,ON ,SOCIAL ,CURR5CIES & ,HUMAN ,ECONOMIES 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,DAVID ,GRAEB] 

,TEXT 3 

,AB/RACT3 ,9 ?IS ESSAY ,I PROPOSE A CATEGORY ( 'HUMAN ECONOMIES' TO REF] TO ?OSE :]E ! PRIM>Y FOCUS ( ECONOMIC LIFE IS ON RECONFIGUR+ RELATIONS BETWE5 PEOPLE1 RA!R ?AN ! ALLOCATION ( COMMODITIES4 ,CURR5CIES ?AT US$ TO BE LABEL$ 'PRIMITIVE MONEY'1 BUT :I* >E PRIM>ILY US$ TO EFFECT ?IS1 W\LD BETT] BE CALL$ 'SOCIAL CURR5CIES'4 ,!SE SOCIAL CURR5CIES >E (T5 SE5 AS 9ADEQUATE SUB/ITUTES = HUMAN BE+S1 NOT SO MU* WAYS ( DIS*>G+ DEBTS AS ( RECOGNIZ+ ! EXI/5CE ( A DEBT ?AT CANNOT BE PAID4 ,BY RECONSID]+ SOME CLASSIC AN?ROPOLOGICAL CASES 7! ,LELE1 ! ,TIV7 9 ! LI<T ( ! SLAVE TRADE1 WE MI<T CAT* A GLIMPSE ( ! VIOL5CE REQUIR$ TO TRANS=M SU* SOCIAL CURR5CIES 9TO COMM]CIAL CURR5CIES BY :I* DEBTS CAN BE 5TIRELY CANCEL$ \T4 

,KEY WORDS3 MONEY1 DEBT1 RECIPROCITY1 VIOL5CE1 ,AFRICA 

,9TRODUCTION 

,ONCE1 ! /UDY ( 'PRIMITIVE MONEY' - %ELL CURR5CIES1 FEA!R CURR5CIES1 WAMPUM1 ,FIJIAN :ALE TEE?1 ,TIV IRON B>S1 & SO =? - WAS ! /OCK & TRADE ( ECONOMIC AN?ROPOLOGY4 ,9 REC5T DECADES !RE'S BE5 ALMO/ NO?+ WRITT5 ON ! SUBJECT4 ,JAMES ,C>RI]'S O!RWISE COMPREH5SIVE ,H&BOOK ( ECONOMIC AN?ROPOLOGY 7#b#a7 NOT ONLY CONSID]S ! MATT] NOT WOR? A *APT]1 IT CONTA9S NOT A S+LE M5TION ( WAMPUM1 OR TRADE BEADS1 ANY:]E 9 ! BOOK4 ,WE DON'T EV5 KN[ :AT TO CALL SU* ITEMS ANY MORE4 ',PRIMITIVE CURR5CIES' OR 'PRIMITIVE VALUABLES' WILL OBVI\SLY NO LONG] DO2 ,FR5* ECONOMI/S :O PROPOSE TO RE-LABEL !M 'PALEO-MONEYS' 7,S]VET #a#i#h#a1 #a#i#h#b7 OR EV5 'SAVAGE MONEY' 7,ROSPABE' #a#i#i#e7 >E H>DLY BETT]4 ,AK9 & ,ROBB9S' 7#a#i#i#i7 DECISION1 :5 DEAL+ ) TRADITIONAL MONEY-=MS 9 ,MELANESIA1 TO USE ! T]M 'LOCAL CURR5CIES' 7AS OPPOS$ TO /ATE ONES71 :ILE AT LEA/ NOT OBVI\SLY (F5SIVE1 SEEMS AN OBVI\S A PLACE-HOLD]1 SOME?+ TO USE UNTIL A BETT] T]M COMES UP4 

,ONE REASON IT'S H>D TO COME UP ) BETT] T]M9OLOGY IS ?AT !RE'S NO CONS5SUS ON :AT1 IF ANY?+1 ACTUALLY MAKES A /R+ ( ,9DIAN ,OCEAN TRADE BEADS1 OR ,CALI=NIA WOODPECK] SCALPS1 DIFF]5T FROM A %EKEL OR A P\ND4 ,IS IT SOME?+ 9 ! NATURE ( ! OBJECT8 ,OR IS IT A MATT] ( ! K9D ( TRANSACTIONS 9 :I* IT IS US$8 ,OR IS IT ! CONCEPTUAL APP>ATUS1 ! COSMOLOGICAL ASSUMPTIONS1 ! NOTIONS ( VALUE1 SURR\ND+ IT8 ,OR1 ALT]NATELY1 >E WE JU/ LOOK+ AT A MEAN+LESS DEFAULT CATEGORY1 :]E ! T]M 'PRIMITIVE CURR5CIES' IS APPLI$ TO ANY WIDELY CIRCULAT+ VALUABLE ?AT IS NOT US$ PRIM>ILY = COMM]CIAL PURPOSES8 

,I W\LD LIKE TO PROPOSE A SOLUTION4 ,! KEY DI/9CTION H]E IS BETWE5 CURR5CIES ?AT >E US$ PRIM>ILY TO FUR!R ! EX*ANGE ( MAT]IAL GOODS1 & ?OSE PRIM>ILY US$ TO TRANS=M SOCIAL RELATION%IPS4 ,! FIR/ CAN BE REF]R$ TO AS COMM]CIAL CURR5CIES1 BECAUSE EV5 ?\< !Y MAY BE US$ = SOCIAL PURPOSES1 !IR PRIM>Y PURPOSE IS SE5 TO LIE 9 BUY+1 SELL+1 R5T+ OR O!RWISE DISPOS+ ( ALI5ABLE PROP]TY4 ,! SECOND %\LD BE/ BE REF]R$ TO AS 'SOCIAL CURR5CIES'4 ,!Y MAY ALSO BE US$ TO BUY & SELL MAT]IAL GOODS 7(T5 !Y >E1 BUT NOT ALWAYS71 BUT !IR PRIM>Y PURPOSE IS SE5 TO LIE 9 >RANG+ M>RIAGES1 RESOLV+ CONFLICTS1 CONSOL+ M\RN]S1 MAK+ TREATIES1 ASSEMBL+ FOLL[]S = MILIT>Y EXP$ITIONS OR COMPETITIVE FEA/S1 MAK+ GIFTS OR REW>D+ S]VICES4 ,= ?IS REASON1 ,I ALSO PROPOSE TO CALL ?OSE ECONOMIC SY/EMS 9 :I* SOCIAL CURR5CIES PR$OM9ATE 'HUMAN ECONOMIES'4 ,I MU/ EMPHASIZE 7MU* ?\< ,I REALLY %\LDN'T HAVE TO7 ?AT ?IS IS NOT BECAUSE !Y >E NECESS>ILY MORE HUMANE1 9 ! S5SE ( LESS BRUTAL1 MORE C>+1 ?AN IMP]SONAL M>KET ECONOMIES4 ,SOME C]TA9LY >E2 O!RS >E EXTRAORD9>ILY BRUTAL & DE/RUCTIVE4 ,:AT DI/+UI%ES HUMAN ECONOMIES IS M]ELY ?AT !Y RECOGNIZE ?AT ! *IEF BUS9ESS ( ANY SOCIAL SY/EM - OR1 9DE$1 ( ANY SY/EM ( ! PRODUCTION & DI/RIBUTION ( MAT]IAL GOODS - IS ! CREATION & MUTUAL FA%ION+ ( HUMAN BE+S4 ,9DE$1 ONE C\LD WELL >GUE ?AT IT'S ONLY ! EM]G5CE ( COMM]CIAL CURR5CIES ?AT MADE IT POSSIBLE TO IMAG9E AN 'ECONOMY' 9 ! S5SE WE >E US$ TO US+ IT TODAY AT ALL - ?AT IS1 AN AUTONOM\S DOMA9 ( HUMAN ACTIVITY PRIM>ILY CONC]N$ ) CREAT+ & ALLOCAT+ MAT]IAL POSSESSIONS1 & NOT PRIM>ILY AB\T ! CREATION ( PEOPLE & SOCIAL RELATIONS - LET ALONE1 SEE H[ PEOPLE BEHAVE )9 ?AT DOMA9 AS A MODEL = HUMAN AIMS & ASPIRATIONS MORE G5]ALLY4 ,HI/ORICALLY1 ! 5DLESS REPETITION ( ! 'MY? ( B>T]' HAS PLAY$ A KEY ROLE 9 MAK+ IT POSSIBLE TO IMAG9E ?AT SU* AN AUTONOM\S SPH]E ( ACTIVITY EXI/S1 &1 ( C\RSE1 ( CREAT+ ! 9/ITUTIONAL >RANGEM5TS ?AT C\LD MAKE IT POSSIBLE4 

,! MATT] ( DEBT 

,I BECAME 9T]E/$ 9 ! PROBLEM ( SOCIAL CURR5CIES :5 TRY+ TO SOLVE A LOGICAL CONUNDRUM HAV+ TO DO ) ! ORIG9S ( MONEY - ?AT IS1 MONEY 9 ! CURR5T1 PR$OM9ANT1 COMM]CIAL S5SE ( ! T]M4 ,AN?ROPOLOGI/S HAVE BE5 PO9T+ \T = AT LEA/ A C5TURY ?AT ! FAM\S /ORY AB\T ! ORIG9S ( MONEY FROM ! '9CONV5I5CIES ( B>T]' PROPOS$ BY ,ADAM ,SMI? 9 ,! WEAL? ( NATIONS 7#a#g#g#f71 & ?AT /ILL APPE>S REGUL>LY 9 ECONOMIC TEXTBOOKS1 IS A MY?4 ,C]TA9LY1 NO ECONOMY BAS$ ON B>T] ( ! ',I'LL GIVE Y\ TW5TY *ICK5S = ?AT C[' V>IETY HAS EV] BE5 F\ND4 ,YET AT ! SAME TIME1 IT'S NOT PRECISELY CLE> H[ A SOCIAL CURR5CY C\LD TRANS=M 9TO A COMM]CIAL ONE1 OR IF1 9DE$1 ?AT EV] HAPP5$4 

,! MATT] BECOMES EV5 MORE COMPLEX :5 ONE TAKES 9TO ACC\NT ?AT SU* HI/ORICAL EVID5CE WE DO HAVE AB\T E>LY COMM]CIAL CURR5CIES - = 9/ANCE1 FROM ,BRONZE ,AGE ,MESOPOTAMIA & ,EGYPT - 9DICATES ?AT MONEY WAS US$ MU* MORE AS AN AB/RACT UNIT ( ACC\NT TO SUPPORT CR$IT SY/EMS ?AN AS AN ACTUAL 'M$IUM ( EX*ANGE'4 ,9 O!R WORDS1 ! REAL QUE/ION SEEMS TO BE1 NOT H[ SOME K9D ( CURR5CY EM]G$ FROM ! DIFFICULTIES ( B>T]1 BUT RA!R1 H[ SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITIES FIR/ CAME TO BE QUANTIFIABLE1 ?AT IS TO BE 5UM]AT$ AS DEBTS1 & H[ ?AT SAME LOGIC C\LD !N BE EXT5D$ TO MAT]IAL GOODS4 ,S9CE AN?ROPOLOGI/S HAVE NOT BE5 ASK+ !SE K9D ( GR& HI/ORICAL QUE/IONS1 ! CLOSE/ WE HAVE TO A SUGGE/$ ANSW] D]IVES FROM A NUMISMATI/1 ,PHILIP ,GRI]SON 7#a#i#g#g71 :O PO9TS TO ! IMPORTANCE ( LEGAL CODES4 ,E>LY ,M$IEVAL ,WEL% LAW CODES1 = EXAMPLE1 LI/$ ! MONEY VALUE ( EV]Y OBJECT LIKELY TO BE F\ND 9 A TYPICAL H\SE1 FROM ! POTS TO ! RAFT]S1 DESPITE ! APP>5T ABS5CE ( M>KETS :]E ANY ( !SE ITEMS C\LD BE B\<T OR SOLD4 ,! REASON WAS ! NE$ TO PAY F9ES & P5ALTIES ?AT W]E D5OM9AT$ 9 CATTLE1 BUT 7S9CE NOT EV]YONE HAD CATTLE7 PAYABLE 9 ANY?+ ( VALUE ACCEPTABLE TO ! O!R SIDE4 ,?IS SITUATION SEEMS TO HAVE BE5 WIDESPREAD4 

,IT MAKES A LOT ( S5SE ?AT ! NE$ TO E/ABLI% PRECISE PROPORTION VALUES - & AT M9IMUM DEF9ITION ?IS IS ALL ?AT MONEY IS1 ! MEANS ( E/ABLI%+ SU* PROPORTIONAL VALUES CONCEPTUALLY1 :E!R IT EXI/S AS A PHYSICAL CURR5CY OR NOT - W\LD BE UNLIKELY TO >ISE FROM1 SAY1 GIFT EX*ANGE1 ) ITS EMPHASIS ON AT LEA/ ! PRET5SE ( OP5- H&$ G5]OSITY1 BUT W\LD BE NE$$ = LEGAL NEGOTIATIONS1 9T5D$ TO HEAD (F FEUDS1 :]E EA* P>TY W\LD BE M9IMALLY 9CL9$ TO COMPROMISE1 & PROBLEMS ( COMMUTATION W\LD FREQU5TLY COME UP4 ,! E?NOGRAPHIC RECORD PROVIDES A GOOD DEAL ( CONFIRMATION4 ,ONE REASON ?IS 'W]GELD !ORY' ( ! ORIG9S ( MONEY 7AS IT HAS COME TO BE KN[N7 HAS NOT BECOME BETT] E/ABLI%$ \TSIDE C]TA9 HET]ODOX ECONOMIC CIRCLES IS ?AT 9 ! H&S ( MO/ ( ?OSE :O HAVE TAK5 IT UP1 IT HAS BECOME 5TANGL$ 9 ANO!R BODY ( !ORY1 USUALLY REF]R$ TO AS 'PRIMORDIAL DEBT !ORY'1 :I* HE>K5S BACK NOT TO E?NOGRAPHIC EVID5CE BUT TO A C]TA9 TRADITION ( READ+ ,V$IC & ,HOM]IC LIT]ATURE4 ,?IS IS ONE ?AT ASSUMES MONEY ORIG9ATES 9 SACRIFICIAL RITUAL1 & ?AT ULTIMATELY TAXES >E A SECUL>IZATION ( ! EXI/5TIAL DEBT HUMANS >E FELT TO [E TO ! GODS 7,LAUM #a#i#b#d2 ,MALAM\D #a#i#h#h2 ,AGLIETTA & ,ORLE'AN #a#i#i#e2 ,!']T #a#i#i#e2 ,+HAM #b#d74 ,SY/EMS ( F9ES & P5ALTIES1 9 ?IS CONCEPTION1 BECOME SIMPLY ! MEANS BY :I* ?IS FUNDAM5TAL PRIOR 'DEBT TO SOCIETY' FIR/ BECOMES REFRACT$ 9TO SPECIFIC DEBTS TO 9DIVIDUALS4 ,! PROBLEM ( C\RSE IS ?AT SU* AN APPROA* IS QUITE IMPOSSIBLE TO SQU>E ) MO/ E?NOGRAPHIC CASES1 :]E SACRIFICIAL RITUAL - LET ALONE SACRIFICE FRAM$ 9 !SE P>TICUL> IDEOLOGICAL T]MS - (T5 DOES NOT APPE> AT ALL4 ,9 FACT ! :OLE SEEMS BETT] APPROA*$ AS AN ATTEMPT TO CREATE A C\NT]-MY? TO ! MY? ( B>T]1 BAS$ ON A ,DURKHEIMIAN NOTION ( SOCIETY AS ,GOD1 ?AN AS A G5U9E !ORY ( ! ORIG9S ( MONEY4 

