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,P[] ,V]SUS ,CULTURE 

#aicgaicg 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,RUDOLPH ,ROCK] 

,TEXT 3 

#d4 ,P[] ,V]SUS ,CULTURE 

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,E,V,],Y ,P,[,] PRESUPPOSES SOME =M ( HUMAN SLAV]Y1 = ! DIVISION ( SOCIETY 9TO HI<] & L[] CLASSES IS ONE ( ! FIR/ CONDITIONS ( ITS EXI/5CE4 ,! SEP>ATION ( M5 9TO CA/ES1 ORD]S & CLASSES OCCURR+ 9 EV]Y P[] /RUCTURE CORRESPONDS TO AN 9N] NECESSITY = ! SEP>ATION ( ! POSSESSORS ( PRIVILEGE FROM ! PEOPLE4 ,LEG5D & TRADITION PROVIDE ! MEANS ( N\RI%+ & DEEP5+ 9 ! CONCEPTS ( M5 ! BELIEF 9 ! 9EVITABILITY ( ! SEP>ATION4 ,A Y\NG RIS+ P[] CAN 5D ! DOM9ION ( OLD PRIVILEG$ CLASSES1 BUT IT CAN ONLY DO SO BY IMM$IATELY CREAT+ A NEW PRIVILEG$ CLASS FITT$ = ! EXECUTION ( ITS PLANS4 ,?US1 ! F\ND]S ( ! SOCALL$ 0DICTATOR%IP ( ! ,PROLET>IAT 9 ,RUSSIA HAD TO CALL 9TO BE+ ! >I/OCRACY ( ! ,COMMISS>S1 :I* IS AS DI/+UI%ABLE FROM ! GREAT MASSES ( ! WORK+ POPULATION AS >E ! PRIVILEG$ CLASSES ( ! POPULATION ( ANY O!R C\NTRY4 

,PLATO ALREADY WI%$1 9 ! 9T]E/ ( ! /ATE1 TO ATTUNE ! MORAL FEEL+ ( ! 9DIVIDUAL TO AN (FICIALLY E/ABLI%$ CONCEPT ( VIRTUE4 ,D$UC+ ALL MORALITY FROM POLITICS1 & ?US BECOM+ ! FIR/ TO SET =? ! 9TELLECTUAL ASSUMPTIONS ( ! SOCALL$ 0REASONS ( /ATE10 HE ALREADY SAW CLE>LY ?AT CLASS DIVISION WAS AN IMPLICIT NECESSITY = ! MA9T5ANCE ( ! /ATE4 ,= ?IS REASON HE MADE MEMB]%IP 9 ONE ( ! ?REE ORD]S ON :I* HIS 5VISION$ /ATE WAS TO BE F\ND$ A MATT] ( FATE1 ON :I* ! 9DIVIDUAL HAD NO 9FLU5CE4 ,H[EV]1 TO IMBUE M5 ) FAI? 9 !IR 0NATURAL DE/9Y10 ! /ATESMAN EMPLOYS A 0SALUT>Y FRAUD0 :5 HE TELLS !M3 0,! CREATIVE GOD MIX$ GOLD 9 /UFF FROM :I* HE MADE ?OSE AMONG Y\ :O >E 9T5D$ = RUL]%IP2 Y\ >E !RE=E ( MO/ PRECI\S WOR?4 ,9TO Y\R HELP]S HE PUT SILV] & 9TO PEASANTS & O!R LABOR]S1 IRON & BRONZE40 ,TO ! QUE/ION1 H[ ! CITIZ5S C\LD BE BR\<T TO BELIEVE ?IS DECEPTION HE ANSW]$3 0,I ?9K IT IMPOSSIBLE TO CONV9CE !SE !MSELVES1 BUT IT IS NOT IMPOSSIBLE TO MAKE ! /ORY SEEM PROBABLE TO !IR SONS & DESC5DANTS DUR+ ! COM+ G5]ATIONS40 .<#a.> 

,H]E WE F9D MAN'S DE/9Y DET]M9$ BY A MIXTURE ( ABILITIES & *>ACT]I/ICS RECEIV$ FROM ,GOD1 :I* DET]M9ES :E!R HE %ALL BE MA/] OR S]VANT DUR+ HIS LIFE4 ,TO PLANT DEEP] 9 ! IMAG9ATION ( M5 ?IS BELIEF 9 AN 9EVITABLE FATE & TO GIVE IT ! MY/IC SANCTITY ( A RELIGI\S CONVICTION HAS UP TO N[ BE5 ! *IEF AIM ( EV]Y P[] POLICY4 

,JU/ AS ! /ATE IS ALWAYS TRY+ )9 ITS BORD]S TO ABOLI% EQUALITY ( SOCIAL POSITION AMONG ITS SUBJECTS & TO P]PETUATE ?IS SEP>ATION BY DIFF]5CES ( CA/E & CLASS1 SO EXT]NALLY1 TOO1 IT MU/ TAKE C>E TO KEEP ITSELF DI/9CT FROM ALL O!R GOV]NM5TAL ORGANIZATIONS & TO 9/ILL 9TO ITS CITIZ5S ! BELIEF 9 !IR NATIONAL SUP]IORITY OV] ALL O!R PEOPLES4 ,PLATO1 ! ONLY ONE AMONG ! ,GREEK ?9K]S 9 :OM ! IDEA ( NATIONAL UNITY ( ALL ,HELL5IC PEOPLES IS AT ALL CLE>LY APP>5T1 FELT HIMSELF EXCLUSIVELY A ,GREEK & LOOK$ D[N ) UNCONCEAL$ CONTEMPT UPON ! 0B>B>IANS40 ,! IDEA ?AT !SE C\LD BE CONSID]$ EQUAL TO ! ,HELL5ES1 OR C\LD EV5 APPROXIMATE !M1 SEEM$ TO HIM AS PRESUMPTU\S AS IT WAS 9COMPREH5SIBLE4 ,?IS IS ! REASON :Y 9 HIS IDEAL /ATE ALL HEAVY & DEGRAD+ WORK WAS TO BE DONE BY =EIGN]S & SLAVES4 ,HE SAW 9 ?IS A B5EFIT NOT ONLY = ! ,HELL5IC MA/] CA/E BUT ALSO = ! SLAVES !MSELVES4 ,ACCORD+ TO HIS CONCEPT1 S9CE !Y W]E DE/9$ ANYH[ TO P]=M ! L[LY S]VICES ( ! SLAVE1 IT %\LD APPE> TO !M A K9DLY DECREE ( FATE ?AT !Y W]E TO BE ALL[$ TO S]VE ,GREEKS4 

