,P>T #e1 ,*APT] #c 
,BLACK & R$3 AN HI/ORICAL-PHILOSOPHICAL 5QUIRY 9TO !IR CONV]G5CE 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,ALEX ,PRI*>D 

,AU?OR 3 ,&Y ,MC,LAV]TY-,ROB9SON 

,AU?OR 3 ,B5OIT ,*ALL& 

,AU?OR 3 ,C>L ,LEVY 

,AU?OR 3 ,*I>A ,BOTTICI 

,TEXT 3 

,BLACK & R$3 AN HI/ORICAL-PHILOSOPHICAL 9QUIRY 9TO !IR CONV]G5CE 

,*I>A ,BOTTICI 

,ALT]NATE TITLE3 ,BLACK & ,R$3 ,! ,FRE$OM ( ,EQUALS4 

0,OGGI LO SVILUPPO IMM5SO *E HA PRESO LA PRODUZIONE1 IL CRESC]E DI QUEI BISOGNI *E NON POSSONO SODDISF>SI SE NON COL CONCORSO DI GRAN NUM]O DI UOM9I DI TUTTI I PAESI1 I MEZZI DI COMUNICAZIONE1 L'ABITUD9E DEI VIAGGI1 LA SCI5ZA1 LA LETT]ATURA1 I COMM]CI1 LE GU]RE /ESSE1 HANNO /RETTO E VANNO SEMP] PIU /R+5DO L'UMANITA 9 UN CORPO SOLO1 LE CUI P>TI1 SOLIDALI TRA LORO1 POSSONO SOLO TROV>E PI5EZZA E LE LIB]TA DI SVILUPPO NELLA SALUTE DELLE ALTRE P>TI E DEL TUTTO0 

7,MALATE/A1 ,E4 #b#a1 ,L'AN>*IA1 P4 #b#d74 

,9 #a#i#f#g1 ,ITALIAN AN>*I/ ,BELGRADO ,P$R9I WROTE A POEM 5TITL$ 0,SLAVES40 ,! IMAGE ?AT DOM9ATES ! POEM IS ?AT ( A GALLEON1 9 :I* EV]YBODY WORKS AS A SLAVE1 DEPRIV$ ( ANY FRE$OM4 ,DAYS & NI<TS PASSES BUT NO?+ *ANGES1 UNTIL SOMEONE />TS TO 9CITE HIS FELL[S TO ! REBELLION BY PO9T+ \T ?AT ONLY BY FI<T+ ALL TOGE!R CAN !Y REGA9 FRE$OM 7,P$R9I #b#aA3 #f#i74 ,9 A GALLEON1 Y\ CANNOT BE FREE ON Y\R [N1 BECAUSE IF Y\ >E ! ONLY ONE FREE Y\ WILL CON/ANTLY BE ?REAT5$ BY ! SLAV]Y ( ! O!RS4 ,!RE IS NO 9T]M$IATE WAY3 WE >E EI!R ALL FREE OR ALL SLAVES4 ,H5CE ! NE$ TO FI<T3 0,SU1 S*IAVI1 ALL'>MI1 ALL'>MI6_/,PUGNAM COL BRACCI(ORTE2_/GRIDIAM1 GRIDIAM3 GIU/IZIA1_/E LIB]TA O MORTE,V' 

,! P]SONAL /ORY ( ,P$R9I IS SIMIL> TO ?AT ( MANY AN>*I/S :O LIV$ ! TR\BL$ YE>S ( ! FI<T AGA9/ ! ,ITALIAN FASCI/ REGIME4 ,IMPRISON$ = ! DEA? ( A FASCI/ POLICEMAN1 HE WAS LIB]AT$ BY ! P>TIZANS DUR+ ! 0,RESI/5ZA10 BUT !N PUT BACK TO JAIL AFT] ! 5D ( ! W> AS IF HE HAD BE5 A NORMAL CRIM9AL4 ,M9I/RY ( JU/ICE WAS !N ! COMMUNI/ ,PALMIRO ,TOGLIATTI4 ,P$R9I'S VICISSITUDES >E A LIV+ TE/IMONY ( ! HO/ILITY BETWE5 AN>*I/S & COMMUNI/S4 ,NOT A S+LE COMMUNI/ ?AT HAD BE5 IMPRISON$ BY ! FASCI/ REGIME REMA9$ 9 JAIL AFT] ! LIB]ATION4 ,BUT MANY AN>*I/S DID4.<#b#d#e.> ,YET1 P>ADOXICALLY1 PRECISELY 9 ,P$R9I'S POEM1 WE F9D ! SYMBOL ( A PECULI> VIEW ( FRE$OM :I*1 SO ,I WILL >GUE1 REPRES5TS ! PLAT=M = ! CONV]G5CE ( ,AN>*ISM & ,M>XISM4 ,P$R9I'S METAPHORS ( ! GALLEON TELLS US TWO IMPORTANT ?+S3 FIR/LY1 ?AT WE >E ALL ON ! SAME BOAT &1 SECONDLY1 ?AT ! FRE$OM ( EV]Y 9DIVIDUAL /RICTLY DEP5DS ON ?AT ( ALL ! O!RS4 ,Y\ CANNOT BE FREE ALONE1 BECAUSE FRE$OM CAN ONLY BE REALIZ$ AS 0FRE$OM ( EQUALS40 

,! AIM ( ?IS PAP] IS TO >GUE ?AT !RE IS A SIGNIFICANT CONV]G5CE BETWE5 ,M>XISM & ,AN>*ISM 9 ?AT !Y BO? CONCEIVE ( FRE$OM 9 ?IS WAY4 ,AFT] EXPLOR+ ! MEAN+ ( ?IS CONCEPTION ( FRE$OM 784 #a7 & DI/+UI%+ IT FROM ?AT ( AUTONOMY 784#b71 ,I WILL >GUE ?AT 
TODAY SOCIAL1 ECONOMIC & POLITICAL CONDITIONS R5D] ?IS VIEW P>TICUL>LY TIMELY & CALL = AN OV]COM+ ( ! HI/ORICAL DIVISIONS BETWE5 ,AN>*ISM & ,M>XISM 784#c1 84#d74 

84 #a ,! FRE$OM ( EQUALS4 

,AT ! BEG9N+ WAS FRE$OM4 ,IT IS A COMMONPLACE TO SAY ?AT FRE$OM IS ! CRUCIAL ISSUE = AN>*ISM1 SO MU* SO ?AT SOME HAVE CLAIM$ ?AT ?IS WORD SUMM>IZES ! S5SE ( ! 5TIRE AN>*IC DOCTR9E & CR$O 7,BOTTICI #b#a74 ,YET1 !RE >E GOOD REASONS TO >GUE ?AT FRE$OM IS ALSO ! CRUCIAL CONC]N = ,M>X1 :O1 FROM HIS V]Y E>LY WRIT+S1 COMES TO BE CONC]N$ ) ! PROBLEM ( ! CONDITIONS = ! EMANCIPATION ( HUMAN BE+S4 ,9DE$1 ! 5TIRE PA? ( HIS ?\<T C\LD BE DESCRIB$ AS A REFLECTION ON ! CONDITIONS = FRE$OM1 UND]/OOD FIR/ AS A MORE G5]AL HUMAN EMANCIPATION &1 LAT] ON1 AS FRE$OM FROM EXPLOITATION 9 ! LI<T ( HIS !ORY ( SURPLUS VALUE4.<#b#d#f.> ,9 ?IS SECTION1 ,I WILL ILLU/RATE ?IS VIEW ( FRE$OM & DI/+UI% IT FROM ?AT ( FRE$OM AS AUTONOMY1 :IL/ 9 ! FOLL[+ ONE ,I WILL %[ ?AT ,M>XISM & ,AN>*ISM CAN PROVIDE EA* O!R ! ANTIDOTE = !IR POSSIBLE DEG5]ATION4 

,BUT :Y FRE$OM AT ! BEG9N+8 ,MAX ,/IRN] HAS A V]Y HELPFUL WAY TO PHRASE ! ANSW]4 ,9 HIS MA/]PIECE1 ,! ,EGO & ITS ,[N1 HE OBS]VES ?AT MO/ !ORIES ( ! SOCIETY PURSE ! ISSUE (3 0,:AT IS ! ESS5CE ( MAN8 ,:AT IS ITS NATURE0 7,/IRN] #a#i#i74 ,!ORIES EI!R DIRECTLY BEG9 ) SU* A QUE/ION OR TAKE IT AS AN IMPLICIT ASSUMPTION4 ,YET1 ,/IRN] OBS]VES1 ! QUE/ION IS NOT :AT IS ! HUMAN BE+1 BUT RA!R :O3 & ! ANSW] IS ?AT 0,I0 1 9 MY UNIQU5ESS1 AM ! HUMAN BE+ 7,/IRN] #a#i#i74 ,9 O!R WORDS1 WE %\LD NOT />T ) AN AB/RACT !ORY AB\T SOME PRESUM$ ESS5CE OR 7:I* IS ! SAME7 NATURE ( ! HUMAN BE+1 BUT ) ! SIMPLE FACT 0,I0 AM1 H]E & N[1 9 MY UNIQU5ESS4 ,O!RWISE SAID1 !RE IS NO O!R BEG9N+ BECAUSE 0,I'VE SET MY CAUSE ON NO?+0 7,I* HAB'ME9',SA*'AUF NI*TS GE/ELLT7 7,/IRN] #a#i#i73 #d#a1 #c#e#a74 

,IT MAY APPE> P>ADOXICAL TO />T ) A QUOTATION FROM ,/IRN]1 AN AU?OR ?AT HAS BE5 V]Y MU* CRITICIZ$ )9 BO? ,M>XISM & AN>*ISM = ITS /RONG 9DIVIDUALISM4 ,YET1 WE CAN H]E F9D A RADICAL =MULATION ( A />T+ PO9T TO ?9K AB\T ! C5TRALITY ( FRE$OM3 FRE$OM IS AT ! BEG9N+1 BECAUSE AT ! BEG9N+ !RE IS ! 0,I0 9 ITS CONCRET5ESS OR1 EV5 BETT]1 EV]Y BE+ ?AT HAS ! CAPACITY TO SAY 0,I AM40 ,! EGO IS AT ! BEG9N+ A PURE ACTIVITY1 CAPACITY TO MOVE & TO SPEAK4 ,BUT IF ?IS 9T]PRETATION IS CORRECT1 & ! BE+ ?AT SAY 0,I AM0 CANNOT BUT BE A BE+ 5D[$ ) LANGUAGE1 ?AN IT FOLL[S ?AT ,/IRN]'S D$UCTION ( A RADICAL 9DIVIDUALISM1 :I* NEGATES ! V]Y IDEA ( A SOCIETY1 IS ULTIMATELY CONTRADICTORY4 