,H[EV] DUBI\S AS AN ATTEMPT AT HI/ORICAL RECON/RUCTION1 ?IS LIT]ATURE DOES RAISE AT LEA/ ONE IMPORTANT1 & *ALL5G+1 PO9T4 ,SACRIFICE WAS R>ELY1 IF EV]1 CONCEIV$ AS A MATT] ( SETTL+ AN EXI/5TIAL DEBT TO ! GODS2 EV5 ?OSE :O DID SEE IT ?IS WAY SAW SACRIFICE1 RA!R1 AS AN ACKN[L$GM5T ( DEBTS ?AT C\LD NOT BE PAID4 ,& AS ,PHILIPPE ,ROSPABE' 7#a#i#i#e71 A ,FR5* ECONOMI/-TURN$-AN?ROPOLOGI/ WORK+ BROADLY )9 ?IS TRADITION1 HAS >GU$ QUITE CONV9C+LY1 ! SAME C\LD BE SAID ( MANY ( ! CLASSICAL USES ( SOCIAL CURR5CIES AS WELL4 ,PAYM5TS = HOMICIDE >E ! MO/ OBVI\S EXAMPLES4 ,9 ALMO/ EV]Y CASE1 GREAT EMPHASIS IS PLAC$ ON ! FACT ?AT ! F9E1 :E!R PAID 9 ,NU] CATTLE1 ,HAUD5SAUNEE WAMPUM1 OR SOME O!R SOCIAL CURR5CY1 IS 9 NO S5SE TO BE CONSID]$ AN EQUIVAL5T = ! VICTIM'S LIFE2 ONLY A LIFE CAN BE ! EQUIVAL5T = A LIFE & EV5 ?AT IS NOT REALLY ADEQUATE = ! LOSS ( A RELATIVE4 ,RA!R ! PAYM5T IS ITSELF A K9D ( SACRIFICE1 9 ! S5SE ( TOK5 ( S9C]ITY1 GIV+ SOME?+ UP TO DEMON/RATE A DESIRE TO MAKE AM5DS4 ,SUGGE/+ ! PAYM5T WAS 9 ANY WAY EQUIVAL5T TO ! LIFE W\LD BE CONSID]$ AN 9SULT1 & LIKELY TO PROVOKE FUR!R HO/ILITIES4 ,PRIMORDIAL DEBT !ORI/S T5D TO SIDE/EP ! :OLE QUE/ION ( M>RIAGE PAYM5TS1 BUT AS ,ROSPABE' NOTES1 A CASE C\LD WELL BE MADE !SE >E NOT TOO DIFF]5T3 S9CE ! #a#i#bS1 AN?ROPOLOGI/S HAVE EMPHASIZ$ ?AT PAY+ BRIDEWEAL? IS NOT BRIDEPRICE1 NOT A MATT] ( PUR*AS+ A WIFE1 & AS ,ROSPABE' HIMSELF OBS]V$1 ?OSE SOCIETIES ?AT DO PRACTICE SI/]-EX*ANGE1 SU* AS ! ,TIV1 >E EQUALLY 9CL9$ TO 9SI/ ?AT ONLY A WOMAN'S LIFE CAN BE CONSID]$ EQUIVAL5T TO ANO!R WOMAN'S LIFE1 SO ?AT PAYM5TS 9 COPP] B>S >E REALLY JU/ A PLACE-HOLD]1 A RECOGNITION ( SU* A DEBT1 UNTIL SOME FUTURE G5]ATION :]E A SI/] OR W>D CAN BE PROVID$ 7#a#i#i#e3 #a#c74 

,IF SO1 ! CONCEPTUAL QUE/ION DOES 9DE$ BECOME3 H[ DOES A TOK5 ( RECOGNITION ?AT ONE CANNOT PAY A DEBT TURN 9TO A =M ( PAYM5T BY :I* A DEBT CAN BE EXT+UI%$8 ,)\T SU* A CONCEPTUAL BREAK1 IT'S H>D TO SEE H[ A HUMAN ECONOMY C\LD EV] HAVE PRODUC$ A COMM]CIAL ECONOMY 9 ! FIR/ PLACE4 ,AL?\< ! HI/ORICAL ORIG9S ( COMM]CIAL ECONOMIES 9 ,WE/ ,ASIA1 ,9DIA OR ,*9A TOOK PLACE SO LONG BE=E ! APPE>ANCE ( WRITT5 RECORDS ?AT WE CAN NEV] REALLY MOVE BEYOND SPECULATION1 ,I DO ?9K ! E?NOGRAPHIC RECORD PROVIDES US SOME SUGGE/IVE ANALOGIES - ESS5TIALLY1 BY %[+ US :AT HAPP5S :5 HUMAN ECONOMIES >E ABRUPTLY 9CORPORAT$ 9TO L>G] COMM]CIAL ONES4 ,PROBABLY ! MO/ DRAMATIC EXAMPLE H]E IS ! ,WE/ ,AFRICAN SLAVE TRADE 9 ! #a#g?-#a#h? C5TURIES1 :I* HAPP5$ REC5TLY 5\< ?AT SOME ( ITS TRACES CAN /ILL BE OBS]V$ 9 COLONIAL E?NOGRAPHIES4 

,9 :AT FOLL[S ,I WILL RECONSID] TWO CLASSIC CASES ( #a#i#eS E?NOGRAPHY3 ! ,LELE ( ! ,REPUBLIC ( ,CONGO1 MADE FAM\S BY ! WORK ( ,M>Y ,D\GLAS1 & ! ,TIV1 KN[N BY ! WORK ( ,PAUL & ,LAURA ,BOHANNAN4 ,EA* IS KN[N = BO? !IR USE ( SOCIAL CURR5CIES 7,LELE RAFFIA & CAMWOOD1 ,TIV BRASS RODS7 & ELABORATE IDEOLOGIES ( DEBT4 ,YET ! DIFF]5CES >E EV5 MORE SIGNIFICANT1 & SEEM TO HAVE MU* TO DO ) !IR V]Y DIFF]5T HI/ORICAL SITUATION3 ! ,LELE APPE> TO HAVE BE5 L>GELY UNAFFECT$ BY ! SLAVE TRADE1 & ?US PROVIDE SOME?+ ( A GLIMPSE ( H[ E>LI] HUMAN ECONOMIES ON ! ,ATLANTIC SIDE ( C5TRAL ,AFRICA MI<T HAVE BE5 ORGANIZ$2 ! ,TIV W]E CLE>LY MAK+ /R5U\S EF=TS TO AVOID BE+ DRAWN 9TO ! TRADE ?AT 5GULF$ SO MANY ( !IR NEI<BORS4 ,:AT EM]GES MO/ ( ALL FROM !SE COMP>ISONS 7,LELE1 ,TIV1 ! ,CROSS ,RIV] SOCIETIES NEI<BOR+ ! ,TIV7 IS ?AT ! CONCEPTUAL BREAK 9 QUE/ION CAN ONLY BE A*IEV$ ?R\< EXTRAORD9>Y VIOL5CE4 

,LELE3 BLOOD DEBTS 

,! ,LELE W]E1 :5 ,M>Y ,D\GLAS C>RI$ \T H] 9ITIAL E?NOGRAPHY 9 ! #a#i#eS1 A RELATIVELY SMALL GR\P ( P]HAPS #a1 S\LS1 LIV+ ON A /RET* ( ROLL+ C\NTRY NE> ! ,KASAI ,RIV]4 ,LELE WOM5 GREW MAIZE & MANIOC2 ! M5 ?\<T ( !MSELVES ABOVE ALL ELSE AS 9TREPID HUNT]S1 AL?\< !Y SP5T MO/ ( !IR TIME WEAV+ & SEW+ TOGE!R CLO? FROM ! FIB]S ( ! LOCAL RAFFIA PALMS4 ,?IS RAFFIA CLO? WAS :AT ! >EA WAS REALLY KN[N =4 ,IT WAS NOT ONLY US$ = EV]Y SORT ( CLO?+1 BUT ALSO WIDELY EXPORT$4 ,9T]NALLY1 IT FUNCTION$ AS A SORT ( CURR5CY4 ,/ILL1 RAFFIA WAS NOT US$ 9 M>KETS 7!RE W]E NO M>KETS71 &1 AS ,D\GLAS DISCOV]$ TO H] GREAT 9CONV5I5CE1 )9 A VILLAGE1 IT C\LDN'T BE US$ TO ACQUIRE FOOD1 TOOLS1 TABLEW>E OR ALMO/ ANY O!R MAT]IAL GOOD4 ,RA!R1 IT WAS ! QU9TESS5TIAL SOCIAL CURR5CY4 

,9=MAL GIFTS ( RAFFIA CLO? SMOO? ALL SOCIAL RELATIONS3 HUSB& TO WIFE1 SON TO MO!R1 SON TO FA!R4 ,!Y RESOLVE OCCASIONS ( T5SION1 AS PEACE-(F]+S2 !Y MAKE P>T+ GIFTS1 OR CONVEY CONGRATULATIONS4 ,!RE >E ALSO =MAL GIFTS ( RAFFIA :I* >E NEGLECT$ ONLY AT RISK ( RUPTURE ( ! SOCIAL TIES 9VOLV$4 ,A MAN1 ON REA*+ ADUL?OOD1 %\LD GIVE #b CLO?S TO HIS FA!R4 ,O!RWISE HE W\LD BE A%AM$ TO ASK HIS FA!R'S HELP = RAIS+ HIS M>RIAGE DUES4 ,A MAN %\LD GIVE #b CLO?S TO HIS WIFE ON EA* DELIV]Y ( A *ILD444 7,D\GLAS #a#i#e#h3 #a#a#b2 ALSO #a#i#h#b3 #d#c7 

,CLO? WAS ALSO US$ = V>I\S F9ES1 FEES & TO REW>D CUR]S4 ,= 9/ANCE1 IF A MAN'S WIFE REPORT$ A W\LD-BE S$UC]1 IT WAS CU/OM>Y TO REW>D H] ) #b CLO?S = H] FIDELITY 7IT WAS NOT REQUIR$1 BUT NOT DO+ SO WAS CONSID]$ DECID$LY UNWISE72 IF AN ADULT]] WAS CAU<T1 HE WAS EXPECT$ TO PAY #e OR #a TO ! WOMAN'S HUSB&1 IF ! HUSB& & LOV] DI/URB$ ! PEACE ( ! VILLAGE BY FI<T+ BE=E ! MATT] WAS SETTL$1 EA* W\LD HAVE TO PAY TWO 9 COMP5SATION1 & SO =?4 

,RAFFIA T5D$ TO FL[ UPW>DS4 ,Y\NG PEOPLE W]E ALWAYS GIV+ LITTLE GIFTS ( CLO? AS A M>K ( RESPECT TO FA!RS1 MO!RS1 UNCLES & ! LIKE4 ,!SE GIFTS W]E HI]>*ICAL3 IT NEV] OCCURR$ TO ?OSE RECEIV+ !M ?AT !Y %\LD HAVE TO RECIPROCATE 9 ANY WAY4 ,AS A RESULT1 MALE ELD]S USUALLY HAD A BIT EXTRA LY+ >\ND1 & Y\NG M51 :O C\LD NEV] WEAVE QUITE 5\< TO MEET !IR NE$S1 W\LD HAVE TO TURN TO ELD]S :5 !Y HAD TO MAKE A MAJOR PAYM5T 7F9ES1 DOCTORS TO ASSI/ 9 *ILDBIR?1 FEES = A CULT SOCIETY74 ,!Y W]E ?US ALWAYS SLI<TLY BEHOLD5 TO !IR ELD]S4 ,/ILL1 MO/ ALSO HAD A RANGE ( FRI5DS OR K9 !Y C\LD TURN TO = HELP4 

,M>RIAGE WAS P>TICUL>LY EXP5SIVE1 S9CE ! NEGOTIATIONS USUALLY REQUIR$ SEV]AL B>S ( CAMWOOD4 ,IF RAFFIA CLO? WAS ! SMALL *ANGE ( SOCIAL LIFE1 CAMWOOD - A R>E IMPORT$ WOOD US$ = ! MANUFACTURE ( COSMETICS - WAS ! HI< D5OM9ATION CURR5CY4 ,A HUNDR$ RAFFIA CLO?S WAS EQUIVAL5T TO ?REE TO FIVE B>S4 ,FEW 9DIVIDUALS [N$ MU* CAMWOOD1 USUALLY JU/ LITTLE BITS TO GR9D UP = !IR [N USE4 ,MO/ WAS KEPT 9 EA* VILLAGE'S COLLECTIVE TREASURY4 ,/ILL1 ?IS WAS NOT BRIDEWEAL?4 ,! ,LELE W]E MATRIL9EAL2 M5 C\LD NOT USE EI!R CAMWOOD OR RAFFIA TO ACQUIRE RI<TS 9 WOM5 OR !IR RI<TS OV] *ILDR54 ,!SE C\LD ONLY BE ACQUIR$ ?R\< ! SY/EM ( :AT ,D\GLAS CALLS 'BLOOD-DEBTS'4 