,>I/OTLE GRASP$ ! CONCEPT ( MAN'S 0NATURAL DE/9Y0 EV5 MORE CLE>LY4 ,= HIM1 TOO1 !RE EXI/$ PEOPLES & CLASSES DESIGNAT$ BY NATURE TO P]=M ! L[ TASKS4 ,TO !SE BELONG$ PRIM>ILY ALL NON-,GREEKS & B>B>IANS4 ,IT IS TRUE1 HE MADE A DI/9CTION BETWE5 0SLAVES ACCORD+ TO NATURE0 & 0SLAVES ACCORD+ TO LAW40 ,AMONG ! =M] HE PLAC$ ?OSE :O BECAUSE ( !IR LACK ( SELFRELIANCE >E DE/9$ BY NATURE TO OBEY O!RS4 ,AMONG ! LATT] W]E ?OSE :O HAD LO/ !IR FRE$OM BY BE+ TAK5 PRISON]S ( W>4 ,9 BO? 9/ANCES1 ! SLAVE IS BUT 0A LIV+ MA*9E0 &1 AS SU*1 0A P>T ( HIS MA/]40 ,ACCORD+ TO ! PR9CIPLES /AT$ BY ,>I/OTLE 9 HIS ,POLITICS1 SLAV]Y IS B5EFICIAL BO? TO ! RUL] & ! RUL$2 NATURE HAV+ 5D[$ ! ONE ) HI<] FACULTIES & ! O!R ) ONLY ! RUDE /R5G? ( ! BEA/1 FROM :I* FACT ! ROLES ( MA/] & SLAVE >ISE QUITE ( !MSELVES4 

,ACCORD+ TO ,>I/OTLE MAN IS 0A /ATE-=M+ BE+10 BY HIS :OLE NATURE DE/9$ TO BE A CITIZ5 UND] A GOV]NM5T4 ,ON ?IS GR\ND HE CONDEMN$ SUICIDE1 = HE D5I$ TO ! 9DIVIDUAL ! RI<T TO )DRAW HIMSELF FROM ! /ATE4 ,AL?\< ,>I/OTLE JUDG$ ,PLATO'S IDEAL /ATE RA!R UNFAVORABLY1 ESPECIALLY ! COMMUNITY ( POSSESSIONS ADVOCAT$ 9 IT1 AS 0RUNN+ CONTR>Y TO ! LAWS ( NATURE10 ! /ATE ITSELF1 = ALL ?AT1 WAS = HIM ! C5T] >\ND :I* ALL E>?LY EXI/5CE REVOLV$4 ,LIKE ,PLATO1 HE BELIEV$ ?AT ! MANAGEM5T ( ! BUS9ESS ( ! /ATE %\LD ALWAYS BE 9 ! H&S ( A SMALL M9ORITY ( SELECT$ M5 DE/9$ BY NATURE ITSELF = ?IS CALL+4 ,H5CE1 HE WAS LOGICALLY COMPELL$ TO JU/IFY ! PR]OGATIVE ( ! ELECT BY ! ALLEG$ 9F]IORITY ( ! GREAT MASSES ( ! PEOPLE & TO TRACE ?IS CONDITION TO ! IRON RULE ( ! C\RSE ( NATURE4 ,9 ?IS CONCEPT1 9 ! LA/ ANALYSIS1 EV]Y 0MORAL JU/IFICATION0 ( TYRANNY HAS ITS ROOTS4 ,ONCE WE HAVE AGRE$ TO SEP>ATE \R [N C\NTRYM5 9TO A M5TALLY 9F]IOR MASS & A M9ORITY DESIGN$ BY NATURE ITSELF = CREATE ACTIVITY1 ! BELIEF 9 ! EXI/5CE ( 09F]IOR0 & 0SELECT0 NATIONALITIES OR RACES FOLL[S QUITE SELFEVID5TLYESPECIALLY :5 ! SELECT D]IVE A B5EFIT FROM ! SLAVE LABOR ( ! 9F]IOR & >E RELIEV$ BY !M ( C>E = !IR [N EXI/5CE4 

,BUT ! BELIEF 9 ! ALLEG$ CREATIVE CAPACITY ( P[] RE/S ON A CRUEL SELF-DECEPTION4 ,P[]1 AS SU*1 IS :OLLY 9CAPABLE ( CREAT+ ANY?+1 BE+ TOTALLY DEP5D5T ON ! CREATIVE ACTIVITY ( ITS SUBJECTS1 IF IT IS TO EXI/ AT ALL4 ,NO?+ IS MORE ]RONE\S ?AN ! CU/OM>Y VIEW ( ! /ATE AS ! REAL CREATOR ( CULTURAL PROGRESS4 ,! OPPOSITE IS TRUE4 ,! /ATE WAS FROM ! V]Y BEG9N+ ! H9D]+ =CE :I* OPPOS$ ! DEVELOPM5T ( EV]Y HI<] CULTURAL =M ) \TSPOK5 MISGIV+4 ,/ATES CREATE NO CULTURE2 9DE$1 !Y >E (T5 DE/ROY$ BY HI<] =MS ( CULTURE4 ,P[] & CULTURE >E1 9 ! DEEPE/ S5SE1 IRRECONCILABLE OPPOSITES1 ! /R5G? ( ONE ALWAYS GO+ H& 9 H& ) ! WEAKNESS ( ! O!R4 ,A P[]FUL /ATE MA*9E IS ! GREATE/ OB/ACLE TO EV]Y CULTURAL DEVELOPM5T4 ,:]E /ATES >E DY+ OR :]E !IR P[] IS /ILL LIMIT$ TO A M9IMUM1 !RE CULTURE FL\RI%ES BE/4 