,! ABILITY TO SPEAK1 & ?US LANGUAGE1 PRESUPPOSES A PLURALITY ( 0EGO0 BECAUSE NO LANGUAGE CAN EV] BE LE>N$ )\T A PLURALITY ( BE+S4 ,AN ASOCIAL BE+1 SU* AS ! ONE ?AT ,/IRN] D$UCES1 W\LD BE A SPEE*-LESS BE+4 ,SO IF ,/IRN] IS RI<T 9 ID5TIFY+ ?IS PRIMORDIAL ACTIVITY ( CONSCI\SNESS AS ! />T+ PO9T = ?9K+ AB\T FRE$OM1 HE IS NEV]!LESS WRONG 9 D$UC+ FROM IT SU* A RADICAL EGOISM4 ,HIS RADICAL 9DIVIDUALISM1 :I* HE PRES5TS AS A RIGOR\S LOGICAL D$UCTION1 MAY WELL BE ! HI/ORICAL EGOISM ( ! !N EM]G+ ,EUROPEAN B\RGEOISIE4 ,AS ,M>X & ,5GELS MADE CLE> 9 !IR 0,! ,G]MAN ,IDEOLOGY10 ! PRESUM$ UNIQUE & SOLE HUMAN BE+ DIV9IZ$ BY ,/IRN] IS ! IDEOLOGICAL REPRES5TATION ( ! ,G]MAN B\RGEOIS ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY 7,M>X & ,5GLES #a#i#g#f1 ,I1 ,I,I,I1 0,SA9T ,MAX074 ,SU* REPRES5TATION ( ! HUMAN BE+ AS AN 9DIVIDUAL SEP>AT$ FROM ALL O!R 9DIVIDUALS IS A 0,ROB9SONADE0 7,M>X #a#i#g#hC3 #b#b#a71 ! FANTA/IC REPRES5TATION ( A MAN LO/ ON AN ISL& :I* CORRESPOND TO ! V]Y CONCRETE ECONOMIC DEVELOPM5T ( ! EPO*4 

,!RE IS NOT SU* AN ISOLATE & UNRELAT$ 9DIVIDUAL AS ! ONE PRESUPPOS$ BY ,/IRN]1 BECAUSE ! M]E POSSIBILITY TO SPEAK PRESUPPOSES A BE+ 5D[$ ) LANGUAGE4 ,! HUMAN BE+ DOES NOT BECOME SOCIAL AT SOME PO9T & ONLY = SOME PURPOSES1 BUT IT IS SOCIAL FROM ! V]Y BEG9N+4 ,WE DO NOT CREATE ! SOCIETY1 BUT >E RA!R CREAT$ BY IT4 ,9 ONE ( HIS LECTURES ON AN>*Y1 ,BAKUN9 ILLU/RATES ! PO9T ?R\< ! FOLL[+ EXAMPLE3 TAKE A Y\NG HUMAN BE+ 5D[$ ) ! MO/ BRILLIANT & G5IAL FACULTIES 7,BAKUN9 #a#i#i#f3 #b#h74 ,IF ?R[N AT A V]Y Y\NG AGE 9 A DES]T1 SU* A BE+ WILL EI!R P]I% 7AS IT IS V]Y LIKELY7 OR ELSE SURVIVE BUT BECOME A BRUTE DEPRIV$ ( SPEE*4 ,TOGE!R ) SPEE*1 WE WILL ALSO BE LACK+ 9 ! DEVELOPM5T ( PROP] ?9K+1 BECAUSE !RE CANNOT BE ANY ?\<T )\T WORDS4 ,SURE1 ONE CAN ALSO REFLECT ?\< IMAGES & REPRES5TATIONS1 BUT 9 ORD] TO >TICULATE A ?\<T ONE NE$S WORDS1 WORDS ?AT CAN ONLY LE>N BY 9T]ACT+ ) O!R HUMAN BE+S4 

,?IS VIEW LIES AT ! HE>T ( ,BAKUN9'S IDEA ?AT Y\ CAN BE FREE ONLY IF EV]YBODY'S ELSE IS FREE 7,BAKUN9 #a#i#i#f1 #b74 ,! VIEW MAY APPE>S P>ADOXICAL1 BUT ?IS IS SO BECAUSE WE HAVE SO MU* 9T]NALIZ$ ! IDEOLOGICAL CON/RUCTION ( ! HUMAN BE+S AS A 9DEP5D5T 9DIVIDUAL1 ?AT WE HAVE DIFFICULTIES 9 REPRES5T+ FRE$OM AS A RELATION RA!R ?AN AS A PROP]TY ( :I* SEP>ATE 9DIVIDUALS >E 5D[$4 ,LET ME ILLU/RATE ,BAKUN9'S IDEA 9 MORE DETAILS4 ,! MAJOR PO9T IS ?AT S9CE ! HUMAN BE+S >E SO MU* DEP5D5T ON ONE ANO!R1 ONE CANNOT BE FREE 9 ISOLATION1 BUT ONLY ?R\< A FREE WEB ( RECIPROCAL 9T]DEP5D5CE4 ,AL?\< QUITE REF9$ 9 ITS DEVELOPM5TS1 IT IS NOT A VIEW V]Y F> FROM COMMON S5SE3 FRE$OM1 9 ,BAKUN9'S VIEW1 CONSI/S 9 09 ! RI<T NOT TO OBEY TO ANYBODY ELSE & TO DET]M9E MY ACTS 9 CON=MITY ) MY CONVICTIONS1 M$IAT$ ?R\< ! EQUALLY FREE CONSCI\SNESS ( EV]YBODY 0 7,BAKUN9 #a#i#i#f3#h#a74 ,SO FRE$OM IS ! CAPACITY TO DO :AT ,I WANT1 TO ACT 9 CON=MITY ) MY CONVICTIONS1 BUT -- & H]E IT COMES ! 
REF9EM5T -- 9 ORD] TO KN[ :AT MY [N DEEPE/ CONVICTIONS >E ,I NE$ ! M$IATION ( ! 0EQUALLY FREE CONSCI\SNESS ( EV]YBODY0 

,WE CAN CLE>LY SEE H[ SU* A VIEW DIFF]S FROM ! MA9/REAM LIB]AL VIEW ( FRE$OM AS SELF-DET]M9ATION4 ,9 ,BAKUN9'S VIEW1 !RE IS NOT SU* A ?+ AS AN ISOLAT$ SELF ?AT CAN DET]M9E H]_/HIMSELF 9DEP5D5TLY ( ! O!R HUMAN BE+S4 ,IT IS A PO9T :]E ,M>X & ,BAKUN9 PAT5TLY CONV]GE 7BUT ! LI/ C\LD BE EXT5D$ TO MANY O!RS EXPON5TS ( BO? TRADITIONS74 ,SOCIAL CONTRACT !ORIES >E WRONG NOT ONLY 9 SUPPOS+ ?AT SOCIETY IS NOT COEVAL TO ! HUMAN BE+S !MSELVES1 BECAUSE !RE CANNOT BE SU* AN ORIG9AL /ATE :]E ! 9DIVIDUALS LIVE 9 A 0NATURAL0 & NOT FULLY 0SOCIAL0 WAY4 ,!Y >E ALSO WRONG 9 ?AT !Y TAKE ! S+LE 9DIVIDUAL1 SEP>AT$ FROM ALL ! O!RS AS !IR />T+ PO9T4 ,AS WE HAVE ALREADY PO9T$ \T ,M>X ACUTELY OBS]VES ?AT ?IS IMAGE ( ! 9DIVIDUAL AS DISCRETE BE+ IS NOT AT ! BEG9N+ ( HI/ORY1 BECAUSE ! MORE DEEPLY WE GO BACK 9TO HI/ORY1 ! MORE DOES ! 9DIVIDUAL APPE> AS DEP5D5T1 AS BELONG+ TO A GREAT] :OLE & V9CULAT$ BY ! 9NUM]ABLE CU/OMS & TIES ( TRADITION 7,M>X #a#i#g#hC3 #b#b#a74 ,! PRIMITIVE HUMAN BE+S >E F> FROM BE+ ! FREE1 9DEP5D5T BE+ DEPICT$ BY SOCIAL CONTRACT !ORI/ SU* ,R\SSEAU4 ,! FRE$OM ?AT !Y ATTRIBUTE TO ! 9DIVIDUAL 9 ! SUPPOS$ /ATE ( NATURE IS 9 FACT ?AT ( ! MEMB]S ( ! MOD]N CIVIL SOCIETY1 :OSE EM]G5CE !Y >E WITNESS+4 

,TO ! SOCIAL CONTRACT1 BO? ,M>X & ,BAKUN9 OPPOSE ! IDEA ?AT ! HUMAN BE+S IS DET]M9$ BY HIS_/H] POSITION )9 ! SOCIETY4 ,9 A PASSAGE ?AT E*OES ! CONTEMPOR>Y !ORI/S ( ! TE*NOLOGIES ( ! SELF SU* A ,F\CAULT1.<#b#d#g.> ,BAKUN9 OBS]VES ?AT IT IS NOT ! 9DIVIDUALS :O CREATE SOCIETY1 BUT ! SOCIETY ?AT1 SO TO SPEAK1 09DIVIDUALIZES ITSELF 9 EV]Y 9DIVIDUAL0 7,BAKUN9 #b3 #h#e74 ,BAKUN9 IS WELL AW>E ?AT FRE$OM AS SELF-DET]M9ATION REMA9S AN EMPTY WORD IF !RE IS NOT SU* A ?+ AS A 0SELF' ?AT CAN AUTONOM\SLY *OOSE4 ,! CRUCIAL PO9T IS NOT SIMPLY DO+ :AT ,I WANT1 BUT TO BE SURE ?AT :AT ,I BELIEVE IS ! FRUIT ( MY FREE *OICE ACTUALLY IS4 ,IF ,I AM L$ BY ! CIRCUM/ANCES ( MY LIFE TO BELIEVE ?AT MY S]VITUDE IS EI!R IMMUTABLE OR EV5 DESIRABLE1 !RE IS NO WAY ,I CAN BE FREE4 ,IT'S ! DILEMMA ( A VOLUNT>Y S]VITUDE & !RE=E ! TE*NIQUES ?R\< :I* SU* COMPLIANT SUBJECTS >E CREAT$1 :I* HAS BE5 AT ! C5T] ( REFLECTION ( AN>*I/ ?9K]S = A LONG TIME4.<#b#d#h.> 

,9 ,BAKUN9'S VIEW1 ! HUMAN BE+S >E COMPLETELY DET]M9$ BY BO? MAT]IAL & REPRES5TATIONAL SOCIAL FACTORS4 ,:5 /ILL 9 ! WOMB ( !IR MO!R1 EV]Y HUMAN BE+ IS ALREADY DET]M9$ BY A HI< NUMB] ( GEOGRAPHICAL1 CLIMATIC1 & ECONOMIC FACTORS ?AT CON/ITUTE ! MAT]IAL NATURE ( !IR SOCIAL CONDITION 7,BAKUN9 #b3 #h#f74 ,BUT TOGE!R ) SU* A S]IES ( MAT]IAL FACTORS1 :I* ,M>X 9VE/IGAT$ 9 A F> GREAT] DETAILS1 ,BAKUN9 ALSO M5TIONS A S]IES ( 
BELIEFS1 IDEAS1 & REPRES5TATIONS ?AT >E EQUALLY1 IF NOT MORE CRUCIAL4 ,AGA91 9 AN EXTREMELY TIMELY PASSAGE1 ,BAKUN9 OBS]VES ?AT EV]Y G5]ATION F9DS AS ALREADY MADE A :OLE WORLD ( IDEAS1 IMAGES & S5TIM5TS :I* IT 9H]ITS FROM ! PREVI\S EPO*S 7,BAKUN9 #b3 #h#g74.<#b#d#i.> ,YET !Y DO NOT PRES5T !MSELVES TO ! NEWBORN AS A SY/EM ( IDEAS1 S9CE *ILDR5 W\LD NOT BE ABLE TO APPREH5D IT 9 ?IS =M4 ,RA!R SU* A WORLD ( IDEAS IMPOSES ITSELF AS WORLD ( 0P]SONIFI$ FACTS10 MADE CONCRETE 9 ! P]SONS & ! ?+S ?AT SURR\ND !M1 AS A WORLD ?AT SPEAKS TO !IR S5SES ?R\< :ATEV] !Y HE>S & SEE S9CE !IR V]Y E>LY DAYS 7,BAKUN9 #b3 #h#g74.<#b#e.> 

