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,MUTUAL ,AID ,AMONG ,ANIMALS 7,CONT9U$7 

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,AU?OR 3 ,PET] ,KROPOTK9 

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,PHOTO BY ,DAVID1,C,C ,B,Y-,N,C-,N,D ,LIC5SE ,MUTUAL ,AID3 ,A ,FACTOR ( ,EVOLUTION 

,PET] ,KROPOTK9 

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7CONT9U$7 

,MIGRATIONS ( BIRDS4-- ,BRE$+ ASSOCIATIONS4 -- ,AUTUMN SOCIETIES4 -- ,MAMMALS3 SMALL NUMB] ( UNSOCIABLE SPECIES4 -- ,HUNT+ ASSOCIATIONS ( WOLVES1 LIONS1 ETC4 -- ,SOCIETIES ( ROD5TS2 ( RUM9ANTS2 ( MONKEYS4 -- ,MUTUAL ,AID 9 ! /RUGGLE = LIFE4 -- ,D>W9'S >GUM5TS TO PROVE ! /RUGGLE = LIFE )9 ! SPECIES4 -- ,NATURAL *ECKS TO OV]-MULTIPLICATION4 -- ,SUPPOS$ EXT]M9ATION ( 9T]M$IATE L9KS4 -- ,ELIM9ATION ( COMPETITION 9 ,NATURE4 

,AS SOON AS SPR+ COMES BACK TO ! TEMP]ATE ZONE1 MYRIADS & MYRIADS ( BIRDS :I* >E SCATT]$ OV] ! W>M] REGIONS ( ! ,S\? COME TOGE!R 9 NUMB]LESS B&S1 &1 FULL ( VIGOR & JOY1 HA/5 NOR?W>DS TO RE> !IR (FSPR+4 ,EA* ( \R H$GES1 EA* GROVE1 EA* OCEAN CLIFF1 & EA* ( ! LAKES & PONDS ) :I* ,NOR!RN ,AM]ICA1 ,NOR!RN ,EUROPE1 & ,NOR!RN ,ASIA >E DOTT$ TELL US AT ?AT TIME ( ! YE> ! TALE ( :AT MUTUAL AID MEANS = ! BIRDS2 :AT =CE1 5]GY1 & PROTECTION IT CONF]S TO EV]Y LIV+ BE+1 H[EV] FEEBLE & DEF5SELESS IT O!RWISE MI<T BE4 ,TAKE1 = 9/ANCE1 ONE ( ! NUMB]LESS LAKES ( ! ,RUSSIAN & ,SIB]IAN ,/EPPES4 ,ITS %ORES >E PEOPL$ ) MYRIADS ( AQUATIC BIRDS1 BELONG+ TO AT LEA/ A SCORE ( DIFF]5T SPECIES1 ALL LIV+ 9 P]FECT PEACE-ALL PROTECT+ ONE ANO!R4 

0,= SEV]AL HUNDR$ Y>DS FROM ! %ORE ! AIR IS FILL$ ) GULLS & T]NS1 AS ) SN[-FLAKES ON A W9T] DAY4 ,?\S&S ( PLOV]S & S&-C\RS]S RUN OV] ! BEA*1 SE>*+ !IR FOOD1 :I/L+1 & SIMPLY 5JOY+ LIFE4 ,FUR!R ON1 ON ALMO/ EA* WAVE1 A DUCK IS ROCK+1 :ILE HI<] UP Y\ NOTICE ! FLOCKS ( ! ,CAS>KI DUCKS4 ,EXUB]ANT LIFE SW>MS EV]Y:]E40#a 

,& H]E >E ! ROBB]S -- ! /RONGE/1 ! MO/ CUNN+ ONES1 ?OSE 0IDEALLY ORGANIZ$ = ROBB]Y40 ,& Y\ HE> !IR HUNGRY1 ANGRY1 DISMAL CRIES AS = H\RS 9 SUCCESSION !Y WAT* ! OPPORTUNITY ( SNAT*+ FROM ?IS MASS ( LIV+ BE+S ONE S+LE UNPROTECT$ 9DIVIDUAL4 ,BUT AS SOON AS !Y APPROA*1 !IR PRES5CE IS SIGNAL$ BY DOZ5S ( VOLUNT>Y S5TRIES1 & HUNDR$S ( GULLS & T]NS SET TO *ASE ! ROBB]4 ,MADD5$ BY HUNG]1 ! ROBB] SOON AB&ONS HIS USUAL PRECAUTIONS3 HE SUDD5LY DA%ES 9TO ! LIV+ MASS2 BUT1 ATTACK$ FROM ALL SIDES1 HE AGA9 IS COMPELL$ TO RETREAT4 ,FROM %E] DESPAIR HE FALLS UPON ! WILD DUCKS2 BUT ! 9TELLIG5T1 SOCIAL BIRDS RAPIDLY GA!R 9 A FLOCK & FLY AWAY IF ! ROBB] IS AN ]NE2 !Y PLUNGE 9TO ! LAKE IF IT IS A FALCON2 OR !Y RAISE A CL\D ( WAT]-DU/ & BEWILD] ! ASSAILANT IF IT IS A KITE4#b ,& :ILE LIFE CONT9UES TO SW>M ON ! LAKE1 ! ROBB] FLIES AWAY ) CRIES ( ANG]1 & LOOKS \T = C>RION1 OR = A Y\NG BIRD OR A FIELD-M\SE NOT YET US$ TO OBEY 9 TIME ! W>N+S ( ITS COMRADES4 ,9 ! FACE ( AN EXUB]ANT LIFE1 ! IDEALLY->M$ ROBB] MU/ BE SATISFI$ ) ! (F-FALL ( ?AT LIFE4 

,FUR!R NOR?1 9 ! ,>CTIC >*IPELAGOES1 

  0Y\ MAY SAIL ALONG ! COA/ = MANY MILES & SEE ALL ! L$GES1 ALL ! CLIFFS & CORN]S ( ! M\NTA9-SIDES1 UP TO A HEI<T ( FROM TWO TO FIVE HUNDR$ FEET1 LIT]ALLY COV]$ ) SEA-BIRDS1 :OSE :ITE BREA/S %[ AGA9/ ! D>K ROCKS AS IF ! ROCKS W]E CLOSELY SPR9KL$ ) *ALK SPECKS4 ,! AIR1 NE> & F>1 IS1 SO TO SAY1 FULL ) F[LS40#c  

,EA* ( SU* 0BIRD-M\NTA9S0 IS A LIV+ ILLU/RATION ( MUTUAL AID1 AS WELL AS ( ! 9F9ITE V>IETY ( *>ACT]S1 9DIVIDUAL & SPECIFIC1 RESULT+ FROM SOCIAL LIFE4 ,! OY/]-CAT*] IS R5[N$ = ITS READ9ESS TO ATTACK ! BIRDS ( PREY4 ,! B>GE IS KN[N = ITS WAT*FULNESS1 & IT EASILY BECOMES ! LEAD] ( MORE PLACID BIRDS4 ,! TURN/ONE1 :5 SURR\ND$ BY COMRADES BELONG+ TO MORE 5]GETIC SPECIES1 IS A RA!R TIMOR\S BIRD2 BUT IT UND]TAKES TO KEEP WAT* = ! SECURITY ( ! COMMONWEAL? :5 SURR\ND$ BY SMALL] BIRDS4 ,H]E Y\ HAVE ! DOM9ATIVE SWANS2 !RE1 ! EXTREMELY SOCIABLE KITTIWAKE-GULLS1 AMONG :OM QU>RELS >E R>E & %ORT2 ! PREPOSSESS+ POL> GUILLEMOTS1 :I* CONT9UALLY C>ESS EA* O!R2 ! EGOI/ %E-GOOSE1 :O HAS REPUDIAT$ ! ORPHANS ( A KILL$ COMRADE2 &1 BY H] SIDE1 ANO!R FEMALE :O ADOPTS ANY ONE'S ORPHANS1 & N[ PADDLES SURR\ND$ BY FIFTY OR SIXTY Y\NG/]S1 :OM %E CONDUCTS & C>ES = AS IF !Y ALL W]E H] [N BRE$4 ,SIDE BY SIDE ) ! P5GU9S1 :I* /EAL ONE ANO!R'S EGGS1 Y\ HAVE ! DOTT]ELS1 :OSE FAMILY RELATIONS >E SO 0*>M+ & T\*+0 ?AT EV5 PASSIONATE HUNT]S RECOIL FROM %OOT+ A FEMALE SURR\ND$ BY H] Y\NG ONES2 OR ! EID]-DUCKS1 AMONG :I* 7LIKE ! VELVET-DUCKS1 OR ! COROYAS ( ! ,SAVANNAHS7 SEV]AL FEMALES HAT* TOGE!R 9 ! SAME NE/ OR ! LUMS1 :I* SIT 9 TURN UPON A COMMON COVEY4 ,NATURE IS V>IETY ITSELF1 (F]+ ALL POSSIBLE V>IETIES ( *>ACT]S1 FROM ! BASE/ TO ! HI<E/3 & ?AT IS :Y %E CANNOT BE DEPICT$ BY ANY SWEEP+ ASS]TION4 ,/ILL LESS CAN %E BE JUDG$ FROM ! MORALI/'S PO9T ( VIEW1 BECAUSE ! VIEWS ( ! MORALI/ >E !MSELVES A RESULT -- MO/LY UNCONSCI\S -- ( ! OBS]VATION ( ,NATURE4#d 

,COM+ TOGE!R AT NE/+-TIME IS SO COMMON ) MO/ BIRDS ?AT MORE EXAMPLES >E SC>CELY NE$$4 ,\R TREES >E CR[N$ ) GR\PS ( CR[S' NE/S2 \R H$GES >E FULL ( NE/S ( SMALL] BIRDS2 \R F>MH\SES GIVE %ELT] TO COLONIES ( SWALL[S2 \R OLD T[]S >E ! REFUGE ( HUNDR$S ( NOCTURNAL BIRDS2 & PAGES MI<T BE FILL$ ) ! MO/ *>M+ DESCRIPTIONS ( ! PEACE & H>MONY :I* PREVAIL 9 ALMO/ ALL !SE NE/+ ASSOCIATIONS4 ,AS TO ! PROTECTION D]IV$ BY ! WEAKE/ BIRDS FROM !IR UNIONS1 IT IS EVID5T4 ,?AT EXCELL5T OBS]V]1 ,DR4 ,C\ES1 SAW1 = 9/ANCE1 ! LITTLE CLIFF-SWALL[S NE/+ 9 ! IMM$IATE NEI<BORHOOD ( ! PRAIRIE FALCON 7,FALCO POLY>GUS74 ,! FALCON HAD ITS NE/ ON ! TOP ( ONE ( ! M9>ETS ( CLAY :I* >E SO COMMON 9 ! CANONS ( ,COLORADO1 :ILE A COLONY ( SWALL[S NE/$ JU/ B5EA?4 ,! LITTLE PEACEFUL BIRDS HAD NO FE> ( !IR RAPACI\S NEI<BOR2 !Y NEV] LET IT APPROA* TO !IR COLONY4 ,!Y IMM$IATELY SURR\ND$ IT & *AS$ IT1 SO ?AT IT HAD TO MAKE (F AT ONCE4#e 

,LIFE 9 SOCIETIES DOES NOT CEASE :5 ! NE/+ P]IOD IS OV]2 IT BEG9S !N 9 A NEW =M4 ,! Y\NG BROODS GA!R 9 SOCIETIES ( Y\NG/]S1 G5]ALLY 9CLUD+ SEV]AL SPECIES4 ,SOCIAL LIFE IS PRACTIC$ AT ?AT TIME *IEFLY = ITS [N SAKE -- P>TLY = SECURITY1 BUT *IEFLY = ! PLEASURES D]IV$ FROM IT4 ,SO WE SEE 9 \R =E/S ! SOCIETIES =M$ BY ! Y\NG NU?AT*]S 7,SITTA CAESIA71 TOGE!R ) TIT-M\SES1 *AFF9*ES1 WR5S1 TREE-CREEP]S1 OR SOME WOOD-PECK]S4#f ,9 ,SPA9 ! SWALL[ IS MET ) 9 COMPANY ) KE/RELS1 FLY-CAT*]S1 & EV5 PIGEONS4 ,9 ! ,F> ,WE/ ( ,AM]ICA ! Y\NG HORN$ L>KS LIVE 9 L>GE SOCIETIES1 TOGE!R ) ANO!R L>K 7,SPRAGUE'S71 ! SKYL>K1 ! ,SAVANNAH SP>R[1 & SEV]AL SPECIES ( BUNT+S & LONGSPURS4#g ,9 FACT1 IT W\LD BE MU* EASI] TO DESCRIBE ! SPECIES :I* LIVE ISOLAT$ ?AN TO SIMPLY NAME ?OSE SPECIES :I* JO9 ! AUTUMNAL SOCIETIES ( Y\NG BIRDS -- NOT = HUNT+ OR NE/+ PURPOSES1 BUT SIMPLY TO 5JOY LIFE 9 SOCIETY & TO SP5D !IR TIME 9 PLAYS & SPORTS1 AFT] HAV+ GIV5 A FEW H\RS EV]Y DAY TO F9D !IR DAILY FOOD4 

,&1 F9ALLY1 WE HAVE ?AT IMM5SE DISPLAY ( MUTUAL AID AMONG BIRDS-!IR MIGRATIONS -- :I* ,I D>E NOT EV5 5T] UPON 9 ?IS PLACE4 ,SUFFICI5T TO SAY ?AT BIRDS :I* HAVE LIV$ = MON?S 9 SMALL B&S SCATT]$ OV] A WIDE T]RITORY GA!R 9 ?\S&S2 !Y COME TOGE!R AT A GIV5 PLACE1 = SEV]AL DAYS 9 SUCCESSION1 BE=E !Y />T1 & !Y EVID5TLY DISCUSS ! P>TICUL>S ( ! J\RNEY4 ,SOME SPECIES WILL 9DULGE EV]Y AFT]NOON 9 FLI<TS PREP>ATORY TO ! LONG PASSAGE4 ,ALL WAIT = !IR T>DY CONG5]S1 & F9ALLY !Y />T 9 A C]TA9 WELL *OS5 DIRECTION -- A FRUIT ( ACCUMULAT$ COLLECTIVE EXP]I5CE -- ! /RONGE/ FLY+ AT ! HEAD ( ! B&1 & RELIEV+ ONE ANO!R 9 ?AT DIFFICULT TASK4 ,!Y CROSS ! SEAS 9 L>GE B&S CONSI/+ ( BO? BIG & SMALL BIRDS1 & :5 !Y RETURN NEXT SPR+ !Y REPAIR TO ! SAME SPOT1 &1 9 MO/ CASES1 EA* ( !M TAKES POSSESSION ( ! V]Y SAME NE/ :I* IT HAD BUILT OR REPAIR$ ! PREVI\S YE>4#h 

,?IS SUBJECT IS SO VA/1 & YET SO IMP]FECTLY /UDI$2 IT (F]S SO MANY /RIK+ ILLU/RATIONS ( MUTUAL-AID HABITS1 SUBSIDI>Y TO ! MA9 FACT ( MIGRATION -- EA* ( :I* W\LD1 H[EV]1 REQUIRE A SPECIAL /UDY -- ?AT ,I MU/ REFRA9 FROM 5T]+ H]E 9TO MORE DETAILS4 ,I CAN ONLY CURSORILY REF] TO ! NUM]\S & ANIMAT$ GA!R+S ( BIRDS :I* TAKE PLACE1 ALWAYS ON ! SAME SPOT1 BE=E !Y BEG9 !IR LONG J\RNEYS NOR? OR S\?1 AS ALSO ?OSE :I* ONE SEES 9 ! NOR?1 AFT] ! BIRDS HAVE >RIV$ AT !IR BRE$+-PLACES ON ! ,Y5ISEI OR 9 ! NOR!RN C\NTIES ( ,5GL&4 ,= MANY DAYS 9 SUCCESSION -- SOMETIMES ONE MON? -- !Y WILL COME TOGE!R EV]Y MORN+ = ONE H\R1 BE=E FLY+ 9 SE>* ( FOOD -- P]HAPS DISCUSS+ ! SPOT :]E !Y >E GO+ TO BUILD !IR NE/S4#i ,& IF1 DUR+ ! MIGRATION1 !IR COLUMNS >E OV]TAK5 BY A /ORM1 BIRDS ( ! MO/ DIFF]5T SPECIES WILL BE BR\<T TOGE!R BY COMMON MIS=TUNE4 ,! BIRDS :I* >E NOT EXACTLY MIGRATORY1 BUT SL[LY MOVE NOR?W>DS & S\?W>DS ) ! SEASONS1 ALSO P]=M !SE P]EGR9ATIONS 9 FLOCKS4 ,SO F> FROM MIGRAT+ ISOLATELY1 9 ORD] TO SECURE = EA* SEP>ATE 9DIVIDUAL ! ADVANTAGES ( BETT] FOOD OR %ELT] :I* >E TO BE F\ND 9 ANO!R DI/RICT -- !Y ALWAYS WAIT = EA* O!R1 & GA!R 9 FLOCKS1 BE=E !Y MOVE NOR? OR S\?1 9 ACCORDANCE ) ! SEASON4#a 