,?IS IDEA WILL APPE> D>+ TO MO/ ( US BECAUSE A CLE>] VISION ( ! REAL CAUSES ( CULTURAL EV5TS HAS BE5 COMPLETELY OBSCUR$ BY A M5DACI\S $UCATION4 ,TO CONS]VE ! 9T]E/S ( ! /ATE \R BRA9S HAVE BE5 CR[D$ ) A MASS ( FALSE NOTIONS & SILLY ASSUMPTIONS1 SO ?AT WE >E MO/LY 9CAPABLE ( APPROA*+ HI/ORICAL MATT]S )\T PREJUDICE4 ,WE SMILE AT ! SIMPLICITY ( ! ,*9ESE *RONICL]S :O RECORD ( ! LEG5D>Y RUL]1 ,FUHI1 ?AT HE 5D[$ HIS SUBJECTS ) ! >TS ( ! *ASE1 ( FI%]Y & ( /OCKRAIS+1 ?AT HE 9V5T$ ! FIR/ MUSICAL 9/RUM5TS & TAU<T !M ! USE ( LETT]S4 ,BUT WE REPEAT QUITE ?\<TLESSLY :AT HAS BE5 DRUMM$ 9TO US CONC]N+ ! CULTURE ( ! ,PH>AOHS1 ! CREATIVE ACTIVITY ( ! ,BABYLONIAN K+S1 ! ALLEG$ CULTURAL A*IEVEM5TS ( ,ALEX&] ( ,MAC$ONIA OR ( ,FR$]ICK ! ,GREAT4 ,WE DO NOT EV5 SUSPECT ?AT IT IS ALL F\L WIT*CRAFT1 LY+ HUMBUG )\T A GLIMM] ( TRU? 9 IT1 :I* HAS BE5 REPEAT$ SO (T5 ?AT = MO/ ( US IT HAS BECOME A CLE> C]TA9TY4 

,CULTURE IS NOT CREAT$ BY COMM&4 ,IT CREATES ITSELF1 >IS+ SPONTANE\SLY FROM ! NECESSITIES ( M5 & !IR SOCIAL COOP]ATIVE ACTIVITY4 ,NO RUL] C\LD EV] COMM& M5 TO FA%ION ! FIR/ TOOLS1 FIR/ USE FIRE1 9V5T ! TELESCOPE & ! /EAM 5G9E1 OR COMPOSE ! ,ILIAD4 ,CULTURAL VALUES DO NOT >ISE BY DIRECTION ( HI<] AU?ORITIES4 ,!Y CANNOT BE COMPELL$ BY DICTATES NOR CALL$ 9TO LIFE BY ! RESOLUTION ( LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLIES4 

,NEI!R 9 ,EGYPT NOR 9 ,BABYLON1 NOR 9 ANY O!R L& WAS CULTURE CREAT$ BY ! HEADS ( SY/EMS ( POLITICAL P[]4 ,!Y M]ELY APPROPRIAT$ AN ALREADY EXI/+ & DEVELOP$ CULTURE & MADE IT SUBS]VI5T TO !IR SPECIAL POLITICAL PURPOSES4 ,BUT !REBY !Y PUT ! AX TO ! ROOT ( ALL FUTURE CULTURAL PROGRESS1 = 9 ! SAME DEGREE AS POLITICAL P[] BECAME CONFIRM$1 & SUBJECT$ ALL SOCIAL LIFE TO ITS 9FLU5CE1 OCCURR$ ! 9N] ATROPHY ( ! OLD =MS ( CULTURE1 UNTIL )9 !IR =M] FIELD ( ACTION NO FRE% GR[? C\LD />T4 

,POLITICAL P[] ALWAYS /RIVES = UNI=MITY4 ,9 ITS /UPID DESIRE TO ORD] & CONTROL ALL SOCIAL EV5TS ACCORD+ TO A DEF9ITE PR9CIPLE1 IT IS ALWAYS EAG] TO R$UCE ALL HUMAN ACTIVITY TO A S+LE PATT]N4 ,!REBY IT COMES 9TO IRRECONCILABLE OPPOSITION ) ! CREATIVE =CES ( ALL HI<] CULTURE1 :I* IS EV] ON ! LOOK\T = NEW =MS & NEW ORGANIZATIONS & CONSEQU5TLY AS DEF9ITELY DEP5D5T ON V>IETY & UNIV]SALITY 9 HUMAN UND]TAK+S AS IS POLITICAL P[] ON FIX$ =MS & PATT]NS4 ,BETWE5 ! /RUGGLES = POLITICAL & ECONOMIC P[] ( ! PRIVILEG$ M9ORITIES 9 SOCIETY & ! CULTURAL ACTIVITIES ( ! PEOPLE !RE ALWAYS EXI/S AN 9N] CONFLICT4 ,!Y >E EF=TS 9 OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS :I* WILL NEV] VOLUNT>ILY UNITE & CAN ONLY BE GIV5 A DECEPTIVE APPE>ANCE ( H>MONY BY EXT]NAL COMPULSION & SPIRITUAL OPPRESSION4 ,! ,*9ESE SAGE1 ,LAOTSE1 HAD 9 M9D ?IS OPPOSITION :5 HE SAID3 

,EXP]I5CE TEA*ES ?AT NONE CAN GUIDE ! COMMUNITY2 

,! COMMUNITY IS COLLABORATION ( =CES2 

AS SU*1 ?\<T %[S1  

IT CANNOT BE L$ BY ! /R5G? ( ONE MAN4 

,TO ORD] IT IS TO SET IT 9 DISORD]2 

,TO FIX IT IS TO UNSETTLE IT4 

,= ! CONDUCT ( ! 9DIVIDUAL *ANGES3 

,H]E GOES =W>D1 !RE DRAWS BACK2 

,H]E %[S W>M?1 !RE REVEALS COLD2 

,H]E EX]TS /R5G?1 !RE DISPLAYS WEAKNESS2 

,H]E /IRS PASSION1 !RE BR+S PEACE4 

,& SO3 

,! P]FECT$ ONE %UNS DESIRE = P[]1 

%UNS ! LURE ( P[]1 

%UNS ! GLAM\R ( P[]4 .<#b.> 

,NIETZS*E ALSO HAD A PR(\ND CONCEPTION ( ?IS TRU?1 AL?\< HIS 9N] DI%>MONY & HIS CON/ANT OSCILLATION BETWE5 \TLIV$ AU?ORIT>IAN CONCEPTS & TRULY LIB]T>IAN IDEAS ALL HIS LIFE PREV5T$ HIM FROM DRAW+ ! NATURAL D$UCTIONS FROM IT4 ,NEV]!LESS1 :AT HE HAS WRITT5 AB\T ! DECL9E ( CULTURE 9 ,G]MANY IS ( ! MO/ IMPRESSIVE SIGNIFICANCE & F9DS ITS CONFIRMATION 9 ! DECL9E ( CULTURE ( EV]Y SORT4 