,PUT 9 MORE CONTEMPOR>Y WORDS1 ! 9DIVIDUAL BECOME SU* ONLY ?R\< A PROCESS ( SOCIALIZATION ?AT BEG9S IMM$IATELY1 AT LEA/ S9CE ! V]Y FIR/ 5C\NT]S ) LANGUAGE & ! PRES5CE ( O!R HUMAN BE+S4 ,AS PSY*OANALYSIS HAS %[N1 IT IS ?R\< SU* A PROCESS ?AT ! 9DIVIDUAL IS L$ TO 9T]NALIZE & ASSIMILATES ! IMAG9>Y SIGNIFICATIONS ( ?AT P>TICUL> SOCIETY S_/HE LIVE 9 7,CA/ORIADIS #a#i#h#g74 ,TO PUT IT 9 ,CA/ORIADIS' WORDS1 ! 9DIVIDUALS >E AT ! SAME TIME 9/ITUT+ & 9/ITUT$ BY ! SOCIETY !Y LIVE 9 7,CA/ORIADIS #a#i#h#g74 

,?IS IS ! REASON :Y FRE$OM CANNOT BUT BE A FRE$OM ( EQUALS4 ,ONE CANNOT BE FREE 9 A SOCIETY :]E ! O!RS >E NOT FREE4 ,?IS IS SO BECAUSE1 AS ,BAKUN9 PUTS IT1 0,TO BE FREE MEANS = ! 9DIVIDUAL TO BE RECOGNIZ$1 CONSID]$ & TREAT$ AS SU* BY ANO!R 9DIVIDUALS1 & BY ALL ! 9DIVIDUALS ?AT SURR\ND HIM OR H]0 7,BAKUN9 #b3 #i#b1 TRANS & EMPHASIS M9E74 ,BUT 9 ORD] TO DO SO Y\ NE$ TO HAVE BE5 9 T\* ) ! IMAG9>Y SIGNIFICATIONS ( IT4 ,! LATT] IMPLIES RECOGNITION1 TO BE RECOGNIZ$ & TO RECOGNIZE ! O!R AS FREE4.<#b#e#a.> ,A MA/] :O DOES NOT RECOGNIZE ! FRE$OM ( HIS SLAVES IS = ?IS REASON NOT FREE HIMSELF BECAUSE HE CONTRIBUTES TO P]PETRATE ! IMAGE ( SLAV]Y )9 ! SOCIETY ( :I* HE IS P>T4 ,SLAV]Y WILL COME BACK TO HIM1 9 A =M OR ANO!R4 & ?AT 9EVITABLY 9FLU5CES HIM4 ,AS ,MALATE/A1 BY QUOT+ ,BAKUN91 PUTS ITS1 0 ,I /RONGLY C>E AB\T :AT ALL ! O!R HUMAN BE+S >E1 BECAUSE H[EV] 9DEP5D5T ,I MAY APPE> OR BELIEVE TO BE = MY SOCIAL POSITION1 BE IT A ,POPE1 ,CZ> OR EV5 ,EMP]OR1 ,I AM ! P]PETUAL PRODUCT ( :AT ! HUMAN BE+S >E 9 !IR RECIPROCAL RELATION%IP3 IF !Y >E IGNORANT1 MIS]ABLE1 SLAVES1 MY EXI/5CE IS DET]M9$ BY !IR SLAV]Y4 ,I -- 5LI<T5$ & CLEV]- WILL BE /UPID = !IR /UPIDITY1 ,I -- BRAVE & C\RAGE\S- WILL BE SLAVE = !IR 5SLAVEM5T1 ,I -- RI* -- %IV] 9SIDE = !IR MIS]Y1 ,I -- PRIVILEG$ -- TURN PALE ) FE> 9 FRONT ( !IR JU/ICE4 ,I -- :O WANT TO BE FREE -- CANNOT BE SO BECAUSE ALL ! HUMAN BE+S >\ND ME DO NOT YET WANT TO BE FREE1 & !RE=E1 
BECOME AGA9/ ME 9/RUM5TS ( OPPRESSION0 7,MALATE/A #b#a3 #b#c74 ,IT IS A RADICAL IDEA ( FRE$OM1 BUT ONE ?AT1 IF R$ 9 LI<T ( MORE REC5T DEVELOPM5TS1 IS MORE TIMELY ?AN EV] BE=E4 

84 #b ,BACK TO FRE$OM1 BEYOND AUTONOMY 

,9 SUM1 FRE$OM IS 9EVITABLY FRE$OM ( EQUALS1 BECAUSE ,I CANNOT BE FREE IF EV]YBODY ELSE >\ND ME IS NOT FREE1 OR1 :I* IS ! SAME1 IF ,I DO NOT HAVE BO? ! MAT]IAL & ! COGNITIVE MEANS TO REALIZE MY FRE$OM4 ,WE >E IMBU$ ) ! CU/OMS1 IDEAS & IMAGES ?AT DOM9ATE \R SOCIETY4 ,HUMAN BE+S >E NOT 9DEP5D5T SELVES ?AT1 LIKE BILLI>D BALLS1 KICK EA* O!R ON A GRE5 TABLE4 ,!Y >E SEP>ATE BODIES ?AT >E 9/ITUT$ BY ! SOCIETY 9 :I* !Y LIVE4 ,!RE >E TWO MA9 CONSEQU5CES ?AT FOLL[S FROM SU* A VIEW4 ,LET ME BRIEFLY ILLU/RATE !M4 

,! FIR/ IS ?AT IT IMPLIES A V]Y CONCRETE IDEA ( H[ TO REALIZE FRE$OM4 ,BAKUN9 CALLS IT A 0MAT]IALI/ CONCEPTION ( FRE$OM0 7,BAKUN9 #b3 #i#a7 & OPPOS$ IT TO ! IDEALI/IC ONE4 ,IF FRE$OM IS TO BE REALIZ$ NOT JU/ BY A SEP>ATE SELF 7:I* DOES NOT EXI/7 BUT ?R\< ! SOCIETY ITSELF1 IT FOLL[S ?AT AN 5TIRE REORGANIZATION ( SOCIETY IS NECESS>Y = ITS REALIZATION4 ,IT IS WELL KN[N ?AT 9 ,BAKUN9'S VIEW ?IS CAN ONLY BE DONE ?R\< A REORGANIZATION ( SOCIETY FROM BEL[1 ACCORD+ TO ! PR9CIPLE ( FREE ASSOCIATION & F$]ATION 7SEE = 9/ANCE ,BAKUN9 #b3 #i#f74 

,BUT :Y IS IT SO8 ,FREE F$]ALISM FOLL[S FROM A VIEW ( FRE$OM >TICULAT$ 9 ?REE MOM5TS4 ,! FIR/1 ,BAKUN9 SAYS IS ! POSITIVE & SOCIAL MOM5T & CONSI/S 9 ! FULL DEVELOPM5T ( ALL ! HUMAN FACULTIES & POT5TIALITIES ?R\< $UCATION & MAT]IAL WELLBE+ -- ALL ?+S ?AT CAN ONLY BE ACQUIR$ ?R\< ! PSY*ICAL & 9TELLECTUAL WORK ( ! :OLE SOCIETY 7,BAKUN9 #b3 #h#b74 ,IT IS A VIEW V]Y CLOSE TO ,M>X' POSITIVE CONCEPTION ( FRE$OM1 ACCORD+ TO :I* FRE$OM DOES NOT CONSI/S 9 ! NEGATIVE CAPACITY TO AVOID ?IS OR ?AT1 BUT 9 ! POSITIVE P[] TO DEVELOP \R POT5TIALITIES4.<#b#e#b.> ,! BASIC IDEA IS ?AT AB/RACT CIVIL & POLITICAL RI<TS >E EMPTY WORDS IF ,I DO NOT HAVE ! MAT]IAL & ! 9TELLECTUAL MEANS TO EX]CISE !M 7 ?IS1 9CID5TALLY1 DOES NOT MEAN ?AT WE CAN NEGATIVE FRE$OMS >E NOT IMPORTANT1 BUT ONLY ?AT !Y NE$ POSITIVE ONES 9 ORD] TO BE FULFILL$74 

,! SECOND IS MORE NEGATIVE & ,BAKUN9 CALLS IT 0! MOM5T ( ! REVOLT0 7,BAKUN9 #b3 #h#b74 ,IT IS ! REVOLT AGA9/ EV]Y AU?ORITY1 HUMAN OR DIV9E4 ,GOD 9 ! FIR/ PLACE1 BECAUSE1 H[ HE PUTS IS 10AS LONG AS WE HAVE A MA/] 9 ! SKY1 WE WILL NOT BE FREE ON E>?0 7IBID74 ,BAKUN9 HAD A V]Y TRADITIONAL IDEA ( SU* A ,GOD1 BUT ,I ?9K WE CAN TODAY EXT5D IT TO ALL =MS ( TRANSC5D5T AU?ORITY4 ,IF WE BELIEVE ?AT WE [E TO SU* DIV9E AU?ORITY UNCONDITIONAL OB$I5CE1 WE >E 
NECESS>ILY SLAVES ( IT1 AS WELL AS ( ITS 9T]M$I>Y1 SU* AS M9I/]S1 PROPHETS1 OR MESSIAHS 7IBID74 ,BUT ?IS MU/ BE COMB9$ ) ! REVOLT AGA9/ SPECIFICALLY HUMAN AU?ORITY4 ,H]E ,BAKUN9 9TRODUCES A F9E DI/9CTION BETWE5 ! LEGAL & =MAL AU?ORITY ( ! /ATE & :AT HE CALLS ! 0TYRANNY ( ! SOCIETY0 7 IBID74 ,! REVOLT AGA9/ ! FIR/1 IS EASI] BECAUSE ! 5EMY CAN EASILY BE ID5TIFI$1 BUT ! ONE AGA9/ ! SECOND IS MU* MORE COMPLICAT$4 

,SOCIETY1 AS WE HAVE SE51 EX]CISES ITS TYRANNY ?R\< CU/OMS1 TRADITIONS1 S5TIM5TS1 PREJUDICES & HABITS ON BO? \R MAT]IAL & ! 9TELLECTUAL LIFE4 ,P>T ( ITS 9FLU5CE IS NATURAL & WE CANNOT ESCAPE IT 7,BAKUN9 #b3 #h#d71 BUT P>T ( IT IS NOT4 ,BAKUN9 SEEMS TO BELIEVE ?AT $UCATION & SCI5TIFIC KN[L$GE IS SUFFICI5T TO ?IS 5D1 BUT ,I BELIEVE ?AT WE HAVE MORE GR\NDS TODAY TO BE SKEPTICAL AB\T IT4 ,KN[L$GE IS NOT 5\<4 ,KN[L$GE DOES NOT LIB]ATE FROM P[] BECAUSE IT IS ITSELF P[]4 ,! PRODUCTION ( SCI5TIFIC KN[L$GE IS NO EXCEPTION TO ! TYRANNY ( SOCIETY1 BECAUSE1 AS ,MI*EL ,F\CAULT HAS %[N US1 IT MAY EV5 BE ! *IEF MEAN = ! DOME/ICATION ( REVOLT & ! CREATION ( COMPLIANT SUBJECTS4.<#b#e#c.> ,NATURAL & SOCIAL SCI5CES1 SU* AS *EMI/RY1 DEMOGRAPHY1 SOCIOLOGY HAVE ALL PROV$ TO BE POT5TIAL MEANS TO DISCIPL9E & DOME/ICATE HUMAN BE+S RA!R ?AN TO LIB]ATE !M4 