,GO+ N[ OV] TO MAMMALS1 ! FIR/ ?+ :I* /RIKES US IS ! OV]:ELM+ NUM]ICAL PR$OM9ANCE ( SOCIAL SPECIES OV] ?OSE FEW C>NIVORES :I* DO NOT ASSOCIATE4 ,! PLATEAUS1 ! ,ALP9E TRACTS1 & ! ,/EPPES ( ! ,OLD & ,NEW ,WORLD >E /OCK$ ) H]DS ( DE]1 ANTELOPES1 GAZELLES1 FALL[ DE]1 BUFFALOES1 WILD GOATS & %EEP1 ALL ( :I* >E SOCIABLE ANIMALS4 ,:5 ! ,EUROPEANS CAME TO SETTLE 9 ,AM]ICA1 !Y F\ND IT SO D5SELY PEOPL$ ) BUFFALOES1 ?AT PIONE]S HAD TO /OP !IR ADVANCE :5 A COLUMN ( MIGRAT+ BUFFALOES CAME TO CROSS ! R\TE !Y FOLL[$2 ! M>* PA/ ( ! D5SE COLUMN LA/+ SOMETIMES = TWO & ?REE DAYS4 ,& :5 ! ,RUSSIANS TOOK POSSESSION ( ,SIB]IA !Y F\ND IT SO D5SELY PEOPL$ ) DE]1 ANTELOPES1 SQUIRRELS1 & O!R SOCIABLE ANIMALS1 ?AT ! V]Y CONQUE/ ( ,SIB]IA WAS NO?+ BUT A HUNT+ EXP$ITION :I* LA/$ = TWO HUNDR$ YE>S2 :ILE ! GRASS PLA9S ( ,EA/]N ,AFRICA >E /ILL COV]$ ) H]DS COMPOS$ ( ZEBRA1 ! H>TEBEE/1 & O!R ANTELOPES4 

,NOT LONG AGO ! SMALL /REAMS ( ,NOR!RN ,AM]ICA & ,NOR!RN ,SIB]IA W]E PEOPL$ ) COLONIES ( BEAV]S1 & UP TO ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY LIKE COLONIES SW>M$ 9 ,NOR!RN ,RUSSIA4 ,! FLAT L&S ( ! F\R GREAT CONT95TS >E /ILL COV]$ ) C\NTLESS COLONIES ( MICE1 GR\ND-SQUIRRELS1 M>MOTS1 & O!R ROD5TS4 ,9 ! L[] LATITUDES ( ,ASIA & ,AFRICA ! =E/S >E /ILL ! ABODE ( NUM]\S FAMILIES ( ELEPHANTS1 RH9OC]OSES1 & NUMB]LESS SOCIETIES ( MONKEYS4 ,9 ! F> NOR? ! RE9DE] AGGREGATE 9 NUMB]LESS H]DS2 :ILE /ILL FUR!R NOR? WE F9D ! H]DS ( ! MUSK-OX5 & NUMB]LESS B&S ( POL> FOXES4 ,! COA/S ( ! OCEAN >E 5LIV5$ BY FLOCKS ( SEALS & MORSES2 ITS WAT]S1 BY %OALS ( SOCIABLE CETACEANS2 & EV5 9 ! DEP?S ( ! GREAT PLATEAU ( ,C5TRAL ,ASIA WE F9D H]DS ( WILD HORSES1 WILD DONKEYS1 WILD CAMELS1 & WILD %EEP4 ,ALL !SE MAMMALS LIVE 9 SOCIETIES & NATIONS SOMETIMES NUMB]+ HUNDR$S ( ?\S&S ( 9DIVIDUALS1 AL?\< N[1 AFT] ?REE C5TURIES ( GUNP[D] CIVILIZATION1 WE F9D BUT ! DEBRIS ( ! IMM5SE AGGREGATIONS ( OLD4 ,H[ TRIFL+1 9 COMP>ISON ) !M1 >E ! NUMB]S ( ! C>NIVORES6 ,& H[ FALSE1 !RE=E1 IS ! VIEW ( ?OSE :O SPEAK ( ! ANIMAL WORLD AS IF NO?+ W]E TO BE SE5 9 IT BUT LIONS & HY5AS PLUNG+ !IR BLE$+ TEE? 9TO ! FLE% ( !IR VICTIMS6 ,ONE MI<T AS WELL IMAG9E ?AT ! :OLE ( HUMAN LIFE IS NO?+ BUT A SUCCESSION ( W> MASSACRES4 

,ASSOCIATION & MUTUAL AID >E ! RULE ) MAMMALS4 ,WE F9D SOCIAL HABITS EV5 AMONG ! C>NIVORES1 & WE CAN ONLY NAME ! CAT TRIBE 7LIONS1 TIG]S1 LEOP>DS1 ETC47 AS A DIVISION ! MEMB]S ( :I* DECID$LY PREF] ISOLATION TO SOCIETY1 & >E BUT SELDOM MET ) EV5 9 SMALL GR\PS4 ,& YET1 EV5 AMONG LIONS 0?IS IS A V]Y COMMON PRACTICE TO HUNT 9 COMPANY40#a#a ,! TWO TRIBES ( ! CIVETS 7,VIV]RIDAE7 & ! WEASELS 7,MU/ELIDAE7 MI<T ALSO BE *>ACT]IZ$ BY !IR ISOLAT$ LIFE1 BUT IT IS A FACT ?AT DUR+ ! LA/ C5TURY ! COMMON WEASEL WAS MORE SOCIABLE ?AN IT IS N[2 IT WAS SE5 !N 9 L>G] GR\PS 9 ,SCOTL& & 9 ! ,UNT]WALD5 CANTON ( ,SWITZ]L&4 ,AS TO ! GREAT TRIBE ( ! DOGS1 IT IS EM95TLY SOCIABLE1 & ASSOCIATION = HUNT+ PURPOSES MAY BE CONSID]$ AS EM95TLY *>ACT]I/IC ( ITS NUM]\S SPECIES4 ,IT IS WELL KN[N1 9 FACT1 ?AT WOLVES GA!R 9 PACKS = HUNT+1 & ,TS*UDI LEFT AN EXCELL5T DESCRIPTION ( H[ !Y DRAW UP 9 A HALF-CIRCLE1 SURR\ND A C[ :I* IS GRAZ+ ON A M\NTA9 SLOPE1 & !N1 SUDD5LY APPE>+ ) A L\D B>K+1 MAKE IT ROLL 9 ! ABYSS4#a#b ,AUDUBON1 9 ! ?IRTIES1 ALSO SAW ! ,LABRADOR WOLVES HUNT+ 9 PACKS1 & ONE PACK FOLL[+ A MAN TO HIS CAB91 & KILL+ ! DOGS4 ,DUR+ SEV]E W9T]S ! PACKS ( WOLVES GR[ SO NUM]\S AS TO BECOME A DANG] = HUMAN SETTLEM5TS1 AS WAS ! CASE 9 ,FRANCE SOME FIVE-&-=TY YE>S AGO4 ,9 ! ,RUSSIAN ,/EPPES !Y NEV] ATTACK ! HORSES O!RWISE ?AN 9 PACKS2 & YET !Y HAVE TO SU/A9 BITT] FI<TS1 DUR+ :I* ! HORSES 7ACCORD+ TO ,KOHL'S TE/IMONY7 SOMETIMES ASSUME (F5SIVE W>F>E1 & 9 SU* CASES1 IF ! WOLVES DO NOT RETREAT PROMPTLY1 !Y RUN ! RISK ( BE+ SURR\ND$ BY ! HORSES & KILL$ BY !IR HO(S4 ,! PRAIRIE-WOLVES 7,CANIS LATRANS7 >E KN[N TO ASSOCIATE 9 B&S ( FROM TW5TY TO ?IRTY 9DIVIDUALS :5 !Y *ASE A BUFFALO OCCASIONALLY SEP>AT$ FROM ITS H]D4#a#c ,JACKALS1 :I* >E MO/ C\RAGE\S & MAY BE CONSID]$ AS ONE ( ! MO/ 9TELLIG5T REPRES5TATIVES ( ! DOG TRIBE1 ALWAYS HUNT 9 PACKS2 ?US UNIT$1 !Y HAVE NO FE> ( ! BIGG] C>NIVORES4#a#d ,AS TO ! WILD DOGS ( ,ASIA 7! ,KHOLZUNS1 OR ,DHOLES71 ,WILLIAMSON SAW !IR L>GE PACKS ATTACK+ ALL L>G] ANIMALS SAVE ELEPHANTS & RH9OC]OSES1 & OV]P[]+ BE>S & TIG]S4 ,HY5AS ALWAYS LIVE 9 SOCIETIES & HUNT 9 PACKS1 & ! HUNT+ ORGANIZATIONS ( ! PA9T$ LYCAONS >E HI<LY PRAIS$ BY ,CUMM+4 ,NAY1 EV5 FOXES1 :I*1 AS A RULE1 LIVE ISOLAT$ 9 \R CIVILIZ$ C\NTRIES1 HAVE BE5 SE5 COMB9+ = HUNT+ PURPOSES4#a#e ,AS TO ! POL> FOX1 IT IS -- OR RA!R WAS 9 ,/ELL]'S TIME -- ONE ( ! MO/ SOCIABLE ANIMALS2 & :5 ONE READS ,/ELL]'S DESCRIPTION ( ! W> ?AT WAS WAG$ BY ,BEHR+'S UN=TUNATE CREW AGA9/ !SE 9TELLIG5T SMALL ANIMALS1 ONE DOES NOT KN[ :AT TO WOND] AT MO/3 ! EXTRAORD9>Y 9TELLIG5CE ( ! FOXES & ! MUTUAL AID !Y DISPLAY$ 9 DIGG+ \T FOOD CONCEAL$ UND] CAIRNS1 OR /OR$ UPON A PILL> 7ONE FOX W\LD CLIMB ON ITS TOP & ?R[ ! FOOD TO ITS COMRADES B5EA?71 OR ! CRUELTY ( MAN1 DRIV5 TO DESPAIR BY ! NUM]\S PACKS ( FOXES4 ,EV5 SOME BE>S LIVE 9 SOCIETIES :]E !Y >E NOT DI/URB$ BY MAN4 ,?US ,/ELL] SAW ! BLACK BE> ( ,KAMT*ATKA 9 NUM]\S PACKS1 & ! POL> BE>S >E OCCASIONALLY F\ND 9 SMALL GR\PS4 ,EV5 ! UN9TELLIG5T 9SECTIVORES DO NOT ALWAYS DISDA9 ASSOCIATION4#a#f 

,H[EV]1 IT IS ESPECIALLY ) ! ROD5TS1 ! UNGULATA1 & ! RUM9ANTS ?AT WE F9D A HI<LY DEVELOP$ PRACTICE ( MUTUAL AID4 ,! SQUIRRELS >E 9DIVIDUALI/ TO A GREAT EXT5T4 ,EA* ( !M BUILDS ITS [N COM=TABLE NE/1 & ACCUMULATES ITS [N PROVISION4 ,!IR 9CL9ATIONS >E T[>DS FAMILY LIFE1 & ,BREHM F\ND ?AT A FAMILY ( SQUIRRELS IS NEV] SO HAPPY AS :5 ! TWO BROODS ( ! SAME YE> CAN JO9 TOGE!R ) !IR P>5TS 9 A REMOTE CORN] ( A =E/4 ,& YET !Y MA9TA9 SOCIAL RELATIONS4 ,! 9HABITANTS ( ! SEP>ATE NE/S REMA9 9 A CLOSE 9T]C\RSE1 & :5 ! P9E-CONES BECOME R>E 9 ! =E/ !Y 9HABIT1 !Y EMIGRATE 9 B&S4 ,AS TO ! BLACK SQUIRRELS ( ! ,F> ,WE/1 !Y >E EM95TLY SOCIABLE4 ,AP>T FROM ! FEW H\RS GIV5 EV]Y DAY TO =AG+1 !Y SP5D !IR LIVES 9 PLAY+ 9 NUM]\S P>TIES4 ,& :5 !Y MULTIPLY TOO RAPIDLY 9 A REGION1 !Y ASSEMBLE 9 B&S1 ALMO/ AS NUM]\S AS ?OSE ( LOCU/S1 & MOVE S\?W>DS1 DEVA/AT+ ! =E/S1 ! FIELDS1 & ! G>D5S2 :ILE FOXES1 POLECATS1 FALCONS1 & NOCTURNAL BIRDS ( PREY FOLL[ !IR ?ICK COLUMNS & LIVE UPON ! 9DIVIDUALS REMA9+ BEH9D4 ,! GR\ND-SQUIRREL -- A CLOSELY-AK9 G5US -- IS /ILL MORE SOCIABLE4 ,IT IS GIV5 TO HO>D+1 & /ORES UP 9 ITS SUBT]RANEAN HALLS L>GE AM\NTS ( $IBLE ROOTS & NUTS1 USUALLY PLUND]$ BY MAN 9 ! AUTUMN4 ,ACCORD+ TO SOME OBS]V]S1 IT MU/ KN[ SOME?+ ( ! JOYS ( A MIS]4 ,& YET IT REMA9S SOCIABLE4 ,IT ALWAYS LIVES 9 L>GE VILLAGES1 & ,AUDUBON1 :O OP5$ SOME DWELL+S ( ! HACKEE 9 ! W9T]1 F\ND SEV]AL 9DIVIDUALS 9 ! SAME AP>TM5T2 !Y MU/ HAVE /OR$ IT ) COMMON EF=TS4 

,! L>GE TRIBE1 ( ! M>MOTS1 :I* 9CLUDES ! ?REE L>GE G5USES ( ,>CTOMYS1 ,CYNOMYS1 & ,SP]MOPHILUS1 IS /ILL MORE SOCIABLE & /ILL MORE 9TELLIG5T4 ,!Y ALSO PREF] HAV+ EA* ONE ITS [N DWELL+2 BUT !Y LIVE 9 BIG VILLAGES4 ,?AT T]RIBLE 5EMY ( ! CROPS ( ,S\? ,RUSSIA -- ! S\SLIK -- ( :I* SOME T5 MILLIONS >E EXT]M9AT$ EV]Y YE> BY MAN ALONE1 LIVES 9 NUMB]LESS COLONIES2 & :ILE ! ,RUSSIAN PROV9CIAL ASSEMBLIES GRAVELY DISCUSS ! MEANS ( GETT+ RID ( ?IS 5EMY ( SOCIETY1 IT 5JOYS LIFE 9 ITS ?\S&S 9 ! MO/ JOYFUL WAY4 ,!IR PLAY IS SO *>M+ ?AT NO OBS]V] C\LD REFRA9 FROM PAY+ !M A TRIBUTE ( PRAISE1 & FROM M5TION+ ! MELODI\S CONC]TS >IS+ FROM ! %>P :I/L+S ( ! MALES & ! MELAN*OLIC :I/L+S ( ! FEMALES1 BE=E -- SUDD5LY RETURN+ TO HIS CITIZ5'S DUTIES -- HE BEG9S 9V5T+ ! MO/ DIABOLIC MEANS = ! EXT]M9ATION ( ! LITTLE ROBB]S4 ,ALL K9DS ( RAPACI\S BIRDS & BEA/S ( PREY HAV+ PROV$ P[]LESS1 ! LA/ WORD ( SCI5CE 9 ?IS W>F>E IS ! 9OCULATION ( *OL]A6 ,! VILLAGES ( ! PRAIRIE-DOGS 9 ,AM]ICA >E ONE ( ! LOVELIE/ SI<TS4 ,AS F> AS ! EYE CAN EMBRACE ! PRAIRIE1 IT SEES HEAPS ( E>?1 & ON EA* ( !M A PRAIRIE-DOG /&S1 5GAG$ 9 A LIVELY CONV]SATION ) ITS NEI<BORS BY MEANS ( %ORT B>K+S4 ,AS SOON AS ! APPROA* ( MAN IS SIGNAL$1 ALL PLUNGE 9 A MOM5T 9TO !IR DWELL+S2 ALL HAVE DISAPPE>$ AS BY 5*ANTM5T4 ,BUT IF ! DANG] IS OV]1 ! LITTLE CREATURES SOON REAPPE>4 ,:OLE FAMILIES COME \T ( !IR GALL]IES & 9DULGE 9 PLAY4 ,! Y\NG ONES SCRAT* ONE ANO!R1 !Y WORRY ONE ANO!R1 & DISPLAY !IR GRACEFULNESS :ILE /&+ UPRI<T1 & 9 ! MEANTIME ! OLD ONES KEEP WAT*4 ,!Y GO VISIT+ ONE ANO!R1 & ! BEAT5 FOOTPA?S :I* CONNECT ALL !IR HEAPS TE/IFY TO ! FREQU5CY ( ! VISITATIONS4 ,9 %ORT1 ! BE/ NATURALI/S HAVE WRITT5 SOME ( !IR BE/ PAGES 9 DESCRIB+ ! ASSOCIATIONS ( ! PRAIRIE-DOGS ( ,AM]ICA1 ! M>MOTS ( ! ,OLD ,WORLD1 & ! POL> M>MOTS ( ! ,ALP9E REGIONS4 ,& YET1 ,I MU/ MAKE1 AS REG>DS ! M>MOTS1 ! SAME REM>K AS ,I HAVE MADE :5 SPEAK+ ( ! BEES4 ,!Y HAVE MA9TA9$ !IR FI<T+ 9/9CTS1 & !SE 9/9CTS REAPPE> 9 CAPTIVITY4 ,BUT 9 !IR BIG ASSOCIATIONS1 9 ! FACE ( FREE ,NATURE1 ! UNSOCIABLE 9/9CTS HAVE NO OPPORTUNITY TO DEVELOP1 & ! G5]AL RESULT IS PEACE & H>MONY4 