,NO ONE CAN F9ALLY SP5D MORE ?AN HE HAS4 ,?AT HOLDS GOOD = 9DIVIDUALS2 IT HOLDS GOOD = PEOPLES4 ,IF ONE SP5DS ONESELF = P[]1 = HI< POLITICS1 = HUSB&RY1 = COMM]CE1 ,P>LIAM5T>ISM1 MILIT>Y 9T]E/S -- IF ONE GIVES AWAY ?AT AM\NT ( REASON1 E>NE/NESS1 WILL1 SELFMA/]Y1 :I* CON/ITUTES ONE'S REAL SELF1 = ! ONE ?+1 HE WILL NOT HAVE IT = ! O!R4 ,CULTURE & ! /ATE -- LET NO ONE BE DECEIV$ AB\T ?IS>E ANTAGONI/S3 ,! ',CULTURE ,/ATE' IS M]ELY A MOD]N IDEA4 ,! ONE LIVES ON ! O!R1 ! ONE PROSP]S AT ! EXP5SE ( ! O!R4 ,ALL GREAT P]IODS ( CULTURE >E P]IODS ( POLITICAL DECL9E4 ,:ATEV] IS GREAT 9 A CULTURAL S5SE IS NONPOLITICAL1 IS EV5 ANTIPOLITICAL4 .<#c.> 

,IF ! /ATE DOES NOT SUCCE$ 9 GUID+ ! CULTURAL =CES )9 ITS SPH]E ( P[] 9TO C\RSES FAVORABLE TO ITS 5DS1 & ?US EXHIBIT ! GR[? ( HI<] =MS1 !SE V]Y HI<] =MS WILL SOON] OR LAT] DE/ROY ! POLITICAL FRAME :I* !Y RI<TLY REG>D AS A H9DRANCE4 ,BUT IF ! POLITICAL MA*9E IS /RONG 5\< TO =CE ! CULTURAL LIFE = ANY CONSID]ABLE P]IOD 9TO DEF9ITE =MS1 !N IT WILL GRADUALLY SEEK \T O!R *ANNELS1 NOT BE+ B\ND BY ANY POLITICAL LIMITATIONS4 ,EV]Y HI<] =M ( CULTURE1 IF IT IS NOT TOO GREATLY H9D]$ 9 ITS NATURAL DEVELOPM5T BY POLITICAL OB/RUCTIONS1 /RIVES CON/ANTLY TO R5EW ,ITS CREATIVE URGE TO CON/RUCT4 ,EV]Y SUCCESSFUL WORK >\SES ! NE$ = GREAT] P]FECTION & DEEP] SPIRITUALITY4 ,CULTURE IS ALWAYS CREATIVE1 ALWAYS SEEKS NEW =MS ( ACTIVITY4 ,IT IS LIKE ! TREES ( ! TROPICAL JUNGLE :OSE BRAN*ES :5 !Y T\* ! E>? ALWAYS TAKE NEW ROOT4 

,P[] IS NEV] CREATIVE4 ,IT USES ! CREATIVE =CE ( A GIV5 CULTURE TO CLO! ITS NAK$NESS & TO 9CREASE ITS DIGNITY4 ,P[] IS ALWAYS A NEGATIVE ELEM5T 9 HI/ORY4 ,IT DECORATES ITSELF 9 FALSE FEA!RS TO GIVE ,ITS IMPORTANCE ! APPE>ANCE ( CREATIVE =CE4 ,H]E ALSO ! WORDS 9 ,NIETZS*E'S ,Z>A?U/RA HIT ! BULL'S EYE3 

,:]EV] A PEOPLE /ILL EXI/S1 IT DOES NOT UND]/& ! /ATE BUT HATES IT LIKE ! EVIL EYE & A S9 AGA9/ LAWS & CU/OMS4 ,?IS SIGN ,I GIVE Y\3 ,EV]Y PEOPLE SPEAKS ITS [N LANGUAGE ( GOOD & EVIL1 :I* ITS NEI<BOR DOES NOT UND]/&4 ,IT 9V5T$ ITS [N LANGUAGE = LAWS & CU/OMS4 ,BUT ! /ATE LIES 9 ALL ! TONGUES ( GOOD & EVIL2 & :ATEV] IT SAYS1 IT LIES4 ,& :ATEV] IT HAS1 IT HAS /OL54 ,EV]Y?+ AB\T IT IS FALSE4 ,IT BITES ) FALSE TEE?1 RABIDLY4 ,EV5 ITS GUTS >E FALSE4 