,:]E TO />T FROM !N8 ,:]E TO GET A LIB]ATION FROM ! SUBTLE TYRANNY ?AT ! SOCIETY EX]CISE ?R\< ITS CU/OMS1 TRADITIONS & S5TIM5TS8 ,H]E1 ,I BELIEVE1 COMES ! RADICAL 9T]PRETATION ( F$]ALISM4 ,PR\DHON'S MOTTO 0MULTIPLY Y\R ASSOCIATIONS & BE FREE0 CAN 9DE$ BE SE5 AS A MULTIPLICATION ( BO? ! POLITICAL1 BUT ALSO ! SOCIAL & IMAG9>Y TIES ONE IS SUBJECT$ TO 7,PR\DHON #b#a74 ,BY 5T]+ 9TO CONTACTS ) DIFF]5T SOCIAL IMAG9>IES & EXP&+ ONE'S [N KN[L$GE TO DIFF]5T REGIMES ( TRU?1 IT IS POSSIBLE TO F9D A MOM5T ( FRICTION :]E ! TYRANNY ( SOCIETY BREAKS D[N4 ,AS ,I WILL TRY TO %[ LAT] ON1 IT IS H]E ?AT1 P>TICUL>LY TODAY1 ! POSSIBILITY ( FRE$OM LIES4 

,BUT BE=E ,I DO SO1 LET ME BRIEFLY ILLU/RATE ! SECOND CONSEQU5CE1 ?AT IS1 IT BE+ A COMPLEX VIEW ( FRE$OM :I* GOES WELL BEYOND M]E AUTONOMY4 ,!RE >E MANY DIFF]5T DEF9ITIONS ( AUTONOMY1 BUT ! MO/ IMPORTANT 7BECAUSE ! MO/ 9FLU5TIAL7 IS ?AT :I* GOES BACK TO ITS ETYMOLOGY3 AUTONOMY LIT]ALLY MEANS 0AUTOS0-0NOMOS10 TO GIVE ! LAW TO ONESELF4 ,FROM ?IS ORIG9AL MEAN+ & ?R\< ! 9FLU5CE ( ,R\SSEAU & ,KANT1 ! T]M CAME TO MEAN SELFDET]M9ATION MORE 9 G5]AL1 AS IF EV]Y DET]M9ATION W\LD BE OP]AT$ BY ! SUBJECTION TO ! LAW 7:I*1 ,I BELIEVE1 IS F> FROM BE+ ! CASE74 ,I CANNOT 5T] ! DETAILS H]E ( ! HI/ORICAL PA? ( ! CONCEPT ( AUTONOMY1 BUT LET ME JU/ BRIEFLY M5TION ! DEEP 9FLU5CE ?AT IT HAS EX]CIS$ ON LIB]AL & DEMOCRATIC ?\<T UNTIL V]Y REC5TLY4.<#b#e#d.> 

,YET1 ! CONCEPT ( AUTONOMY IS NOT IMMUNE FROM CRITICISM4 ,! MO/ OBVI\S IS ?AT IT PRESUPPOSES A 0SELF0 ?AT CAN ACTUALLY GIVE A LAW TO HIM_/H]SELF4 ,AS WE HAVE ALREADY SUGGE/$1 ?IS ASSUMPTION IS F> FROM BE+ UNQUE/ION$4 ,IF IT IS TRUE ?AT1 S9CE \R COM+ 9TO ?IS WORLD1 WE >E DET]M9$ BY A NUMB] ( SOCIAL1 ECONOMIC & CULTURAL FACTORS1 ! ASSUMPTION ( A SELF SEP>AT$ =M ! O!RS MAY RESULT TO BE COMPLETELY FALLACI\S4 ,WE MAY BELIEVE ?AT ! LAW WE HAVE AGRE$ TO IS ONE ?AT WE HAVE FREELY *OS51 BUT ?IS *OICE WILL 9 ALL LIKELIHOOD BE ! RESULT ( :AT ,BAKUN9 CALLS ! SUBTLE TYRANNY ( SOCIETY4 

,FUR!RMORE1 ! IDEA ( A SEP>ATE SELF IS AN ASSUMPTION ?AT 9EVITABLY LEADS TO :AT WE MAY CALL A LIMITATIVE VIEW ( FRE$OM4 ,IF WE BELIEVE ?AT HUMAN BE+S >E SELF-5CLOS$ SELVES 5D[$ ) !IR [N AUTONOMY1 ! PROBLEM NECESS>ILY BECOMES ?AT ( LIMIT+ IT1 9 ORD] TO MAKE SPACE = ?AT ( ! O!RS3 LIKE BILLI>D BALLS KICK+ EA* O!R ON AN EMPTY GRE5 TABLE !IR RESPECTIVE FRE$OMS >E DEEM$ TO CONFLICT ) ONE ANO!R4 ,ON ! CONTR>Y1 IF WE ASSUME ?AT WE >E ! PRODUCT ( ! SOCIETY WE LIVE 91 A COMPLETELY DIFF]5T P]SPECTIVE EM]GES3 ! PROBLEM IS NO LONG] H[ TO LIMIT FRE$OM1 BUT RA!R H[ TO 5HANCE IT4 ,9 O!R WORDS1 DON'T LIMIT FRE$OM1 CREATE IT1 BECAUSE IT MAY NOT BE !RE YET4 

,DIFF]5T AU?ORS HAVE TRI$ TO ADDRESS ! PROBLEM ( AUTONOMY4 ,RADICAL ?9K]S SU* AS ,CORNELIUS ,CA/ORIADIS 9 ,FRANCE & ! ,WORK]ISM 9 ,ITALY HAVE = 9/ANCE TRI$ TO SOLVE ! DILEMMA BY >GU+ ?AT AUTONOMY IS ALSO A COLLECTIVE 5T]PRISE4 ,WORK]ISM 9 ,ITALY >GU$ = ! AUTONOMY ( ! PROLET>IAT1 %[+ ?AT AG5CY IS IMMAN5T TO ITS SPONTANE\S ACTION & DOES NOT NE$ ! GUID+ ROLE ( ! P>TY 7,LOTR+] & ,M>AZZI #b#g74.<#b#e#e.> ,ON ! O!R SIDE1 ! ,FR5* ,M>XI/ & PSY*OANALY/ ,CA/ORIADIS >TICULAT$ ! PROBLEM ( AUTONOMY 9 RELATION TO ! PROBLEM ( ! IMAG9>Y SIGNIFICATIONS )9 :I* WE ALL >E SOCIALIZ$ 7,CA/ORIADIS #a#i#h#g74 ,9 HIS VIEW1 ,I AM AUTONOM\S IF ,I AM AT ! ORIG9S ( :AT WILL BE 7>*E TON ESOM5ON AS ,>I/OTLE US$ TO SAY7 & ,I KN[ MYSELF TO BE SO 7,CA/ORIADIS #a#i#h#f3 #d#g#i74 ,AUTONOMY MEANS ?AT MY DISC\RSE HAS TO TAKE ! PLACE ( :AT IS GIV5 AS ! DISC\RSE ( ! O!RS -- A VIEW1 ?AT LIKE ,BAKUN9'S ONE1 /RESSES ! IMPORTANCE ( ! COGNITIVE MEANS = ! REALIZATION ( FRE$OM4 

,!SE 9T]V5TIONS HAVE C]TA9LY BR\<T ! DISCUSSION ON ! PROBLEM ( AUTONOMY MU* FUR!R ?AN :]E MOD]N LIB]AL ?9K+ HAD LEFT IT4 ,YET1 AS ,I WILL N[ TRY TO >GUE1 FOCUS+ ONLY ON AUTONOMY IS MISLEAD+4 ,AUTONOMY IS AN IMPORTANT CONDITION = FRE$OM1 BUT ONLY ONE P>T ( IT4 ,Y\ CANNOT BE FREE )\T BE+ AUTONOM\S1 BUT BE+ AUTONOM\S DOES NOT AUTOMATICALLY MEANS TO BE FREE4 ,?IS P>TICUL>LY EM]GES IF WE CONSID] ?AT ! CONTR>Y ( 0AUTONOMY0 IS 0HET]ONOMY10 A CONDITION :]E ONE IS GIV5 ! LAW BY SOMEBODY ELSE1 :]EAS ! OPPOSITE ( FRE$OM IS 0OPPRESSION10 SOME?+ ?AT CAN TAKE PLACE 9 WAYS O!RS ?AN SIMPLY BY BE+ GIV5 
! LAW TO SOMEBODY ELSE4.<#b#e#f.> ,! TYRANNY ( SOCIETY ?AT WE HAVE DESCRIB$ ABOVE CAN TAKES PLACE 9 MANY DIFF]5T WAYS1 :I* GO WELL BEYOND ! LAW & 9CLUDE EV5 SELF-OPPRESSION & VOLUNT>Y S]VITUDE4 ,9 SUM1 FRE$OM & AUTONOMY >E CONCEPTUALLY SPEAK+ ONLY P>TIALLY OV]LAPP+4 ,= ?OSE :O >E SKEPTICAL ( ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHICAL DI/9CTION1 JU/ CONSID] COMMON LANGUAGE3 ,I CAN SAY ?AT MY *ILD IS V]Y AUTONOM\S1 BECAUSE HE CAN DRESS HIMSELF1 EAT & WALK ON HIS [N1 BUT BY NO MEANS ?IS AM\NT TO HIS FRE$OM4 ,IT IS V]Y CLE>3 TO BE AUTONOM\S DOES NOT YET MEAN TO BE FREE4 

,BUT IT IS NOT JU/ A T]M9OLOGICAL4 ,IT IS A QUE/ION ( CONCEPTUAL CL>ITY ?AT HAS CRUCIAL CONSEQU5CES ON ! PRACTICE ( FRE$OM ITSELF4 ,= 9/ANCE MANY AUTONOMI/ MOVEM5TS GAVE RISE TO UTOPIAN COMMUNITIES1 BAS$ ON ! PR9CIPLE ( AUTONOMY ?9K+ ?AT ?IS IS ! MA9 ROAD = ! REALIZATION ( FRE$OM4 ,LET US ADMIT = ! MOM5T ?AT ONE C\LD /ILL REALIZE SU* AUTONOM\S COMMUNITIES 9 \R GLOBALIZ+ WORLD4 ,! QUE/ION IS3 >E ! PEOPLE LIV+ IS SU* COMMUNITIES REALLY FREE8 ,MY IMPRESSION IS ?AT !Y >E 7POSSIBLY7 AUTONOM\S 9 ! S5SE ( BE+ 7MAT]IALLY7 9DEP5D5T FROM ! \TSIDE1 BUT BY NO MEANS FREE & P]HAPS NOT EV5 SELF-DET]M9$4 ,IF Y\ LIVE 9 A SELF-IMPOS$ <ETTO1 SEP>AT$ FROM ! RE/ ( ! WORLD1 Y\ >E NOT FREE1 BECAUSE Y\ CANNOT LIVE :]E Y\ WANT1 BUT Y\ >E NOT EV5 SELF-DET]M9$ BECAUSE Y\R *OICE TO LIVE 9 ?AT P>TICUL> COMMUNITY IS IMPOS$ BY SOME EXT]NAL FACTORS 7READ3 ! RE/ ( ! WORLD74 