,EV5 SU* H>% ANIMALS AS ! RATS1 :I* CONT9UALLY FI<T 9 \R CELL>S1 >E SUFFICI5TLY 9TELLIG5T NOT TO QU>REL :5 !Y PLUND] \R L>D]S1 BUT TO AID ONE ANO!R 9 !IR PLUND]+ EXP$ITIONS & MIGRATIONS1 & EV5 TO FE$ !IR 9VALIDS4 ,AS TO ! BEAV]-RATS OR MUSK-RATS ( ,CANADA1 !Y >E EXTREMELY SOCIABLE4 ,AUDUBON C\LD NOT BUT ADMIRE 0!IR PEACEFUL COMMUNITIES1 :I* REQUIRE ONLY BE+ LEFT 9 PEACE TO 5JOY HAPP9ESS40 ,LIKE ALL SOCIABLE ANIMALS1 !Y >E LIVELY & PLAYFUL1 !Y EASILY COMB9E ) O!R SPECIES1 & !Y HAVE ATTA9$ A V]Y HI< DEGREE ( 9TELLECTUAL DEVELOPM5T4 ,9 !IR VILLAGES1 ALWAYS DISPOS$ ON ! %ORES ( LAKES & RIV]S1 !Y TAKE 9TO ACC\NT ! *ANG+ LEVEL ( WAT]2 !IR DOME%AP$ H\SES1 :I* >E BUILT ( BEAT5 CLAY 9T]WOV5 ) RE$S1 HAVE SEP>ATE CORN]S = ORGANIC REFUSE1 & !IR HALLS >E WELL C>PET$ AT W9T] TIME2 !Y >E W>M1 &1 NEV]!LESS1 WELL V5TILAT$4 ,AS TO ! BEAV]S1 :I* >E 5D[$1 AS KN[N1 ) A MO/ SYMPA!TIC *>ACT]1 !IR A/\ND+ DAMS & VILLAGES1 9 :I* G5]ATIONS LIVE & DIE )\T KN[+ ( ANY 5EMIES BUT ! OTT] & MAN1 SO WOND]FULLY ILLU/RATE :AT MUTUAL AID CAN A*IEVE = ! SECURITY ( ! SPECIES1 ! DEVELOPM5T ( SOCIAL HABITS1 & ! EVOLUTION ( 9TELLIG5CE1 ?AT !Y >E FAMILI> TO ALL 9T]E/$ 9 ANIMAL LIFE4 ,LET ME ONLY REM>K ?AT ) ! BEAV]S1 ! MUSKRATS1 & SOME O!R ROD5TS1 WE ALREADY F9D ! FEATURE :I* WILL ALSO BE DI/9CTIVE ( HUMAN COMMUNITIES -- ?AT IS1 WORK 9 COMMON4 

,I PASS 9 SIL5CE ! TWO L>GE FAMILIES :I* 9CLUDE ! J]BOA1 ! *9*ILLA1 ! BISCA*A1 & ! TU%KAN1 OR UND]GR\ND H>E ( ,S\? ,RUSSIA1 ?\< ALL !SE SMALL ROD5TS MI<T BE TAK5 AS EXCELL5T ILLU/RATIONS ( ! PLEASURES D]IV$ BY ANIMALS FROM SOCIAL LIFE4#a#g ,PRECISELY1 ! PLEASURES2 BECAUSE IT IS EXTREMELY DIFFICULT TO SAY :AT BR+S ANIMALS TOGE!R -- ! NE$S ( MUTUAL PROTECTION1 OR SIMPLY ! PLEASURE ( FEEL+ SURR\ND$ BY !IR CONG5]S4 ,AT ANY RATE1 \R COMMON H>ES1 :I* DO NOT GA!R 9 SOCIETIES = LIFE 9 COMMON1 & :I* >E NOT EV5 5D[$ ) 9T5SE P>5TAL FEEL+S1 CANNOT LIVE )\T COM+ TOGE!R = PLAY4 ,DIETRI* DE ,W9CKELL1 :O IS CONSID]$ TO BE AMONG ! BE/ ACQUA9T$ ) ! HABITS ( H>ES1 DESCRIBES !M AS PASSIONATE PLAY]S1 BECOM+ SO 9TOXICAT$ BY !IR PLAY ?AT A H>E HAS BE5 KN[N TO TAKE AN APPROA*+ FOX = A PLAYMATE4#a#h ,AS TO ! RABBIT1 IT LIVES 9 SOCIETIES1 & ITS FAMILY LIFE IS 5TIRELY BUILT UPON ! IMAGE ( ! OLD PATRI>*AL FAMILY2 ! Y\NG ONES BE+ KEPT 9 ABSOLUTE OB$I5CE TO ! FA!R & EV5 ! GR&FA!R4#a#i ,& H]E WE HAVE ! EXAMPLE ( TWO V]Y CLOSELY-ALLI$ SPECIES :I* CANNOT BE> EA* O!R -- NOT BECAUSE !Y LIVE UPON NE>LY ! SAME FOOD1 AS LIKE CASES >E TOO (T5 EXPLA9$1 BUT MO/ PROBABLY BECAUSE ! PASSIONATE1 EM95TLY-9DIVIDUALI/ H>E CANNOT MAKE FRI5DS ) ?AT PLACID1 QUIET1 & SUBMISSIVE CREATURE1 ! RABBIT4 ,!IR TEMP]S >E TOO WIDELY DIFF]5T NOT TO BE AN OB/ACLE TO FRI5D%IP4 

,LIFE 9 SOCIETIES IS AGA9 ! RULE ) ! L>GE FAMILY ( HORSES1 :I* 9CLUDES ! WILD HORSES & DONKEYS ( ,ASIA1 ! ZEBRAS1 ! MU/ANGS1 ! CIM>RONES ( ! ,PAMPAS1 & ! HALF-WILD HORSES ( ,MONGOLIA & ,SIB]IA4 ,!Y ALL LIVE 9 NUM]\S ASSOCIATIONS MADE UP ( MANY /UDS1 EA* ( :I* CONSI/S ( A NUMB] ( M>ES UND] ! LEAD]%IP ( A MALE4 ,!SE NUMB]LESS 9HABITANTS ( ! ,OLD & ! ,NEW ,WORLD1 BADLY ORGANIZ$ ON ! :OLE = RESI/+ BO? !IR NUM]\S 5EMIES & ! ADV]SE CONDITIONS ( CLIMATE1 W\LD SOON HAVE DISAPPE>$ FROM ! SURFACE ( ! E>? W]E IT NOT = !IR SOCIABLE SPIRIT4 ,:5 A BEA/ ( PREY APPROA*ES !M1 SEV]AL /UDS UNITE AT ONCE2 !Y REPULSE ! BEA/ & SOMETIMES *ASE IT3 & NEI!R ! WOLF NOR ! BE>1 NOT EV5 ! LION1 CAN CAPTURE A HORSE OR EV5 A ZEBRA AS LONG AS !Y >E NOT DETA*$ FROM ! H]D4 ,:5 A DR\<T IS BURN+ ! GRASS 9 ! PRAIRIES1 !Y GA!R 9 H]DS ( SOMETIMES #a1 9DIVIDUALS /RONG1 & MIGRATE4 ,& :5 A SN[-/ORM RAGES 9 ! ,/EPPES1 EA* /UD KEEPS CLOSE TOGE!R1 & REPAIRS TO A PROTECT$ RAV9E4 ,BUT IF CONFID5CE DISAPPE>S1 OR ! GR\P HAS BE5 SEIZ$ BY PANIC1 & DISP]SES1 ! HORSES P]I% & ! SURVIVORS >E F\ND AFT] ! /ORM HALF DY+ FROM FATIGUE4 ,UNION IS !IR *IEF >M 9 ! /RUGGLE = LIFE1 & MAN IS !IR *IEF 5EMY4 ,BE=E HIS 9CREAS+ NUMB]S ! ANCE/ORS ( \R DOME/IC HORSE 7! ,EQUUS ,PRZEWALSKII1 SO NAM$ BY ,POLYAK(F7 HAVE PREF]R$ TO RETIRE TO ! WILDE/ & LEA/ ACCESSIBLE PLATEAUS ON ! \TSKIRTS ( ,?IBET1 :]E !Y CONT9UE TO LIVE1 SURR\ND$ BY C>NIVORES1 UND] A CLIMATE AS BAD AS ?AT ( ! ,>CTIC REGIONS1 BUT 9 A REGION 9ACCESSIBLE TO MAN4#b 

,MANY /RIK+ ILLU/RATIONS ( SOCIAL LIFE C\LD BE TAK5 FROM ! LIFE ( ! RE9DE]1 & ESPECIALLY ( ?AT L>GE DIVISION ( RUM9ANTS :I* MI<T 9CLUDE ! ROEBUCKS1 ! FALL[ DE]1 ! ANTELOPES1 ! GAZELLES1 ! IBEX1 &1 9 FACT1 ! :OLE ( ! ?REE NUM]\S FAMILIES ( ! ,ANTELOPIDES1 ! ,CAPRIDES1 & ! ,OVIDES4 ,!IR WAT*FULNESS OV] ! SAFETY ( !IR H]DS AGA9/ ATTACKS ( C>NIVORES2 ! ANXIETY DISPLAY$ BY ALL 9DIVIDUALS 9 A H]D ( *AMOIS AS LONG AS ALL ( !M HAVE NOT CLE>$ A DIFFICULT PASSAGE OV] ROCKY CLIFFS2 ! ADOPTION ( ORPHANS2 ! DESPAIR ( ! GAZELLE :OSE MATE1 OR EV5 COMRADE ( ! SAME SEX1 HAS BE5 KILL$2 ! PLAYS ( ! Y\NG/]S1 & MANY O!R FEATURES1 C\LD BE M5TION$4 ,BUT P]HAPS ! MO/ /RIK+ ILLU/RATION ( MUTUAL SUPPORT IS GIV5 BY ! OCCASIONAL MIGRATIONS ( FALL[ DE]1 SU* AS ,I SAW ONCE ON ! ,AMUR4 ,:5 ,I CROSS$ ! HI< PLATEAU & ITS BORD] RIDGE1 ! ,GREAT ,KH+AN1 ON MY WAY FROM ,TRANSBAIKALIA TO ,M]<51 & FUR!R TRAVEL$ OV] ! HI< PRAIRIES ON MY WAY TO ! ,AMUR1 ,I C\LD ASC]TA9 H[ ?9LY-PEOPL$ ) FALL[ DE] !SE MO/LY UN9HABIT$ REGIONS >E4#b#a ,TWO YE>S LAT] ,I WAS TRAVEL+ UP ! ,AMUR1 & BY ! 5D ( ,OCTOB] REA*$ ! L[] 5D ( ?AT PICTURESQUE GORGE :I* ! ,AMUR PI]CES 9 ! ,D\SSE-AL9 7,LITTLE ,KH+AN7 BE=E IT 5T]S ! L[L&S :]E IT JO9S ! ,SUNG>I4 ,I F\ND ! ,COSSACKS 9 ! VILLAGES ( ?AT GORGE 9 ! GREATE/ EXCITEM5T1 BECAUSE ?\S&S & ?\S&S ( FALL[ DE] W]E CROSS+ ! ,AMUR :]E IT IS N>R[E/1 9 ORD] TO REA* ! L[L&S4 ,= SEV]AL DAYS 9 SUCCESSION1 UPON A L5G? ( SOME =TY MILES UP ! RIV]1 ! ,COSSACKS W]E BUT*]+ ! DE] AS !Y CROSS$ ! ,AMUR1 9 :I* ALREADY FLOAT$ A GOOD DEAL ( ICE4 ,?\S&S W]E KILL$ EV]Y DAY1 & ! EXODUS NEV]!LESS CONT9U$4 ,LIKE MIGRATIONS W]E NEV] SE5 EI!R BE=E OR S9CE1 & ?IS ONE MU/ HAVE BE5 CALL$ = BY AN E>LY & HEAVY SN[-FALL 9 ! ,GREAT ,KH+AN1 :I* COMPELL$ ! DE] TO MAKE A DESP]ATE ATTEMPT AT REA*+ ! L[L&S 9 ! EA/ ( ! ,D\SSE M\NTA9S4 ,9DE$1 A FEW DAYS LAT] ! ,D\SSE-AL9 WAS ALSO BURI$ UND] SN[ TWO OR ?REE FEET DEEP4 ,N[1 :5 ONE IMAG9ES ! IMM5SE T]RITORY 7ALMO/ AS BIG AS ,GREAT ,BRITA97 FROM :I* ! SCATT]$ GR\PS ( DE] MU/ HAVE GA!R$ = A MIGRATION :I* WAS UND]TAK5 UND] ! PRESSURE ( EXCEPTIONAL CIRCUM/ANCES1 & REALIZES ! DIFFICULTIES :I* HAD TO BE OV]COME BE=E ALL ! DE] CAME TO ! COMMON IDEA ( CROSS+ ! ,AMUR FUR!R S\?1 :]E IT IS N>R[E/1 ONE CANNOT BUT DEEPLY ADMIRE ! AM\NT ( SOCIABILITY DISPLAY$ BY !SE 9TELLIG5T ANIMALS4 ,! FACT IS NOT ! LESS /RIK+ IF WE REMEMB] ?AT ! BUFFALOES ( ,NOR? ,AM]ICA DISPLAY$ ! SAME P[]S ( COMB9ATION4 ,ONE SAW !M GRAZ+ 9 GREAT NUMB]S 9 ! PLA9S1 BUT !SE NUMB]S W]E MADE UP BY AN 9F9ITY ( SMALL GR\PS :I* NEV] MIX$ TOGE!R4 ,& YET1 :5 NECESSITY >OSE1 ALL GR\PS1 H[EV] SCATT]$ OV] AN IMM5SE T]RITORY1 CAME TOGE!R & MADE UP ?OSE IMM5SE COLUMNS1 NUMB]+ HUNDR$S ( ?\S&S ( 9DIVIDUALS1 :I* ,I M5TION$ ON A PREC$+ PAGE4 

,I ALSO \<T TO SAY A FEW WORDS AT LEA/ AB\T ! 0COMP\ND FAMILIES0 ( ! ELEPHANTS1 !IR MUTUAL ATTA*M5T1 !IR DELIB]ATE WAYS 9 PO/+ S5TRIES1 & ! FEEL+S ( SYMPA?Y DEVELOP$ BY SU* A LIFE ( CLOSE MUTUAL SUPPORT4#b#b ,I MI<T M5TION ! SOCIABLE FEEL+S ( ?OSE DISREPUTABLE CREATURES ! WILD BO>S1 & F9D A WORD ( PRAISE = !IR P[]S ( ASSOCIATION 9 ! CASE ( AN ATTACK BY A BEA/ ( PREY4#b#c ,! HIPPOPOTAMUS & ! RH9OC]OS1 TOO1 W\LD OCCUPY A PLACE 9 A WORK DEVOT$ TO ANIMAL SOCIABILITY4 ,SEV]AL /RIK+ PAGES MI<T BE GIV5 TO ! SOCIABILITY & MUTUAL ATTA*M5T ( ! SEALS & ! WALRUSES2 & F9ALLY1 ONE MI<T M5TION ! MO/ EXCELL5T FEEL+S EXI/+ AMONG ! SOCIABLE CETACEANS4 ,BUT ,I HAVE TO SAY YET A FEW WORDS AB\T ! SOCIETIES ( MONKEYS1 :I* ACQUIRE AN ADDITIONAL 9T]E/ FROM !IR BE+ ! L9K :I* WILL BR+ US TO ! SOCIETIES ( PRIMITIVE M54 