,P[] ALWAYS ACTS DE/RUCTIVELY1 = ITS POSSESSORS >E EV] /RIV+ TO LACE ALL PH5OM5A ( SOCIAL LIFE 9TO A CORSET ( !IR LAWS TO GIVE !M A DEF9ITE %APE4 ,ITS M5TAL EXPRESSION IS DEAD DOGMA2 ITS PHYSICAL MANIFE/ATION ( LIFE1 BRUTE =CE4 ,?IS LACK ( 9TELLIG5CE 9 ITS 5DEAVORS LEAVES ITS IMPR9T LIKEWISE ON ! P]SONS ( ITS REPRES5TATIVES1 GRADUALLY MAK+ !M M5TALLY 9F]IOR & BRUTAL1 EV5 ?\< !Y W]E ORIG9ALLY EXCELL5TLY 5D[$4 ,NO?+ DULLS ! M9D & ! S\L ( MAN AS DOES ! ET]NAL MONOTONY ( R\T9E1 & P[] IS ESS5TIALLY R\T9E4 ,S9CE ,HOBBES GAVE TO ! WORLD HIS WORK AB\T ! CITIZ51 ,DE ,CIVE ! IDEAS EXPRESS$ !RE HAVE NEV] QUITE LO/ VOGUE4 ,!Y HAVE 9 ! C\RSE ( ?REE C5TURIES 9 ONE =M OR ANO!R CON/ANTLY OCCUPI$ ! M9DS ( M51 & TODAY DOM9ATE !IR ?\<TS MORE ?AN EV]4 ,BUT AL?\< ,HOBBES1 ! MAT]IALI/1 DID NOT BASE HIS IDEAS ON ! DOGMAS ( ! *UR*1 ?IS DID NOT PREV5T HIM FROM APPROPRIAT+ AS HIS [N ! FATEFUL DICTUM3 0,MAN IS FUNDAM5TALLY WICK$40 ,ALL HIS PHILOSOPHICAL CONTEMPLATIONS >E BAS$ ON ?IS ASSUMPTION4 ,= HIM1 MAN WAS JU/ A BORN BEA/ GUID$ BY SELFI% 9/9CTS1 )\T ANY CONSID]ATION = HIS FELL[S4 ,! /ATE ALONE PUT AN 5D TO ?IS CONDITION ( 0W> ( ALL AGA9/ ALL0 & BECAME A T]RE/RIAL ,PROVID5CE :OSE ORD]+ & PUNI%+ H& PREV5T$ MAN FROM S9K+ HOPELESSLY 9TO ! SL\< ( BE/IALITY4 ,?US1 ACCORD+ TO ,HOBBES1 ! /ATE BECAME ! REAL CREATOR ( CULTURE1 =C+ MAN ) IRON COMPULSION TO RISE TO A HI<] LEVEL ( BE+1 NO MATT] H[ REPUGNANT ?IS MI<T BE TO HIS 9N] NATURE4 ,S9CE !N ?IS FABLE ( ! CULTURAL CREATIVE ROLE ( ! /ATE HAS BE5 5DLESSLY REPEAT$1 & ALLEG$LY CONFIRM$ BY NEW FACTS4 

,& YET ?IS UNT5ABLE CONCEPT CONTRADICTS ALL HI/ORICAL EXP]I5CE4 ,IT IS EXACTLY BY ! /ATE ?AT ! REMNANTS ( BE/IALITY1 MAN'S H]ITAGE FROM ANCI5T ANCE/ORS1 HAVE BE5 C>EFULLY GU>D$ ?R\< ! C5TURIES & CLEV]LY CULTIVAT$4 ,! ,WORLD ,W> ) ITS ABOM9ABLE ME?ODS ( MASS MURD]1 ! CONDITIONS 9 ,MUSSOL9I'S ,ITALY1 9 ,HITL]'S ,?IRD ,REI*1 %\LD CONV9CE EV5 ! BL9DE/ :AT ?IS SOCALL$ 0CULTURE /ATE0 REALLY IS4 

,ALL HI<] UND]/&+1 EV]Y NEW PHASE ( 9TELLECTUAL DEVELOPM5T1 EV]Y EPO*MAK+ ?\<T1 GIV+ M5 NEW VI/AS = !IR CULTURAL ACTIVITIES1 HAS BE5 ABLE TO PREVAIL ONLY ?R\< CON/ANT /RUGGLE ) ! AU?ORITY ( *UR* & /ATE AFT] !IR SUPPORT]S HAD = :OLE EPO*S MADE 5ORM\S SACRIFICES 9 PROP]TY1 LIB]TY & LIFE = !IR CONVICTIONS4 ,:5 SU* R5EWALS ( SPIRITUAL LIFE W]E F9ALLY RECOGNIZ$ BY *UR* & /ATE1 IT WAS ALWAYS BECAUSE !Y HAD 9 TIME BECOME2 IRRESI/IBLE & ?OSE 9 AU?ORITY C\LD NOT HELP !MSELVES4 ,BUT EV5 ?IS RECOGNITION1 GA9$ ONLY AFT] VIOL5T RESI/ANCE1 L$ 9 MO/ CASES TO A PLANN$ DOGMATIZ+ ( ! NEW IDEAS1 :I* UND] ! SPIRITKILL+ GU>DIAN%IP ( P[] GRADUALLY BECAME AS UTT]LY B5UMB$ AS ALL PREVI\S ATTEMPTS AT ! CON/RUCTION ( A NEW 9TELLECTUAL \TLOOK4 

,! V]Y FACT ?AT EV]Y SY/EM ( RUL]%IP IS F\ND$ ON ! WILL ( A PRIVILEG$ M9ORITY :I* HAS SUBJUGAT$ ! COMMON PEOPLE BY CUNN+ OR BRUTE =CE1 :ILE EA* P>TICUL> PHASE ( CULTURE EXPRESSES M]ELY ! ANONYM\S =CE ( ! COMMUNITY1 IS 9DICATIVE ( ! 9N] ANTAGONISM BETWE5 !M4 ,P[] ALWAYS REV]TS TO 9DIVIDUALS OR SMALL GR\PS ( 9DIVIDUALS2 CULTURE HAS ITS ROOTS 9 ! COMMUNITY4 ,P[] IS ALWAYS ! /]ILE ELEM5T 9 SOCIETY1 D5I$ ALL CREATIVE =CE4 ,CULTURE EMBODIES PROCREATIVE WILL1 CREATIVE URGE1 =MATIVE IMPULSE1 ALL YE>N+ = EXPRESSION4 ,P[] IS COMP>ABLE TO HUNG]1 ! SATISFACTION ( :I* KEEPS ! 9DIVIDUAL ALIVE UP TO A C]TA9 AGE LIMIT4 ,CULTURE1 9 ! HI<E/2 S5SE1 IS LIKE ! PROCREATIVE URGE1 :I* KEEPS ! SPECIES ALIVE4 ,! 9DIVIDUAL DIES1 BUT NEV] SOCIETY4 ,/ATES P]I%1 CULTURES ONLY *ANGE !IR SC5E ( ACTION & =MS ( EXPRESSION4 

,! /ATE WELCOMES ONLY ?OSE =MS ( CULTURAL ACTIVITY :I* HELP IT TO MA9TA9 ITS P[]4 ,IT P]SECUTES ) IMPLACABLE HATR$ ANY ACTIVITY :I* OV]/EPS ! LIMITS SET BY IT & CALLS ITS EXI/5CE 9TO QUE/ION4 ,IT IS1 !RE=E1 AS S5SELESS AS IT IS M5DACI\S TO SPEAK ( A 0/ATE CULTURE02 = IT IS PRECISELY ! /ATE :I* LIVES 9 CON/ANT W>F>E ) ALL HI<] =MS ( 9TELLECTUAL CULTURE & ALWAYS TRIES TO AVOID ! CREATIVE WILL ( CULTURE4 