,?9K]S LIKE ,GOODMAN MAY BE RI<T 9 SAY+ ?AT AUTONOMY IS AN NECESS>Y /EP4 ,9 HIS VIEW1 ! PROBLEM ) OPPRESS$ PEOPLE LU/+ = FRE$OM IS ?AT1 IF !Y MANAGE TO BREAK FREE1 !N !Y DO NOT KN[ :AT TO DO 7,GOODMAN #b#i3#c#c#a74 ,NOT HAV+ BE5 AUTONOM\S1 !Y DO NOT KN[ H[ TO GO AB\T IT1 & BE=E !Y LE>N IT IS USUALLY TOO LATE4 ,NEW MANAG]S WILL HAVE TAK5 OV] & !Y MAY1 OR MAY NOT1 BE B5EVOL5T & IMBU$ ) ! REVOLUTION1 BUT !Y NEV] WILL BE 9 A HURRY TO ABDICATE4 ,WE %\LD !RE=E AGREE ) HIM 9 ?AT AUTONOMY IS AN IMPORTANT CONDITION = FRE$OM1 P]HAPS EV5 ! MO/ IMPORTANT BECAUSE IT AM\NTS TO A SORT ( S*OOL = IT4 ,YET1 IT /ILL REMA9S ONLY ONE P>T ( IT4 

,TO CONCLUDE ON ?IS PO9T1 ! CRITICS ( ! CONCEPT ( FRE$OM1 SU* AS ,GOODMAN1 :O >GU$ ?AT FRE$OM IS A CUMB]SOME METAPHYSICAL CONCEPT >E P]HAPS RI<T4 ,AUTONOMY IS MU* ?9N] & APP>5TLY EASI] TO REALIZE4 ,BUT IT IS A BURD5 ?AT WE HAVE TO ASSUME IF WE WANT TO AVOID ! SELF-IMPOS$ <ETTO ( AUTONOMY4 

84 #c ,BLACK & R$3 RECIPROCAL ANTIDOTES4 

,9 ! PREVI\S SECTIONS ,I HAVE TRI$ TO ILLU/RATE :Y ,M>XISM & AN>*ISM CONV]GE 9 ! IDEA ?AT FRE$OM CAN ONLY BE A FRE$OM ( EQUALS4 ,:AT ,I WANT TO DO 9 ! REMA9+ P>T IS TO >GUE ?AT A CONNUBIAL BETWE5 ,M>XISM & AN>*ISM IS P>TICUL>LY B5EFICIAL 9 ?AT !Y CAN F9D 9 EA* O!R ! RECIPROCAL ANTIDOTE = !IR POSSIBLE DEG5]ATIONS4 

,FIR/LY1 AN>*ISM NE$S ,M>XISM 9 ORD] TO PREV5T BO? ! 9DIVIDUALI/ & ! METAPHYSIC DEG5]ATION ( ITS ABSOLUTISATION ( FRE$OM4 ,LET ME />T FROM ! FIR/1 ! 9DIVIDUALI/ DANG]4 ,IT IS A FACT ?AT ! RADICAL PRAISE ( FRE$OM ?AT *>ACT]IZES AN>*ISM 9 ALL ( ITS HI/ORICAL MANIFE/ATION CAN BE DECL9$ 9 BO? DIRECTIONS3 AN 9DIVIDUALI/1 ACCORD+ TO :I* FRE$OM IS MA9LY ! FRE$OM ( ! 9DIVIDUAL1 & A SOCIAL ONE1 ACCORD+ TO :I* FRE$OM CAN ONLY BE ATTA9$ COLLECTIVELY 7,BOTTICI #b#a74 ,I PREF] TO CALL IT 0SOCIAL0 BECAUSE AS SU* IT 9CLUDES BO? ! AN>*O-COMMUNISM1 ON ! L9ES ( ,KROPOTK91 & ! COLLECTIVI/ V>IANT1 :I*1 ON ! L9ES ( ,BAKUN91 LEAVES SOME SPACE = ! 9DIVIDUAL 5JOYM5T ( PROP]TY4 

,! PO9T IS NOT ONLY ?AT1 HI/ORICALLY SPEAK+1 AN 9DIVIDUALI/ 9T]PRETATION ( AN>*ISM HAS PROV$ TO BE POSSIBLE4 ,WE BEGAN ?IS ESSAY ) ,/IRN]'S ADVOCACY ( A RADICAL EGOISM1 BUT MANY O!R EXAMPLES CAN BE ADD$4 ,ONE JU/ HAVE TO ?9K ( ! V]Y 9FLU5TIAL AN>*OCAPITALISM1 :I*1 P>TICUL>LY 9 ! ,U,S1 PROMOTES A RADICAL AN>*IC EVALUATION ( FRE$OM BY COMB9+ IT ) ITS ADVOCACY ( AN UNRE/RICT$ DEVELOPM5T ( ! PR9CIPLE ( CAPITALISM4.<#b#e#g.> ,ONE MAY SIMPLY DISMISS !SE POSITIONS AS FALLACI\S 0,ROB9SONADES10 BUT ! PO9T REMA9S ?AT !Y >E /ILL V]Y 9FLU5TIAL BECAUSE 9 L9E ) ! PREVAIL+ 9DIVIDUALI/ ASSUMPTIONS ?AT UND]P9 AT LEA/ \R WE/]N WORLD4 

,EV5 MORE3 ,9 ! FACE ( ! DIFFICULTIES 5C\NT]$ 9 PROMOT+ ! REALIZATION ( ! FRE$OM ( EQUALS ON A L>GE SCALE1 AN>*I/S MAY EASILY FALL 9TO ! 9DIVIDUALI/ TEMPTATION & LIMIT !IR FI<T TO ! REALIZATION ( SPACES ( AUTONOMY 9 LIMIT$1 SELF-5CLOS$ COMMUNITIES4 ,?IS1 ,I BELIEVE1 IS ! RISK ?AT MANY AUTONOMI/S MOVEM5TS 9 ,ITALY & ,G]MANY = 9/ANCE HAVE RUN 9 ! PA/3 ! CREATION ( AUTONOM\S COMMUNITIES MAY WELL TURN 9TO A =M ( 9DIVIDUALISM ON A L>GE SCALE4 ,! CREATION ( SU* SELF-5CLOS$ SPACES IS USUALLY JU/IFI$ ON ! BASIS ( ! >GUM5T ?AT !Y PREFIGURE :AT A FREE SOCIETY MAY LOOK LIKE1 BUT !Y RISK TO PREFIGURE NO?+ BUT :AT ! SOCIETY ACTUALLY IS3 9DIVIDUALS1 S+UL> OR COLLECTIVE1 PURSU+ !IR [N 9T]E/S 9 ISOLATION4 

,= ?IS POSSIBLE DEG5]ATION1 ,M>XISM CONTA9S A P[]FUL ANTIDOTE4 ,M>X'S CRITIQUE ( ! ,ROB9SONADES CAN BE EXT5D$ AT ALL LEVELS TO CONCRETELY SUPPORT ! IDEA ?AT EI!R WE >E ALL FREE OR ALL EQUALLY SLAVES4 ,! REASON :Y ,M>XISM IS BETT] EQUIPP$ ?AN TRADITIONAL AN>*ISM TO MAKE ?IS PO9T 7AS WE HAVE SE5 ,BAKUN9 EQUALLY SUPPORT$ ! IDEA ( FRE$OM AS FRE$OM ( 
EQUALS7 IS ?AT IT MORE /RONGLY FOCUS$ ON ! ECONOMIC CONDITIONS = ! REALIZATION ( SU* A FRE$OM4 ,NO O!R AU?OR HAS TO MY KN[L$GE EMB>K$ ON SU* AN EXT5SIVE SCI5TIFIC ANALYSIS ( ! CONCRETE ECONOMIC CONDITIONS = ! REALIZATION ( FRE$OM4 ,M>X & ,5GELS' CRITIQUE ( ! UTOPIAN SOCIALISM & MORE 9 G5]ALLY ! IDEA ?AT IT IS SUFFICI5T TO DESCRIBE AN IDEAL /ATE ( ?+S & ?IS WILL AUTOMATICALLY FOLL[S JU/ BECAUSE ( ITS 9TR9SIC 9TELLECTUAL VALUE IS A P[]FUL REM9D] ( ! DANG]S ( ANY AB/RACT & UNREALI/IC METAPHYSIC ( FRE$OM3 BY 5VISAG+ UTOPIAN COMMUNITIES ON ! BASIS ( ! SOLE FANATICAL BELIEF 9 ! MIRACUL\S EFFECTS ( ONES [N SOCIAL SCI5CES1 ONE RISKS 5D+ UP 9 A REACTION>Y POSITION UNABLE TO KEEP ! PACE ( ! CURR5T /ATE ( ! WORLD4.<#b#e#h.> 

,I CANNOT 5T] H]E A DETAIL$ ANALYSIS ( ,M>X' ANALYSIS ( CAPITALISM & MOD]NITY4 ,SURE1 !RE >E P>TS ( IT ?AT >E \TDAT$- 9 P>TICUL> = ! NOVELTIES BR\<T AB\T BY PO/-,=DISM & FLEXIBLE CAPITALISM4.<#b#e#i.> ,LET ME JU/ PO9T H]E \T TO :AT ,I BELIEVE >E ! MO/ TIMELY P>TS ( HIS WORK4 ,9 ! FIR/ PLACE1 !RE IS ANALYSIS ( CAPITALISM CAPACITY TO OV]COME ALL SORTS ( POLITICAL B>RI]S4 ,WE LIVE 9 AN EPO* :]E !RE IS SO MU* TALK AB\T GLOBALIZATION & ! CRISIS ( ! NATION /ATES VIS-A-VIS ! CAPACITY ( ! ECONOMY TO GO BEYOND NATIONAL B\ND>IES1 BUT ?IS IS SOME?+ ?AT NOBODY HAD EV] PR$ICT$ MORE ACUTELY & MORE PRECISELY ?AN ,M>X4 ,9 MANY PLACES ( HIS WORK HE TALKS AB\T ! CAPITALISM CAPACITY TO GO BEYOND NATIONAL B\ND>IES1 LIKE ! FOLL[+ PASSAGE FROM ! ,MANIFE/O ( ! ,COMMUNI/ ,P>TY3 0,! B\RGEOISIE HAS ?R\< ITS EXPLOITATION ( ! WORLD M>KET GIV5 A COSMOPOLITAN *>ACT] TO PRODUCTION & CONSUMPTION 9 EV]Y C\NTRY4 .<44.> ,9 ! PLACE ( OLD WANTS1 SATISFI$ BY ! PRODUCTIONS ( ! C\NTRY1 WE F9D NEW WANTS1 REQUIR+ = !IR SATISFACTION ! PRODUCTS ( DI/ANT L&S & CLIMES4 ,9 PLACE ( ! OLD LOCAL & NATIONAL SECLUSION & SELF-SUFFICI5CY1 WE HAVE 9T]C\RSE 9 EV]Y DIRECTION1 UNIV]SAL 9T]DEP5D5CE ( NATIONS4 ,& AS 9 MAT]IAL1 SO ALSO 9 9TELLECTUAL PRODUCTION4 ,! 9TELLECTUAL CREATIONS ( 9DIVIDUAL NATIONS BECOME COMMON PROP]TY4 ,NATIONAL ONE-SID$NESS & N>R[M9D$NESS BECOME MORE & MORE IMPOSSIBLE1 & FROM ! NUM]\S NATIONAL & LOCAL LIT]ATURES1 !RE >ISES A WORLD LIT]ATURE0 7,M>X & ,5GELS1 #a#i#g#h3 #d#g#g-#h7 

