ,9 ! PA/ G5]ATION1 !SE HAVE BE5 DI/ORT$ BY NEOLIB]AL DOCTR9ES 9TO AN ASSAULT ON HUMAN DIGNITY & EV5 ! 0ANIMAL NE$S0 ( ORD9>Y HUMAN LIFE4 ,MORE OM9\SLY1 UNLESS REV]S$1 IMPLEM5TATION ( !SE DOCTR9ES WILL DE/ROY ! POSSIBILITY ( DEC5T HUMAN EXI/5CE1 & NOT 9 ! DI/ANT FUTURE4 ,BUT !RE IS NO REASON TO SUPPOSE ?AT !SE DANG]\S T5D5CIES >E GRAV5 9 /ONE4 ,!Y >E ! PRODUCT ( P>TICUL> CIRCUM/ANCES & SPECIFIC HUMAN DECISIONS ?AT HAVE BE5 WELL /UDI$ ELSE:]E & ?AT ,I CANNOT REVIEW H]E4 ,!SE CAN BE REV]S$1 & !RE IS AMPLE EVID5CE ( RESI/ANCE TO !M1 :I* CAN GR[1 & 9DE$ MU/ GR[ TO A P[]FUL =CE IF !RE IS TO BE HOPE = \R SPECIES & ! WORLD ?AT IT L>GELY RULES4 

,:ILE ECONOMIC 9EQUALITY1 LACK ( GR[? & NEW JOBS1 & DECL9+ /&>DS ( LIV+ HAVE BECOME KEY FEATURES ( CONTEMPOR>Y ADVANC$ SOCIETIES1 ! CLIMATE *ANGE *ALL5GE APPE>S TO POSE A REAL ?REAT TO ! PLANET ON ! :OLE4 ,>E Y\ OPTIMI/IC ?AT WE CAN F9D ! RI<T =MULA TO ADDRESS ECONOMIC PROBLEMS :ILE AV]T+ AN 5VIRONM5TAL CATA/ROPHE8 

,!RE >E TWO GRIM %AD[S ?AT LOOM OV] EV]Y?+ ?AT WE CONSID]3 5VIRONM5TAL CATA/ROPHE & NUCLE> W>1 ! LATT] ?REAT MU* UND]E/IMAT$1 9 MY VIEW4 ,9 ! CASE ( NUCLE> WEAPONS1 WE AT LEA/ KN[ ! ANSW]3 GET RID ( !M1 LIKE SMALLPOX1 ) ADEQUATE MEASURES1 :I* >E TE*NICALLY FEASIBLE1 TO 5SURE ?AT ?IS CURSE DOES NOT >ISE AGA94 ,9 ! CASE ( 5VIRONM5TAL CATA/ROPHE1 !RE /ILL APPE>S TO BE TIME TO AV]T ! WOR/ CONSEQU5CES1 BUT ?AT WILL REQUIRE MEASURES WELL BEYOND ?OSE BE+ UND]TAK5 N[1 & !RE >E S]I\S IMP$IM5TS TO OV]COME1 NOT LEA/ 9 ! MO/ P[]FUL /ATE 9 ! WORLD1 ! ONE P[] ) A CLAIM TO BE HEGEMONIC4 

,9 ! EXT5SIVE REPORT+ ( ! REC5T ,P>IS CONF]5CE ON ! CLIMATE1 ! MO/ IMPORTANT S5T5CES W]E ?OSE PO9T+ \T ?AT ! B9D+ TREATY ?AT NEGOTIATORS HOP$ TO A*IEVE WAS (F ! AG5DA1 BECAUSE IT W\LD BE 0DEAD ON >RIVAL0 :5 IT REA*$ ! ,REPUBLICAN-CONTROLL$ ,U,S ,CONGRESS4 ,IT IS A %OCK+ FACT ?AT EV]Y ,REPUBLICAN PRESID5TIAL CONT5D] IS EI!R AN \TRI<T CLIMATE D5I] OR A SKEPTIC :O OPPOSES GOV]NM5T ACTION4 ,CONGRESS CELEBRAT$ ! ,P>IS CONF]5CE BY CUTT+ BACK ,PRESID5T ,OBAMA'S LIMIT$ EF=TS TO AV]T DISA/]4 

,! ,REPUBLICAN MAJORITY 7) A M9ORITY ( ! POPUL> VOTE7 PR\DLY ANN\NC$ FUND+ CUTS = ! ,5VIRONM5TAL ,PROTECTION ,AG5CY 9 ORD] TO RE9 9 :AT ,H\SE ,APPROPRIATIONS ,COMMITTEE ,*AIRMAN ,HAL ,ROG]S CALL$ AN 0UNNECESS>Y1 JOB-KILL+ REGULATORY AG5DA0--OR1 9 PLA9 ,5GLI%1 ONE ( ! FEW BRAKES ON DE/RUCTION4 ,IT %\LD BE BORNE 9 M9D ?AT 9 CONTEMPOR>Y NEWSPEAK1 ! WORD 0JOBS0 IS A EUPHEMISM = ! UNPRON\NCEABLE SEV5-LETT] WORD 0PR---TS40 

,>E Y\ OV]ALL OPTIMI/IC AB\T ! FUTURE ( HUMANITY1 GIV5 ! K9D ( CREATURES WE >E8 

,WE HAVE TWO *OICES4 ,WE CAN BE PESSIMI/IC1 GIVE UP1 & HELP 5SURE ?AT ! WOR/ WILL HAPP54 ,OR WE CAN BE OPTIMI/IC1 GRASP ! OPPORTUNITIES ?AT SURELY EXI/1 & MAYBE HELP MAKE ! WORLD A BETT] PLACE4 ,NOT MU* ( A *OICE4 

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