,BUT AL?\< P[] & CULTURE >E OPPOSITE POLES 9 HI/ORY1 !Y NEV]!LESS HAVE A COMMON FIELD ( ACTIVITY 9 ! SOCIAL COLLABORATION ( M51 & MU/ NECESS>ILY F9D A MODUS VIV5DI4 ,! MORE COMPLETELY MAN'S CULTURAL ACTIVITY COMES UND] ! CONTROL ( P[]1 ! MORE CLE>LY WE RECOGNIZE ! FIXATION ( ITS =MS1 ! CRIPPL+ ( ITS CREATIVE IMAG9ATIVE VIGOR & ! GRADUAL ATROPHY ( ITS PRODUCTIVE WILL4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 ! MORE VIGOR\SLY SOCIAL CULTURE BREAKS ?R\< ! LIMITATIONS SET BY POLITICAL P[]1 ! LESS IS IT H9D]$ 9 ITS NATURAL DEVELOPM5T BY RELIGI\S & POLITICAL PRESSURE4 ,9 ?IS EV5T IT GR[S 9TO AN IMM$IATE DANG] TO ! P]MAN5CE ( P[] 9 G5]AL4 

,! CULTURAL =CES ( SOCIETY 9VOLUNT>ILY REBEL AGA9/ ! CO]CION ( 9/ITUTIONS ( POLITICAL P[] ON :OSE %>P CORN]S !Y B>K !IR %9S4 ,CONSCI\SLY OR UNCONSCI\SLY !Y TRY TO BREAK ! RIGID =MS :I* OB/RUCT !IR NATURAL DEVELOPM5T1 CON/ANTLY ]ECT+ NEW B>S BE=E IT4 ,! POSSESSORS ( P[]1 H[EV]1 MU/ ALWAYS BE ON ! WAT*1 LE/ ! 9TELLECTUAL CULTURE ( ! TIMES /RAY 9TO =BIDD5 PA?S1 & SO P]HAPS DI/URB OR EV5 TOTALLY 9HIBIT !IR POLITICAL ACTIVITIES4 ,FROM ?IS CONT9U$ /RUGGLE ( TWO ANTAGONI/IC AIMS1 ! ONE ALWAYS REPRES5T+ ! CA/E 9T]E/S ( ! PRIVILEG$ M9ORITY1 ! O!R ! 9T]E/S ( ! COMMUNITY1 A C]TA9 LEGAL RELATION%IP GRADUALLY >ISES1 ON ! BASIS ( :I* ! LIMITS ( 9FLU5CE BETWE5 /ATE & SOCIETY1 POLITICS & ECONOMICS9 %ORT1 BETWE5 P[] & CULTURE >E P]IODICALLY READJU/$ & CONFIRM$ BY CON/ITUTIONS4 

,:AT WE MEAN TODAY BY 0LAW0 & 0CON/ITUTION0 IS M]ELY ! 9TELLECTUAL PRECIPITATE ( ?IS 5DLESS /RUGGLE1 & 9CL9ES 9 ITS PRACTICAL EFFECTS MORE TO ONE SIDE OR ! O!R ACCORD+ AS P[] OR CULTURE A*IEVES A TEMPOR>Y PREPOND]ANCE 9 ! LIFE ( ! COMMUNITY4 ,S9CE A /ATE )\T SOCIETY1 POLITICS )\T ECONOMICS1 P[] )\T CULTURE1 C\LD NOT EXI/ = A MOM5T &1 ON ! O!R H&1 CULTURE HAS ?US F> NOT BE5 ABLE TO ELIM9ATE ! P[] PR9CIPLE FROM ! COMMUNAL SOCIAL LIFE ( M51 LAW BECOMES ! BUFF] BETWE5 ! TWO1 WEAK5S ! %OCK & GU>DS SOCIETY AGA9/ A CONT9U\S /ATE ( CATA/ROPHE4 

,9 LAW IT IS PRIM>ILY NECESS>Y TO DI/+UI% TWO =MS3 0NATURAL LAW0 & SOCALL$ 0POSITIVE LAW40 ,A NATURAL LAW EXI/S :]E SOCIETY HAS NOT YET BE5 POLITICALLY ORGANIS$BE=E ! /ATE ) ITS CA/E & CLASS SY/EM HAS MADE ITS APPE>ANCE4 ,9 ?IS 9/ANCE1 LAW IS ! RESULT ( MUTUAL AGREEM5TS BETWE5 M5 CONFRONT+ ONE ANO!R AS FREE & EQUAL1 MOTIVAT$ BY ! SAME 9T]E/S & 5JOY+ EQUAL DIGNITY AS HUMAN BE+S4 ,POSITIVE LAW FIR/ DEVELOPS )9 ! POLITICAL FRAMEWORK ( ! /ATE & CONC]NS M5 :O >E SEP>AT$ FROM ONE ANO!R BY REASON ( DIFF]5T ECONOMIC 9T]E/S & :O1 ON ! BASIS ( SOCIAL 9EQUALITY1 BELONG TO V>I\S CA/ES & CLASSES4 

,POSITIVE LAW BECOMES EFFECTIVE ON ! ONE H& BY GIV+ ! /ATE 7:I* EV]Y:]E 9 HI/ORY HAS ITS ROOTS 9 BRUTE =CE1 CONQUE/ & 5SLAVEM5T ( ! CONQU]$7 A LEGAL *>ACT]2 ON ! O!R H&1 BY TRY+ TO A*IEVE AN ADJU/M5T BETWE5 ! RI<TS1 DUTIES & PRIVILEGES ( ! V>I\S CLASSES ( SOCIETY4 ,H[EV]1 ?IS ADJU/M5T HAS P]MAN5CE ONLY AS LONG AS ! MASS ( ! CONQU]$ SUBMITS TO ! EXI/+ CONDITION ( ! LAW OR DOES NOT FEEL ITSELF /RONG 5\< TO FI<T AGA9/ IT4 ,IT *ANGES :5 ! DEM& ( ! PEOPLE = A RE=MATION ( ! LAWS BECOMES SO URG5T & IRRESI/IBLE ?AT ! RUL+ P[]OBEY+ NECESSITY & NOT AN 9N] IMPULSEHAS TO TAKE ACC\NT ( ?IS DESIRE IF !Y DO NOT WI% TO RUN ! RISK ( BE+ COMPLETELY OV]?R[N BY A VIOL5T REVOLUTION4 ,:5 ?IS HAPP5S1 ! NEW GOV]NM5T =MULATES NEW LAWS :I* WILL BE ! MORE LIB]AL ! MORE VIGOR\SLY ! REVOLUTION>Y WILL LIVES & F9DS EXPRESSION AMONG ! PEOPLE4 