,9 A TIME :5 !RE IS SO MU* TALK AB\T ! NOVELTY ( GLOBALIZATION :I*1 SO MANY >GUES1 CALLS = A NEW =M ( COSMOPOLITANISM1 IT IS WOR? TO GO BACK TO ?IS PASSAGE3 H]E ,M>X & ,5GLES CLE>LY PO9T$ TO ! 0COSMOPOLITAN *>ACT]0 ( BO? CAPITALI/IC PRODUCTION & CONSUMPTION1 TO ! FACT ?AT ) ! HEAVY >TILL]Y ( ! 0*EAP PRICES ( ITS COMMODITIES0 CAPITALISM WILL BATT] D[N ALL ,*9ESE WALLS 7,M>X & ,5GELS1 #a#i#g#h3 #h71 SO ?AT 9 PLACE ( ! OLD 
LOCAL & NATIONAL SELF-SUFFICI5CY1 WE HAVE 09T]C\RSE 9 EV]Y DIRECTION0 AT BO? ! MAT]IAL & COGNITIVE LEVEL 7,M>X & ,5GLES #a#i#g#h3 #d#g#g74 

,NOBODY1 ,I BELIEVE1 C\LD EV] D5Y ! TIMEL9ESS ( !SE REM>KS4 ,IT HAS BECOME SOME?+ LIKE A COMMONPLACE TO SAY ?AT WE LIVE 9 A GLOBALIZ+ WORLD1 :]E MAT]IAL & CULTURAL B\ND>IES >E BE+ *ALL5G$ FROM MANY DIFF]5T SIDES4 ,& ,I ?9K ?AT ONLY ! HI/ORICAL AMNESIA ( A G5]ATION ( S*OL>S ?AT1 AFT] #a#i#h#i1 HAVE TOO QUICKLY BECOME NOT JU/ 0PO/-0 BUT ALSO MILITANT 0EX-0 ,M>XI/ CAN EXPLA9 H[ IS IT POSSIBLE TO TALK SO MU* AB\T GLOBALIZATION )\T EV] M5TION+ ! AU?OR :O MO/ EMPHATICALLY & ACCURATELY PR$ICT$ IT MORE ?AN A C5TURY AGO4 

,BUT ,M>X'S ECONOMIC ANALYSIS GAVE FUR!R UND]P9N+ TO ! CONCEPT ( FRE$OM ( EQUALS ?AT WE HAVE HI<LI<T$ ABOVE ALSO ) HIS PA?-BREAK+ ANALYSIS ( ! COMMODITIES FETI%ISM 7,M>X #a#i#h3 #a#c-#a#a#e74 ,IF ,BAKUN9 IS RI<T 9 SAY+ ?AT FRE$OM HAS TO BE A FRE$OM ( EQUALS BECAUSE FROM ! BEG9N+ WE >E SUBJECT$ TO ! TYRANNY ( SOCIETY :I* IMPOSES ITS MAT]IAL & REPRES5TATIONAL SIGNIFICATIONS ON \R M9DS & BODIES1 !N IT IS PRECISELY FROM ! POSSIBLE COMMODITISATION ( SU* SIGNIFICATIONS ?AT WE HAVE TO />T4 ,P]HAPS ONLY ! VISION>Y & ,SITUATIONI/ ,GUY ,DEBORD HAS SUFFICI5TLY UND]L9$ ?IS PO9T 7,DEBORD #a#i#i#d7.<#b#f.> ) HIS IDEA ( A SOCIETY ( SPECTACLE1 HE RI<TLY PO9T$ \T ?AT MASS-M$IA W]E ! MO/ RELEVANT FETI% ( \R TIMES4 ,DEBORD RECOV]S ,M>X' FUNDAM5TAL 9SI<T AB\T COMMODITY FETI%ISM & BR\<T IT TO A FUR!R LEVEL3 ,M>X'S TELL+ BEG9 ( ,! ,CAPITAL 0,! WORLD IS AN IMM5SE COLLECTION ( COMMODITIES0 BECOME ! FIR/ !SIS ( ,DEBORD3 0,! WORLD IS AN IMM5SE COLLECTION ( SPECTACLES07*ECK ,5GLI% QUOT74 ,WE LIVE 9 A SOCIETY ( SPECTACLE ?AT FUNDAM5TALLY MEANS COMMODITISATION ( ! SOCIAL IMAG9>Y )9 :I* ALL >E SOCIALIZ$ & CANNOT !RE=E EXI/S4 ,! GLOBAL SOCIAL IMAG9>Y WE LIVE 9 IS IMBU$ ) COMMODITIES FETI%ISM UP TO PO9T ?AT EV5 \R BODIES >E CON/ITUT$ BY IT4 ,FA%ION1 POP CULTURE1 ,HOLLYWOOD FILMS1 ALONG ) ! V>I\S TE*NOLOGIES ( ! SELF >E ONLY ! PRIM>Y & MO/ VISIBLE EXAMPLES4 

,BUT IT IS NOT ONLY AN>*ISM ?AT NE$S ,M>XISM IF A FRE$OM ( EQUALS IS TO BE REALIZ$4 ,AN>*ISM PLAYS AN EQUALLY CRUCIAL P>T 9 ?AT IT CONTA9S ! ANTIDOTE = A POSSIBLE 7& REAL7 /ATI/ & AU?ORIT>IAN DEG5]ATION ( ,M>XISM4 ,IT IS A FACT ?AT ,M>X REMA9$ MA9LY VAGUE AS TO ! PA? TO EMB>K TO REALIZE FRE$OM4 ,! IMPRESSION ?AT ONE MA9LY GETS BY READ+ HIS 5TIRE WORK IS ?AT HE BELIEV$ A REVOLUTION W\LD AUTOMATICALLY FOLL[S FROM ! CONTRADICTIONS ( CAPITALISM SOCIETY4 ,9 ?IS HE PROBABLY REMA9$ TOO MU* L9K$ TO ,HEGEL'S DIALECTIC1 ACCORD+ TO :I* FROM A S]IES ( /RUCTURAL CONTRADICTIONS !IR 9EVITABLE OV]COM+ MU/ FOLL[ 7QUOT 7 4 ,YET1 HE ALSO M5TIONS ! V]Y MU* DEBAT$ 0REVOLUTION>Y DICTATOR%IP ( PROLET>IAT0 AS ! 
MOM5T ( TRANSITION T[>DS A COMMUNI/ SOCIETY4 ,AS HE PUTS 9 ! ,CRITIQUE ( ! ,GO?A ,PROGRAM3 0,BETWE5 CAPITALI/ & COMMUNI/ SOCIETY !RE LIES ! P]IOD ( ! REVOLUTION>Y TRANS=MATION ( ! ONE 9TO ! O!R4 ,CORRESPOND+ TO ?IS IS ALSO A POLITICAL TRANSITION P]IOD 9 :I* ! /ATE CAN BE NO?+ BUT ! REVOLUTION>Y DICTATOR%IP ( ! PROLET>IAT0 7 ,M>X #a#i#g#hD3 #e#c#h74 

,AS WELL KN[N ! IDEA :I*1 TO BE TRUE1 OCCUPIES ONLY A C\PLE ( BRIEF PASSAGES 9 HIS MONUM5TAL WORK7.<#b#f#a.> WAS TAK5 UP BY ,L59 ALONG ) O!R ,M>XI/ ?9K]S4 ,FUR!RMORE1 TO MANY IT SEEM$ TO HAVE BECOME A CONCRETE LIV+ REALITY ) ! ,SOVIET /ATE SOCIALISM -- :I*1 9 FACT1 ACCORD+ TO C]TA9 READ+S WAS 9 FACT A =M ( BUREAUCRATIC ,/ATE CAPITALISM 7SEE = 9/ANCE ,CA/ORIADIS74 ,AGA9/ ?IS /ATI/ DEG5]ATION1 AN>*ISM HAS ! MO/ P[]FUL ANTIDOTE3 ! IDEA ?AT MEANS MU/ BE COMM5SURATE TO ! 5DS & ?AT FRE$OM CAN ONLY BE REALIZ$ ?R\< FRE$OM ITSELF4 ,IT IS AN IDEA ?AT OCCUPIES A C5TRAL P>T ( ,BAKUN9'S WORK BUT ?AT RECURS 9 ALL AN>*I/ ?9K]S3 FRE$OM CAN ONLY BE REALIZ$ ?R\< FRE$OM ITSELF & 5DANG] IT ) ! PRETEXT TO PROTECT IS DANG]\S NON S5SE :I* ULTIMATELY CANNOT BUT DE/ROY IT 7SEE = 9/ANCE ,BAKUN9 #b3 #ih & ,MALATE/A #b#a3 #e#b74 

,! EXP]I5CE ( ! ,SOVIET ,UNION %[$ ?AT AN>*I/S W]E RI<T 9 !IR CRITIQUE ( ,M>XI/S3 A WORK]S' /ATE CANNOT BUT REPRODUCE ! SAME LOGIC ( EV]Y /ATE1 :]E A M9ORITY ( BUREAUCRATS RULE OV] ! MAJORITY ( PEOPLE 7&1 9CID5TALLY1 ,I BELIEVE ?AT ! CURR5T RESURG5CE ( 9T]E/ 9 AN>*ISM IS ALSO DUE TO ! FACT ?AT ! DECL9E 9 POPUL>ITY ( ,M>XISM FOLL[+ ! FALL ( ! ,B]L9'S WALL HAS LEFT A SORT ( VACUUM 9 ! LEFT74 ,BUT AN>*ISM DOES NOT ONLY PROVIDE ! ANTIDOTE TO ! /ATI/ DEG5]ATION3 IT CAN MORE BROADLY PREV5T ! AU?ORIT>IAN TRAP 9TO :I* ANY ATTEMPT TO REALIZE ! FRE$OM ( EQUALS CAN FALL4 

,PR\DHON PO9T$ \T ?IS V]Y CLE>LY :]E HE OBS]VES ?AT COMMUNISM CAN ALSO BE REALIZ$ ?R\< ! PR9CIPLE ( AU?ORITY4 ,9 HIS VIEW1 !RE >E F\R MA9 TYPES ( GOV]NM5T 1 :I* CORRESPOND TO ! TWO MA9 PR9CIPLES ( AU?ORITY & FRE$OM3 REGIMES ( AU?ORITY >E BO? ! GOV]NM5T ( ALL BY ONE 7MON>*Y7 & ! GOV]NM5T ( ALL BY ALL 7:AT HE CALLS PAN>*Y OR COMMUNISM71 :IL/ REGIMES ( FRE$OM >E BO? ! GOV]NM5T ( ALL BY EV]YBODY 7DEMOCRACY7 & ! GOV]NM5T ( EV]YONE BY EV]YONE1 :I* IS ! AN>*Y OR SELF-RULE 7,PR\DHON #b#a3 #a#b#e-#a#c#c74 ,PR\DHON'S F$]ALISM CAN 9DE$ BE 9T]PRET$ AS A COMB9ATION ( ! LA/ TWO =MS ( GOV]NM5T1 :AT HE CALLS RESPECTIVELY DEMOCRACY & AN>*Y4 ,& ! SAME HOLD = ,BAKUN9'S FREE F$]ATION ?AT WE HAVE M5TION$ ABOVE4 