,IT IS H>DLY NE$FUL TO SAY ?AT ?OSE MAMMALS1 :I* /& AT ! V]Y TOP ( ! ANIMAL WORLD & MO/ APPROA* MAN BY !IR /RUCTURE & 9TELLIG5CE1 >E EM95TLY SOCIABLE4 ,EVID5TLY WE MU/ BE PREP>$ TO MEET ) ALL V>IETIES ( *>ACT] & HABITS 9 SO GREAT A DIVISION ( ! ANIMAL K+DOM :I* 9CLUDES HUNDR$S ( SPECIES4 ,BUT1 ALL ?+S CONSID]$1 IT MU/ BE SAID ?AT SOCIABILITY1 ACTION 9 COMMON1 MUTUAL PROTECTION1 & A HI< DEVELOPM5T ( ?OSE FEEL+S :I* >E ! NECESS>Y \TCOME ( SOCIAL LIFE1 >E *>ACT]I/IC ( MO/ MONKEYS & APES4 ,FROM ! SMALLE/ SPECIES TO ! BIGGE/ ONES1 SOCIABILITY IS A RULE TO :I* WE KN[ BUT A FEW EXCEPTIONS4 ,! NOCTURNAL APES PREF] ISOLAT$ LIFE2 ! CAPU*9S 7,CEBUS CAPUC9US71 ! MONOS1 & ! H[L+ MONKEYS LIVE BUT 9 SMALL FAMILIES2 & ! ORANG-\TANS HAVE NEV] BE5 SE5 BY ,A4,R4 ,WALLACE O!RWISE ?AN EI!R SOLIT>Y OR 9 V]Y SMALL GR\PS ( ?REE OR F\R 9DIVIDUALS1 :ILE ! GORILLAS SEEM NEV] TO JO9 9 B&S4 ,BUT ALL ! REMA9D] ( ! MONKEY TRIBE -- ! *IMPANZEES1 ! SAJ\S1 ! SAKIS1 ! M&RILLS1 ! BABOONS1 & SO ON -- >E SOCIABLE 9 ! HI<E/ DEGREE4 ,!Y LIVE 9 GREAT B&S1 & EV5 JO9 ) O!R SPECIES ?AN !IR [N4 ,MO/ ( !M BECOME QUITE UNHAPPY :5 SOLIT>Y4 ,! CRIES ( DI/RESS ( EA* ONE ( ! B& IMM$IATELY BR+ TOGE!R ! :OLE ( ! B&1 & !Y BOLDLY REPULSE ! ATTACKS ( MO/ C>NIVORES & BIRDS ( PREY4 ,EV5 EAGLES DO NOT D>E ATTACK !M4 ,!Y PLUND] \R FIELDS ALWAYS 9 B&S -- ! OLD ONES TAK+ C>E = ! SAFETY ( ! COMMONWEAL?4 ,! LITTLE TEE-TEES1 :OSE *ILDI% SWEET FACES SO MU* /RUCK ,HUMBOLDT1 EMBRACE & PROTECT ONE ANO!R :5 IT RA9S1 ROLL+ !IR TAILS OV] ! NECKS ( !IR %IV]+ COMRADES4 ,SEV]AL SPECIES DISPLAY ! GREATE/ SOLICITUDE = !IR W\ND$1 & DO NOT AB&ON A W\ND$ COMRADE DUR+ A RETREAT TILL !Y HAVE ASC]TA9$ ?AT IT IS DEAD & ?AT !Y >E HELPLESS TO RE/ORE IT TO LIFE4 ,?US ,JAMES ,=BES N>RAT$ 9 HIS ,ORI5TAL ,MEMOIRS A FACT ( SU* RESI/ANCE 9 RECLAIM+ FROM HIS HUNT+ P>TY ! DEAD BODY ( A FEMALE MONKEY ?AT ONE FULLY UND]/&S :Y 0! WITNESSES ( ?IS EXTRAORD9>Y SC5E RESOLV$ NEV] AGA9 TO FIRE AT ONE ( ! MONKEY RACE40#b#d ,9 SOME SPECIES SEV]AL 9DIVIDUALS WILL COMB9E TO OV]TURN A /ONE 9 ORD] TO SE>* = ANTS' EGGS UND] IT4 ,! HAMADRYAS NOT ONLY PO/ S5TRIES1 BUT HAVE BE5 SE5 MAK+ A *A9 = ! TRANSMISSION ( ! SPOIL TO A SAFE PLACE2 & !IR C\RAGE IS WELL KN[N4 ,BREHM'S DESCRIPTION ( ! REGUL> FI<T :I* HIS C>AVAN HAD TO SU/A9 BE=E ! HAMADRYAS W\LD LET IT RESUME ITS J\RNEY 9 ! VALLEY ( ! ,M5SA1 9 ,ABYSS9IA1 HAS BECOME CLASSICAL4#b#e ,! PLAYFULNESS ( ! TAIL$ APES & ! MUTUAL ATTA*M5T :I* REIGNS 9 ! FAMILIES ( *IMPANZEES ALSO >E FAMILI> TO ! G5]AL READ]4 ,& IF WE F9D AMONG ! HI<E/ APES TWO SPECIES1 ! ORANGUTAN & ! GORILLA1 :I* >E NOT SOCIABLE1 WE MU/ REMEMB] ?AT BO? -- LIMIT$ AS !Y >E TO V]Y SMALL >EAS1 ! ONE 9 ! HE>T ( ,AFRICA1 & ! O!R 9 ! TWO ISL&S ( ,BORNEO & ,SUMATRA HAVE ALL ! APPE>ANCE ( BE+ ! LA/ REMNANTS ( =M]LY MU* MORE NUM]\S SPECIES4 ,! GORILLA AT LEA/ SEEMS TO HAVE BE5 SOCIABLE 9 OLD5 TIMES1 IF ! APES M5TION$ 9 ! ,P]IPLUS REALLY W]E GORILLAS4 

,WE ?US SEE1 EV5 FROM ! ABOVE BRIEF REVIEW1 ?AT LIFE 9 SOCIETIES IS NO EXCEPTION 9 ! ANIMAL WORLD2 IT IS ! RULE1 ! LAW ( ,NATURE1 & IT REA*ES ITS FULLE/ DEVELOPM5T ) ! HI<] V]TEBRATES4 ,?OSE SPECIES :I* LIVE SOLIT>Y1 OR 9 SMALL FAMILIES ONLY1 >E RELATIVELY FEW1 & !IR NUMB]S >E LIMIT$4 ,NAY1 IT APPE>S V]Y PROBABLE ?AT1 AP>T FROM A FEW EXCEPTIONS1 ?OSE BIRDS & MAMMALS :I* >E NOT GREG>I\S N[1 W]E LIV+ 9 SOCIETIES BE=E MAN MULTIPLI$ ON ! E>? & WAG$ A P]MAN5T W> AGA9/ !M1 OR DE/ROY$ ! S\RCES FROM :I* !Y =M]LY D]IV$ FOOD4 0,ON NE S'ASSOCIE PAS P\R M\RIR10 .<,WE DO NOT ASSOCIATE TO DIE.> WAS ! S\ND REM>K ( ,ESP9AS2 & ,H\ZEAU1 :O KNEW ! ANIMAL WORLD ( SOME P>TS ( ,AM]ICA :5 IT WAS NOT YET AFFECT$ BY MAN1 WROTE TO ! SAME EFFECT4 

,ASSOCIATION IS F\ND 9 ! ANIMAL WORLD AT ALL DEGREES ( EVOLUTION2 &1 ACCORD+ TO ! GR& IDEA ( ,H]B]T ,SP5C]1 SO BRILLIANTLY DEVELOP$ 9 ,P]RI]'S ,COLONIES ,ANIMALES1 COLONIES >E AT ! V]Y ORIG9 ( EVOLUTION 9 ! ANIMAL K+DOM4 ,BUT1 9 PROPORTION AS WE ASC5D ! SCALE ( EVOLUTION1 WE SEE ASSOCIATION GR[+ MORE & MORE CONSCI\S4 ,IT LOSES ITS PURELY PHYSICAL *>ACT]1 IT CEASES TO BE SIMPLY 9/9CTIVE1 IT BECOMES REASON$4 ,) ! HI<] V]TEBRATES IT IS P]IODICAL1 OR IS RESORT$ TO = ! SATISFACTION ( A GIV5 WANT -- PROPAGATION ( ! SPECIES1 MIGRATION1 HUNT+1 OR MUTUAL DEF5SE4 ,IT EV5 BECOMES OCCASIONAL1 :5 BIRDS ASSOCIATE AGA9/ A ROBB]1 OR MAMMALS COMB9E1 UND] ! PRESSURE ( EXCEPTIONAL CIRCUM/ANCES1 TO EMIGRATE4 ,9 ?IS LA/ CASE1 IT BECOMES A VOLUNT>Y DEVIATION FROM HABITUAL MOODS ( LIFE4 ,! COMB9ATION SOMETIMES APPE>S 9 TWO OR MORE DEGREES -- ! FAMILY FIR/1 !N ! GR\P1 & F9ALLY ! ASSOCIATION ( GR\PS1 HABITUALLY SCATT]$1 BUT UNIT+ 9 CASE ( NE$1 AS WE SAW IT ) ! BISONS & O!R RUM9ANTS4 ,IT ALSO TAKES HI<] =MS1 GU>ANTEE+ MORE 9DEP5D5CE TO ! 9DIVIDUAL )\T DEPRIV+ IT ( ! B5EFITS ( SOCIAL LIFE4 ,) MO/ ROD5TS ! 9DIVIDUAL HAS ITS [N DWELL+1 :I* IT CAN RETIRE TO :5 IT PREF]S BE+ LEFT ALONE2 BUT ! DWELL+S >E LAID \T 9 VILLAGES & CITIES1 SO AS TO GU>ANTEE TO ALL 9HABITANTS ! B5EFITS & JOYS ( SOCIAL LIFE4 ,& F9ALLY1 9 SEV]AL SPECIES1 SU* AS RATS1 M>MOTS1 H>ES1 ETC41 SOCIABLE LIFE IS MA9TA9$ NOT)/&+ ! QU>RELSOME OR O!RWISE EGOTI/IC 9CL9ATIONS ( ! ISOLAT$ 9DIVIDUAL4 ,?US IT IS NOT IMPOS$1 AS IS ! CASE ) ANTS & BEES1 BY ! V]Y PHYSIOLOGICAL /RUCTURE ( ! 9DIVIDUALS2 IT IS CULTIVAT$ = ! B5EFITS ( MUTUAL AID1 OR = ! SAKE ( ITS PLEASURES4 ,& ?IS1 ( C\RSE1 APPE>S ) ALL POSSIBLE GRADATIONS & ) ! GREATE/ V>IETY ( 9DIVIDUAL & SPECIFIC *>ACT]S -- ! V]Y V>IETY ( ASPECTS TAK5 BY SOCIAL LIFE BE+ A CONSEQU5CE1 & = US A FUR!R PRO(1 ( ITS G5]ALITY4#b#f 

,SOCIABILITY -- ?AT IS1 ! NE$ ( ! ANIMAL ( ASSOCIAT+ ) ITS LIKE -- ! LOVE ( SOCIETY = SOCIETY'S SAKE1 COMB9$ ) ! 0JOY ( LIFE10 ONLY N[ BEG9S TO RECEIVE DUE ATT5TION FROM ! ZOOLOGI/S4#b#g ,WE KN[ AT ! PRES5T TIME ?AT ALL ANIMALS1 BEG9N+ ) ! ANTS1 GO+ ON TO ! BIRDS1 & 5D+ ) ! HI<E/ MAMMALS1 >E FOND ( PLAYS1 WRE/L+1 RUNN+ AFT] EA* O!R1 TRY+ TO CAPTURE EA* O!R1 TEAS+ EA* O!R1 & SO ON4 ,& :ILE MANY PLAYS >E1 SO TO SPEAK1 A S*OOL = ! PROP] BEHAVIOR ( ! Y\NG 9 MATURE LIFE1 !RE >E O!RS1 :I*1 AP>T FROM !IR UTILIT>IAN PURPOSES1 >E1 TOGE!R ) DANC+ & S++1 M]E MANIFE/ATIONS ( AN EXCESS ( =CES -- 0! JOY ( LIFE10 & A DESIRE TO COMMUNICATE 9 SOME WAY OR ANO!R ) O!R 9DIVIDUALS ( ! SAME OR ( O!R SPECIES -- 9 %ORT1 A MANIFE/ATION ( SOCIABILITY PROP]1 :I* IS A DI/9CTIVE FEATURE ( ALL ! ANIMAL WORLD4#b#h ,:E!R ! FEEL+ BE FE>1 EXP]I5C$ AT ! APPE>ANCE ( A BIRD ( PREY1 OR 0A FIT ( GLADNESS0 :I* BUR/S \T :5 ! ANIMALS >E 9 GOOD HEAL? & ESPECIALLY :5 Y\NG1 OR M]ELY ! DESIRE ( GIV+ PLAY TO AN EXCESS ( IMPRESSIONS & ( VITAL P[] -- ! NECESSITY ( COMMUNICAT+ IMPRESSIONS1 ( PLAY+1 ( *ATT]+1 OR ( SIMPLY FEEL+ ! PROXIMITY ( O!R K9DR$ LIV+ BE+S P]VADES ,NATURE1 & IS1 AS MU* AS ANY O!R PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTION1 A DI/9CTIVE FEATURE ( LIFE & IMPRESSIONABILITY4 ,?IS NE$ TAKES A HI<] DEVELOPM5T & ATTA9S A MORE BEAUTIFUL EXPRESSION 9 MAMMALS1 ESPECIALLY AMID !IR Y\NG1 & /ILL MORE AMONG ! BIRDS2 BUT IT P]VADES ALL ,NATURE1 & HAS BE5 FULLY OBS]V$ BY ! BE/ NATURALI/S1 9CLUD+ ,PI]RE ,HUB]1 EV5 AMONG ! ANTS1 & IT IS EVID5TLY ! SAME 9/9CT :I* BR+S TOGE!R ! BIG COLUMNS ( BUTT]FLIES :I* HAVE BE5 REF]R$ TO ALREADY4 

,! HABIT ( COM+ TOGE!R = DANC+ & ( DECORAT+ ! PLACES :]E ! BIRDS HABITUALLY P]=M !IR DANCES IS1 ( C\RSE1 WELL KN[N FROM ! PAGES ?AT ,D>W9 GAVE TO ?IS SUBJECT 9 ,! ,DESC5T ( ,MAN 7*4 XIII74 ,VISITORS ( ! ,LONDON ,ZOOLOGICAL ,G>D5S ALSO KN[ ! B[] ( ! SAT9 B[]-BIRD4 ,BUT ?IS HABIT ( DANC+ SEEMS TO BE MU* MORE WIDELY SPREAD ?AN WAS =M]LY BELIEV$1 & ,MR4 ,W4 ,HUDSON GIVES 9 HIS MA/]-WORK ON ,LA ,PLATA ! MO/ 9T]E/+ DESCRIPTION1 :I* MU/ BE READ 9 ! ORIG9AL1 ( COMPLICAT$ DANCES1 P]=M$ BY QUITE A NUMB] ( BIRDS3 RAILS1 JACANAS1 LAPW+S1 & SO ON4 

,! HABIT ( S++ 9 CONC]T1 :I* EXI/S 9 SEV]AL SPECIES ( BIRDS1 BELONGS TO ! SAME CATEGORY ( SOCIAL 9/9CTS4 ,IT IS MO/ /RIK+LY DEVELOP$ ) ! *AK> 7,*AUNA *AV>RIA71 TO :I* ! ,5GLI% HAVE GIV5 ! MO/ UNIMAG9ATIVE MISNOM] ( 0CRE/$ SCREAM]40 ,!SE BIRDS SOMETIMES ASSEMBLE 9 IMM5SE FLOCKS1 & 9 SU* CASES !Y FREQU5TLY S+ ALL 9 CONC]T4 ,W4,H4 ,HUDSON F\ND !M ONCE 9 C\NTLESS NUMB]S1 RANG$ ALL R\ND A PAMPAS LAKE 9 WELL-DEF9$ FLOCKS1 ( AB\T #e BIRDS 9 EA* FLOCK4 

0,PRES5TLY10 HE WRITES1 0ONE FLOCK NE> ME BEGAN S++1 & CONT9U$ !IR P[]FUL *ANT = ?REE OR F\R M9UTES2 :5 !Y CEAS$ ! NEXT FLOCK TOOK UP ! /RA9S1 & AFT] IT ! NEXT1 & SO ON1 UNTIL ONCE MORE ! NOTES ( ! FLOCKS ON ! OPPOSITE %ORE CAME FLOAT+ /RONG & CLE> ACROSS ! WAT] -- !N PASS$ AWAY1 GR[+ FA9T] & FA9T]1 UNTIL ONCE MORE ! S\ND APPROA*$ ME TRAVEL+ R\ND TO MY SIDE AGA940  

,ON ANO!R OCCASION ! SAME WRIT] SAW A :OLE PLA9 COV]$ ) AN 5DLESS FLOCK ( *AK>S1 NOT 9 CLOSE ORD]1 BUT SCATT]$ 9 PAIRS & SMALL GR\PS4 ,AB\T N9E O'CLOCK 9 ! EV5+1 0SUDD5LY ! 5TIRE MULTITUDE ( BIRDS COV]+ ! M>% = MILES >\ND BUR/ =? 9 A TREM5D\S EV5+ SONG4444 ,IT WAS A CONC]T WELL WOR? RID+ A HUNDR$ MILES TO HE>40#b#i ,IT MAY BE ADD$ ?AT LIKE ALL SOCIABLE ANIMALS1 ! *AK> EASILY BECOMES TAME & GR[S V]Y ATTA*$ TO MAN4 0,!Y >E MILD-TEMP]$ BIRDS1 & V]Y R>ELY QU>REL0 -- WE >E TOLD -- AL?\< !Y >E WELL PROVID$ ) =MIDABLE WEAPONS4 ,LIFE 9 SOCIETIES R5D]S !SE WEAPONS USELESS4 