,IT'S IMPORTANT TO UND]/& H[ ?IS SY/EM WORK$1 S9CE EV]Y?+ WAS ORGANIZ$ >\ND IT4 

,FIR/ ( ALL1 ,LELE ASSUM$ ?AT ALL DEA?S1 EXCEPT P]HAPS ( ! EXTREMELY OLD1 W]E CAUS$ BY SOME SORT ( HUMAN ACTION4 ,A CULPRIT HAD TO BE ID5TIFI$1 IF NECESS>Y BY DIV9ATION1 & ?AT CULPRIT WAS !N HELD BY ! VILLAGE TO [E A LIFE TO ! VICTIM'S CLOSE/ MALE K94 ,?IS LIFE-DEBT C\LD ONLY BE PAID BY TRANSF]R+ A Y\NG WOMAN FROM HIS FAMILY1 HIS SI/] OR H] DAU<T]1 TO BE ! VICTIM'S W>D1 OR 'PAWN'4 

,! /ATUS ( PAWN%IP WAS 9H]IT$ BY A WOMAN'S *ILDR51 :I* MEANT MO/ MALES W]E ALSO SOMEONE'S PAWN2 BUT NO ONE W\LD ACCEPT A MALE PAWN 9 PAYM5T ( BLOOD-DEBTS3 ! :OLE PO9T ( ! GAME WAS TO ACQUIRE AS MANY PAWNS AS POSSIBLE1 BY ACQUIR+ A Y\NG WOMAN1 :O W\LD !N GO ON TO PRODUCE ADDITIONAL PAWN *ILDR54 ,D\GLAS' ,LELE 9=MANTS EMPHASIZ$ ?AT ANY MAN W\LD NATURALLY WANT TO HAVE AS MANY ( !SE AS POSSIBLE3 

,EV]Y MAN IS ALWAYS AW>E ?AT AT ANY TIME HE IS LIABLE = A BLOOD-DEBT4 ,IF ANY WOMAN HE HAS S$UC$ CONFESSES HIS NAME 9 ! ?ROES ( *ILD-BIR?1 & SUBSEQU5TLY DIES1 OR IF H] *ILD DIES1 OR IF ANYONE HE HAS QU>REL$ ) DIES ( ILLNESS OR ACCID5T1 HE MAY BE HELD RESPONSIBLE 444 ,EV5 IF A WOMAN RUNS AWAY FROM H] HUSB&1 & FI<T+ BREAKS \T ON H] ACC\NT1 ! DEA?S WILL BE LAID AT H] DOOR1 & H] BRO!R OR MO!R'S BRO!R WILL HAVE TO PAY UP4 ,S9CE ONLY WOM5 >E ACCEPT$ AS BLOOD-COMP5SATION1 & S9CE COMP5SATION IS DEM&$ = ALL DEA?S1 ( M5 AS WELL AS ( WOM51 IT IS OBVI\S ?AT !RE CAN NEV] BE 5\< TO GO >\ND4 ,M5 FALL 9TO >RE>S 9 !IR PAWN%IP OBLIGATIONS1 & GIRLS US$ TO BE PL$G$ BE=E !IR BIR?1 EV5 BE=E !IR MO!RS W]E ( M>RIAGEABLE AGE4 7,D\GLAS #a#i#g#c3 #a#d#d-#e7 

,9 O!R WORDS1 ! :OLE >RANGEM5T TURN$ 9TO AN 5DLESSLY COMPLICAT$ *ESS GAME - ONE REASON1 ,D\GLAS REM>KS1 :Y ! T]M 'PAWN' SEEMS S+UL>LY APROPOS4 ,AS A RESULT JU/ AB\T ALL ADULT ,LELE MALES W]E BO? SOMEONE ELSE'S PAWN1 & 5GAG$ 9 A CON/ANT EF=T TO SECURE1 SWAP1 M>RY (F OR R$EEM O!R PAWNS4 ,EV]Y MAJOR DRAMA OR TRAG$Y ( VILLAGE LIFE W\LD ORD9>ILY LEAD TO A TRANSF] ( RI<TS 9 WOM54 ,ALMO/ ALL ( ?OSE WOM5 W\LD EV5TUALLY GET SWAPP$ AGA94 

,SEV]AL PO9TS NE$ TO BE EMPHASIZ$ H]E4 ,FIR/ ( ALL1 :AT W]E BE+ TRAD$ W]E1 QUITE SPECIFICALLY1 HUMAN LIVES4 ,D\GLAS CALLS !M 'BLOOD-DEBTS' BUT 'LIFE-DEBTS' W\LD BE MORE APPROPRIATE4 ,EV5 A MAN SAV$ FROM DR[N+1 :O ?US '[$ HIS LIFE' TO HIS RESCU]1 W\LD BE NORMALLY EXPECT$ TO TURN OV] HIS SI/] OR W>D AS A PAWN4 

,SECONDLY1 NO?+ C\LD SUB/ITUTE = A HUMAN LIFE3 NO AM\NT ( RAFFIA CLO?1 CAMWOOD B>S1 GOATS1 TRANSI/OR RADIOS OR ANY?+ ELSE C\LD EV] BE CONSID]$ EQUIVAL5T TO A HUMAN LIFE OR US$ TO ACQUIRE A PAWN4 

,F9ALLY1 9 PRACTICE1 'HUMAN LIFE' MEANT 'WOMAN'S LIFE' - OR EV5 MORE SPECIFICALLY1 'Y\NG WOMAN'S LIFE'4 ,O/5SIBLY ?IS WAS BECAUSE ONLY Y\NG WOM5 C\LD BECOME PREGNANT & BE> O!R PAWNS1 BUT EV5 ,M>Y ,D\GLAS1 :O WAS 9 NO S5SE A FEM9I/1 ADMITT$ ?AT ! :OLE >RANGEM5T DID SEEM TO OP]ATE AS IF IT W]E ONE GIGANTIC APP>ATUS = ASS]T+ MALE CONTROL OV] WOM54 ,?IS WAS TRUE ABOVE ALL BECAUSE WOM5 !MSELVES C\LD NOT [N PAWNS4 ,!Y C\LD ONLY BE PAWNS4 ,9 O!R WORDS3 :5 IT CAME TO LIFE-DEBTS1 ONLY M5 C\LD BE EI!R CR$ITORS OR DEBTORS4 ,Y\NG WOM5 W]E ?US ! CR$ITS & ! DEBITS - ! PIECES BE+ MOV$ >\ND ! *ESSBO>D - :ILE ! H&S ?AT MOV$ !M W]E 9V>IABLY MALE4 

,= A MAN1 BE+ A PAWN C\LD BE ADVANTAGE\S1 S9CE IT MEANT ONE EFFECTIVELY HAD TWO DIFF]5T FAMILIES TO TURN TO = HELP - ?AT ( ONE'S MO!R'S BRO!R1 & ?AT ( ONE'S 'LORD'4 ,= ?IS REASON1 ,D\GLAS' 9=MANTS 9SI/$ PAWN%IP HAD NO?+ 9 COMMON ) SLAV]Y4 ,SLAVES W]E W> CAPTIVES1 TYPICALLY NON-,LELE1 & AS A RESULT HAD NEI!R FAMILY NOR PATRON TO PROTECT !M4 

,MANY Y\NG WOM5 W]E BORN PAWNS1 ALREADY ASSIGN$ TO SOME MAN = EV5TUAL M>RIAGE - BUT ,D\GLAS 9SI/S !Y HAD PL5TY ( SPACE TO NEGOTIATE 7,D\GLAS #a#i#f#f3 #a#e74 ,!Y REGUL>LY TOOK LOV]S1 OR ?REAT5$ TO1 & 9 ADDITION1 A Y\NG ,LELE WOMAN HAD ONE UNIQUE & P[]FUL C>D TO PLAY3 EV]YONE KNEW ?AT IF %E FELT H] PREF]5CES W]E COMPLETELY IGNOR$1 = 9/ANCE1 IF %E WAS ASSIGN$ TO BE SOME OLD MAN'S ?IRD OR F\R? WIFE1 %E ALWAYS HAD ! OPTION ( FLEE+ TO A RIVAL COMMUNITY TO BECOME A 'VILLAGE-WIFE' 7,D\GLAS #a#i#e#a2 #a#i#f#c3 #a#b#h-#d74 

,D\GLAS EXPLA9S ?IS 9/ITUTION - :I* SEEMS PECULI> TO ! ,LELE - AS A WAY ( DEAL+ ) ! FACT ?AT OLD] M5 T5D$ TO MONOPOLIZE ! AVAILABLE POOL ( WIVES3 

,EV]YONE RECOGNIZ$ ?AT ! Y\NG UNM>RI$ M5 COVET$ ! WIVES ( !IR S5IORS4 ,9DE$1 ONE ( !IR PA/IMES WAS TO PLAN S$UCTIONS & ! MAN :O BOA/$ ( NONE WAS D]ID$4 ,S9CE ! OLD M5 WI%$ TO REMA9 POLYGYNI/S1 ) TWO OR ?REE WIVES1 & S9CE ADULT]IES W]E ?\<T TO DISRUPT ! PEACE ( ! VILLAGE1 ,LELE HAD TO MAKE SOME >RANGEM5T TO APPEASE !IR UNM>RI$ M54 ,!RE=E1 :5 A SUFFICI5T NUMB] ( !M REA*$ ! AGE ( EI<TE5 OR SO1 !Y W]E ALL[$ TO BUY ! RI<T TO A COMMON WIFE4 7,D\GLAS #a#i#f#c3 #g#f2 CF4 #a#i#e#a3 #a#a7 

,AFT] PAY+ AN APPROPRIATE FEE 9 RAFFIA CLO? TO ! VILLAGE TREASURY1 !Y W]E P]MITT$ TO BUILD A COLLECTIVE H\SE1 & !N !Y W]E EI!R ALLOTT$ A WIFE TO PUT 9 IT1 OR ALL[$ TO =M A P>TY ?AT W\LD TRY TO /EAL ONE FROM A RIVAL VILLAGE4 ,ALT]NATELY1 IF ONE %[$ UP AS A REFUGEE1 !Y W\LD ASK ! RE/ ( ! VILLAGE = ! RI<T TO ACCEPT H]3 ?IS WAS 9V>IABLY GRANT$4 ,?IS COMMON WIFE IS :AT'S REF]R$ TO AS A 'VILLAGE WIFE'4 ,! POSITION ( VILLAGE WIFE WAS P]FECTLY RESPECTABLE4 ,9 FACT1 A NEWLY M>RI$ VILLAGE WIFE WAS TREAT$ V]Y MU* LIKE A PR9CESS4.<#a.> ,%E WAS NOT EXPECT$ TO PLANT OR WE$1 FET* WOOD OR WAT]1 OR EV5 TO COOK2 ALL ! H\SEHOLD *ORES W]E DONE = H] BY H] EAG] Y\NG HUSB&S1 :O SP5T MU* ( !IR TIME HUNT+ 9 ! =E/1 VY+ TO BR+ H] ! *OICE/ DELICACIES1 OR PLY+ H] ) PALM W9E4 ,A NEW VILLAGE WIFE C\LD HELP H]SELF TO O!RS' POSSESSIONS1 APPROPRIATE !IR RAFFIA2 %E WAS EXPECT$ TO MAKE ALL SORTS ( MIS*IEF1 TO ! BEMUS$ 9DULG5CE ( ALL CONC]N$4 ,%E WAS ALSO EXPECT$ TO MAKE H]SELF SEXUALLY AVAILABLE TO ALL MEMB]S ( ! AGE-SET - P]HAPS T5 OR TWELVE DIFF]5T M5 - AT FIR/1 PRETTY MU* :5EV] !Y WANT$ H]4 

,OV] TIME1 A VILLAGE WIFE W\LD NORMALLY SETTLE D[N ) JU/ ?REE OR F\R ( H] HUSB&S1 & F9ALLY1 JU/ ONE4 ,/ILL1 TE*NICALLY1 %E WAS M>RI$ TO ! VILLAGE AS A :OLE4 ,IF %E HAD *ILDR51 ! VILLAGE WAS1 COLLECTIVELY1 !IR FA!R1 & AS SU* EXPECT$ TO BR+ !M UP1 PROVIDE !M ) RES\RCES1 & EV5TUALLY1 TO GET !M PROP]LY M>RI$ (F4 

,?IS IS IMPORTANT BECAUSE IT HAD ! EFFECT ( 5SUR+ ?AT VILLAGES1 AT LEA/ 9 ?AT ONE LIMIT$ CAPACITY1 BECAME CORPORATE 5TITIES1 FICTIVE P]SONS 9 MU* ! SAME WAY AS CONTEMPOR>Y CORPORATIONS ?AT C\LD [N PROP]TY & 5T] 9TO CONTRACTS AS IF !Y W]E 9DIVIDUAL HUMAN BE+S4 ,?AT'S :Y VILLAGES HAD COLLECTIVE TREASURIES FULL ( RAFFIA & CAMWOOD B>S 9 ! FIR/ PLACE4 ,BUT AS A RESULT1 ! RESPONSIBILITIES ( A VILLAGE1 AS FICTIVE P]SON1 HAD A T5D5CY TO EXP&4 ,AT ANY TIME A GIV5 VILLAGE WAS LIKELY TO HAVE SEV]AL VILLAGE-WIVES4 ,?IS USUALLY MEANT ?AT OV] TIME IT W\LD ACCUMULATE A FAIR NUMB] ( *ILDR5 & GR&*ILDR54 ,AS A RESULT1 VILLAGES C\LD - & G5]ALLY DID - ALSO 5D UP HOLD+ PAWNS1 DEM&+ OR PAY+ BLOOD-DEBTS1 & O!RWISE1 ACT LIKE EXTREMELY P[]FUL PATRONS1 OR 'LORDS'4 

,/ILL1 VILLAGES W]E NOT REALLY 9DIVIDUALS4 ,!Y W]E MADE UP ( L>GE NUMB]S ( 9DIVIDUALS1 SOME ( :OM C\LD B& TOGE!R & MAKE W>4 ,?IS ADD$ ANO!R ELEM5T1 :I* 9 A WAY TRANS=M$ EV]Y?+4 ,VILLAGES C\LD MAKE CLAIMS TO PAWNS1 OR DEBTS1 MU* LIKE ANY 9DIVIDUAL2 BUT UNLIKE 9DIVIDUALS1 !Y W]E ALSO ABLE TO BACK UP ?OSE CLAIMS ) ! IMPLICIT ?REAT ( =CE4 