84 #d ,ONE WORLD1 ONE FRE$OM4 

,! CONNUBIAL BETWE5 ,M>XISM & AN>*ISM ?AT WE HAVE \TL9$ ABOVE IS NOT SIMPLY A DEM& ( ! !ORETICAL & PRACTICAL REASON4 ,IT IS NOT A M>RIAGE ?AT SIMPLY \<T TO TAKE PLACE IF ! FRE$OM ( EQUALS IS TO BE REALIZ$4 ,IT IS SOME?+ ?AT IS 9SCRIB$ 9 ! NATURE ( ! *ANGES WE >E WITNESS+ & ?AT1 = ! SAKE ( BREVITY1 WE CAN SUMM>IZE UND] ! NAME ( GLOBALIZATION4 ,PUT 9 A NUT%ELL1 !RE IS ONLY ONE FRE$OM BECAUSE ! WORLD HAS BECOME ONE4 ,GLOBALIZATION DOES NOT ONLY MEAN ?AT !RE >E PROCESSES ?AT OBJECTIVELY UNIFIES ! GLOBE1 BUT ALSO1 & =EMO/1 ?AT WE HAVE COME TO RECOGNIZE ?IS FACT4 ,9 A M9IMAL S5SE1 ?IS HAS ALWAYS BE5 ! CASE1 BECAUSE WE HAVE ALWAYS 9HABIT$ 9 ONE & ! SAME PLANET4 ,:AT IS DIFF]5T TODAY IS ?AT WE HAVE TO RECOGNIZE ?IS1 BECAUSE !RE IS NO LONG] ! POSSIBILITY TO CALL \RSELVES \T4 

,LET ME BRIEFLY ILLU/RATE :AT ,I MEAN ) ?IS4 ,GLOBALIZATION IS (T5 PRES5T$ AS A SET ( PROCESSES :I* %IFT ! SPATIAL =M ( HUMAN ORGANIZATION & ACTIVITY TO TRANSCONT95TAL & 9T]-REGIONAL PATT]NS ( ACTIVITY1 9T]ACTIONS & EX]CISES ( P[]4.<#b#f#b.> ,GLOBALIZATION1 9 ITS NUM]\S ASPECTS -- ECONOMIC1 TE*NOLOGICAL1 POLITICAL & CULTURAL -- HAS CREAT$ SU* A SITUATION ?AT EV5TS1 DECISIONS & ACTIVITIES 9 ONE P>T ( ! WORLD CAN HAVE SIGNIFICANT CONSEQU5CES = 9DIVIDUALS & COMMUNITIES 9 O!R QUITE DI/ANT P>TS ( ! GLOBE4 ,9 SUM1 ! CONCEPT ( GLOBALIZATION PO9TS TO ! /RET*+ & DEEP5+ ( SOCIAL RELATIONS & 9/ITUTIONS ACROSS SPACE & TIME4 

,FLUXES FROM ! LOCAL TO ! GLOBAL & VICE V]SA HAVE UNIFI$ ! PLANET4 ,! WORLD HAS BECOME ONE AT ALL LEVELS3 ECONOMIC1 POLITICAL1 MILIT>Y & CULTURAL4 ,) REG>D TO ! FIR/1 WE HAVE ALREADY SE5 H[ E>LY ,M>X DIAGNOS$ ! 0COSMOPOLITAN0 *>ACT] ( CAPITALISM4 ,H]E SUFFICE TO ADD ?AT1 H[EV] MORE COMPLEX & FLEXIBLE ! CURR5T GLOBAL CAPITALISM MAY BE1 ,M>X & ,5GELS' PR$ICTION ?AT 09 ! PLACE ( ! OLD LOCAL & NATIONAL SECLUSION & SELF-SUFFICI5CY1 WE HAVE 9T]C\RSE 9 EV]Y DIRECTIONS1 UNIV]SAL 9T]-DEP5D5CE ( NATIONS0 7,M>X & ,5GELS #a#i#g#h3 #d#g#f7 /ILL HOLDS TRUE4 ,TOGE!R ) ECONOMIC COMES ! POLITICAL GLOBALIZATION3 !Y >E 9SEP>ABLE FROM MANY PO9TS ( VIEW4 ,PROMOT] ( ! ECONOMIC & F9ANCIAL GLOBALIZATION1 ! NATION /ATE SEEMS TO BE ONE ( ITS MO/ ILLU/RI\S VICTIM4 ,SURE1 /ATES >E F> FROM VANI%+ 7& ! REPRESSIVE POLICIES !Y >E 5ACT+ ALL OV] ! WORLD IS A />K REM9D] ( ?IS FACT7 BUT !Y >E C]TA9LY *ALL5G$ BY A DISP]SION ( SOV]EIGNTY BO? ABOVE & BEL[ !M4 

,BUT P]HAPS ! DOMA9 :]E ! CRISIS ( ! SY/EM ( NATION /ATES IS MORE EVID5T IS ?AT ( SECURITY4 ,IT IS 9 ! FIELD :]E ! MOD]N /ATE1 AT LEA/ S9CE ,?OMAS ,HOBBES1 HAS TRADITIONALLY1 
AL?\< SURREPTITI\SLY1 DRAWN ! /RONGE/ JU/IFICATION = ITS EXI/5CE ?AT ONE CAN AT BE/ MEASURE ! DEGREE ( ITS CRISIS4 ,HUMAN BE+S1 SO ! MOD]N >GUM5T W5T1 >E L$ TO C$E !IR UNCONDITIONAL FRE$OM TO ! SOV]EIGN P[] 9 ORD] TO 5HANCE !IR SECURITY4.<#b#f#c.> ,EV5 ADMITT+ ?AT ?IS HAS EV] BE5 ! CASE 7& ,I W\LD D5Y IT DID71 IT NO LONG] HOLDS TRUE4 ,! /ATE IS TODAY SIMPLY PAT5TLY 9CAPABLE TO GU>ANTEE ! SECURITY ( IT CITIZ5S1 NOT ONLY VIS-A VIS ATTACKS ) NUCLE>1 BACT]IOLOGICAL OR O!R NON CONV5TIONAL WEAPONS1 BUT ALSO1 & P]HAPS MO/ IMPORTANTLY VIS-A VIS ECOLOGICAL & O!R K9DS ( MAN-MADE GLOBAL *ALL5GES4 ,NO S+LE /ATE C\LD EV] >RE/ AN EPIDEMIOLOGICAL ATTACK OR EV5 SIMPLY CONTRA/ GLOBAL W>M+ EFFECTS4 ,H5CE ! DISP]SION ( SOV]EIGNTY ?R\< :AT SOME HAVE CALL$ A 0MULTILAY]$ GLOBAL GOV]NANCE0 & ,NEGRI & ,H>DT NAM$ 9/EAD 0EMPIRE0 BY :I* !Y MEAN A SY/EM ( AU?ORITY :I* HAS NO DEF9ITIVE C5T]4.<#b#f#d.> 7,9CID5TALLY1 9 AN EPO* :5 BOOK PROLIF]ATE AB\T ! DECL9E ( ! NATION /ATES IT IS SURPRIS+ ?AT SO FEW ACADEMICS FELT ! NE$ TO GO BACK TO AN>*ISM1 ?AT TRADITION ( ?\<T :I* MO/ 9CISIVELY ADVOCAT$ & PR$ICT$ !IR DECL9E74 

,BUT ?IS IS ONLY ONE SIDE ( ! /ORY4 ,GLOBALIZATION DOES NOT ONLY MEAN AN HORIZONTAL EXT5SION ( ! *A9S ( 9T]DEP5D5CE3 IT ALSO IMPLIES AN 9T5SIFICATION ( V]TICAL ONES4 ,P[] IS NOT ONLY DISP]S$ BEL[ & ABOVE ! NATION /ATES1 IT HAS ALSO P5ETRAT$ )9 ! DEEPE/ ME*ANISMS ( LIFE3 9 A WORD1 IT HAS BECOME BIO-P[]4 ,! BIOPOLITICAL TRANS=MATION ?AT ,H>DT & ,NEGRI 9TEGRAT$ 9 !IR CONCEPT ( EMPIRE 7,H>DT & ,NEGRI #b7 HAS FIR/ BE5 DIAGNOS$ BY ,MI*EL ,F\CAULT :O DRAWS IT BACK TO ! 9TIMATE CON/ITUTION ( MOD]NITY4 ,F\CAULT MAJOR 9TUITION IS ! IDEA ! :ILE 9 ! FIR/ P>T ( MOD]NITY ! SOV]EIGN P[] WAS MA9LY A P[] TO 9FLICT DEA?1 ) ! LATE MOD]NITY IT BECOMES A P[] ?AT IS AIM$ AT 9CIT+1 PROMOT+ >TICULAT+1 9 A WORD DISCIPL9+ LIFE ITSELF4 ,! MODALITY ( SU* A P[] >E ! TWO POLES ( ! 9DIVIDUAL BODY & ! BODY ( ! POPULATIONS1 :]EAS ! MEANS ?R\< :I* IT IS EX]CIS$ >E DISCIPL9ES SU* AS M$IC9E1 BIOLOGY1 /ATI/ICS1 DEMOGRAPHY & ! SCI5CE ( POLICE4.<#b#f#e.> ,YET1 TODAY SU* A BIOPOLITICAL TRANS=MATION GOES BEYOND ,F\CAULT'S POLITICAL ANALYSIS3 IT N[ 9VE/S NOT ONLY ! MODES ( GOV]NANCE BUT ALSO ! ECONOMIC PRODUCTION1 9 ?AT IT IS ! :OLE ( \R SUBJECTIVITY ?AT IS 9VE/$ BY IT 9 PO/-,=DI/ CAPITALISM 7,H>DT & ,NEGRI #b2 ,BAZZICALUPO #b#f74 

,TODAY GOV]NANCE IS !RE=E GLOBAL BO? IT ITS SPATIAL & 9 ITS NATURE4 ,! FACT ?AT PEOPLE FELT ! NE$ ( A NEW WORD 70GOV]NANCE0 OR 0GOV]NAM5TALITY0 9/EAD ( 0GOV]NM5T07 IS DUE TO ! FACT ?AT ! ?+ ITSELF HAS *ANG$4 ,NO LONG] ! C5TRALIZ$1 V]TICAL P[] ( ! MOD]N NATION /ATE1 BUT A RETICUL> & DEC5TRALIZ$ =M ( P[] :I* IS 5RI*$ BY ! P]VASIV5ESS PROVID$ BY ! NEW BIOPOLITICAL TE*NOLOGIES4 ,IT IS A TRANS=MATION ?AT CAN (F] POSSIBILITIES = LIB]ATION BUT ALSO OP5 ! PA? TO ! MO/ HORRIBLE S]VITUDE4 ,P[] CAN TODAY MORE ?AN EV] COME TO CONTROL ! DEEPE/ ME*ANISM ( LIFE.<#b#f#f.> & TOGE!R ) IT ALSO ! WAY 9 :I* WE ?9K AB\T IT4 

,! GOV]NANCE IS GLOBAL BECAUSE IT EXT5DS 9TO \R BODIES & !RE=E ALSO ! WAY WE ?9K ( !M4 ,TOGE!R ) \R BODIES1 IT ALSO DISCIPL9ES \R M9DS4 ,NOT BY *ANCE1 ECONOMIC & POLITICAL GLOBALIZATION >E UN?9KABLE \TSIDE ( ! CULTURAL ONE4 ,! /RET*+ & DEEP5+ ( ! SOCIAL *A9S ( 9T]DEP5D5CE ALSO MEANS ! /RET*+ & DEEP5+ ( ! IMAG9>Y *A9S ?AT POT5TIALLY CONNECT ! 5TIRE GLOBE4 ,WE ?9K GLOBALLY1 BECAUSE ! GLOBE HAS BECOME ! HORIZON ( \R P]CEPTION ( ! WORLD1 BUT ALSO BECAUSE \R SOCIAL IMAG9>IES >E 9CREAS+LY 9T]M+L$4 