,?AT LIFE 9 SOCIETIES IS ! MO/ P[]FUL WEAPON 9 ! /RUGGLE = LIFE1 TAK5 9 ITS WIDE/ S5SE1 HAS BE5 ILLU/RAT$ BY SEV]AL EXAMPLES ON ! =EGO+ PAGES1 & C\LD BE ILLU/RAT$ BY ANY AM\NT ( EVID5CE1 IF FUR!R EVID5CE W]E REQUIR$4 ,LIFE 9 SOCIETIES 5ABLES ! FEEBLE/ 9SECTS1 ! FEEBLE/ BIRDS1 & ! FEEBLE/ MAMMALS TO RESI/1 OR TO PROTECT !MSELVES FROM1 ! MO/ T]RIBLE BIRDS & BEA/S ( PREY2 IT P]MITS LONGEVITY2 IT 5ABLES ! SPECIES TO RE> ITS PROG5Y ) ! LEA/ WA/E ( 5]GY & TO MA9TA9 ITS NUMB]S ALBEIT A V]Y SL[ BIR?-RATE2 IT 5ABLES ! GREG>I\S ANIMALS TO MIGRATE 9 SE>* ( NEW ABODES4 ,!RE=E1 :ILE FULLY ADMITT+ ?AT =CE1 SWIFTNESS1 PROTECTIVE COLORS1 CUNN+NESS1 & 5DURANCE TO HUNG] & COLD1 :I* >E M5TION$ BY ,D>W9 & ,WALLACE1 >E SO MANY QUALITIES MAK+ ! 9DIVIDUAL1 OR ! SPECIES1 ! FITTE/ UND] C]TA9 CIRCUM/ANCES1 WE MA9TA9 ?AT UND] ANY CIRCUM/ANCES SOCIABILITY IS ! GREATE/ ADVANTAGE 9 ! /RUGGLE = LIFE4 ,?OSE SPECIES :I* WILL+LY OR UNWILL+LY AB&ON IT >E DOOM$ TO DECAY2 :ILE ?OSE ANIMALS :I* KN[ BE/ H[ TO COMB9E1 HAVE ! GREATE/ *ANCES ( SURVIVAL & ( FUR!R EVOLUTION1 AL?\< !Y MAY BE 9F]IOR TO O!RS 9 EA* ( ! FACULTIES 5UM]AT$ BY ,D>W9 & ,WALLACE1 SAVE ! 9TELLECTUAL FACULTY4 ,! HI<E/ V]TEBRATES1 & ESPECIALLY MANK9D1 >E ! BE/ PRO( ( ?IS ASS]TION4 ,AS TO ! 9TELLECTUAL FACULTY1 :ILE EV]Y ,D>W9I/ WILL AGREE ) ,D>W9 ?AT IT IS ! MO/ P[]FUL >M 9 ! /RUGGLE = LIFE1 & ! MO/ P[]FUL FACTOR ( FUR!R EVOLUTION1 HE ALSO WILL ADMIT ?AT 9TELLIG5CE IS AN EM95TLY SOCIAL FACULTY4 ,LANGUAGE1 IMITATION1 & ACCUMULAT$ EXP]I5CE >E SO MANY ELEM5TS ( GR[+ 9TELLIG5CE ( :I* ! UNSOCIABLE ANIMAL IS DEPRIV$4 ,!RE=E WE F9D1 AT ! TOP ( EA* CLASS ( ANIMALS1 ! ANTS1 ! P>ROTS1 & ! MONKEYS1 ALL COMB9+ ! GREATE/ SOCIABILITY ) ! HI<E/ DEVELOPM5T ( 9TELLIG5CE4 ,! FITTE/ >E ?US ! MO/ SOCIABLE ANIMALS1 & SOCIABILITY APPE>S AS ! *IEF FACTOR ( EVOLUTION1 BO? DIRECTLY1 BY SECUR+ ! WELL-BE+ ( ! SPECIES :ILE DIM9I%+ ! WA/E ( 5]GY1 & 9DIRECTLY1 BY FAVOR+ ! GR[? ( 9TELLIG5CE4 

,MOREOV]1 IT IS EVID5T ?AT LIFE 9 SOCIETIES W\LD BE UTT]LY IMPOSSIBLE )\T A CORRESPOND+ DEVELOPM5T ( SOCIAL FEEL+S1 &1 ESPECIALLY1 ( A C]TA9 COLLECTIVE S5SE ( JU/ICE GR[+ TO BECOME A HABIT4 ,IF EV]Y 9DIVIDUAL W]E CON/ANTLY ABUS+ ITS P]SONAL ADVANTAGES )\T ! O!RS 9T]F]+ 9 FAVOR ( ! WRONG$1 NO SOCIETY -- LIFE W\LD BE POSSIBLE4 ,& FEEL+S ( JU/ICE DEVELOP1 MORE OR LESS1 ) ALL GREG>I\S ANIMALS4 ,:ATEV] ! DI/ANCE FROM :I* ! SWALL[S OR ! CRANES COME1 EA* ONE RETURNS TO ! NE/ IT HAS BUILT OR REPAIR$ LA/ YE>4 ,IF A LAZY SP>R[ 9T5DS APPROPRIAT+ ! NE/ :I* A COMRADE IS BUILD+1 OR EV5 /EALS FROM IT A FEW SPRAYS ( /RAW1 ! GR\P 9T]F]ES AGA9/ ! LAZY COMRADE2 & IT IS EVID5T ?AT )\T SU* 9T]F]5CE BE+ ! RULE1 NO NE/+ ASSOCIATIONS ( BIRDS C\LD EXI/4 ,SEP>ATE GR\PS ( P5GU9S HAVE SEP>ATE RE/+-PLACES & SEP>ATE FI%+ ABODES1 & DO NOT FI<T = !M4 ,! DROVES ( CATTLE 9 ,AU/RALIA HAVE P>TICUL> SPOTS TO :I* EA* GR\P REPAIRS TO RE/1 & FROM :I* IT NEV] DEVIATES2 & SO ON4#c ,WE HAVE ANY NUMB]S ( DIRECT OBS]VATIONS ( ! PEACE ?AT PREVAILS 9 ! NE/+ ASSOCIATIONS ( BIRDS1 ! VILLAGES ( ! ROD5TS1 & ! H]DS ( GRASS-EAT]S2 :ILE1 ON ! O!R SIDE1 WE KN[ ( FEW SOCIABLE ANIMALS :I* SO CONT9UALLY QU>REL AS ! RATS 9 \R CELL>S DO1 OR AS ! MORSES1 :I* FI<T = ! POSSESSION ( A SUNNY PLACE ON ! %ORE4 ,SOCIABILITY ?US PUTS A LIMIT TO PHYSICAL /RUGGLE1 & LEAVES ROOM = ! DEVELOPM5T ( BETT] MORAL FEEL+S4 ,! HI< DEVELOPM5T ( P>5TAL LOVE 9 ALL CLASSES ( ANIMALS1 EV5 ) LIONS & TIG]S1 IS G5]ALLY KN[N4 ,AS TO ! Y\NG BIRDS & MAMMALS :OM WE CONT9UALLY SEE ASSOCIAT+1 SYMPA?Y -- NOT LOVE -- ATTA9S A FUR!R DEVELOPM5T 9 !IR ASSOCIATIONS4 ,LEAV+ ASIDE ! REALLY T\*+ FACTS ( MUTUAL ATTA*M5T & COMPASSION :I* HAVE BE5 RECORD$ AS REG>DS DOME/ICAT$ ANIMALS & ) ANIMALS KEPT 9 CAPTIVITY1 WE HAVE A NUMB] ( WELL C]TIFI$ FACTS ( COMPASSION BETWE5 WILD ANIMALS AT LIB]TY4 ,MAX ,P]TY & ,L4 ,BU*N] HAVE GIV5 A NUMB] ( SU* FACTS4#c#a ,J4,C4 ,WOOD'S N>RATIVE ( A WEASEL :I* CAME TO PICK UP & TO C>RY AWAY AN 9JUR$ COMRADE 5JOYS A WELL-M]IT$ POPUL>ITY4#c#b ,SO ALSO ! OBS]VATION ( ,CAPTA9 ,/ANSBURY ON HIS J\RNEY TO ,UTAH :I* IS QUOT$ BY ,D>W92 HE SAW A BL9D PELICAN :I* WAS F$1 & WELL F$1 BY O!R PELICANS UPON FI%ES :I* HAD TO BE BR\<T FROM A DI/ANCE ( ?IRTY MILES4#c#c ,& :5 A H]D ( VICUNAS WAS HOTLY PURSU$ BY HUNT]S1 ,H4,A4 ,W$DELL SAW MORE ?AN ONCE DUR+ HIS J\RNEY TO ,BOLIVIA & ,P]U1 ! /RONG MALES COV]+ ! RETREAT ( ! H]D & LAGG+ BEH9D 9 ORD] TO PROTECT ! RETREAT4 ,AS TO FACTS ( COMPASSION ) W\ND$ COMRADES1 !Y >E CONT9UALLY M5TION$ BY ALL FIELD ZOOLOGI/S4 ,SU* FACTS >E QUITE NATURAL4 ,COMPASSION IS A NECESS>Y \TCOME ( SOCIAL LIFE4 ,BUT COMPASSION ALSO MEANS A CONSID]ABLE ADVANCE 9 G5]AL 9TELLIG5CE & S5SIBILITY4 ,IT IS ! FIR/ /EP T[>DS ! DEVELOPM5T ( HI<] MORAL S5TIM5TS4 ,IT IS1 9 ITS TURN1 A P[]FUL FACTOR ( FUR!R EVOLUTION4 

,IF ! VIEWS DEVELOP$ ON ! PREC$+ PAGES >E CORRECT1 ! QUE/ION NECESS>ILY >ISES1 9 H[ F> >E !Y CONSI/5T ) ! !ORY ( /RUGGLE = LIFE AS IT HAS BE5 DEVELOP$ BY ,D>W91 ,WALLACE1 & !IR FOLL[]S8 & ,I WILL N[ BRIEFLY ANSW] ?IS IMPORTANT QUE/ION4 ,FIR/ ( ALL1 NO NATURALI/ WILL D\BT ?AT ! IDEA ( A /RUGGLE = LIFE C>RI$ ON ?R\< ORGANIC NATURE IS ! GREATE/ G5]ALIZATION ( \R C5TURY4 ,LIFE IS /RUGGLE2 & 9 ?AT /RUGGLE ! FITTE/ SURVIVE4 ,BUT ! ANSW]S TO ! QUE/IONS1 0,BY :I* >MS IS ?IS /RUGGLE *IEFLY C>RI$ ON80 & 0,:O >E ! FITTE/ 9 ! /RUGGLE80 WILL WIDELY DIFF] ACCORD+ TO ! IMPORTANCE GIV5 TO ! TWO DIFF]5T ASPECTS ( ! /RUGGLE3 ! DIRECT ONE1 = FOOD & SAFETY AMONG SEP>ATE 9DIVIDUALS1 & ! /RUGGLE :I* ,D>W9 DESCRIB$ AS 0METAPHORICAL0 -- ! /RUGGLE1 V]Y (T5 COLLECTIVE1 AGA9/ ADV]SE CIRCUM/ANCES4 ,NO ONE WILL D5Y ?AT !RE IS1 )9 EA* SPECIES1 A C]TA9 AM\NT ( REAL COMPETITION = FOOD -- AT LEA/1 AT C]TA9 P]IODS4 ,BUT ! QUE/ION IS1 :E!R COMPETITION IS C>RI$ ON TO ! EXT5T ADMITT$ BY ,D>W91 OR EV5 BY ,WALLACE2 & :E!R ?IS COMPETITION HAS PLAY$1 9 ! EVOLUTION ( ! ANIMAL K+DOM1 ! P>T ASSIGN$ TO IT4 

,! IDEA :I* P]MEATES ,D>W9'S WORK IS C]TA9LY ONE ( REAL COMPETITION GO+ ON )9 EA* ANIMAL GR\P = FOOD1 SAFETY1 & POSSIBILITY ( LEAV+ AN (FSPR+4 ,HE (T5 SPEAKS ( REGIONS BE+ /OCK$ ) ANIMAL LIFE TO !IR FULL CAPACITY1 & FROM ?AT OV]/OCK+ HE 9F]S ! NECESSITY ( COMPETITION4 ,BUT :5 WE LOOK 9 HIS WORK = REAL PRO(S ( ?AT COMPETITION1 WE MU/ CONFESS ?AT WE DO NOT F9D !M SUFFICI5TLY CONV9C+4 ,IF WE REF] TO ! P>AGRAPH 5TITL$ 0,/RUGGLE = ,LIFE MO/ SEV]E BETWE5 ,9DIVIDUALS & ,V>IETIES ( ! SAME ,SPECIES10 WE F9D 9 IT NONE ( ?AT WEAL? ( PRO(S & ILLU/RATIONS :I* WE >E ACCU/OM$ TO F9D 9 :ATEV] ,D>W9 WROTE4 ,! /RUGGLE BETWE5 9DIVIDUALS ( ! SAME SPECIES IS NOT ILLU/RAT$ UND] ?AT HEAD+ BY EV5 ONE S+LE 9/ANCE3 IT IS TAK5 AS GRANT$2 & ! COMPETITION BETWE5 CLOSELY-ALLI$ ANIMAL SPECIES IS ILLU/RAT$ BY BUT FIVE EXAMPLES1 \T ( :I* ONE1 AT LEA/ 7RELAT+ TO ! TWO SPECIES ( ?RU%ES71 N[ PROVES TO BE D\BTFUL4#c#d ,BUT :5 WE LOOK = MORE DETAILS 9 ORD] TO ASC]TA9 H[ F> ! DECREASE ( ONE SPECIES WAS REALLY OCCASION$ BY ! 9CREASE ( ! O!R SPECIES1 ,D>W91 ) HIS USUAL FAIRNESS1 TELLS US3 

0,WE CAN DIMLY SEE :Y ! COMPETITION %\LD BE MO/ SEV]E BETWE5 ALLI$ =MS :I* FILL NE>LY ! SAME PLACE 9 NATURE2 BUT PROBABLY 9 NO CASE C\LD WE PRECISELY SAY :Y ONE SPECIES HAS BE5 VICTORI\S OV] ANO!R 9 ! GREAT BATTLE ( LIFE40  

,AS TO ,WALLACE1 :O QUOTES ! SAME FACTS UND] A SLI<TLY-MODIFI$ HEAD+ 70,/RUGGLE = ,LIFE BETWE5 CLOSELY-ALLI$ ,ANIMALS & ,PLANTS (T5 MO/ SEV]E071 HE MAKES ! FOLL[+ REM>K 7ITALICS >E M9E71 :I* GIVES QUITE ANO!R ASPECT TO ! FACTS ABOVE QUOT$4 ,HE SAYS3 

0,9 SOME CASES1 NO D\BT1 !RE IS ACTUAL W> BETWE5 ! TWO1 ! /RONG] KILL+ ! WEAK]2 BUT ?IS IS BY NO MEANS NECESS>Y1 & !RE MAY BE CASES 9 :I* ! WEAK] SPECIES1 PHYSICALLY1 MAY PREVAIL BY ITS P[] ( MORE RAPID MULTIPLICATION1 ITS BETT] )/&+ VICISSITUDES ( CLIMATE1 OR ITS GREAT] CUNN+ 9 ESCAP+ ! ATTACKS ( COMMON 5EMIES40  

,9 SU* CASES :AT IS DESCRIB$ AS COMPETITION MAY BE NO COMPETITION AT ALL4 ,ONE SPECIES SUCCUMBS1 NOT BECAUSE IT IS EXT]M9AT$ OR />V$ \T BY ! O!R SPECIES1 BUT BECAUSE IT DOES NOT WELL ACCOMMODATE ITSELF TO NEW CONDITIONS1 :I* ! O!R DOES4 ,! T]M 0/RUGGLE = LIFE0 IS AGA9 US$ 9 ITS METAPHORICAL S5SE1 & MAY HAVE NO O!R4 ,AS TO ! REAL COMPETITION BETWE5 9DIVIDUALS ( ! SAME SPECIES1 :I* IS ILLU/RAT$ 9 ANO!R PLACE BY ! CATTLE ( ,S\? ,AM]ICA DUR+ A P]IOD ( DR\<T1 ITS VALUE IS IMPAIR$ BY ITS BE+ TAK5 FROM AMONG DOME/ICAT$ ANIMALS4 ,BISONS EMIGRATE 9 LIKE CIRCUM/ANCES 9 ORD] TO AVOID COMPETITION4 ,H[EV] SEV]E ! /RUGGLE BETWE5 PLANTS -- & ?IS IS AMPLY PROV$ -- WE CANNOT BUT REPEAT ,WALLACE'S REM>K TO ! EFFECT ?AT 0PLANTS LIVE :]E !Y CAN10 :ILE ANIMALS HAVE1 TO A GREAT EXT5T1 ! P[] ( *OICE ( !IR ABODE4 ,SO ?AT WE AGA9 >E ASK+ \RSELVES1 ,TO :AT EXT5T DOES COMPETITION REALLY EXI/ )9 EA* ANIMAL SPECIES8 ,UPON :AT IS ! ASSUMPTION BAS$8 

,! SAME REM>K MU/ BE MADE CONC]N+ ! 9DIRECT >GUM5T 9 FAVOR ( A SEV]E COMPETITION & /RUGGLE = LIFE )9 EA* SPECIES1 :I* MAY BE D]IV$ FROM ! 0EXT]M9ATION ( TRANSITIONAL V>IETIES10 SO (T5 M5TION$ BY ,D>W94 ,IT IS KN[N ?AT = A LONG TIME ,D>W9 WAS WORRI$ BY ! DIFFICULTY :I* HE SAW 9 ! ABS5CE ( A LONG *A9 ( 9T]M$IATE =MS BETWE5 CLOSELY-ALLI$ SPECIES1 & ?AT HE F\ND ! SOLUTION ( ?IS DIFFICULTY 9 ! SUPPOS$ EXT]M9ATION ( ! 9T]M$IATE =MS4#c#e ,H[EV]1 AN ATT5TIVE READ+ ( ! DIFF]5T *APT]S 9 :I* ,D>W9 & ,WALLACE SPEAK ( ?IS SUBJECT SOON BR+S ONE TO ! CONCLUSION ?AT ! WORD 0EXT]M9ATION0 DOES NOT MEAN REAL EXT]M9ATION2 ! SAME REM>K :I* ,D>W9 MADE CONC]N+ HIS EXPRESSION3 0/RUGGLE = EXI/5CE10 EVID5TLY APPLIES TO ! WORD 0EXT]M9ATION0 AS WELL4 ,IT CAN BY NO MEANS BE UND]/OOD 9 ITS DIRECT S5SE1 BUT MU/ BE TAK5 09 ITS METAPHORIC S5SE40 