,?IS LATT] DES]VES EMPHASIS BECAUSE :5 ORD9>Y 'LORDS' MADE CLAIMS ON !IR CLI5TS1 !Y MO/ C]TA9LY C\LD NOT4 ,M5 AS PATRONS OR HUSB&S C\LD SOMETIMES PUT A GREAT DEAL ( PHYSICAL PRESSURE ON WOM51 ?REAT5+ !M ) BEAT+S IF !Y D5I$ SEX TO !IR HUSB&S1 = EXAMPLE1 BUT !Y REALLY C\LD NOT USE PHYSICAL COMPULSION ON O!R M54 ,!RE WAS AN ALMO/ COMPLETE LACK ( ANY SY/EMATIC MEANS ( CO]CION 7,D\GLAS EMPHASIZES ?IS FREQU5TLY3 #a#i#f3 #d2 #a#i#f#c3 #a#d#e-#f1 #a#f#h-#g#c2 #a#i#f#d3 #c#c74 ,?IS WAS ! MA9 REASON1 %E ADDS1 ?AT PAWN%IP WAS SO 9NOCU\S4 ,)\T AN APP>ATUS ( CO]CION1 NO ONE WAS 9 A POSITION TO COMPLETELY IGNORE ANO!R'S FEEL+S4 ,:AT'S MORE1 9 EV]YDAY AFFAIRS1 ,LELE PUT GREAT /OCK ON G5TLE & AGREEABLE BEHAVIOR 7#a#i#f#c3 #g-#a74 ,M5 MI<T HAVE BE5 REGUL>LY SEIZ$ ) URGES TO ?R[ !MSELVES AT EA* O!R 9 FITS ( JEAL\S RAGE 7(T5 !Y HAD GOOD REASON TO71 BUT !Y V]Y R>ELY DID4 ,& IF A FI<T DID BREAK \T1 IT WAS CONSID]$ ! RESPONSIBILITY ( EV]YONE NE>BY TO IMM$IATELY BREAK IT UP1 & SUBMIT ! AFFAIR TO PUBLIC M$IATION4 

,BETWE5 VILLAGES IT WAS COMPLETELY DIFF]5T4 ,VILLAGES W]E =TIFI$1 & AGE-SETS C\LD BE MOBILIZ$ TO ACT AS MILIT>Y UNITS4 ,H]E1 & ONLY H]E1 DID ORGANIZ$ VIOL5CE 5T] ! PICTURE4 ,TRUE1 :5 VILLAGES F\<T1 TOO1 IT WAS ALWAYS OV] WOM54 7,ALL ,LELE ,D\GLAS TALK$ TO EXPRESS$ 9CR$ULITY AT ! V]Y IDEA ?AT GR[N M51 ANY:]E1 C\LD EV] COME TO BL[S OV] ANY?+ ELSE47 ,BUT 9 ! CASE ( VILLAGES1 IT C\LD COME TO AN ACTUAL W>4 ,IF ANO!R VILLAGE'S ELD]S IGNOR$ ONE'S CLAIMS TO A PAWN1 ONE'S Y\NG M5 MI<T ORGANIZE A RAID+ P>TY & KIDNAP H]1 OR C>RY (F SOME O!R LIKELY Y\NG WOM5 TO BE !IR COLLECTIVE WIVES4 ,?IS MI<T LEAD TO DEA?S1 & FUR!R CLAIMS = COMP5SATION4 ',S9CE IT HAD ! BACK+ ( =CE1' ,D\GLAS OBS]VES DRYLY1 '! VILLAGE C\LD AF=D TO BE LESS CONCILIATORY T[>DS ! WI%ES ( ITS PAWNS & TO ACT MORE >BITR>ILY' 7#a#i#f#c3 #a#g74 

,IT'S AT EXACTLY ?IS PO9T1 TOO1 :]E ! POT5TIAL = VIOL5CE 5T]S 9 ! PICTURE1 ?AT ! GREAT WALL CON/RUCT$ BETWE5 ! VALUE ( LIVES & MONEY CAN SUDD5LY COME TOPPL+ D[N4 

,SOMETIMES :5 TWO CLANS W]E DISPUT+ A CLAIM TO BLOOD COMP5SATION1 ! CLAIMANT MI<T SEE NO HOPE ( GETT+ SATISFACTION FROM HIS OPPON5TS4 ,! POLITICAL SY/EM (F]$ NO DIRECT MEANS = ONE MAN 7OR CLAN7 TO USE PHYSICAL CO]CION OR TO RESORT TO SUP]IOR AU?ORITY TO 5=CE CLAIMS AGA9/ ANO!R4 ,9 SU* A CASE1 RA!R ?AN AB&ON HIS CLAIM TO A PAWN-WOMAN1 HE W\LD BE READY TO TAKE ! EQUIVAL5T 9 WEAL?1 IF HE C\LD GET IT4 ,! USUAL PROC$URE WAS TO SELL HIS CASE AGA9/ ! DEF5DANTS TO ! ONLY GR\P CAPABLE ( EXTORT+ A PAWN BY =CE1 ?AT IS1 TO A VILLAGE4 

,! MAN :O MEANT TO SELL HIS CASE TO A VILLAGE ASK$ !M = #a RAFFIA CLO?S OR FIVE B>S ( CAMWOOD4 ,! VILLAGE RAIS$ ! AM\NT1 EI!R FROM ITS TREASURY1 OR BY A LOAN FROM ONE ( ITS MEMB]S1 & !REBY ADOPT$ AS ITS [N HIS CLAIM TO A PAWN4 7#a#i#f#c3 #a#g#a7 

,ONCE HE HELD ! MONEY1 HIS CLAIM WAS OV]1 & ! VILLAGE1 :I* HAD N[ B\<T IT1 W\LD PROCE$ TO ORGANIZE A RAID TO SEIZE ! WOMAN 9 DISPUTE4 

,9 O!R WORDS1 IT WAS ONLY :5 VIOL5CE WAS BR\<T 9TO ! EQUATION ?AT !RE WAS ANY QUE/ION ( BUY+ & SELL+ HUMAN BE+S4 ,! ABILITY TO DEPLOY =CE1 H5CE TO CUT ?R\< ! 5DLESS MAZE ( PREF]5CES1 OBLIGATIONS1 EXPECTATIONS & RESPONSIBILITIES ?AT M>K ORD9>Y HUMAN RELATION%IPS & ALL HAVE TO BE TAK5 SO PA9/AK+LY 9TO CONSID]ATION :5 NEGOTIAT+ AN ORD9>Y M>RIAGE OR EX*ANGE ( PAWNS1 ALSO MADE IT POSSIBLE TO OV]COME :AT IS O!RWISE ! FIR/ RULE ( ALL ECONOMIC RELATION%IPS3 ?AT HUMAN LIVES CAN ONLY BE EX*ANG$ = O!R HUMAN LIVES4 ,SIGNIFICANTLY1 ! AM\NT PAID - A HUNDR$ CLO?S1 OR EQUIVAL5T AM\NT ( CAMWOOD - WAS ALSO ! PRICE ( A SLAVE 7#a#i#f#c3 #c#f1 #a#i#h#b3 #d#f-#g74 ,SLAVES W]E1 AS ,I M5TION$1 W> CAPTIVES4 ,!RE NEV] SEEM TO HAVE BE5 V]Y MANY ( !M2 MO/ DID NOT LIVE LONG1S9CE MO/ W]E DE /9$ = SACRIFICE AT SOME IMPORTANT MAN'S FUN]AL 7#a#i#f#c3 #c#f74 ,/ILL1 ! M]E FACT ( !IR EXI/5CE E/ABLI%$ ?AT LIFE C\LD HAVE A PRICE4 ,BUT IF OBJECTS ( WEAL? C\LD BE TRANS=M$ 9TO PEOPLE1 IT WAS ONLY ?R\< ! M$IATION ( VIOL5CE4 

,TIV3 FLE%-DEBTS 

,LELE CURR5CIES W]E QU9TESS5TIAL SOCIAL CURR5CIES1 US$ TO M>K EV]Y VISIT1 EV]Y PROMISE1 EV]Y IMPORTANT MOM5T 9 A MAN OR WOMAN'S LIFE4 ,IT IS SURELY SIGNIFICANT1 TOO1 ?AT RAFFIA CLO? WAS1 9 ,D\GLAS' DAY1 ! PRIM>Y =M ( HUMAN CLO?+1 = BO? M5 & WOM52 & ?AT ! R$ PA/E MADE FROM CAMWOOD B>S WAS ! MA9 SUB/ANCE US$ AS MAKE-UP1 BY BO? M5 & WOM51 TO BEAUTIFY !MSELVES EA* DAY4 ,MONEY-/UFFS W]E ALSO ! MAT]IALS US$ TO %APE PEOPLE'S PHYSICAL APPE>ANCE1 TO MAKE !M APPE> MATURE1 DEC5T1 ATTRACTIVE1 DIGNIFI$ TO !IR FELL[S2 TO TURN A M]E NAK$ BODY 9TO A PROP] SOCIAL BE+4 

,?IS IS BY NO MEANS UNUSUAL4 ,9 HUMAN ECONOMIES1 MONEY TYPICALLY CONSI/S ( OBJECTS O!RWISE US$ PRIM>ILY AS ADORNM5T TO ! P]SON4 ,!RE >E EXCEPTIONS1 ( C\RSE1 LIKE CATTLE4 ,BUT ORD9>ILY SOCIAL CURR5CIES TAKE ! =M ( BEADS1 %ELLS1 FEA!RS1 DOG OR :ALE TEE?1 GOLD & SILV] RA!R ?AN B>LEY1 TOBACCO OR SALT 7SEE ,GRAEB] #b#a74 ,EV5 ! FAM\S 'BRASS RODS' US$ BY ! ,TIV W]E US$ MA9LY AS RAW MAT]IAL = ! MANUFACTURE ( JEWELRY1 OR JU/ TWI/$ 9TO HOOPS & WORN AT DANCES4 ,BUT IS ?IS NOT USE ( OBJECTS ?AT CREATE ! EXT]IOR1 SOCIAL ASPECT ( ! P]SON 5TIRELY APPROPRIATE = A CURR5CY SE5 AS 9 SOME S5SE ! EQUIVAL5T ( A HUMAN BE+1 BUT AT ! SAME TIME1 9 ! MO/ IMPORTANT WAYS1 AS ALWAYS FALL+ %ORT8 

,ALL ?IS WAS QUITE EXPLICIT 9 ! CASE ( ! ,TIV4 

,! ,TIV >E AN ACEPHAL\S SOCIETY FROM ! ,B5UE ,RIV] REGION ( C5TRAL ,NIG]IA1 MO/ FAM\S 9 ! AN?ROPOLOGICAL LIT]ATURE = MA9TA9+ :AT ,PAUL ,BOHANNAN FAM\SLY DESCRIB$ AS ?REE SEP>ATE 'SPH]ES ( EX*ANGE' 7#a#i#e#e1 #a#i#e#i1 CF4 ,DORW>D #a#i#g#f2 ,GUY] #b#d3 #b#g-#c#a4 ,:5 !Y DID !IR RESE>* 9 ! #a#i#eS1 ORD9>Y1 EV]YDAY ECONOMIC ACTIVITY WAS MO/LY ! AFFAIR ( WOM51 :O DOM9AT$ LOCAL M>KETPLACES :]E OKRA1 %OVELS1 S&ALS & ! LIKE C\LD BE B\<T & SOLD US+ COLONIAL CURR5CY4 ,?IS REPRES5T$ ! FIR/ SPH]E4 ,M5 CONC]N$ !MSELVES ) :AT !Y CONSID]$ HI<] TRANSACTIONS ( ! SORT ?AT C\LD BE CONDUCT$ US+ ! TRADITIONAL ,TIV CURR5CY1 :I* W]E CONSID]$ ! SECOND SPH]E3 H]E TOO1 CURR5CY CONSI/$ ( :AT W]E 9 EFFECT TWO D5OM9ATIONS3 A K9D ( LOCALLY MADE CLO? CALL$ TUGUDU1 WIDELY EXPORT$1 &1 = MAJOR TRANSACTIONS1 BUNDLES ( IMPORT$ BRASS RODS4 ,CURR5CY C\LD BE US$ TO ACQUIRE C]TA9 FLA%Y & LUXURI\S ITEMS 7C[S1 PUR*AS$ =EIGN WIVES71 BUT MA9LY = ! GIVE & TAKE ( POLITICAL AFFAIRS1 HIR+ CUR]S1 ACQUIR+ MAGIC1 GA9+ 9ITIATION 9TO CULT SOCIETIES4 ,9 SU* POLITICAL MATT]S1 ,TIV W]E EV5 MORE RESOLUTELY EGALIT>IAN ?AN ! ,LELE3 SUCCESSFUL OLD M5 ) !IR NUM]\S WIVES MI<T HAVE LORD$ IT OV] !IR SONS & O!R DEP5D5TS )9 !IR [N H\SE COMP\NDS1 BUT BEYOND ?AT1 !RE WAS NO =MAL POLITICAL ORGANIZATION ( ANY SORT4 ,! ?IRD SPH]E1 F9ALLY1 CONSI/$ EXCLUSIVELY 9 RI<TS 9 WOM53 9 ?IS CASE NOT 'PAWNS' BUT :AT >E CALL$ 9 ! LIT]ATURE 'W>DS'4 ,:]E ,LELE PAWNS W]E WOM5 TURN$ OV] 9 COMP5SATION = ! TAK+ ( LIFE1 ,TIV W>DS W]E WOM5 TURN$ OV] 9 COMP5SATION = ! GIV+ ( LIFE4 ,! ,TIV W]E PATRIL9EAL1 & ! ONLY 5TIRELY PROP] =M ( M>RIAGE WAS HELD TO BE SI/] EX*ANGE2 ANY O!R =M LEFT A DEBT1 TO BE PAID BY TRANSF] ( CONTROL OV] A WOMAN :O W\LD ?US BECOME A 'W>D'2 AS AMONG ! ,LELE1 ! SY/EM SOON BECAME AN 9F9ITELY COMPLICAT$ *ESS GAME PLAY$ BY M5 OV] RI<TS 9 WOM54 

,9 PR9CIPLE1 !SE ?REE SPH]ES - ( ORD9>Y CONSUMPTION GOODS1 MASCUL9E PRE/IGE GOODS & RI<TS 9 WOM5 - W]E COMPLETELY SEP>ATE4 ,NO AM\NT ( OKRA C\LD GET Y\ A BRASS ROD1 JU/ AS1 9 PR9CIPLE1 NO NUMB] ( BRASS RODS C\LD GIVE Y\ FULL RI<TS TO DISPOSE ( A WOMAN 9 M>RIAGE4 ,9 PRACTICE1 !RE W]E ALWAYS WAYS TO CONV]T UPW>DS OR D[NW>D4 ,BUT !Y W]E NEV] CONSID]$ TRUE EQUIVAL5TS4 ,A MAN ) NO SI/]1 OR W>D1 C\LD ATTA9 A WIFE BY CON/ANTLY PLY+ H] P>5TS OR GU>DIANS ) GIFTS ( BRASS RODS1 BUT SU* A WIFE WAS NEV] CONSID]$ TRULY HIS4 