,9 ! DESPOTIC REALMS ( ANCI5T ,ASIA1 :]E ALL P[] WAS EMBODI$ 9 ! P]SON ( ! RUL]1 :OSE DECISIONS W]E UN9FLU5C$ BY ! PROTE/ ( ! COMMUNITY1 P[] WAS LAW 9 ! FULLE/ MEAN+ ( ! WORD4 ,S9CE ! RUL] WAS REV]$ AS ! IMM$IATE DESC5DANT ( ! GODHEAD1 HIS WILL PREVAIL$ AS ! HI<E/ LAW ( ! L&1 BROOK+ NO O!R PRET5SIONS4 ,SO1 = 9/ANCE1 ! FAM\S CODE ( ,HAMMURABI WAS BAS$ :OLLY ON 0DIV9E LAW0 REVEAL$ TO M5 BY SACR$ COMM&1 & 9 CONSEQU5CE ( ITS ORIG9 NOT SUBJECT TO HUMAN JUDGM5T4 

,H[EV]1 ! LEGAL CONCEPTS EXPRESS$ 9 ! CODES ( AN AUTOCRAT >E NOT M]ELY ! WILL ( A DESPOT4 ,!Y >E ALWAYS B\ND UP ) ANCI5T MORALS & TRADITIONAL CU/OMS :I* HAVE 9 ! C\RSE ( C5TURIES BECOME HABITUAL 9 M5 & >E ! RESULT ( !IR COMMUNAL SOCIAL LIFE4 ,! ,CODE ( ,HAMMURABI IS NO EXCEPTION TO ?IS RULE1 = ALL ! PRACTICAL PRECEPTS ( ,BABYLONIAN LAW1 SPR++ FROM ! NE$S ( SOCIAL LIFE1 ALREADY HAD VALIDITY AMONG ! PEOPLE LONG BE=E ,HAMMURABI PUT AN 5D TO ! RULE ( ! ,ELAMITES1 & BY ! CONQUE/ ( ,L>SA & ,JAMUTBAL LAID ! F\NDATION ( A UNIFI$ MON>*Y4 

,RI<T H]E APPE>S ! DUAL *>ACT] ( ! LAW1 :I* CANNOT BE D5I$ EV5 UND] ! MO/ FAVORABLE CIRCUM/ANCES4 ,ON ! ONE H&1 LAW GIVES ANCI5T CU/OM1 :I* HAS TAK5 ROOT FROM ANTIQUITY AMONG ! PEOPLE AS ! SO-CALL$ 0COMMON LAW10 A DEF9ITE CONT5T4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 IT PROVIDES = ! PR]OGATIVES ( PRIVILEG$ CA/ES A LAWFUL ASPECT1 :I* CONCEALS !IR UNHOLY ORIG94 ,ONLY BY A C>EFUL SCRUT9Y ( ?IS PAT5T MY/IFICATION CAN WE UND]/& ! PR(\ND BELIEF ( M5 9 ! SACR$NESS ( LAW3 IT FLATT]S !IR S5SE ( JU/ICE & AT ! SAME TIME E/ABLI%ES !IR DEP5D5CE ON A HI<] P[]4 

,?IS 9N] DISCREPANCY BECOMES MO/ CLE>LY APP>5T :5 ! PHASE ( ABSOLUTE DESPOTISM HAS BE5 OV]COME & ! COMMUNITY P>TICIPATES MORE OR LESS 9 ! MAK+ ( ! LAW4 ,ALL ! GREAT CONTE/S 9 ! BODY POLITIC HAVE BE5 CONTE/S AB\T LAW1 = M5 HAVE ALWAYS TRI$ TO CONFIRM !IR NEWLY GA9$ RI<TS & LIB]TIES BY ! LAWS ( ! /ATE2 :I* NATURALLY L$ TO NEW DIFFICULTIES & DISAPPO9TM5TS4 ,?IS IS ! REASON :Y ?US F> EV]Y /RUGGLE = RI<T HAS *ANG$ TO A /RUGGLE = P[]1 :Y ! REVOLUTION>Y ( YE/]DAY HAS BECOME ! REACTION>Y ( TODAY2 = IT IS NOT ! =M ( P[] BUT P[] ITSELF :I* IS ! ROOT ( ! EVIL4 ,EV]Y P[]1 ( :ATEV] K9D1 HAS ! IMPULSE TO R$UCE ! RI<TS ( ! COMMUNITY TO A M9IMUM TO MAKE SECURE ITS [N EXI/5CE4 ,SOCIETY1 ON ! O!R H&1 /RIVES = A CON/ANT EXT5SION ( ITS RI<TS & LIB]TIES :I* IT SEEKS TO A*IEVE BY ! LIMITATION ( ! FUNCTIONS ( ! /ATE4 ,?IS IS ESPECIALLY APP>5T 9 REVOLUTION>Y P]IODS :5 M5 >E FILL$ ) ! LONG+ = NEW =MS ( SOCIAL CULTURE4 

,! CONTE/ BETWE5 /ATE & SOCIETY1 P[] & CULTURE1 IS ?US ,COMP>ABLE TO ! MOTION ( A P5DULUM :I* PROCE$S ALWAYS FROM ONE ( ITS TWO POLESAU?ORITYSL[LY /RUGGL+ T[>D ! OPPOSITE POLEFRE$OM4 ,& JU/ AS !RE WAS ONCE A TIME :5 MI<T & RI<T W]E ONE1 SO WE >E N[ APP>5TLY MOV+ T[>D A TIME :5 EV]Y =M ( RUL]%IP %ALL VANI%1 LAW YIELD PLACE TO JU/ICE1 LIB]TIES TO FRE$OM4 