,IF WE />T FROM ! SUPPOSITION ?AT A GIV5 >EA IS /OCK$ ) ANIMALS TO ITS FULLE/ CAPACITY1 & ?AT A KE5 COMPETITION = ! %E] MEANS ( EXI/5CE IS CONSEQU5TLY GO+ ON BETWE5 ALL ! 9HABITANTS -- EA* ANIMAL BE+ COMPELL$ TO FI<T AGA9/ ALL ITS CONG5]S 9 ORD] TO GET ITS DAILY FOOD -- !N ! APPE>ANCE ( A NEW & SUCCESSFUL V>IETY W\LD C]TA9LY MEAN 9 MANY CASES 7?\< NOT ALWAYS7 ! APPE>ANCE ( 9DIVIDUALS :I* >E 5ABL$ TO SEIZE MORE ?AN !IR FAIR %>E ( ! MEANS ( EXI/5CE2 & ! RESULT W\LD BE ?AT ?OSE 9DIVIDUALS W\LD />VE BO? ! P>5TAL =M :I* DOES NOT POSSESS ! NEW V>IATION & ! 9T]M$IATE =MS :I* DO NOT POSSESS IT 9 ! SAME DEGREE4 ,IT MAY BE ?AT AT ! \TSET1 ,D>W9 UND]/OOD ! APPE>ANCE ( NEW V>IETIES UND] ?IS ASPECT2 AT LEA/1 ! FREQU5T USE ( ! WORD 0EXT]M9ATION0 CONVEYS SU* AN IMPRESSION4 ,BUT BO? HE & ,WALLACE KNEW ,NATURE TOO WELL NOT TO P]CEIVE ?AT ?IS IS BY NO MEANS ! ONLY POSSIBLE & NECESS>Y C\RSE ( AFFAIRS4 

,IF ! PHYSICAL & ! BIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS ( A GIV5 >EA1 ! EXT5SION ( ! >EA OCCUPI$ BY A GIV5 SPECIES1 & ! HABITS ( ALL ! MEMB]S ( ! LATT] REMA9$ UN*ANG$ -- !N ! SUDD5 APPE>ANCE ( A NEW V>IETY MI<T MEAN ! />V+ \T & ! EXT]M9ATION ( ALL ! 9DIVIDUALS :I* W]E NOT 5D[$ 9 A SUFFICI5T DEGREE ) ! NEW FEATURE BY :I* ! NEW V>IETY IS *>ACT]IZ$4 ,BUT SU* A COMB9ATION ( CONDITIONS IS PRECISELY :AT WE DO NOT SEE 9 ,NATURE4 ,EA* SPECIES IS CONT9UALLY T5D+ TO 5L>GE ITS ABODE2 MIGRATION TO NEW ABODES IS ! RULE ) ! SL[ SNAIL1 AS ) ! SWIFT BIRD2 PHYSICAL *ANGES >E CONT9UALLY GO+ ON 9 EV]Y GIV5 >EA2 & NEW V>IETIES AMONG ANIMALS CONSI/ 9 AN IMM5SE NUMB] ( CASES -- P]HAPS 9 ! MAJORITY -- NOT 9 ! GR[? ( NEW WEAPONS = SNAT*+ ! FOOD FROM ! M\? ( ITS CONG5]S -- FOOD IS ONLY ONE \T ( A HUNDR$ ( V>I\S CONDITIONS ( EXI/5CE -- BUT1 AS ,WALLACE HIMSELF %[S 9 A *>M+ P>AGRAPH ON ! 0DIV]G5CE ( *>ACT]S0 7,D>W9ISM1 P4 #a#g71 9 =M+ NEW HABITS1 MOV+ TO NEW ABODES1 & TAK+ TO NEW SORTS ( FOOD4 ,9 ALL SU* CASES !RE WILL BE NO EXT]M9ATION1 EV5 NO COMPETITION -- ! NEW ADAPTATION BE+ A RELIEF FROM COMPETITION1 IF IT EV] EXI/$2 & YET !RE WILL BE1 AFT] A TIME1 AN ABS5CE ( 9T]M$IATE L9KS1 9 CONSEQU5CE ( A M]E SURVIVAL ( ?OSE :I* >E BE/ FITT$ = ! NEW CONDITIONS -- AS SURELY AS UND] ! HYPO!SIS ( EXT]M9ATION ( ! P>5TAL =M4 ,IT H>DLY NE$ BE ADD$ ?AT IF WE ADMIT1 ) ,SP5C]1 ALL ! ,LAM>CKIANS1 & ,D>W9 HIMSELF1 ! MODIFY+ 9FLU5CE ( ! SURR\ND+S UPON ! SPECIES1 !RE REMA9S /ILL LESS NECESSITY = ! EXT]M9ATION ( ! 9T]M$IATE =MS4 

,! IMPORTANCE ( MIGRATION & ( ! CONSEQU5T ISOLATION ( GR\PS ( ANIMALS1 = ! ORIG9 ( NEW V>IETIES & ULTIMATELY ( NEW SPECIES1 :I* WAS 9DICAT$ BY ,MORITZ ,WAGN]1 WAS FULLY RECOGNIZ$ BY ,D>W9 HIMSELF4 ,CONSEQU5T RESE>*ES HAVE ONLY ACC5TUAT$ ! IMPORTANCE ( ?IS FACTOR1 & !Y HAVE %[N H[ ! L>G5ESS ( ! >EA OCCUPI$ BY A GIV5 SPECIES -- :I* ,D>W9 CONSID]$ ) FULL REASON SO IMPORTANT = ! APPE>ANCE ( NEW V>IETIES -- CAN BE COMB9$ ) ! ISOLATION ( P>TS ( ! SPECIES1 9 CONSEQU5CE ( LOCAL GEOLOGICAL *ANGES1 OR ( LOCAL B>RI]S4 ,IT W\LD BE IMPOSSIBLE TO 5T] H]E 9TO ! DISCUSSION ( ?IS WIDE QUE/ION1 BUT A FEW REM>KS WILL DO TO ILLU/RATE ! COMB9$ ACTION ( !SE AG5CIES4 ,IT IS KN[N ?AT PORTIONS ( A GIV5 SPECIES WILL (T5 TAKE TO A NEW SORT ( FOOD4 ,! SQUIRRELS1 = 9/ANCE1 :5 !RE IS A SC>CITY ( CONES 9 ! L>* =E/S1 REMOVE TO ! FIR-TREE =E/S1 & ?IS *ANGE ( FOOD HAS C]TA9 WELL-KN[N PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS ON ! SQUIRRELS4 ,IF ?IS *ANGE ( HABITS DOES NOT LA/ -- IF NEXT YE> ! CONES >E AGA9 PL5TIFUL 9 ! D>K L>* WOODS -- NO NEW V>IETY ( SQUIRRELS WILL EVID5TLY >ISE FROM ?IS CAUSE4 ,BUT IF P>T ( ! WIDE >EA OCCUPI$ BY ! SQUIRRELS BEG9S TO HAVE ITS PHYSICAL *>ACT]S ALT]$ -- 9 CONSEQU5CE (1 LET US SAY1 A MILD] CLIMATE OR DESICCATION1 :I* BO? BR+ AB\T AN 9CREASE ( ! P9E =E/S 9 PROPORTION TO ! L>* WOODS -- & IF SOME O!R CONDITIONS CONCUR TO 9DUCE ! SQUIRRELS TO DWELL ON ! \TSKIRTS ( ! DESICCAT+ REGION -- WE %ALL HAVE !N A NEW V>IETY1 I4E4 AN 9CIPI5T NEW SPECIES ( SQUIRRELS1 )\T !RE HAV+ BE5 ANY?+ ?AT W\LD DES]VE ! NAME ( EXT]M9ATION AMONG ! SQUIRRELS4 ,A L>G] PROPORTION ( SQUIRRELS ( ! NEW1 BETT] ADAPT$ V>IETY W\LD SURVIVE EV]Y YE>1 & ! 9T]M$IATE L9KS W\LD DIE 9 ! C\RSE ( TIME1 )\T HAV+ BE5 />V$ \T BY ,MAL?USIAN COMPETITORS4 ,?IS IS EXACTLY :AT WE SEE GO+ ON DUR+ ! GREAT PHYSICAL *ANGES :I* >E ACCOMPLI%$ OV] L>GE >EAS 9 ,C5TRAL ,ASIA1 [+ TO ! DESICCATION :I* IS GO+ ON !RE S9CE ! GLACIAL P]IOD4 

,TO TAKE ANO!R EXAMPLE1 IT HAS BE5 PROV$ BY GEOLOGI/S ?AT ! PRES5T WILD HORSE 7,EQUUS ,PRZEWALSKI7 HAS SL[LY BE5 EVOLV$ DUR+ ! LAT] P>TS ( ! ,T]TI>Y & ! ,QUAT]N>Y P]IOD1 BUT ?AT DUR+ ?IS SUCCESSION ( AGES ITS ANCE/ORS W]E NOT CONF9$ TO SOME GIV51 LIMIT$ >EA ( ! GLOBE4 ,!Y W&]$ OV] BO? ! ,OLD & ,NEW ,WORLD1 RETURN+1 9 ALL PROBABILITY1 AFT] A TIME TO ! PA/URES :I* !Y HAD1 9 ! C\RSE ( !IR MIGRATIONS1 =M]LY LEFT4#c#f ,CONSEQU5TLY1 IF WE DO NOT F9D N[1 9 ,ASIA1 ALL ! 9T]M$IATE L9KS BETWE5 ! PRES5T WILD HORSE & ITS ,ASIATIC ,PO/-,T]TI>Y ANCE/ORS1 ?IS DOES NOT MEAN AT ALL ?AT ! 9T]M$IATE L9KS HAVE BE5 EXT]M9AT$4 ,NO SU* EXT]M9ATION HAS EV] TAK5 PLACE4 ,NO EXCEPTIONAL MORTALITY MAY EV5 HAVE OCCURR$ AMONG ! ANCE/RAL SPECIES3 ! 9DIVIDUALS :I* BELONG$ TO 9T]M$IATE V>IETIES & SPECIES HAVE DI$ 9 ! USUAL C\RSE ( EV5TS -- (T5 AMID PL5TIFUL FOOD1 & !IR REMA9S W]E BURI$ ALL OV] ! GLOBE4 

,9 %ORT1 IF WE C>EFULLY CONSID] ?IS MATT]1 &1 C>EFULLY RE-READ :AT ,D>W9 HIMSELF WROTE UPON ?IS SUBJECT1 WE SEE ?AT IF ! WORD 0EXT]M9ATION0 BE US$ AT ALL 9 CONNECTION ) TRANSITIONAL V>IETIES1 IT MU/ BE US$ 9 ITS METAPHORIC S5SE4 ,AS TO 0COMPETITION10 ?IS EXPRESSION1 TOO1 IS CONT9UALLY US$ BY ,D>W9 7SEE1 = 9/ANCE1 ! P>AGRAPH 0,ON ,EXT9CTION07 AS AN IMAGE1 OR AS A WAY-(-SPEAK+1 RA!R ?AN ) ! 9T5TION ( CONVEY+ ! IDEA ( A REAL COMPETITION BETWE5 TWO PORTIONS ( ! SAME SPECIES = ! MEANS ( EXI/5CE4 ,AT ANY RATE1 ! ABS5CE ( 9T]M$IATE =MS IS NO >GUM5T 9 FAVOR ( IT4 

,9 REALITY1 ! *IEF >GUM5T 9 FAVOR ( A KE5 COMPETITION = ! MEANS ( EXI/5CE CONT9UALLY GO+ ON )9 EV]Y ANIMAL SPECIES IS -- TO USE ,PR(ESSOR ,G$DES' EXPRESSION -- ! 0>I?METICAL >GUM5T0 BORR[$ FROM ,MAL?US4 

,BUT ?IS >GUM5T DOES NOT PROVE IT AT ALL4 ,WE MI<T AS WELL TAKE A NUMB] ( VILLAGES 9 ,S\?-,EA/ ,RUSSIA1 ! 9HABITANTS ( :I* 5JOY PL5TY ( FOOD1 BUT HAVE NO SANIT>Y ACCOMMODATION ( ANY K9D2 & SEE+ ?AT = ! LA/ EI<TY YE>S ! BIR?-RATE WAS SIXTY 9 ! ?\S&1 :ILE ! POPULATION IS N[ :AT IT WAS EI<TY YE>S AGO1 WE MI<T CONCLUDE ?AT !RE HAS BE5 A T]RIBLE COMPETITION BETWE5 ! 9HABITANTS4 ,BUT ! TRU? IS ?AT FROM YE> TO YE> ! POPULATION REMA9$ /ATION>Y1 = ! SIMPLE REASON ?AT ONE-?IRD ( ! NEW-BORN DI$ BE=E REA*+ !IR SIX? MON? ( LIFE2 ONE-HALF DI$ )9 ! NEXT F\R YE>S1 & \T ( EA* HUNDR$ BORN1 ONLY SEV5TE5 OR SO REA*$ ! AGE ( TW5TY4 ,! NEW-COM]S W5T AWAY BE=E HAV+ GR[N TO BE COMPETITORS4 ,IT IS EVID5T ?AT IF SU* IS ! CASE ) M51 IT IS /ILL MORE ! CASE ) ANIMALS4 ,9 ! FEA!R$ WORLD ! DE/RUCTION ( ! EGGS GOES ON ON SU* A TREM5D\S SCALE ?AT EGGS >E ! *IEF FOOD ( SEV]AL SPECIES 9 ! E>LY SUMM]2 NOT TO1 SAY A WORD ( ! /ORMS1 ! 9UNDATIONS :I* DE/ROY NE/S BY ! MILLION 9 ,AM]ICA1 & ! SUDD5 *ANGES ( WEA!R :I* >E FATAL TO ! Y\NG MAMMALS4 ,EA* /ORM1 EA* 9UNDATION1 EA* VISIT ( A RAT TO A BIRD'S NE/1 EA* SUDD5 *ANGE ( TEMP]ATURE1 TAKE AWAY ?OSE COMPETITORS :I* APPE> SO T]RIBLE 9 !ORY4 

,AS TO ! FACTS ( AN EXTREMELY RAPID 9CREASE ( HORSES & CATTLE 9 ,AM]ICA1 ( PIGS & RABBITS 9 ,NEW ,ZEAL&1 & EV5 ( WILD ANIMALS IMPORT$ FROM ,EUROPE 7:]E !IR NUMB]S >E KEPT D[N BY MAN1 NOT BY COMPETITION71 !Y RA!R SEEM OPPOS$ TO ! !ORY ( OV]-POPULATION4 ,IF HORSES & CATTLE C\LD SO RAPIDLY MULTIPLY 9 ,AM]ICA1 IT SIMPLY PROV$ ?AT1 H[EV] NUMB]LESS ! BUFFALOES & O!R RUM9ANTS W]E AT ?AT TIME 9 ! ,NEW ,WORLD1 ITS GRASS-EAT+ POPULATION WAS F> BEL[ :AT ! PRAIRIES C\LD MA9TA94 ,IF MILLIONS ( 9TRUD]S HAVE F\ND PL5TY ( FOOD )\T />V+ \T ! =M] POPULATION ( ! PRAIRIES1 WE MU/ RA!R CONCLUDE ?AT ! ,EUROPEANS F\ND A WANT ( GRASS-EAT]S 9 ,AM]ICA1 NOT AN EXCESS4 ,& WE HAVE GOOD REASONS TO BELIEVE ?AT WANT ( ANIMAL POPULATION IS ! NATURAL /ATE ( ?+S ALL OV] ! WORLD1 ) BUT A FEW TEMPOR>Y EXCEPTIONS TO ! RULE4 ,! ACTUAL NUMB]S ( ANIMALS 9 A GIV5 REGION >E DET]M9$1 NOT BY ! HI<E/ FE$+ CAPACITY ( ! REGION1 BUT BY :AT IT IS EV]Y YE> UND] ! MO/ UNFAVORABLE CONDITIONS4 ,SO ?AT1 = ?AT REASON ALONE1 COMPETITION H>DLY CAN BE A NORMAL CONDITION BUT O!R CAUSES 9T]V5E AS WELL TO CUT D[N ! ANIMAL POPULATION BEL[ EV5 ?AT L[ /&>D4 ,IF WE TAKE ! HORSES & CATTLE :I* >E GRAZ+ ALL ! W9T] ?R\< 9 ! ,/EPPES ( ,TRANSBAIKALIA1 WE F9D !M V]Y LEAN & EXHAU/$ AT ! 5D ( ! W9T]4 ,BUT !Y GR[ EXHAU/$ NOT BECAUSE !RE IS NOT 5\< FOOD = ALL ( !M -- ! GRASS BURI$ UND] A ?9 %EET ( SN[ IS EV]Y:]E 9 ABUNDANCE -- BUT BECAUSE ( ! DIFFICULTY ( GETT+ IT FROM B5EA? ! SN[1 & ?IS DIFFICULTY IS ! SAME = ALL HORSES ALIKE4 ,BESIDES1 DAYS ( GLAZ$ FRO/ >E COMMON 9 E>LY SPR+1 & IF SEV]AL SU* DAYS COME 9 SUCCESSION ! HORSES GR[ /ILL MORE EXHAU/$4 ,BUT !N COMES A SN[-/ORM1 :I* COMPELS ! ALREADY WEAK5$ ANIMALS TO REMA9 )\T ANY FOOD = SEV]AL DAYS1 & V]Y GREAT NUMB]S ( !M DIE4 ,! LOSSES DUR+ ! SPR+ >E SO SEV]E ?AT IF ! SEASON HAS BE5 MORE 9CLEM5T ?AN USUAL !Y >E EV5 NOT REPAIR$ BY ! NEW BRE$S -- ! MORE SO AS ALL HORSES >E EXHAU/$1 & ! Y\NG FOALS >E BORN 9 A WEAK] CONDITION4 ,! NUMB]S ( HORSES & CATTLE ?US ALWAYS REMA9 B5EA? :AT !Y O!RWISE MI<T BE2 ALL ! YE> R\ND !RE IS FOOD = FIVE OR T5 TIMES AS MANY ANIMALS1 & YET !IR POPULATION 9CREASES EXTREMELY SL[LY4 ,BUT AS SOON AS ! ,BURIATE [N] MAKES EV] SO SMALL A PROVISION ( HAY 9 ! /EPPE1 & ?R[S IT OP5 DUR+ DAYS ( GLAZ$ FRO/1 OR HEAVI] SN[-FALL1 HE IMM$IATELY SEES ! 9CREASE ( HIS H]D4 ,ALMO/ ALL FREE GRASS-EAT+ ANIMALS & MANY ROD5TS 9 ,ASIA & ,AM]ICA BE+ 9 V]Y MU* ! SAME CONDITIONS1 WE CAN SAFELY SAY ?AT !IR NUMB]S >E NOT KEPT D[N BY COMPETITION2 ?AT AT NO TIME ( ! YE> !Y CAN /RUGGLE = FOOD1 & ?AT IF !Y NEV] REA* ANY?+ APPROA*+ TO OV]-POPULATION1 ! CAUSE IS 9 ! CLIMATE1 NOT 9 COMPETITION4 