,JU/ AS AMONG ! ,LELE1 ?\<1 !RE WAS ONLY ONE REAL EXCEPTION TO ?IS PR9CIPLE - ! ONLY WAY TO E/ABLI% AN ACTUAL EQUIVAL5CE BETWE5 VALUABLES & HUMAN BE+S WAS ?R\< ! M$IATION ( VIOL5CE4 ,IT WAS POSSIBLE TO BUY A SLAVE1 ?AT IS1 A WOMAN KIDNAPP$ 9 A RAID FROM SOME DI/ANT C\NTRY 7,AKIGA ,SAI #a#i#c#i3 #a#b#a1 #a#e#h-#f71 & M>RY H]4 ,SLAVES AFT] ALL HAD NO P>5TS1 OR C\LD BE TREAT$ AS IF !Y DIDN'T2 !Y HAD BE5 =CIBLY REMOV$ FROM ALL ?OSE NETWORKS ( MUTUAL OBLIGATION & DEBT 9 :I* ORD9>Y PEOPLE BECAME :O !Y W]E4 ,?IS WAS :Y !Y C\LD BE B\<T & SOLD4 ,BUT IT ALSO MEANT SU* A WOMAN WAS COMPLETELY ONE'S WIFE1 UNLIKE ONE M]ELY ACQUIR$ FROM H] P>5TS ?R\< BRASS RODS4 

,! REV]SE SIDE ( ?IS WAS ?AT ANYONE :O DID1 9 PRACTICE1 MANAGE TO GAME ! SY/EM1 & CONV]T UPW>DS1 WAS SE5 AS IF !Y W]E1 EFFECTIVELY1 PRACTITION]S ( VIOL5CE4 ,CONV]T+ UPW>DS WAS NORMALLY ACCOMPLI%$ BY MANIPULAT+ DEBTS4 ,SAY SOMEONE WAS SPONSOR+ A M>RIAGE FEA/ & WAS %ORT ( SUPPLIES2 A NEI<BOR MI<T COME TO !IR AID1 !N LAT]1 DISCRETELY1 ASK = A BUNDLE OR TWO ( RODS 9 REPAYM5T4 ,TO BE ABLE TO 'TURN *ICK5S 9TO C[S'1 AS ! SAY+ W5T1 & EV5TUALLY1 USE ONE'S WEAL? & PRE/IGE TO ACQUIRE WIVES1 REQUIR$ A '/RONG HE>T' - ?AT IS1 AN 5T]PRIS+ & *>ISMATIC P]SONALITY4 ,BUT '/RONG HE>T' HAD ANO!R MEAN+ TOO4 ,!RE WAS BELIEV$ TO BE A C]TA9 ACTUAL BIOLOGICAL SUB/ANCE CALL$ TSAV ?AT GREW ON ! HUMAN HE>T4 ,?IS WAS :AT GAVE C]TA9 PEOPLE !IR *>M1 !IR 5]GY & P[]S ( P]SUASION4 ,TSAV !RE=E WAS BO? A PHYSICAL SUB/ANCE1 & ?AT 9VISIBLE P[] ?AT ALL[S C]TA9 PEOPLE TO B5D O!RS TO !IR WILL 7,ABRAHAM #a#i#c#c3 #b#f2 ,AKIGA ,SAI #a#i#c#i3 #b#d#f2 ,BOHANNAN #a#i#e#h3 #c2 ,D[NES #a#i#g#g3 #b#g74 

,! PROBLEM WAS HELD TO BE ?AT IT WAS ALSO POSSIBLE TO AUGM5T ONE'S TSAV ?R\< >TIFICIAL MEANS1 BY CONSUM+ HUMAN FLE%4 ,AT LEA/ AT ! TIME \R E?NOGRAPHIC S\RCES REF] TO1 MO/ ,TIV APPE> TO HAVE BE5 V]ITABLY OBSESS$ BY ! SUSPICION ?AT SOME ( !IR NEI<BORS - & P>TICUL>LY PROM95T M5 :O BECAME DE FACTO POLITICAL LEAD]S - W]E1 9 FACT1 SECRET CANNIBALS4 ,M5 :O BUILT UP !IR TSAV BY SU* MEANS1 ! /ORIES W5T1 GA9$ EXTRAORD9>Y P[]S3 ! ABILITY TO FLY1 TO BECOME IMP]VI\S TO WEAPONS4 ,!Y BECAME ABLE TO S5D \T !IR S\LS AT NI<T TO KILL !IR VICTIMS 9 SU* A WAY ?AT !IR VICTIMS DID NOT EV5 KN[ ?AT !Y W]E DEAD1 BUT W\LD W&] AB\T1 CONFUS$ & FECKLESS1 UNTIL !Y C\LD BE H>VE/$ = !IR CANNIBAL FEA/S4 ,!Y BECAME1 9 %ORT1 T]RIFY+ WIT*ES4 

,! MBATSAV OR SOCIETY ( WIT*ES WAS ALWAYS LOOK+ = NEW MEMB]S & ! WAY TO ACCOMPLI% ?IS WAS TO TRICK PEOPLE 9TO EAT+ HUMAN FLE%4 ,A WIT* W\LD TAKE A PIECE ( ! BODY ( ONE ( HIS [N CLOSE RELATIVES1 :O HE HAD MURD]$1 & PLACE IT 9 ! VICTIM'S FOOD4 ,IF ! MAN WAS FOOLI% 5\< TO EAT IT1 HE W\LD CONTRACT A 'FLE% DEBT'1 & ! SOCIETY ( WIT*ES 5SUR$ ?AT FLE% DEBTS >E ALWAYS PAID4 ,ACCORD+ TO ,AKIGA ,SAI1 AN E>LY ,TIV ACC\NT3 

,P]HAPS Y\R FRI5D1 OR SOME OLD] MAN1 HAS NOTIC$ ?AT Y\ HAVE A L>GE NUMB] ( *ILDR51 OR BRO!RS & SI/]S1 & SO TRICKS Y\ 9TO CONTRACT+ ! DEBT ) HIM4 ,HE 9VITES Y\ TO EAT FOOD 9 HIS H\SE ALONE ) HIM1 & :5 Y\ BEG9 ! MEAL HE SETS BE=E Y\ TWO DI%ES ( SAUCE1 ONE ( :I* CONTA9S COOK$ HUMAN FLE%444 7,AKIGA ,SAI #a#i#c#i3 #b#e#g7 

,IF Y\ EAT FROM ! WRONG DI%1 BUT Y\ DO NOT HAVE A '/RONG HE>T' - ! POT5TIAL TO BECOME A WIT* - Y\ WILL BECOME SICK & FLEE FROM ! H\SE 9 T]ROR4 ,BUT IF Y\ HAVE ?AT HIDD5 POT5TIAL1 ! FLE% WILL BEG9 TO WORK 9 Y\4 ,?AT EV5+1 Y\ WILL F9D Y\R H\SE SURR\ND$ BY SCREE*+ CATS & [LS4 ,/RANGE NOISES WILL FILL ! AIR4 ,Y\R NEW CR$ITOR WILL APPE> BE=E Y\1 BACK$ BY HIS CONF$]ATES1 & DEM& Y\R LIFE 9 PAYM5T4 ,! ONLY WAY \T IS TO PL$GE A MEMB] ( Y\R [N FAMILY AS SUB/ITUTE4 ,?IS IS POSSIBLE1 BECAUSE Y\ WILL F9D Y\ HAVE T]RIBLE NEW P[]S1 BUT !Y MU/ BE US$ AS ! O!R WIT*ES DEM&4 ,ONE BY ONE1 Y\ MU/ KILL (F Y\R BRO!RS1 SI/]S1 *ILDR52 !IR BODIES WILL BE /OL5 FROM !IR GRAVES BY ! COLLEGE ( WIT*ES1 BR\<T BACK TO LIFE JU/ LONG 5\< TO BE PROP]LY FATT5$1 TORTUR$1 KILL$ AGA91 !N C>V$ & ROA/$ = YET ANO!R FEA/4 

,! FLE% DEBT GOES ON & ON4 ,! CR$ITOR KEEPS ON COM+4 ,UNLESS ! DEBTOR HAS M5 BEH9D HIM :O >E V]Y /RONG 9 TSAV1 HE CANNOT FREE HIMSELF FROM ! FLE% DEBT UNTIL HE HAS GIV5 UP ALL HIS PEOPLE1 & HIS FAMILY IS F9I%$4 ,!N HE GOES HIMSELF & LIES D[N ON ! GR\ND TO BE SLAU<T]$1 & SO ! DEBT IS F9ALLY DIS*>G$4 7,AKIGA ,SAI #a#i#c#i3 #b#f7 

,ON A SUP]FICIAL LEVEL1 IT'S EASY TO SEE :AT'S HAPP5+ H]E4 ,! ,TIV LIV$ 9 A L&SCAPE DOTT$ ) COMP\NDS1 EA* ORGANIZ$ >\ND A S+LE OLD] MAN ) HIS NUM]\S WIVES1 *ILDR5 & ASSORT$ HANG]S-ON4 ,\TSIDE1 !RE WAS NO =MAL POLITICAL ORGANIZATION :ATSOEV]1 OR 9/ITUTIONAL HI]>*IES ( ANY K9D4 ,!Y W]E A PEOPLE :]E M5 ASPIR$ TO ABSOLUTE AU?ORITY )9 !IR H\SEHOLDS1 BUT W]E SUSPICI\S ( ANY SORT ( AU?ORITY BEYOND IT4 ,TO BE A SUCCESSFUL MAN MEANT TO BE ABLE TO MANIPULATE DEBT SO AS TO BE ABLE TO CONV]T FOOD 7! FIR/ SPH]E7 9TO OBJECTS ( PRE/IGE 7! SECOND71 PRE/IGE 9TO CONTROL OV] WOM5 7! ?IRD7 SO AS TO BECOME ! HEAD ( A H\SEHOLD ) NUM]\S DESC5DANTS4 ,IS IT SURPRIS+1 !N1 !Y ALSO FELT ?AT ! V]Y '/RONG HE>T' ?AT MADE ?IS POSSIBLE ALSO ?REAT5$ TO MAKE ?AT ABILITY TO MANIPULATE DEBT TUMBLE BACK ON ITSELF2 ?AT ! '/&>DIZ$ NI<TM>E' 7,WILSON #a#i#e#a7 ( !IR SOCIETY WAS ONE :]E ! SUCCESSFUL HEAD ( H\SEHOLD 5D$ UP LOCK$ 9 A FLE% DEBT :]E HE WAS =C$ TO CONV]T ?OSE V]Y DESC5DANTS BACK 9TO FOOD4 

,WAY ( DEA? 

,/ILL1 ! EMPHASIS ON DEBT IS PUZZL+1 S9CE NO?+ 9 ! E?NOGRAPHY SUGGE/S ?AT 9 ! #a#i#eS DEBT WAS A P]VASIVE CONC]N ( EV]YDAY ,TIV LIFE4 ,H]E ,I ?9K WE HAVE TO TURN TO A L>G] HI/ORICAL CONTEXT4 

,! E>LY HI/ORY ( ! ,TIV IS DIFFICULT TO RECON/RUCT1 BUT !Y APPE> TO HAVE >RIV$ 9 ! ,B5UE ,RIV] VALLEY & ADJAC5T L&S SOMETIME >\ND #age - ?AT IS1 DUR+ A TIME :5 ALL ( :AT'S N[ ,NIG]IA WAS BE+ TORN AP>T BY ! ,ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE4 ,E>LY /ORIES TOLD H[ ! ,TIV1 DUR+ !IR MIGRATIONS1 US$ TO PA9T !IR WIVES & *ILDR5 ) SIMULAT$ SMALLPOX SC>S1 SO ?AT POT5TIAL RAID]S W\LD BE AFRAID TO C>RY !M (F4 ,!Y E/ABLI%$ !MSELVES 9 A NOTORI\SLY 9ACCESSIBLE /RET* ( C\NTRY1 & (F]$ UP F]OCI\S DEF5SE AGA9/ P]IODIC RAIDS FROM NEI<BORS TO !IR NOR? & WE/ 7,ABRAHAM #a#i#c#c3 #a#g-#b#f2 ,AKIGA ,SAI #a#i#e#d2 ,BOHANNAN #a#i#e#d74 ,SOME ( !SE RAIDS W]E NOT 5TIRELY UNSUCCESSFUL4 ,IT'S PROBABLY NOT 9SIGNIFICANT ?AT ! NE>BY ,JUKUN K+DOM1 :I* MADE A S]IES ( ULTIMATELY UNSUCCESSFUL ATTEMPTS TO CONQU] ! ,TIV 9 ! #a#h? C5TURY1 DISPOS+ MANY ,TIV CAPTIVES TO SLAVE-DEAL]S ON ! COA/ 9 ! PROCESS1 WAS ALSO SE51 9 LAT] TIMES1 AS ! REAL ORIG9 ( ! 'ORGANIZATION' ( ! MBATSAV 7,ABRAHAM #a#i#c#c3 #a#i1 #c#a-#e2 ,CURT9 #a#i#f#i3 #b#e#e1 #b#i#h2 ,LA?AM #a#i#g#c3 #b#i2 ,TAMBO #a#i#g#f3 #b#a-#c74 

,ONE MI<T ALSO CONSID] ! ACTUAL ORIG9 ( ! FAM\S COPP] B>S US$ AS SOCIAL CURR5CY4 

,COPP] B>S HAD BE5 US$ = MONEY 9 ?IS P>T ( ,AFRICA = C5TURIES2 (T51 IT SEEM$1 !Y W]E US$ NOT JU/ = SOCIAL PURPOSES BUT BROK5 UP 9TO SMALL *ANGE = USE 9 ORD9>Y COMM]CIAL TRANSACTIONS 7,JONES #a#i#e#h2 ,LA?AM #a#i#g#a2 ,NOR?RUP #a#i#g#h3 #a#e#g-#f#d2 ,H]B]T #b#c3 #a#i#f74 ,IBN ,BATTUTA SAW PEOPLE US+ COPP] B>S TO BUY EV]YDAY W>ES 9 M>KETPLACES 9 ! NE>BY ,NIG] REGION AS F> BACK AS ! #a#c#dS4 ,MO/ ( ! B>S CURR5T 9 #a#h?- & #a#i?-C5TURY ,TIVL&1 ON ! O!R H&1 W]E NOT LOCAL PRODUCTS4 ,!Y W]E MASS-PRODUC$ 9 FACTORIES 9 ,BIRM+HAM1 & IMPORT$ ?R\< ! PORT ( ,OLD ,CALAB> AT ! M\? ( ! ,CROSS ,RIV]1 BY SLAVE-TRAD]S BAS$ 9 ,LIV]POOL & ,BRI/OL4 ,! ,TIV W]E UNUSUAL 9 RE/RICT+ !SE B>S TO SOCIAL PURPOSES4 ,9 ALL ! C\NTRY ADJO9+ ! ,CROSS ,RIV] - ?AT IS1 9 ! REGION DIRECTLY TO ! S\? ( ! ,TIV T]RITORY - !Y W]E /ILL US$ AS EV]YDAY CURR5CY4 