,EV]Y RECON/RUCTION ( ! LAW BY ! 9CORPORATION ( NEW RI<TS & LIB]TIES OR ! EXT5SION ( ?OSE ALREADY EXI/+ EMANATES FROM ! PEOPLE1 NEV] FROM ! /ATE4 ,! LIB]TIES WE 5JOY TODAY1 9 A MORE OR LESS LIMIT$ DEGREE1 ! PEOPLE [E NEI!R TO ! GOOD WILL NOR ! SPECIAL FAVOR ( GOV]NM5T4 ,ON ! CONTR>Y1 ! POSSESSORS ( PUBLIC P[] HAVE LEFT NO MEANS UNTRI$ EI!R TO PREV5T ! E/ABLI%M5T ( NEW RI<TS OR TO R5D] !M 9EFFECTIVE4 ,GREAT MASS MOVEM5TS1 9DE$ ACTUAL REVOLUTIONS1 W]E NECESS>Y TO W9 FROM ! POSSESSORS ( P[] EV]Y LITTLE CONCESSION2 !Y W\LD NEV] HAVE YIELD$ ONE ( !M VOLUNT>ILY4 

,IT IS1 !RE=E1 A COMPLETE MISCONCEPTION ( HI/ORICAL FACTS ?AT LEADS A HI<FL[N RADICALISM TO DECL>E ?AT POLITICAL RI<TS & LIB]TIES AS LAID D[N 9 ! CON/ITUTIONS ( ! V>I\S /ATES >E )\T SIGNIFICANCE BECAUSE !Y HAVE BE5 =MULAT$ & CONFIRM$ BY GOV]NM5T4 ,IT IS NOT BECAUSE ! POSSESSORS ( P[] VIEW$ !SE RI<TS SYMPA!TICALLY ?AT !Y E/ABLI%$ !M1 BUT BECAUSE !Y W]E COMPELL$ BY \TW>D PRESSURE4 ,! SPIRITUAL CULTURE ( ! TIME SOME:]E BUR/ ! B\NDS ( ! POLITICAL FRAME1 & ! RUL+ P[]S HAD TO SUBMIT TO =CES :I* = ! TIME BE+ !Y C\LD NOT NEGLECT4 

,POLITICAL RI<TS & LIB]TIES W]E NEV] WON 9 LEGISLATIVE BODIES1 BUT COMPELL$ FROM !M BY EXT]NAL PRESSURE4 ,MOREOV]1 EV5 LEGAL GU>ANTEE BY NO MEANS GIVES SECURITY ?AT SU* RI<TS WILL BE P]MAN5T4 ,GOV]NM5TS >E EV] READY TO CURTAIL EXI/+ RI<TS OR TO ABOLI% !M 5TIRELY IF !Y BELIEVE ! C\NTRY WILL NOT RESI/4 ,IT IS TRUE ?AT ATTEMPTS AT CURTAILM5T HAVE SOMETIMES RESULT$ DISA/R\SLY = POSSESSORS ( P[] :O DID NOT RI<TLY E/IMATE ! /R5G? ( !IR OPPON5TS & DID NOT KN[ H[ TO *OOSE ! PROP] TIME = ACTION4 ,*>LES ,I HAD TO PAY = HIS ATTEMPT ) HIS LIFE2 O!RS1 ) ! LOSS ( !IR P[]4 ,BUT ?IS DID NOT PREV5T CON/ANT NEW ATTEMPTS FROM BE+ MADE 9 ?IS DIRECTION4 ,EV5 9 ?OSE C\NTRIES :]E C]TA9 RI<TS LIKE FRE$OM ( ! PRESS1 ( ASSEMBLY1 ( ORGANIZATION1 & SO ON1 HAVE = C5TURIES BE5 E/ABLI%$ AMONG ! PEOPLE1 ! GOV]NM5TS SEIZE EV]Y FAVORABLE OPPORTUNITY TO CURTAIL !SE RI<TS1 OR BY JUDICIAL HAIRSPLITT+ TO GIVE !M A N>R[] 9T]PRETATION4 ,AM]ICA & ,5GL& FURNI% US 9 ?IS RESPECT ) MANY EXAMPLES ?AT CON/ITUTE FOOD = REFLECTION4 ,( ! FAM\S ,WEIM> CON/ITUTION ( ! ,G]MANS1 PUT \T ( COMMISSION ON ALMO/ ANY RA9Y DAY1 IT IS H>DLY WOR? :ILE TO SPEAK4 

,RI<TS & LIB]TIES DO NOT P]SI/ BECAUSE WRITT5 D[N LEGALLY ON A SCRAP ( PAP]4 ,!Y BECOME P]MAN5T ONLY :5 !Y HAVE BECOME A VITAL NECESSITY = ! PEOPLE2 HAVE1 SO TO SPEAK1 5T]$ !IR V]Y FLE% & BLOOD4 ,!Y WILL BE GIV5 REG>D ONLY AS LONG AS ?IS NECESSITY SURVIVES AMONG ! PEOPLE4 ,:5 ?IS IS NO LONG] TRUE1 NO P>LIAM5T>Y OPPOSITION AVAILS1 & NO APPEAL1 H[EV] PASSIONATE1 TO RESPECT ! CON/ITUTION4 ,! REC5T HI/ORY ( ,EUROPE PROVIDES /RIK+ EXAMPLES4 

.<#a.> ,PLATO1 ,! ,REPUBLIC4 ,?IRD ,BOOK4 

.<#b.> ,LAO TSE1 ,! ,C\RSE & ! ,RI<T ,WAY4 ,TRANSLAT$ FROM ! ,G]MAN ( ,ALEX&] ,UL>4 ,PUBLI%$ BY ! ,9SELBU*]EI1 ,LEIPZIG4 

.<#c.> ,FRI$RI* ,NIETZS*E1 ,GOTZ5,DAMMGRUNG 70,! ,TWILI<T ( ! ,IDOLS074 

,FROM 3 ,AN>*Y ,>*IVES4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,NOVEMB] #c1 #aicf 3 ,P>T #a1 ,*APT] #d -- ,PUBLICATION4 
,FEBRU>Y #i1 #bag 3 ,P>T #a1 ,*APT] #d -- ,ADD$4 

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