,! IMPORTANCE ( NATURAL *ECKS TO OV]-MULTIPLICATION1 & ESPECIALLY !IR BE>+ UPON ! COMPETITION HYPO!SIS1 SEEMS NEV] TO HAVE BE5 TAK5 9TO DUE ACC\NT ,! *ECKS1 OR RA!R SOME ( !M1 >E M5TION$1 BUT !IR ACTION IS SELDOM /UDI$ 9 DETAIL4 ,H[EV]1 IF WE COMP>E ! ACTION ( ! NATURAL *ECKS ) ?AT ( COMPETITION1 WE MU/ RECOGNIZE AT ONCE ?AT ! LATT] SU/A9S NO COMP>ISON :ATEV] ) ! O!R *ECKS4 ,?US1 ,MR4 ,BATES M5TIONS ! REALLY A/\ND+ NUMB]S ( W+$ ANTS :I* >E DE/ROY$ DUR+ !IR EXODUS4 ,! DEAD OR HALF-DEAD BODIES ( ! =MICA DE FUEGO 7,MYRMICA SAEVISSIMA7 :I* HAD BE5 BL[N 9TO ! RIV] DUR+ A GALE 0W]E HEAP$ 9 A L9E AN 9* OR TWO 9 HEI<T & BREAD?1 ! L9E CONT9U+ )\T 9T]RUPTION = MILES AT ! $GE ( ! WAT]40#c#g ,MYRIADS ( ANTS >E ?US DE/ROY$ AMID A NATURE :I* MI<T SUPPORT A HUNDR$ TIMES AS MANY ANTS AS >E ACTUALLY LIV+4 ,DR4 ,ALTUM1 A ,G]MAN =E/]1 :O WROTE A V]Y 9T]E/+ BOOK AB\T ANIMALS 9JURI\S TO \R =E/S1 ALSO GIVES MANY FACTS %[+ ! IMM5SE IMPORTANCE ( NATURAL *ECKS4 ,HE SAYS1 ?AT A SUCCESSION ( GALES OR COLD & DAMP WEA!R DUR+ ! EXODUS ( ! P9E-MO? 7,BOMBYX P9I7 DE/ROY IT TO 9CR$IBLE AM\NTS1 & DUR+ ! SPR+ ( #ahga ALL !SE MO?S DISAPPE>$ AT ONCE1 PROBABLY KILL$ BY A SUCCESSION ( COLD NI<TS4#c#h ,MANY LIKE EXAMPLES RELATIVE TO V>I\S 9SECTS C\LD BE QUOT$ FROM V>I\S P>TS ( ,EUROPE4 ,DR4 ,ALTUM ALSO M5TIONS ! BIRD-5EMIES ( ! P9E-MO?1 & ! IMM5SE AM\NT ( ITS EGGS DE/ROY$ BY FOXES2 BUT HE ADDS ?AT ! P>ASITIC FUNGI :I* P]IODICALLY 9FE/ IT >E A F> MORE T]RIBLE 5EMY ?AN ANY BIRD1 BECAUSE !Y DE/ROY ! MO? OV] V]Y L>GE >EAS AT ONCE4 ,AS TO V>I\S SPECIES ( MICE 7,MUS SYLVATICUS1 ,>VICOLA >VALIS1 & ,A4 AGRE/IS71 ! SAME AU?OR GIVES A LONG LI/ ( !IR 5EMIES1 BUT HE REM>KS3 0,H[EV]1 ! MO/ T]RIBLE 5EMIES ( MICE >E NOT O!R ANIMALS1 BUT SU* SUDD5 *ANGES ( WEA!R AS OCCUR ALMO/ EV]Y YE>40 ,ALT]NATIONS ( FRO/ & W>M WEA!R DE/ROY !M 9 NUMB]LESS QUANTITIES2 0ONE S+LE SUDD5 *ANGE CAN R$UCE ?\S&S ( MICE TO ! NUMB] ( A FEW 9DIVIDUALS40 ,ON ! O!R SIDE1 A W>M W9T]1 OR A W9T] :I* GRADUALLY /EPS 91 MAKE !M MULTIPLY 9 M5AC+ PROPORTIONS1 NOT)/&+ EV]Y 5EMY2 SU* WAS ! CASE 9 #ahgf & #a#h#g#g4#c#i ,COMPETITION1 9 ! CASE ( MICE1 ?US APPE>S A QUITE TRIFL+ FACTOR :5 COMP>$ ) WEA!R4 ,O!R FACTS TO ! SAME EFFECT >E ALSO GIV5 AS REG>DS SQUIRRELS4 

,AS TO BIRDS1 IT IS WELL KN[N H[ !Y SUFF] FROM SUDD5 *ANGES ( WEA!R4 ,LATE SN[-/ORMS >E AS DE/RUCTIVE ( BIRD-LIFE ON ! ,5GLI% MOORS1 AS !Y >E 9 ,SIB]IA2 & ,*4 ,DIXON SAW ! R$ GR\SE SO PRESS$ DUR+ SOME EXCEPTIONALLY SEV]E W9T]S1 ?AT !Y QUITT$ ! MOORS 9 NUMB]S1 0& WE HAVE !N KN[N !M ACTUALLY TO BE TAK5 9 ! /REETS ( ,%EFFIELD4 ,P]SI/5T WET10 HE ADDS1 0IS ALMO/ AS FATAL TO !M40 

,ON ! O!R SIDE1 ! CONTAGI\S DISEASES :I* CONT9UALLY VISIT MO/ ANIMAL SPECIES DE/ROY !M 9 SU* NUMB]S ?AT ! LOSSES (T5 CANNOT BE REPAIR$ = MANY YE>S1 EV5 ) ! MO/ RAPIDLY-MULTIPLY+ ANIMALS4 ,?US1 SOME SIXTY YE>S AGO1 ! S\SLIKS SUDD5LY DISAPPE>$ 9 ! NEI<BORHOOD ( ,S>EPTA1 9 ,S\?-,EA/]N ,RUSSIA1 9 CONSEQU5CE ( SOME EPIDEMICS2 & = YE>S NO S\SLIKS W]E SE5 9 ?AT NEI<BORHOOD4 ,IT TOOK MANY YE>S BE=E !Y BECAME AS NUM]\S AS !Y =M]LY W]E4#d 

,LIKE FACTS1 ALL T5D+ TO R$UCE ! IMPORTANCE GIV5 TO COMPETITION1 C\LD BE PRODUC$ 9 NUMB]S4#d#a ,( C\RSE1 IT MI<T BE REPLI$1 9 ,D>W9'S WORDS1 ?AT NEV]!LESS EA* ORGANIC BE+ 0AT SOME P]IOD ( ITS LIFE1 DUR+ SOME SEASON ( ! YE>1 DUR+ EA* G5]ATION OR AT 9T]VALS1 HAS TO /RUGGLE = LIFE & TO SUFF] GREAT DE/RUCTION10 & ?AT ! FITTE/ SURVIVE DUR+ SU* P]IODS ( H>D /RUGGLE = LIFE4 ,BUT IF ! EVOLUTION ( ! ANIMAL WORLD W]E BAS$ EXCLUSIVELY1 OR EV5 *IEFLY1 UPON ! SURVIVAL ( ! FITTE/ DUR+ P]IODS ( CALAMITIES2 IF NATURAL SELECTION W]E LIMIT$ 9 ITS ACTION TO P]IODS ( EXCEPTIONAL DR\<T1 OR SUDD5 *ANGES ( TEMP]ATURE1 OR 9UNDATIONS1 RETROGRESSION W\LD BE ! RULE 9 ! ANIMAL WORLD4 ,?OSE :O SURVIVE A FAM9E1 OR A SEV]E EPIDEMIC ( *OL]A1 OR SMALL-POX1 OR DIPH!RIA1 SU* AS WE SEE !M 9 UNCIVILIZ$ C\NTRIES1 >E NEI!R ! /RONGE/1 NOR ! HEAL?IE/1 NOR ! MO/ 9TELLIG5T4 ,NO PROGRESS C\LD BE BAS$ ON ?OSE SURVIVALS -- ! LESS SO AS ALL SURVIVORS USUALLY COME \T ( ! ORDEAL ) AN IMPAIR$ HEAL?1 LIKE ! ,TRANSBAIKALIAN HORSES JU/ M5TION$1 OR ! ,>CTIC CREWS1 OR ! G>RISON ( A =TRESS :I* HAS BE5 COMPELL$ TO LIVE = A FEW MON?S ON HALF RATIONS1 & COMES \T ( ITS EXP]I5CE ) A BROK5 HEAL?1 & SUBSEQU5TLY %[S A QUITE ABNORMAL MORTALITY4 ,ALL ?AT NATURAL SELECTION CAN DO 9 TIMES ( CALAMITIES IS TO SP>E ! 9DIVIDUALS 5D[$ ) ! GREATE/ 5DURANCE = PRIVATIONS ( ALL K9DS4 ,SO IT DOES AMONG ! ,SIB]IAN HORSES & CATTLE4 ,!Y >E 5DUR+2 !Y CAN FE$ UPON ! ,POL> BIR* 9 CASE ( NE$2 !Y RESI/ COLD & HUNG]4 ,BUT NO ,SIB]IAN HORSE IS CAPABLE ( C>RY+ HALF ! WEI<T :I* A ,EUROPEAN HORSE C>RIES ) EASE2 NO ,SIB]IAN C[ GIVES HALF ! AM\NT ( MILK GIV5 BY A ,J]SEY C[1 & NO NATIVES ( UNCIVILIZ$ C\NTRIES CAN BE> A COMP>ISON ) ,EUROPEANS4 ,!Y MAY BETT] 5DURE HUNG] & COLD1 BUT !IR PHYSICAL =CE IS V]Y F> BEL[ ?AT ( A WELL-F$ ,EUROPEAN1 & !IR 9TELLECTUAL PROGRESS IS DESPAIR+LY SL[4 0,EVIL CANNOT BE PRODUCTIVE ( GOOD10 AS ,T*]NY%EVSKY WROTE 9 A REM>KABLE ESSAY UPON ,D>W9ISM4#d#b 

,HAPPILY 5\<1 COMPETITION IS NOT ! RULE EI!R 9 ! ANIMAL WORLD OR 9 MANK9D4 ,IT IS LIMIT$ AMONG ANIMALS TO EXCEPTIONAL P]IODS1 & NATURAL SELECTION F9DS BETT] FIELDS = ITS ACTIVITY4 ,BETT] CONDITIONS >E CREAT$ BY ! ELIM9ATION ( COMPETITION BY MEANS ( MUTUAL AID & MUTUAL SUPPORT4#d#c ,9 ! GREAT /RUGGLE = LIFE -- = ! GREATE/ POSSIBLE FULLNESS & 9T5SITY ( LIFE ) ! LEA/ WA/E ( 5]GY -- NATURAL SELECTION CONT9UALLY SEEKS \T ! WAYS PRECISELY = AVOID+ COMPETITION AS MU* AS POSSIBLE4 ,! ANTS COMB9E 9 NE/S & NATIONS2 !Y PILE UP !IR /ORES1 !Y RE> !IR CATTLE -- & ?US AVOID COMPETITION2 & NATURAL SELECTION PICKS \T ( ! ANTS' FAMILY ! SPECIES :I* KN[ BE/ H[ TO AVOID COMPETITION1 ) ITS UNAVOIDABLY DELET]I\S CONSEQU5CES4 ,MO/ ( \R BIRDS SL[LY MOVE S\?W>DS AS ! W9T] COMES1 OR GA!R 9 NUMB]LESS SOCIETIES & UND]TAKE LONG J\RNEYS -- & ?US AVOID COMPETITION4 ,MANY ROD5TS FALL ASLEEP :5 ! TIME COMES ?AT COMPETITION %\LD SET 92 :ILE O!R ROD5TS /ORE FOOD = ! W9T]1 & GA!R 9 L>GE VILLAGES = OBTA9+ ! NECESS>Y PROTECTION :5 AT WORK4 ,! RE9DE]1 :5 ! LI*5S >E DRY 9 ! 9T]IOR ( ! CONT95T1 MIGRATE T[>DS ! SEA4 ,BUFFALOES CROSS AN IMM5SE CONT95T 9 ORD] TO F9D PL5TY ( FOOD4 ,& ! BEAV]S1 :5 !Y GR[ NUM]\S ON A RIV]1 DIVIDE 9TO TWO P>TIES1 & GO1 ! OLD ONES D[N ! RIV]1 & ! Y\NG ONES UP ! RIV] & AVOID COMPETITION4 ,& :5 ANIMALS CAN NEI!R FALL ASLEEP1 NOR MIGRATE1 NOR LAY 9 /ORES1 NOR !MSELVES GR[ !IR FOOD LIKE ! ANTS1 !Y DO :AT ! TITM\SE DOES1 & :AT ,WALLACE 7,D>W9ISM1 *4 V7 HAS SO *>M+LY DESCRIB$3 !Y RESORT TO NEW K9DS ( FOOD -- & ?US1 AGA91 AVOID COMPETITION4#d#d 

0,DON'T COMPETE6 -- COMPETITION IS ALWAYS 9JURI\S TO ! SPECIES1 & Y\ HAVE PL5TY ( RES\RCES TO AVOID IT60 ,?AT IS ! T5D5CY ( NATURE1 NOT ALWAYS REALIZ$ 9 FULL1 BUT ALWAYS PRES5T4 ,?AT IS ! WAT*WORD :I* COMES TO US FROM ! BU%1 ! =E/1 ! RIV]1 ! OCEAN4 0,!RE=E COMB9E -- PRACTICE MUTUAL AID6 ,?AT IS ! SURE/ MEANS = GIV+ TO EA* & TO ALL ! GREATE/ SAFETY1 ! BE/ GU>ANTEE ( EXI/5CE & PROGRESS1 BODILY1 9TELLECTUAL1 & MORAL40 ,?AT IS :AT ,NATURE TEA*ES US2 & ?AT IS :AT ALL ?OSE ANIMALS :I* HAVE ATTA9$ ! HI<E/ POSITION 9 !IR RESPECTIVE CLASSES HAVE DONE4 ,?AT IS ALSO :AT MAN -- ! MO/ PRIMITIVE MAN -- HAS BE5 DO+2 & ?AT IS :Y MAN HAS REA*$ ! POSITION UPON :I* WE /& N[1 AS WE %ALL SEE 9 ! SUBSEQU5T *APT]S DEVOT$ TO MUTUAL AID 9 HUMAN SOCIETIES4 

,NOTES 

  

#a ,SYEVETTS(F'S ,P]IODICAL ,PH5OM5A1 P4 #b#e#a4 

#b ,SEYFF]LITZ1 QUOT$ BY ,BREHM1 IV4 #g#f4 

#c,! ,>CTIC ,VOYAGES ( ,A4,E4 ,NORD5SKJOLD1 ,LONDON1 #a#h#g#i1 P4 #a#c#e4 ,SEE ALSO ! P[]FUL DESCRIPTION ( ! ,/4 ,KILDA ISL&S BY ,MR4 ,DIXON 7QUOT$ BY ,SEEBOHM71 & NE>LY ALL BOOKS ( ,>CTIC TRAVEL4 

#e ,SEE ,APP5DIX ,I,I,I4 

#e ,ELLIOT ,C\IS1 9 ,BULLET9 ,U4,S4 ,GEOL4 ,SURVEY ( ,T]RITORIES1 IV4 ,NO4 #g1 PP4 #e#e#f1 #e#g#i1 ETC4 ,AMONG ! GULLS 7,L>US >G5TATUS71 ,POLYAK(F SAW ON A M>% 9 ,NOR!RN ,RUSSIA1 ?AT ! NE/+ GR\NDS ( A V]Y GREAT NUMB] ( !SE BIRDS W]E ALWAYS PATROLL$ BY ONE MALE1 :I* W>N$ ! COLONY ( ! APPROA* ( DANG]4 ,ALL BIRDS ROSE 9 SU* CASE & ATTACK$ ! 5EMY ) GREAT VIGOR4 ,! FEMALES1 :I* HAD FIVE OR SIX NE/S TOGE!R ,ON EA* KNOLL ( ! M>%1 KEPT A C]TA9 ORD] 9 LEAV+ !IR NE/S 9 SE>* ( FOOD4 ,! FL$GL+S1 :I* O!RWISE >E EXTREMELY UNPROTECT$ & EASILY BECOME ! PREY ( ! RAPACI\S BIRDS1 W]E NEV] LEFT ALONE 70,FAMILY ,HABITS AMONG ! ,AQUATIC ,BIRDS10 9 ,PROCE$+S ( ! ,ZOOL4 ,SECTION ( ,/4 ,PET]SBURG ,SOC4 ( ,NAT41 ,DEC4 #a#g1 #a#h#g#d74 