,IT IS H>DLY SURPRIS+ ?AT ,TIV W]E SUSPICI\S ( SU* ITEMS4 ,ALMO/ EV]Y:]E ELSE1 !Y W]E ALSO ! CURR5CY ( ! SLAVE4 ,DUR+ ! #a#g#fS ALONE1 P]HAPS #a1 ,AFRICANS W]E %IPP$ D[N ! ,CROSS ,RIV] TO ,CALAB> & NE>BY PORTS1 :]E !Y W]E PUT 9 *A9S1 PLAC$ ON ,BRITI%1 ,FR5* OR O!R ,EUROPEAN %IPS1 & %IPP$ ACROSS ! ,ATLANTIC - P>T ( P]HAPS #a4#e MILLION EXPORT$ FROM ! ,BI<T ( ,BIAFRA DUR+ ! :OLE P]IOD ( ! TRADE 7,ELTIS ET AL4 #b2 ,LOVEJOY & ,RI*>DSON #a#i#i#i3 #c#c#g74 ,SOME HAD BE5 CAPTUR$ 9 W>S1 RAIDS OR SIMPLY KIDNAPP$4 ,! MAJORITY1 ?\<1 W]E C>RI$ (F BECAUSE ( DEBTS4 

,9 FACT ! ,ATLANTIC ,SLAVE ,TRADE AS A :OLE WAS A GIGANTIC NETWORK ( CR$IT >RANGEM5TS4 ,%IP-[N]S BAS$ 9 ,LIV]POOL OR ,BRI/OL W\LD ACQUIRE GOODS ON EASY CR$IT T]MS FROM LOCAL :OLESAL]S1 EXPECT+ TO MAKE GOOD BY SELL+ SLAVES 7ALSO ON CR$IT7 TO PLANT]S 9 ! ,ANTILLES & ,AM]ICA1 ) COMMISSION AG5TS 9 ! CITY ( ,LONDON ULTIMATELY F9ANC+ ! AFFAIR ?R\< ! PR(ITS ( ! SUG> & TOBACCO TRADE 7,%]IDAN #a#i#e#h2 ,PRICE #a#i#h1 #a#i#h#i1 #a#i#i#a74 ,%IP-[N]S W\LD !N %IP !IR W>ES TO ,AFRICAN PORTS LIKE ,OLD ,CALAB>4 ,CALAB> WAS ! QU9TESS5TIAL M]CANTILE CITY-/ATE1 DOM9AT$ BY AN ,AFRICAN ELITE :O DRESS$ 9 ,EUROPEAN CLO!S1 BUILT !MSELVES ,EUROPEAN-/YLE H\SES1 & 9 SOME CASES EV5 S5T !IR *ILDR5 TO ,5GL& TO BE $UCAT$4 

,ON >RIVAL1 ,EUROPEAN M]*ANTS W\LD NEGOTIATE ! VALUE ( !IR C>GOES 9 ! COPP] RODS ?AT S]V$ AS ! CURR5CY ( ! PORT4 ,! C>GOES !MSELVES CONSI/$ ( CLO?1 IRON & COPP] W>E1 9CID5TAL GOODS LIKE BEADS1 & SUB/ANTIAL NUMB]S ( FIRE>MS4 ,! GOODS W]E !N ADVANC$ TO ,CALAB>'S M]*ANT ELITE1 AGA9 ON CR$IT1 :O ASSIGN$ !M TO !IR [N AG5TS TO MOVE UP/REAM4 

,! OBVI\S PROBLEM WAS H[ TO SECURE ! DEBT4 ,! TRADE WAS AN EXTRAORD9>ILY DUPLICIT\S & BRUTAL BUS9ESS1 & M]*ANTS :O (T5 D\BL$ 9 ! 9T]IOR AS NO MORE ?AN RAID]S & KIDNAPP]S W]E ALSO NOTORI\SLY BAD CR$IT RISKS4 ,AS A RESULT1 A SY/EM QUICKLY DEVELOP$ :]E ,EUROPEAN CAPTA9S W\LD DEM& SECURITY 9 ! =M ( PAWNS4 

,IT W\LD SEEM ?AT1 ) ! DEVELOPM5T ( COMM]CIAL T[NS ON ! ,WE/ ,AFRICAN COA/1 9/ITUTIONS ?AT MU/ HAVE ORIG9ALLY RESEMBL$ ,LELE PAWN%IP1 OR ,TIV W>DS1 HAD GRADUALLY TRANS=M$ 9TO :AT WAS EFFECTIVELY A =M ( DEBT PEONAGE4 ,WE DON'T KN[ PRECISELY H[ IT HAPP5$1 BUT ! PROCESS WAS CLE>LY WELL UND] WAY EV5 BE=E ,EUROPEANS APPE>$ ON ! SC5E 9 ! #a#f? C5TURY4 ,DEBTORS W\LD PL$GE A FAMILY MEMB] AS SURETY = A LOAN2 ! PAWN W\LD !N BECOME A DEP5D5T 9 ! CR$ITOR'S H\SEHOLD1 WORK+ HIS FIELDS OR T5D+ TO HIS H\SEHOLD *ORES - !IR P]SONS ACT+ AS SECURITY & !IR LABOR1 EFFECTIVELY1 SUB/ITUT+ = 9T]E/4 ,/ILL1 !RE >E CLE> SIGNS ( A HI/ORIC CONNECTION3 = 9/ANCE1 IF A GIRL WAS PL$G$1 ! CR$ITOR G5]ALLY HAD ! OPTION ( M>RY+ H] :5 %E REA*$ MATURITY1 ?US CANCEL+ ! DEBT1 EXACTLY AS AMONG ! ,LELE4 ,& CRITICALLY1 PAWNS W]E CLE>LY DI/+UI%$ FROM SLAVES4 ,! DIFF]5CE ONLY BECAME BLURR$ ONCE IT BECAME ! CU/OM = ! MA/]S ( SLAV+ %IPS1 ON ADVANC+ GOODS TO !IR ,AFRICAN C\NT]P>TS1 TO DEM& PAWNS - = 9/ANCE1 TWO ( ! M]*ANTS' [N DEP5D5TS = EV]Y ?REE SLAVES TO BE DELIV]$1 PREF]ABLY1 9CLUD+ AT LEA/ ONE OR TWO MEMB]S ( ! M]*ANTS' FAMILIES 7,LOVEJOY & ,RI*>DSON #a#i#i#i3 #c#d#i-#e#a2 #b#a74 ,?IS WAS 9 PRACTICE NOT MU* DIFF]5T ?AN DEM&+ ! SURR5D] ( HO/AGES1 & AT TIMES CREAT$ MAJOR POLITICAL CRISES IF CAPTA9S1 TIR$ ( WAIT+ = DELAY$ %IPM5TS1 DECID$ TO TAKE (F ) A C>GO ( PAWNS 9/EAD4 

,UPRIV]1 DEBT PAWNS ALSO PLAY$ A MAJOR P>T 9 ! TRADE4 ,9 ! ,CROSS ,RIV] REGION1 ?IS TRADE SEEMS TO HAVE HAD TWO PHASES4 ,! FIR/ WAS ONE ( ABSOLUTE T]ROR & UTT] *AOS1 9 :I* RAIDS W]E FREQU5T1 & ANYONE TRAVEL+ ALONE RISK$ BE+ KIDNAPP$ BY ROV+ GANGS ( ?UGS & SOLD TO ,CALAB>4 ,VILLAGES LAY AB&ON$2 MANY FL$ 9TO ! =E/2 M5 W\LD HAVE TO =M >M$ P>TIES TO WORK ! FIELDS 7,EQUIANO #a#g#h#i3 #f-#a#c74 ,?IS P]IOD WAS RELATIVELY BRIEF4 ,! SECOND BEGAN :5 REPRES5TATIVES ( LOCAL M]*ANT SOCIETIES BEGAN E/ABLI%+ !MSELVES 9 COMMUNITIES UP & D[N ! REGION1 (F]+ TO RE/ORE ORD]4 ,! MO/ FAM\S ( !SE WAS ! ,>O ,CONF$]ACY1 :O1 CALL+ !MSELVES ',*ILDR5 ( ,GOD'1 & BACK$ BY HEAVILY >M$ M]C5>IES & ! PRE/IGE ( !IR FAM\S ,ORACLE AT ,>O*UKWU1 CREAT$ !IR [N JU/ICE SY/EM1 ) ! ,ORACLE ACT+ AS A K9D ( REGIONAL C\RT ( HI< APPEAL 7SEE ,JONES #a#i#c#i2 ,OTT5B]G #a#i#e#h2 ,AFIGBO #a#i#g#a2 ,EKEJIUBA #a#i#g#b2 ,ISI*EI #a#i#g#f2 ,NOR?RUP #a#i#g#h2 ,DIKE & ,EKEJIUBA #a#i#i2 ,NWAUWA #a#i#i#a74 ,?IS SY/EM WAS NOTORI\SLY H>%1 & ITSELF SEEMS TO HAVE FUNCTION$ ABOVE ALL TO EI!R R$UCE AS MANY VILLAG]S AS POSSIBLE 9TO SLAV]Y BY JUDICIAL MEANS1 OR TO ASSIGN P5ALTIES 7ALWAYS D5OM9AT$ 9 BRASS RODS7 SO HEFTY ?AT CULPRITS W\LD BE =C$ TO SELL !MSELVES OR MEMB]S ( !IR FAMILIES 9TO SLAV]Y4 

,!SE SAME M]*ANT SOCIETIES ALSO ASSI/$ 9 ! DISSEM9ATION ( A SECRET SOCIETY CALL$ ,EKPE1 MO/ FAM\S = SPONSOR+ MAGNIFIC5T MASQU]ADES & = 9ITIAT+ ITS MEMB]S 9TO >CANE MY/]IES1 BUT ?AT ALSO ACT$ AS A COV]T ME*ANISM = ! 5=CEM5T ( DEBTS4 ,9 ,CALAB> ITSELF1 ! ,EKPE SOCIETY OP]AT$ PRIM>ILY AS A MEANS ( 5=C+ CONTRACTS & COLLECT+ DEBTS 7,LA?AM #a#i#g#c3 #c#h74 ,BUT IT WAS OP5 TO ANYONE WILL+ TO PAY ! HEFTY 9ITIATION FEES - :I* W]E ALSO EXACT$ 9 ! BRASS RODS ! M]*ANTS !MSELVES SUPPLI$4 ,9 ! T[N ! FEE S*$ULE = EA* GRADE LOOK$ LIKE ?IS 7FROM ,WALK] #a#h#g#e3 #a#b73 

  
  
 #a4 ,NYAMPI 
#b4 ,OKU ,AKANA 
#c4 ,BRASS 
#d4 ,MAK&A  
    
    
 #c BOXES BRASS RODS1 EA* ,G,B,P#b "7 ,G,B,P#g#c#e1 = ! FIR/ F\R GRADES  
    
   
"4 #e4 ,MAK>A 
#f4 ,MBOKO ,MBOKO 
#g4 ,BUNCO ,ABONKO 
#h4 ,MBOKO ,NYA ,EKPO 
#i4 ,EKPE  
    
    
#e BOXES BRASS RODS = EA* ( ! L[] GRADES4  
    
   

,9 T[N1 MEMB]%IP BECAME ! *IEF M>K ( HONOR & DI/9CTION4 ,5TRY FEES W]E NO D\BT LESS EXORBITANT 9 SMALL1 DI/ANT COMMUNITIES1 BUT ! EFFECT WAS ! SAME3 ?\S&S 5D$ UP 9 DEBT TO ! M]*ANTS1 :E!R = ! FEES REQUIR$ = JO9+1 OR = ! TRADE GOODS !Y SUPPLI$ 7MO/LY CLO? & METAL PUT TO USE CREAT+ ! EQUIPM5T & CO/UMES = ! ,EKPE P]=MANCES71 DEBTS ?AT !Y ?US !MSELVES BECAME RESPONSIBLE = 5=C+ ON !MSELVES4 ,!SE DEBTS1 TOO1 W]E REGUL>LY PAID 9 PEOPLE1 O/5SIBLY1 YIELD$ UP AS PAWNS4 ,BUT 9 !SE CASES ! L9E BETWE5 PAWNS & SLAVES SOON BECAME EFFECTIVELY NON-EXI/5T4 

,9 ! C\NTRYSIDE1 PRACTICES V>I$4 ,9 MANY >EAS1 COPP] RODS BECAME G5]AL PURPOSE MONEY4 ,9 ! ,AFIKPO DI/RICT 7,OTT5B]G & ,OTT5B]G #a#i#f#b3 #a#b#d71 ON A REMOTE P>T ( UPP] ,CROSS ,RIV]1 WE LE>N ?AT COPP] B>S1 SUPPLI$ BY ! M]*ANT SOCIETIES1 W]E NOT US$ TO BUY FOOD BUT RE/RICT$ TO SOCIAL PURPOSES1 '= GIFTS & = PAYM5TS 9 FUN]ALS1 TITLES1 & O!R C]EMONIES'4 ,MO/ ( ?OSE PAYM5TS1 TITLES & C]EMONIES H[EV] W]E TI$ TO ! SECRET SOCIETIES ?AT ! M]*ANTS !MSELVES HAD BR\<T TO ! >EA3 

,9 ! OLD DAYS1 IF ANYBODY GOT 9TO TR\BLE OR DEBT 9 ! UPP] P>TS ( ! ,CROSS ,RIV]1 & WANT$ READY MONEY1 HE US$ G5]ALLY TO 'PL$GE' ONE OR MORE ( HIS *ILDR51 OR SOME O!R MEMB]S ( HIS FAMILY OR H\SEHOLD1 TO ONE ( ! ,AKUNAKUNA TRAD]S :O PAID P]IODICAL VISITS TO HIS VILLAGE4 ,OR HE W\LD MAKE A RAID ON SOME NEI<BOR+ VILLAGE1 SEIZE A *ILD1 & SELL HIM OR H] TO ! SAME WILL+ PUR*AS]4 7,P>TRIDGE #a#i#e3 #g#b7 

,! PASSAGE ONLY MAKES S5SE IF ONE RECOGNIZES ?AT DEBTORS W]E ALSO1 [+ TO !IR MEMB]%IP 9 ! SECRET SOCIETIES1 ALSO ! DEBT COLLECTORS4 ,! SEIZ+ ( A *ILD CAN ONLY BE A REF]5CE TO ! LOCAL PRACTICE ( 'PANY>R+'1 CURR5T ?R\<\T ,WE/ ,AFRICA1 BY :I* CR$ITORS DESPAIR+ ( REPAYM5T W\LD SIMPLY SWEEP 9TO ! DEBTOR'S COMMUNITY ) A GR\P ( >M$ M5 & SEIZE ANY?+ - PEOPLE1 GOODS1 DOME/IC ANIMALS - ?AT C\LD BE EASILY C>RI$ (F1 !N HOLD IT HO/AGE AS SECURITY4 ,IT WAS ACTUALLY A QUITE S5SIBLE EXP$I5T 9 AN 5VIRONM5T ) NO C5TRAL AU?ORITY1 :]E PEOPLE T5D$ TO FEEL AN 5ORM\S S5SE ( RESPONSIBILITY T[>DS O!R MEMB]S ( !IR COMMUNITY1 & V]Y LITTLE RESPONSIBILITY T[>DS ANYONE ELSE4 ,9 ! CASE CIT$ ABOVE1 ! DEBTOR W\LD1 PRESUMABLY1 BE CALL+ 9 HIS [N DEBTS - REAL OR IMAG9$ - TO ?OSE \TSIDE ! ORGANIZATION1 9 ORD] NOT TO HAVE TO S5D MEMB]S ( HIS [N FAMILY4 

,SU* EXP$I5TS W]E NOT ALWAYS EFFECTIVE4 ,(T5 DEBTORS W\LD BE =C$ TO PAWN MORE & MORE ( !IR [N *ILDR5 OR DEP5D5TS1 UNTIL F9ALLY1 !RE WAS NO REC\RSE BUT TO PAWN !MSELVES 7,H>RIS #a#i#g#b3 #a#b#h74 ,& ( C\RSE1 AT ! HEI<T ( ! SLAVE TRADE1 'PAWN+' HAD BECOME LITTLE MORE ?AN A EUPHEMISM4 ,! DI/9CTION BETWE5 PAWNS & SLAVES HAD L>GELY DISAPPE>$4 ,DEBTORS1 LIKE !IR FAMILIES BE=E !M1 5D$ UP TURN$ OV] TO ! ,>O1 !N TO ! ,BRITI%1 & F9ALLY1 %ACKL$ & *A9$1 CR[D$ 9TO T9Y SLAV+ VESSELS1 & S5T (F TO BE SOLD 9 PLANTATIONS ACROSS ! SEA4 

"9 

,IF ! ,TIV1 !N1 W]E HAUNT$ BY ! VISION ( AN 9SIDI\S SECRET ORGANIZATION ?AT LUR$ UNSUSPECT+ VICTIMS 9TO DEBT TRAPS1 :]EBY !Y !MSELVES BECAME ! 5=C]S ( DEBTS TO BE PAID ) ! BODIES ( !IR *ILDR51 & ULTIMATELY1 !MSELVES - ONE REASON WAS BECAUSE ?IS WAS1 LIT]ALLY1 HAPP5+ TO PEOPLE :O LIV$ NO MORE ?AN A FEW HUNDR$ MILES AWAY4 ,NOR IS ! USE ( ! PHRASE 'FLE% DEBT' ESPECIALLY 9APPROPRIATE4 ,SLAVE-TRAD]S MI<T NOT HAVE BE5 R$UC+ !IR VICTIMS TO MEAT1 BUT !Y W]E C]TA9LY R$UC+ !M TO NO?+ MORE ?AN BODIES4 

,:AT WAS REM>KABLE ?AT ALL ?IS WAS DONE1 ! BODIES EXTRACT$1 ?R\< ! V]Y ME*ANISMS ( ! HUMAN ECONOMY1 PREMIS$ ON ! PR9CIPLE ?AT HUMAN LIVES >E ! ULTIMATE VALUES1 TO :I* NO?+ C\LD POSSIBLY COMP>E4 ,9/EAD1 ALL ! SAME 9/ITUTIONS - FEES = 9ITIATIONS1 MEANS ( CALCULAT+ GUILT & COMP5SATION1 SOCIAL CURR5CIES1 DEBT PAWN%IP - W]E TURN$ 9TO !IR OPPOSITE2 ! MA*9]Y WAS1 AS IT W]E1 ?R[N 9TO REV]SE2 &1 AS ! ,TIV ALSO P]CEIV$1 ! V]Y GE>S & ME*ANISMS DESIGN$ = ! CREATION ( HUMAN BE+S COLLAPS$ ON ITSELF1 & BECAME ! MEANS = !IR DE/RUCTION4 

,AS ! ABOVE EXAMPLES REVEAL1 ! *ANGE C\LD ONLY BE EFFECT$ BY VIOL5CE - 9 ! CASE ( ! ,ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE1 :AT IS ALMO/ C]TA9LY ! GREATE/ & MO/ CATA/ROPHIC \TBREAKS ( COMM]CIAL VIOL5CE 9 ! HI/ORY ( ! WORLD4 ,YET AT ! SAME TIME1 ,I ?9K ! V]Y 9T5SITY ( ! CATA/ROPHE CAN HELP LAY B>E SOME ( ! ME*ANISMS BY :I* HUMAN ECONOMIES C\LD HAVE1 9 MANY O!R TIMES & PLACES 9 HUMAN HI/ORY1 OV]COME ! CONCEPTUAL B>RI]S BETWE5 SOCIAL CURR5CIES1 AS TOK5S ( A DEBT ?AT CANNOT BE PAID1 & COMM]CIAL CURR5CIES1 AS MEANS ( CANCEL+ DEBTS 9 !IR 5TIRETY4 ,ONE ?+ IS CLE>3 ! *ANGE WAS EFFECT$ BY VIOL5CE4 ,ABOVE ALL1 IT WAS ONLY VIOL5CE ?AT C\LD RIP A HUMAN BE+ 5TIRELY FROM ! WEB ( UNIQUE HUMAN RELATIONS ?AT !REBY MADE H] A UNIQUE 9DIVIDUAL1 A DAU<T]1 SI/]1 WIFE1 LOV]1 FRI5D1 SO AS TO MAKE H] ! EXACT EQUIVAL5T ( ANYONE ELSE4 ,BUT ( C\RSE1 ?IS VIOL5CE WAS ALREADY PRES5T EV5 :5 LIVES C\LD ONLY BE EQUIVAL5T TO O!R LIVES4 ,AMONG ! ,LELE1 M5 C\LD NOT BE COMPELL$ TO DO ANY?+ !Y DID NOT AGREE TO DO1 BUT WOM5 C\LD /ILL BE BEAT5 IF !Y COMPLETELY REFUS$ TO COMPLY ) ! SY/EM ?AT R5D]$ !M EX*ANGEABLE4 ,AMONG ! ,TIV1 ,AKIGA ,SAI IS EV5 MORE EXPLICIT3 

,UND] ! OLD SY/EM AN ELD] :O HAD A W>D C\LD ALWAYS M>RY A Y\NG GIRL1 H[EV] S5ILE HE MI<T BE1 EV5 IF HE W]E A LEP] ) NO H&S OR FEET2 NO GIRL W\LD D>E TO REFUSE HIM4 ,IF ANO!R MAN W]E ATTRACT$ BY HIS W>D HE W\LD TAKE HIS [N & GIVE H] TO ! OLD MAN BY =CE1 9 ORD] TO MAKE AN EX*ANGE4 ,! GIRL HAD TO GO ) ! OLD MAN1 SORR[FULLY C>RY+ HIS GOAT-SK9 BAG4 ,IF %E RAN BACK TO H] HOME H] [N] CAU<T H] & BEAT H]1 !N B\ND H] & BR\<T H] BACK TO ! ELD]4 ,! OLD MAN WAS PLEAS$1 & GR9N$ TILL HE %[$ HIS BLACK5$ MOL>S4 ',:]EV] Y\ GO1' HE TOLD H]1 'Y\ WILL BE BR\<T BACK H]E TO ME2 SO /OP WORRY+1 & SETTLE D[N AS MY WIFE4' ,! GIRL FRETT$1 TILL %E WI%$ ! E>? MI<T SWALL[ H]4 ,SOME WOM5 EV5 /ABB$ !MSELVES TO DEA? :5 !Y W]E GIV5 TO AN OLD MAN AGA9/ !IR WILL2 BUT 9 SPITE ( ALL1 ! ,TIV DID NOT C>E4 7#a#i#c#i3 #a#f#a7 

,AN?ROPOLOGI/S HAVE SP5T MU* ( ! #b? C5TURY /UDY+ K9%IP SY/EMS1 (T5 CREAT+ ELABORATE & ELEGANT DIAGRAMS TO UND]/& :AT ,LE'VI-,/RAUSS SO FAM\SLY CALL$ '! EX*ANGE ( WOM5' 7#a#i#d#i74 ,IT WAS ONLY AFT] FEM9I/ AU?ORS LIKE ,GAYLE ,RUB9 7#a#i#g#e7 BEGAN TO PO9T \T JU/ H[ CO]CIVE SU* SY/EMS ULTIMATELY >E1 H[ MU* VIOL5CE LAY B5EA? !M1 ?AT AN?ROPOLOGI/S SUDD5LY SEEM TO HAVE CONCLUD$ ?AT ! 5TIRE SUBJECT WAS NO LONG] P>TICUL>LY 9T]E/+4 ,YET IT W\LD APPE> ?AT IT IS PRECISELY ?R\< ELABORAT+ ON ?IS UND]LY+ VIOL5CE1 ?R\< ! TRANS=MATION ( PAWNS 9TO PEONS1 = EXAMPLE1 ?AT SY/EMS ( DEBT C\LD BEG9 TO TAKE :AT WE W\LD N[ CONSID] COMM]CIAL =M3 ?AT IS1 AS A S]IES ( QUANTIFIABLE1 FULLY EX*ANGEABLE EQUIVAL5TS1 & ?AT SOCIAL CURR5CIES C\LD BECOME MONEY 9 ! FAMILI> S5SE ( ! T]M4 

,REF]5CES 

,ABRAHAM1 ,R4 ,C4 #a#i#c#c4 ,! ,TIV PEOPLE4 ,LAGOS3 ,GOV]NM5T ,PR9T]4 

,AFIGBO1 ,A4 ,E4 #a#i#g#a4 ',! ,>O ( S\!A/]N ,NIG]IA3 A SOCIO-HI/ORICAL ANALYSIS ( LEG5DS ( !IR ORIG9S'1 ,AFRICAN ,NOTES #f3 #c#a-#d#f4 

,AGLIETTA1 ,M4 & ,A4 ,ORLE'AN 7$S47 #a#i#i#e4 ,S\V]A9ETE'1 LE'GITIMITE' DE LA MONNAIE4 ,P>IS3 ,ASSOCIATION D',E' CONOMIE ,F9ANCIE'RE 7,CAHI]S F9ANCE1 E'?IQUE1 CONFIANCE74 

,AKIGA ,SAI1 ,B4 #a#i#c#i4 ,AKIGA'S /ORY2 ! ,TIV TRIBE AS SE5 BY ONE ( ITS MEMB]S4 ,TRANSLAT$ & ANNOTAT$ BY ,RUP]T ,EA/4 ,LONDON3 ,PUBLI%$ = ! ,9T]NATIONAL ,AFRICAN ,9/ITUTE BY ! ,OX=D ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

,AKIGA ,SAI1 ,B4 #a#i#e#d4 ',! 0DESC5T0 ( ! ,TIV FROM ,IB5DA ,HILL' 7TRANSLAT$ BY ,PAUL ,BOHANNAN71 ,AFRICA3 ,J\RNAL ( ! ,9T]NATIONAL ,AFRICAN ,9/ITUTE #b#d3 #b#i#e-#c#a4 

,AK91 ,D4 & ,J4 ,ROBB9S #a#i#i#h4 ,AN 9TRODUCTION TO ,MELANESIAN CURR5CIES3 AG5CIES1 ID5TITY1 & SOCIAL REPRODUCTION1 9 ,D4 ,AK9 & ,J4 ,ROBB9S 7$S471 ,MONEY & MOD]NITY3 /ATE & LOCAL CURR5CIES 9 ,MELANESIA1 #a-#d4 ,PITTSBUR<3 ,UNIV]SITY ( ,PITTSBUR< ,PRESS4 

,BOHANNAN1 ,P4 #a#i#e#d4 ',! MIGRATION & EXPANSION ( ! ,TIV'1 ,AFRICA3 ,J\RNAL ( ! ,9T]NATIONAL ,AFRICAN ,9/ITUTE #b#d3 #b-#a#f4 

,BOHANNAN1 ,P4 #a#i#e#e4 ',SOME PR9CIPLES ( EX*ANGE & 9VE/M5T AMONG ! ,TIV'1 ,AM]ICAN ,AN?ROPOLOGI/ #e#g3 #f-#g4 

,BOHANNAN1 ,P4 #a#i#e#h4 ',EXTRA-PROCESSUAL EV5TS 9 ,TIV POLITICAL 9/ITUTIONS'1 ,AM]ICAN ,AN?ROPOLOGI/ #f3 #a-#a#b4 

,BOHANNAN1 ,P4 #a#i#e#i4 ',! IMPACT ( MONEY ON AN ,AFRICAN SUBSI/5CE ECONOMY'1 ,J\RNAL ( ,ECONOMIC ,HI/ORY #a#i3 #d#i#a-#e#c4 

,C>RI]1 ,J4 #b#a4 ,H&BOOK ( ECONOMIC AN?ROPOLOGY4 ,*ELT5HAM3 ,$W>D ,ELG>4 

,CURT91 ,P4 ,D4 #a#i#f#i4 ,! ,ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE3 A C5SUS4 ,MADISON1 ,W,I3 ,UNIV]SITY ( ,WISCONS9 ,PRESS4 

,DIKE1 ,K4 ,O4 & ,F4 ,EKEJIUBA #a#i#i4 ,! ,>O ( S\?-EA/]N ,NIG]IA1 #a#f#e-#a#i#h3 A /UDY ( SOCIO-ECONOMIC =MATION & TRANS=MATION 9 ,NIG]IA4 ,IBADAN3 ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