#f ,BREHM ,FA!R1 QUOT$ BY ,A4 ,BREHM1 IV4 #cd SEQ4 ,SEE ALSO ,:ITE'S ,NATURAL ,HI/ORY ( ,SELBORNE1 ,LETT] ,X,I4 #g ,DR4 ,C\ES1 ,BIRDS ( ,DAKOTA & ,MONTANA1 9 ,BULLET9 ,U4,S4 ,SURVEY ( ,T]RITORIES1 IV4 ,NO4 #g4 

#h ,IT HAS (T5 BE5 9TIMAT$ ?AT L>G] BIRDS MAY OCCASIONALLY TRANSPORT SOME ( ! SMALL] BIRDS :5 !Y CROSS TOGE!R ! ,M$IT]RANEAN1 BUT ! FACT /ILL REMA9S D\BTFUL4 ,ON ! O!R SIDE1 IT IS C]TA9 ?AT SOME SMALL] BIRDS JO9 ! BIGG] ONES = MIGRATION4 ,! FACT HAS BE5 NOTIC$ SEV]AL TIMES1 & IT WAS REC5TLY CONFIRM$ BY ,L4 ,BUXBAUM AT ,RAUNHEIM4 ,HE SAW SEV]AL P>TIES ( CRANES :I* HAD L>KS FLY+ 9 ! MID/ & ON BO? SIDES ( !IR MIGRATORY COLUMNS 7,D] ZOOLOGIS*E ,G>T51 #a#h#h#f1 P4 #a#c#c74 

#i ,H4 ,SEEBOHM & ,*4 ,DIXON BO? M5TION ?IS HABIT4 

#a ,! FACT IS WELL KN[N TO EV]Y FIELD-NATURALI/1 & ) REF]5CE TO ,5GL& SEV]AL EXAMPLES MAY BE F\ND 9 ,*>LES ,DIXON'S ,AMONG ! ,BIRDS 9 ,NOR!RN ,%IRES4 ,! *AFF9*ES >RIVE DUR+ W9T] 9 VA/ FLOCKS2 & AB\T ! SAME TIME1 I4E4 9 ,NOVEMB]1 COME FLOCKS ( BRAMBL+S2 R$W+S ALSO FREQU5T ! SAME PLACES 09 SIMIL> L>GE COMPANIES10 & SO ON 7PP4 #a#f#e1 #a#f#f74 

#aa ,S4,W4 ,BAK]1 ,WILD ,BEA/S1 ETC41 VOL4 I4 P4 #c#a#f4 #ab ,TS*UDI1 ,?I]LEB5 D] ,ALP5WELT1 P4 #d#d4 

#ac ,H\ZEAU'S ,ETUDES1 II4 #d#f#c4 

#ad ,= !IR HUNT+ ASSOCIATIONS SEE ,SIR ,E4 ,T5NANT'S ,NATURAL ,HI/ORY ( ,CEYLON1 QUOT$ 9 ,ROMANES'S ,ANIMAL ,9TELLIG5CE1 P4 #d#c#b4 

#ae ,SEE ,EMIL ,HUT]'S LETT] 9 ,L4 ,BU*N]'S ,LIEBE4 

#af ,SEE ,APP5DIX ,I,V4 

#ag ,) REG>D TO ! VISCA*A IT IS V]Y 9T]E/+ TO NOTE ?AT !SE HI<LY-SOCIABLE LITTLE ANIMALS NOT ONLY LIVE PEACEABLY TOGE!R 9 EA* VILLAGE1 BUT ?AT :OLE VILLAGES VISIT EA* O!R AT NI<TS4 ,SOCIABILITY IS ?US EXT5D$ TO ! :OLE SPECIES -- NOT ONLY TO A GIV5 SOCIETY1 OR TO A NATION1 AS WE SAW IT ) ! ANTS4 ,:5 ! F>M] DE/ROYS A VISCA*A-BURR[1 & BURIES ! 9HABITANTS UND] A HEAP ( E>?1 O!R VISCA*AS -- WE >E TOLD BY ,HUDSON -- 0COME FROM A DI/ANCE TO DIG \T ?OSE ?AT >E BURI$ ALIVE0 7L4C41 P4 #c#a#a74 ,?IS IS A WIDELY-KN[N FACT 9 ,LA ,PLATA1 V]IFI$ BY ! AU?OR4 

#ah ,H&BU* FUR ,JAG] UND ,JAGDB]E*TIGTE1 QUOT$ BY ,BREHM1 II4 #b#b#c4 #ai ,BUFFON'S ,HI/OIRE ,NATURELLE4 

#b ,9 CONNECTION ) ! HORSES IT IS WOR?Y ( NOTICE ?AT ! QUAGGA ZEBRA1 :I* NEV] COMES TOGE!R ) ! DAUW ZEBRA1 NEV]!LESS LIVES ON EXCELL5T T]MS1 NOT ONLY ) O/RI*ES1 :I* >E V]Y GOOD S5TRIES1 BUT ALSO ) GAZELLES1 SEV]AL SPECIES ( ANTELOPES1 & GNUS4 ,WE ?US HAVE A CASE ( MUTUAL DISLIKE BETWE5 ! QUAGGA & ! DAUW :I* CANNOT BE EXPLA9$ BY COMPETITION = FOOD4 ,! FACT ?AT ! QUAGGA LIVES TOGE!R ) RUM9ANTS FE$+ ON ! SAME GRASS AS ITSELF EXCLUDES ?AT HYPO!SIS1 & WE MU/ LOOK = SOME 9COMPATIBILITY ( *>ACT]1 AS 9 ! CASE ( ! H>E & ! RABBIT4 ,CF41 AMONG O!RS1 ,CLIVE ,PHILLIPS-,WOLLEY'S ,BIG ,GAME ,%OOT+ 7,BADM9TON ,LIBR>Y71 :I* CONTA9S EXCELL5T ILLU/RATIONS ( V>I\S SPECIES LIV+ TOGE!R 9 ,EA/ ,AFRICA4 

#ba ,\R ,TUNGUS HUNT]1 :O WAS GO+ TO M>RY1 & !RE=E WAS PROMPT$ BY ! DESIRE ( GETT+ AS MANY FURS AS HE POSSIBLY C\LD1 WAS BEAT+ ! HILL-SIDES ALL DAY LONG ON HORSEBACK 9 SE>* ( DE]4 ,HIS EF=TS W]E NOT REW>D$ BY EV5 SO MU* AS ONE FALL[ DE] KILL$ EV]Y DAY2 & HE WAS AN EXCELL5T HUNT]4 

#bb ,ACCORD+ TO ,SAMUEL ,W4 ,BAK]1 ELEPHANTS COMB9E 9 L>G] GR\PS ?AN ! 0COMP\ND FAMILY40 0,I HAVE FREQU5TLY OBS]V$10 HE WROTE1 09 ! PORTION ( ,CEYLON KN[N AS ! ,P>K ,C\NTRY1 ! TRACKS ( ELEPHANTS 9 GREAT NUMB]S :I* HAVE EVID5TLY BE5 CONSID]ABLE H]DS ?AT HAVE JO9$ TOGE!R 9 A G5]AL RETREAT FROM A GR\ND :I* !Y CONSID]$ 9SECURE0 7,WILD ,BEA/S & !IR ,WAYS1 VOL4 I4 P4 #a#b74 

#bc ,PIGS1 ATTACK$ BY WOLVES1 DO ! SAME 7,HUDSON1 L4C474 

#bd ,ROMANES'S ,ANIMAL ,9TELLIG5CE1 P4 #d#g#b4 

#be ,BREHM1 I4 #h#b2 ,D>W9'S ,DESC5T ( ,MAN1 *4 III4 ,! ,KOZL(F EXP$ITION ( #a#h#i#i-#a#i#a HAVE ALSO HAD TO SU/A9 9 ,NOR!RN ,?IBET A SIMIL> FI<T4 

#bf ,! MORE /RANGE WAS IT TO READ 9 ! PREVI\SLY-M5TION$ >TICLE BY ,HUXLEY ! FOLL[+ P>APHRASE ( A WELL-KN[N S5T5CE ( ,R\SSEAU3 0,! FIR/ M5 :O SUB/ITUT$ MUTUAL PEACE = ?AT ( MUTUAL W> -- :ATEV] ! MOTIVE :I* IMPELL$ !M TO TAKE ?AT /EP -- CREAT$ SOCIETY0 7,N9ETE5? ,C5TURY1 ,FEB4 #a#h#h#h1 P4 #a#f#e74 ,SOCIETY HAS NOT BE5 CREAT$ BY MAN2 IT IS ANT]IOR TO MAN4 

#bg ,SU* MONOGRAPHS AS ! *APT] ON 0,MUSIC & ,DANC+ 9 ,NATURE0 :I* WE HAVE 9 ,HUDSON'S ,NATURALI/ ON ! ,LA ,PLATA1 & ,C>L ,GROSS' ,PLAY ( ,ANIMALS1 HAVE ALREADY ?R[N A CONSID]ABLE LI<T UPON AN 9/9CT :I* IS ABSOLUTELY UNIV]SAL 9 ,NATURE4 

#bh ,NOT ONLY NUM]\S SPECIES ( BIRDS POSSESS ! HABIT ( ASSEMBL+ TOGE!R -- 9 MANY CASES ALWAYS AT ! SAME SPOT -- TO 9DULGE 9 ANTICS & DANC+ P]=MANCES1 BUT ,W4,H4 ,HUDSON'S EXP]I5CE IS ?AT NE>LY ALL MAMMALS & BIRDS 70PROBABLY !RE >E REALLY NO EXCEPTIONS07 9DULGE FREQU5TLY 9 MORE OR LESS REGUL> OR SET P]=MANCES ) OR )\T S\ND1 OR COMPOS$ ( S\ND EXCLUSIVELY 7P4 #b#f#d74 

#bi ,= ! *ORUSES ( MONKEYS1 SEE ,BREHM4 

#c ,HAYG>?1 ,BU% ,LIFE 9 ,AU/RALIA1 P4 #e#h4 

#ca ,TO QUOTE BUT A FEW 9/ANCES1 A W\ND$ BADG] WAS C>RI$ AWAY BY ANO!R BADG] SUDD5LY APPE>+ ON ! SC5E2 RATS HAVE BE5 SE5 FE$+ A BL9D C\PLE 7,SEEL5LEB5 D] ,?I]E1 P4 #fd SEQ474 ,BREHM HIMSELF SAW TWO CR[S FE$+ 9 A HOLL[ TREE A ?IRD CR[ :I* WAS W\ND$2 ITS W\ND WAS SEV]AL WEEKS OLD 7,HAUSFREUND1 #a#h#g#d1 #g#a#e2 ,BU*N]'S ,LIEBE1 #b#c74 ,MR4 ,BLY? SAW ,9DIAN CR[S FE$+ TWO OR ?REE BL9D COMRADES2 & SO ON4 

#c#b,MAN & ,BEA/1 P4 #c#d#d4 

#cc ,L4,H4 ,MORGAN1 ,! ,AM]ICAN ,BEAV]1 #a#h#f#h1 P4 #b#g#b2 ,DESC5T ( ,MAN1 *4 IV4 

#cd ,ONE SPECIES ( SWALL[ IS SAID TO HAVE CAUS$ ! DECREASE ( ANO!R SWALL[ SPECIES 9 ,NOR? ,AM]ICA2 ! REC5T 9CREASE ( ! MISSEL-?RU% 9 ,SCOTL& HAS CAUS$ ! DECREASE ( ! SONG4?RU%2 ! BR[N RAT HAS TAK5 ! PLACE ( ! BLACK RAT 9 ,EUROPE2 9 ,RUSSIA ! SMALL COCKROA* HAS EV]Y:]E DRIV5 BE=E IT ITS GREAT] CONG5]2 & 9 ,AU/RALIA ! IMPORT$ HIVE-BEE IS RAPIDLY EXT]M9AT+ ! SMALL /+LESS BEE4 ,TWO O!R CASES1 BUT RELATIVE TO DOME/ICAT$ ANIMALS1 >E M5TION$ 9 ! PREC$+ P>AGRAPH4 ,:ILE RECALL+ !SE SAME FACTS1 ,A4,R4 ,WALLACE REM>KS 9 A FOOTNOTE RELATIVE TO ! ,SCOTTI% ?RU%ES3 0,PR(4 ,A4 ,NEWTON1 H[EV]1 9=MS ME ?AT !SE SPECIES DO NOT 9T]F]E 9 ! WAY H]E /AT$0 7,D>W9ISM1 P4 #c#d74 ,AS TO ! BR[N RAT1 IT IS KN[N ?AT1 [+ TO ITS AMPHIBIAN HABITS1 IT USUALLY /AYS 9 ! L[] P>TS ( HUMAN DWELL+S 7L[ CELL>S1 SEW]S1 ETC471 AS ALSO ON ! BANKS ( CANALS & RIV]S2 IT ALSO UND]TAKES DI/ANT MIGRATIONS 9 NUMB]LESS B&S4 ,! BLACK RAT1 ON ! CONTR>Y1 PREF]S /AY+ 9 \R DWELL+S !MSELVES1 UND] ! FLOOR1 AS WELL AS 9 \R /ABLES & B>NS4 ,IT ?US IS MU* MORE EXPOS$ TO BE EXT]M9AT$ BY MAN2 & WE CANNOT MA9TA91 ) ANY APPROA* TO C]TA9TY1 ?AT ! BLACK RAT IS BE+ EI!R EXT]M9AT$ OR />V$ \T BY ! BR[N RAT & NOT BY MAN4 

#ce 0,BUT IT MAY BE URG$ ?AT :5 SEV]AL CLOSELY-ALLI$ SPECIES 9HABIT ! SAME T]RITORY1 WE SURELY \<T TO F9D AT ! PRES5T TIME MANY TRANSITIONAL =MS4444 ,BY MY !ORY !SE ALLI$ SPECIES >E DESC5D$ FROM A COMMON P>5T2 & DUR+ ! PROCESS ( MODIFICATION1 EA* HAS BECOME ADAPT$ TO ! CONDITIONS ( LIFE ( ITS [N REGION1 & HAS SUPPLANT$ & EXT]M9AT$ ITS ORIG9AL P>5T-=M & ALL ! TRANSITIONAL V>IETIES BETWE5 ITS PA/ & PRES5T /ATES0 7,ORIG9 ( ,SPECIES1 #f? $4 P4 #a#c#d72 ALSO P4 #a#c#g1 #bif 7ALL P>AGRAPH 0,ON ,EXT9CTION074 

#cf ,ACCORD+ TO ,MADAME ,M>IE ,PAVL(F1 :O HAS MADE A SPECIAL /UDY ( ?IS SUBJECT1 !Y MIGRAT$ FROM ,ASIA TO ,AFRICA1 /AY$ !RE SOME TIME1 & RETURN$ NEXT TO ,ASIA4 ,:E!R ?IS D\BLE MIGRATION BE CONFIRM$ OR NOT1 ! FACT ( A =M] EXT5SION ( ! ANCE/OR ( \R HORSE OV] ,ASIA1 ,AFRICA1 & ,AM]ICA IS SETTL$ BEYOND D\BT4 

#c#g,! ,NATURALI/ ON ! ,RIV] ,AMAZONS1 II4 #h#e1 #i#e4 

#* ,DR4 ,B4 ,ALTUM1 ,WALDBES*ADIGUNG5 DUR* ,?I]E UND ,GEG5MITTEL 7,B]L91 #a#h#h#i71 PP4 #bg SEQ4 

#ci ,DR4 ,B4 ,ALTUM1 UT SUPRA1 PP4 #ac & #a#h#g4 

#d ,A4 ,BECK] 9 ! ,BULLET9 DE LA ,SOCIETE DES ,NATURALI/ES DE ,MOSC\1 #a#h#h#i1 P4 #f#b#e4 

#da ,SEE ,APP5DIX ,V4 

#db ,RUSSKAYA ,MYSL1 ,SEPT4 #a#h#h#h3 0,! ,!ORY ( ,B5EFIC5CY ( ,/RUGGLE = ,LIFE1 BE+ A ,PREFACE TO V>I\S ,TREATISES ON ,BOTANICS1 ,ZOOLOGY1 & ,HUMAN ,LIFE10 BY AN ,OLD ,TRANS=MI/4 

#dc 0,ONE ( ! MO/ FREQU5T MODES 9 :I* ,NATURAL ,SELECTION ACTS IS1 BY ADAPT+ SOME 9DIVIDUALS ( A SPECIES TO A SOME:AT DIFF]5T MODE ( LIFE1 :]EBY !Y >E ABLE TO SEIZE UNAPPROPRIAT$ PLACES 9 ,NATURE0 7,ORIG9 ( ,SPECIES1 P4 #a#d#e7 -- 9 O!R WORDS1 TO AVOID COMPETITION4 

#dd ,SEE ,APP5DIX ,V,I4 

,FROM 3 ,AN>*Y ,>*IVES4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,JANU>Y #b#a1 #bag 3 ,*APT] #b -- ,ADD$4 
,JANU>Y #a#a1 #bbb 3 ,*APT] #b -- ,UPDAT$4 

 FILE G5]AT$ FROM 3  
HTTP3_/_/REVOLTLIB4COM_/