,DORW>D1 ,D4 ,C4 #a#i#g#f4 ',PRECOLONIAL ,TIV TRADE & CLO? CURR5CY'1 ,9T]NATIONAL ,J\RNAL ( ,AFRICAN ,HI/ORICAL ,/UDIES #i3 #e#g#f-#i#a4 

,D\GLAS1 ,M4 #a#i#e#a4 ',A =M ( POLY&RY AMONG ! ,LELE ( ! ,KASAI'1 ,AFRICA3 ,J\RNAL ( ! ,9T]NATIONAL ,AFRICAN ,9/ITUTE #b#a3 #a-#a#b4 7,AS ,M>Y ,TEW47 

,D\GLAS1 ,M4 #a#i#e#h4 ',RAFFIA CLO? DI/RIBUTION 9 ! ,LELE ECONOMY'1 ,AFRICA3 ,J\RNAL ( ! ,9T]NATIONAL ,AFRICAN ,9/ITUTE #b#h3 #a#i-#b#b4 

,D\GLAS1 ,M4 #a#i#f4 ',BLOOD-DEBTS & CLI5T%IP AMONG ! ,LELE'1 ,J\RNAL ( ! ,ROYAL ,AN?ROPOLOGICAL ,9/ITUTE ( ,GREAT ,BRITA9 & ,IREL& #i3 #a-#b#h4 

,D\GLAS1 ,M4 #a#i#f#c4 ,! ,LELE ( ! ,KASAI4 ,LONDON3 ,OX=D ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

,D\GLAS1 ,M4 #a#i#f#d4 ',MATRIL9Y & PAWN%IP 9 ,C5TRAL ,AFRICA'1 ,AFRICA3 ,J\RNAL ( ! ,9T]NATIONAL ,AFRICAN ,9/ITUTE #c#d3 #c#a-#a#c4 

,D\GLAS1 ,M4 #a#i#f#f4 ,PURITY & DANG]3 AN ANALYSIS ( CONCEPTS ( POLLUTION & TABOO4 ,LONDON3 ,R\TL$GE & ,KEGAN ,PAUL4 

,D\GLAS1 ,M4 #a#i#h#b4 ,9 ! ACTIVE VOICE4 ,LONDON3 ,R\TL$GE & ,KEGAN ,PAUL4 ,D[NES1 ,R4 ,M4 #a#i#g#g4 ,TIV RELIGION4 ,IBADAN3 ,IBADAN ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

,EKEJIUBA1 ,F4 ,I4 #a#i#g#b4 ',! ,>O TRADE SY/EM 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY'1 ,IK5GA #a7#a73 #a#a-#b#f1 #a7#b73 #a-#b#a4 ,ELTIS1 ,D41 ,S4 ,D4 ,BEHR5T1 ,D4 ,RI*>DSON & ,H4 ,S4 ,KLE9 #b4 ,! TRANSATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE3 A DATABASE4 ,CAMBRIDGE3 ,CAMBRIDGE ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

,EQUIANO1 ,O4 #a#g#h#i4 ,! 9T]E/+ N>RATIVE ( ! ,LIFE ( ,OLAUDAH ,EQUIANO3 OR1 ,GU/AVUS ,VASSA1 ! ,AFRICAN4 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,MOD]N ,LIBR>Y ,$ITION1 #b#d4 

,GRAEB]1 ,D4 #b#a4 ,T[>D AN AN?ROPOLOGICAL !ORY ( VALUE3 ! FALSE CO9 ( \R [N DREAMS4 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,PALGRAVE4 

,GRI]SON1 ,P4 #a#i#g#g4 ,! ORIG9S ( MONEY4 ,LONDON3 ,A?LONE ,PRESS4 

,GUY]1 ,J4 ,I4 #b#d4 ,M>G9AL GA9S3 MONET>Y TRANSACTIONS 9 ,ATLANTIC ,AFRICA4 ,*ICAGO1 ,I,L3 ,UNIV]SITY ( ,*ICAGO ,PRESS4 

,H>RIS1 ,R4 #a#i#g#b4 ',! HI/ORY ( TRADE AT ,IKOM1 ,EA/]N ,NIG]IA'1 ,AFRICA3 ,J\RNAL ( ! ,9T]NATIONAL ,AFRICAN ,9/ITUTE #d#b3 #a#b#b-#c#i4 

,H]B]T1 ,E4 ,W4 #b#c4 ,R$ GOLD ( ,AFRICA3 COPP] 9 PRECOLONIAL HI/ORY & CULTURE4 ,MADISON1 ,W,I3 ,UNIV]SITY ( ,WISCONS9 ,PRESS4 

,+HAM1 ,G4 #b#d4 ,! NATURE ( MONEY4 ,CAMBRIDGE3 ,POLITY ,PRESS4 ,ISI*EI1 ,E4 #a#i#g#f4 ,A HI/ORY ( ! ,IGBO PEOPLE4 ,LONDON3 ,BAS+/OKE4 ,JONES1 ,G4 ,I4 #a#i#c#i4 ',:O >E ! ,>O8'1 ,NIG]IAN ,FIELD #h3 #a-#c4 

,JONES1 ,G4 ,I4 #a#i#e#h4 ',NATIVE & TRADE CURR5CIES 9 S\!RN ,NIG]IA DUR+ ! EI<TE5? & N9ETE5? C5TURIES'1 ,AFRICA3 ,J\RNAL ( ! ,9T]NATIONAL ,AFRICAN ,9/ITUTE #b#h3 #d#c-#e#f4 

,LA?AM1 ,A4 ,J4 ,H4 #a#i#g#a4 ',CURR5CY1 CR$IT & CAPITALISM ON ! ,CROSS ,RIV] 9 ! PRE-COLONIAL ]A'1 ,J\RNAL ( ,AFRICAN ,HI/ORY #a#b3 #e#i#i-#f#e4 

,LA?AM1 ,A4 ,J4 ,H4 #a#i#g#c4 ,OLD ,CALAB> #a#f-#a#h#i#a3 ! IMPACT ( ! 9T]NATIONAL ECONOMY UPON A TRADITIONAL SOCIETY4 ,OX=D3 ,CL>5DON ,PRESS4 

,LAUM1 ,B4 #a#i#b#d4 ,HEILIGES ,GELD3 ,E9E HI/ORIS*E ,UNT]SU*UNG UEB] D5 SAKRAL5 ,URSPRUNG DES ,GELDES4 ,TU8 B+53 ,J4 ,C4 ,B4 ,MOHR4 

,LE'VI-,/RAUSS1 ,C4 #a#i#d#i4 ,LES /RUCTURES E'LE'M5TAIRES DE LA P>5TE'4 ,P>IS3 ,E,H,E,S,S4 

,LOVEJOY1 ,P4 ,F4 & ,D4 ,RI*>DSON #a#i#i#i4 ',TRU/1 PAWN%IP1 & ,ATLANTIC HI/ORY3 ! 9/ITUTIONAL F\NDATIONS ( ! ,OLD ,CALAB> SLAVE TRADE'1 ,AM]ICAN ,HI/ORICAL ,REVIEW #a#d3 #c#c#c-#e#e4 

,LOVEJOY1 ,P4 ,F4 & ,D4 ,RI*>DSON #b#a4 ',! BUS9ESS ( SLAV+3 PAWN%IP 9 ,WE/]N ,AFRICA1 C4 #a#f-#a#h#a'1 ,J\RNAL ( ,AFRICAN ,HI/ORY #d#b3 #f#g-#h#d4 

,MALAM\D1 ,C4 7$47 #a#i#h#h4 ,LI5 DE VIE1 NOEUD MORTEL4 ,LES REPRE'S5TATIONS DE LA DETTE 5 ,*9E1 AU ,JAPON ET DANS LE MONDE 9DI54 ,P>IS3 ,E,H,E,S,S4 

,NOR?RUP1 ,D4 #a#i#g#h4 ,TRADE )\T RUL]S3 PRE-COLONIAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPM5T 9 S\?-EA/]N ,NIG]IA4 ,OX=D3 ,CL>5DON ,PRESS4 

,NWAUWA1 ,A4 ,O4 #a#i#i#a4 ',9TEGRAT+ ,>O*UKWU 9TO ! REGIONAL *RONOLOGICAL /RUCTURE'1 ,HI/ORY 9 ,AFRICA #a#h3 #b#i#g-#c#a4 

,OTT5B]G1 ,S4 #a#i#e#h4 ',IBO ORACLES & 9T]GR\P RELATIONS'1 ,S\?WE/]N ,J\RNAL ( ,AN?ROPOLOGY #a#d3 #b#i#e-#c#a#g4 

,OTT5B]G1 ,S4 & ,P4 ,OTT5B]G #a#i#f#b4 ,AFIKPO M>KETS3 #a#i-#a#i#f1 9 ,P4 ,BOHANNAN & ,G4 ,DALTON 7$S471 ,M>KETS 9 ,AFRICA1 #a#a#h-#f#i4 ,*ICAGO1 ,I,L3 ,NOR?WE/]N ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

,P>TRIDGE1 ,C4 #a#i#e4 ,CROSS ,RIV] NATIVES3 BE+ SOME NOTES ON ! PRIMITIVE PAGANS ( ,OBUBURA ,HILL ,DI/RICT1 ,S\!RN ,NIG]IA4 ,LONDON3 ,HUT*9SON @& ,CO4 

,PRICE1 ,J4 ,M4 #a#i#h4 ,CAPITAL & CR$IT 9 ,BRITI% OV]SEAS TRADE3 ! VIEW FROM ! ,*ESAPEAKE1 #a#g-#a#g#g#f4 ,CAMBRIDGE1 ,M,A3 ,H>V>D ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

,PRICE1 ,J4 ,M4 #a#i#h#i4 ',:AT DID M]*ANTS DO8 ,REFLECTIONS ON ,BRITI% OV]SEAS TRADE1 #a#f#f-#a#g#i'1 ,! ,J\RNAL ( ,ECONOMIC ,HI/ORY #d#i3 #b#f#g-#h#d4 

,PRICE1 ,J4 ,M4 #a#i#i#a4 ,CR$IT 9 ! SLAVE TRADE & PLANTATION ECONOMIES1 9 ,B4 ,L4 ,SOL[ 7$471 ,SLAV]Y & ! RISE ( ! ,ATLANTIC SY/EM1 #c#a#c-#a#g4 ,CAMBRIDGE3 ,CAMBRIDGE ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS4 

,ROSPABE'1 ,P4 #a#i#i#e4 ,LA ,DETTE DE ,VIE3 AUX ORIG9ES DE LA MONNAIE SAUVAGE4 ,P>IS3 ,$ITIONS LA ,DE'C\V]TE_/,M,A,U,S,S4 

,RUB91 ,G4 #a#i#g#e4 ,! TRAFFIC 9 WOM53 NOTES ON ! 'POLITICAL ECONOMY' ( SEX1 9 ,R4 ,REIT] 7$471 ,T[>D AN AN?ROPOLOGY ( WOM54 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,MON?LY ,REVIEW ,PRESS4 

,S]VET1 ,J4-,M4 #a#i#h#a4 ',PRIMITIVE ORD] & >*AIC TRADE4 ,P>T ,I'1 ,ECONOMY & ,SOCIETY #a3 #d#b#c-#e4 ,S]VET1 ,J4-,M4 #a#i#h#b4 ',PRIMITIVE ORD] & >*AIC TRADE4 ,P>T ,I,I'1 ,ECONOMY & ,SOCIETY #a#a3 #b#b-#e#i4 ,%]IDAN1 ,R4 ,B4 #a#i#e#h4 ',! COMM]CIAL & F9ANCIAL ORGANIZATION ( ! ,BRITI% SLAVE TRADE1 #a#g#e-#a#h#g'1 ,! ,ECONOMIC ,HI/ORY ,REVIEW1 ,NEW ,S]IES #a#a3 #b#d#i-#f#c4 

,SMI?1 ,A4 #a#g#g#f4 ,AN 9QUIRY 9TO ! NATURE & CAUSES ( ! WEAL? ( NATIONS4 ,OX=D3 ,CL>5DON ,PRESS 7#a#i#g#f $ITION74 

,TAMBO1 ,D4 ,C4 #a#i#g#f4 ',! ,SOKOTO ,CALIPHATE SLAVE TRADE 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY'1 ,9T]NATIONAL ,J\RNAL ( ,AFRICAN ,HI/ORICAL ,/UDIES #i3 #a#h#g-#b#a#g4 

,!']T1 ,B4 #a#i#i#e4 ,L',E' TAT1 LA F9ANCE ET LE SOCIAL4 ,S\V]A9ETE' NATIONALE ET CON/RUCTION EUROPE'5NE 7DIRECTION DE PUBLICATION74 ,P>IS3 ,E' DITIONS LA ,DE'C\V]TE4 

,WALK]1 ,J4 ,B4 #a#h#g#e4 ',NOTES ON ! POLITICS1 RELIGION1 & COMM]CE ( ,OLD ,CALAB>'1 ,! ,J\RNAL ( ! ,AN?ROPOLOGICAL ,9/ITUTE ( ,GREAT ,BRITA9 & ,IREL& #f3 #a#a#i-#b#d4 

,WILSON1 ,M4 ,H4 #a#i#e#a4 ',WIT* BELIEFS & SOCIAL /RUCTURE'1 ,! ,AM]ICAN ,J\RNAL ( ,SOCIOLOGY #e#f3 #c#g-#c#a4 

.<#a.> ,SOME VILLAGE WIVES W]E LIT]ALLY PR9CESSES1 S9CE *IEFS' DAU<T]S 9V>IABLY *OSE TO M>RY AGE SETS 9 ?IS WAY4 ,! DAU<T]S ( *IEFS W]E ALL[$ TO HAVE SEX ) ANYONE !Y WANT$1 REG>DLESS ( AGE-SET1 & ALSO HAD ! RI<T TO REFUSE SEX1 :I* ORD9>Y VILLAGE WIVES DID NOT4 ,PR9CESSES ( ?IS SORT W]E R>E3 !RE W]E ONLY ?REE *IEFS 9 ALL ,LELE T]RITORY4 ,D\GLAS E/IMATES ?AT ! NUMB] ( ,LELE WOM5 :O BECAME VILLAGE WIVES ON ! O!R H& WAS AB\T #a.0 7#a#i#e#a74 

7,S\RCE3 ,RETRIEV$ ON #b#h? ,NOVEMB] #bba FROM DAVIDGRAEB]4ORG47 

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