,?IS IS :AT ,DEBORD TRI$ TO CONVEY ) HIS IDEA ( A SOCIETY ( SPECTACLE4 ,HE PO9T$ \T V]Y E>LY ?AT ! FIR/ DANG] = FRE$OM COMES FROM ! COMMODITISATION ( \R SOCIAL IMAG9>Y4 ,9 ! EPO* ( ,HOLLYWOOD & ! GLOBAL NETWORKS ( COMMUNICATION1 WE CANNOT BUT AGREE ?AT ! WORLD HAS BECOME AN IMM5SE COLLECTION ( SPECTACLES 7,DEBORD #a#i#i#d3 !SIS #a74 ,BUT ,DEBORD ALSO P]SUASIVELY >GUES ?AT ! SPECTACLE IS NOT ONLY A SET ( IMAGES1 BUT ALSO1 & =EMO/1 A SOCIAL RELATION%IP BETWE5 PEOPLE ?AT IS M$IAT$ ?R\< IMAGES 7,DEBORD #a#i#i#d3 !SIS #d74 ,?IS BASICALLY MEANS ?AT ! WAY 9 :I* WE RELATE TO ! O!RS IS M$IAT$ BY ! IMAGES ?AT WE HAVE 9T]NALIZ$ FROM ! SOCIAL IMAG9>Y1 :I*1 H[EV]1 IS A SOCIAL IMAG9>Y 9CREAS+LY DOM9AT$ BY COMMODITY FETI%ISM4 

,JU/ CONSID] :AT POLITICS HAS BECOME & :AT IT US$ TO BE4 ,! ACTIVITY ?AT WE USUALLY MEAN ) ?IS T]M IS UNCONCEIVABLE \TSIDE ( ! CONT9UAL FLUX ( IMAGES ?AT 5T] \R SCRE5S EV]Y DAY4 ,BUT ! COMPETITION AMONG IMAGES1 LIKE ?AT AMONG EV]Y O!R COMMODITIES1 IS V]Y H>D SO ?AT ! GOLD5 RULE ( AUDI5CE IMPOSES ITSELF3 ONLY ?OSE IMAGES ?AT CAN CAPTURE PEOPLES ATT5TION CAN BECOME P>T ( ! SPECTACLE4 ,H5CE ! 9CREAS+ SPECTACUL>ISATION ( POLITICS4 ,:AT US$ TO BE AN ACTIVITY DONE BY REAL PEOPLE HAS BECOME TO A L>GE EXT5T A PURE SPECTACLE1 SO ?AT IMAGES >E NO LONG] :AT M$IATE \R DO+ POLITICS1 BUT :AT RISKS DO+ POLITICS 9 \R /EAD4 

,9 ONE ?+ H[EV] ,DEBORD WAS WRONG4 ,LIKE ,M>X BE=E HIM1 HE ?\< ?AT IT WAS POSSIBLE TO C\NT]POISE TO ! SPECTACLE ! REALITY ( ?+S 7SEE1 = 9/ANCE1 ,DEBORD #a#i#i#e3 !SIS #g74 ,9 ! EPO* ( VIRTUAL REALITY1 IMAGES HAVE 9/EAD BECOME ONGO+ PROCESSES SO ?AT !RE IS NO LONG] ! POSSIBILITY TO DI/+UI% BETWE5 ORIG9AL & FAKE4 ,9 O!R WORDS1 ! SOCIETY ( SPECTACLE HAS BECOME GLOBAL1 9 ! D\BLE S5SE ?AT IT HAS /RET*$ ITS B\ND>IES TO EMBRACE ! 5TIRE GLOBE1 BUT ALSO ?AT IT HAS 9VAD$ ALL AMBITS ( LIFE SO ?AT ONE CAN NO LONG] SAY :]E ! SPECTACLE 5DS & REAL LIFE BEG9S4 

,! MAJOR RESULT ( SU* A PROCESS IS ?AT POLITICS HAS BECOME TO GREAT EXT5T A /RUGGLE = PEOPLE'S IMAG9ATION4 ,P[] HAS ALWAYS DEP5D$ ON IMAG9ATION4 ,IF P[] IS ! CAPACITY TO 9FLU5CE ANO!R P]SON & MAKE HIM OR H] DO :AT HE OR %E O!RWISE W\LD NOT HAVE DONE1 !N IT IS CLE> ?AT ! MO/ EFFECTIVE P[] IS ! P[] ?AT CAN BE FELT )\T BE+ SE54 ,9 ?IS S5SE1 ! P[] TO CON/RUCT A SUCCESSFUL V]SION ( REALITY1 MU* BE=E ?AN ?AT TO DISPOSE ( ! MEANS = CO]CION1 IS :AT ULTIMATELY GU>ANTEES POLITICAL P[] P] SE4 ,BUT TODAY1 AS A CONSEQU5CE ( ! 9CREAS$ ROLE ?AT IMAGES PLAY 9 \R SOCIAL LIFE & !IR POT5TIAL EXT5SION TO ! :OLE GLOBE1 ?IS HAS REA*$ A FUR!R /AGE3 ! CONTROL OV] ! MEANS = PHYSICAL CO]CION IS OV]COME BY ! GREAT] ROLE PLAY$ BY ! CONTROL ( ! MEANS ( 9T]PRETATION 7,BOTTICI & ,*ALL& #b#a74 

,)9 ?IS SC5>IO1 FRE$OM IS POSSIBLE ONLY AS FRE$OM ( EQUALS4 ,BAKUN9'S IDEA ?AT Y\ CANNOT BE FREE UNLESS EV]YBODY ELSE >\ND Y\ IS FREE IS MORE TIMELY ?AN EV]4 ,COGNITIVE IS ! OPPRESSION1 COGNITIVE1 & !RE=E COLLECTIVE1 MU/ BE ! LIB]ATION4 ,IF \R BE+ 9CREAS+LY DEP5DS ON :AT O!R PEOPLE ?9K & IMAG9E WE >E1 !N IT IS CLE> ?AT FRE$OM CAN ONLY BE ATTA9$ COLLECTIVELY4 ,!RE IS NO 9T]M$IATE POSSIBILITY3 ,WE >E EI!R ALL SLAVES OR ALL FREE4 

,! NEW GLOBAL MOVEM5TS ?AT HAVE EM]G$ WORLDWIDE 9 ! LA/ FIFTE5 YE>S HAVE %[N ?IS V]Y CLE>LY4.<#b#f#g.> ,) !IR DIRECT ACTIONS 9 OCCASION ( ,G#h & O!R SUMMITS1 !Y MAY NOT HAVE *ANG$ ! C\RSE ( ?OSE SPECIFIC POLITICAL MEET+1 BUT !Y HAVE *ANG$ ! SPECTACLE ?AT WAS PUT ON /AGE BY !M 7,9CID5TALLY1 NOTE ?AT ! PURE SPECTACLE IS ! ONLY PURPOSE ( SU* MEET+S AS NO?+ CONCRETE EV] COMES \T ( !M ?AT WAS NOT ALREADY DECID$ BE=E74 ,! ORGANIZATION & ! ACTIONS ( ! NEW-GLOBAL MOVEM5T P]FECTLY RESPONDS TO ! *ALL5GES ( \R EPO*4 ,?IS IS NOT ONLY BECAUSE MANY ( ITS MILITANTS HAVE BE5 9FLU5C$ BY EI!R ,M>XISM OR AN>*ISM1 ! TWO TRADITIONS ( ?\<T FROM :I* WE D]IV$ ! IDEA ( FRE$OM AS FRE$OM ( EQUALS4 ,?IS IS 
BECAUSE AS ,GRAEB] PUT IT1 0AN>*ISM IS AT ! HE>T ( ! MOVEM5T1 ITS S\L2 ! S\RCE ( MO/ ( :AT'S NEW & HOPEFUL AB\T IT0 7,GRAEB] #b#b3 #f#b74 ,BY ?IS ,I DO NOT MEAN ?AT ITS ACTIVI/S RECOGNIZE !MSELVES AS 0AN>*I/0 9 SOME S5SE -- :I* IS F> FROM BE+ ! CASE AS MANY HAVE NOT$ 7,JURIS #b#i74 ,I MEAN ?AT ! 9TIMATE LOGIC ( ITS FUNCTION+ IS AN>*ICAL 9 ITS ESS5CE BECAUSE IT RESPONDS TO ! PR9CIPLE ( FREE F$]ATION & ASSOCIATION4.<#b#f#h.> 

,AS WELL KN[N1 ! MOVEM5T LACKS ANY C5TRAL AU?ORITY1 A S+LE *>ISMATIC LEAD] OR EV5 A FULLY FL$G$ PROGRAM DECID$ ONCE & = ALL4 ,YET1 ?IS DOES NOT MEAN ?AT ACTIVI/S DO NOT KN[ :AT !Y WANT1 AS OBS]V]S US$ TO ?9K 9 ! TRADITIONAL T]MS ( HI]>*ICAL POLITICS MAY ?9K4 ,IT MEANS ?AT IT A MOVEM5T ?AT GREW UP ACCORD+ TO A LOGIC ( NETWORK+ :I* /RICTLY FOLL[S ! EA* TIME EM]G+ NE$S & AFF9ITIES AMONG ! PEOPLE4 ,ITS ORGANIZATION IS NON- HI]>*ICAL1 ITS COORD9ATION DEC5TRALIZ$1 ITS DECISION MAK+ %AP$ BY A NEW ATTEMPT TO RE9V5T DIRECT DEMOCRACY 7& ?US FAVOR+ /RATEGIES = CONS5SUS F9D+ RA!R ?AN SIMPLE MAJORITY RULE74 ,9 BRIEF1 IT WORKS ACCORD+ TO ! PR9CIPLE ( FREE F$]ALISM4 

,SO COMM5TATORS >E MI/AK5 :5 !Y OBS]VE ?AT ! MOVEM5T IS NOT OR ONLY P>TIALLY AN>*I/ 9 ?AT ITS LOGIC D]IVES FROM A WID] NETWORK+ LOGIC ASSOCIAT$ ) LATE CAPITALISM 7,JURIS #a#i#i#i3 #b#a#c74 ,9 MY VIEW1 ONE CAN SAY EXACTLY ! OPPOSITE3 ! MOVEM5T IS AN>*ICAL PRECISELY BECAUSE IT FOLL[S SU* A WID] NETWORK+ LOGIC1 :I* MAY WELL ULTIMATELY D]IVE FROM PO/-,=DI/ CAPITALISM1 BUT HAS GR[N BY F> BEYOND IT4 ,ONE F9DS ! SAME LOGIC 9 ! MO/ DIFF]5T SECTORS ( SOCIAL LIFE & ! RESULTS >E AT TIMES A/ONI%+4 

,LET ME GIVE Y\ TWO EXAMPLES4 ,! FIR/ TAK5 FROM MY HOME C\NTRY1 ,ITALY4 ,( ! MO/ 9T]E/+ EXAMPLES ( ! WAY 9 :I* NETWORK+ CAN FI<T CAPITALISM EXPLOITATION >E ! EXP]I5CE ( ! SO CALL$ ,G,A,S4 ,?IS IS ! ACRONYM = ,GRUPPI DI ACQUI/O SOLIDALE OR ,SOLID>ITY ,BAS$ ,PUR*AS+ ,GR\PS1 :I* PROLIF]AT$ (T5 9 ! %ADE ( ! EXP]I5CE ( ! ,SOCIAL =UMS4 ,! BASIC IDEAS BEH9D !M IS ?AT SMALL GR\PS ( PEOPLE GA!R TOGE!R USUALLY 9 ! SAME T]RITORY TO CREATE A GR\P ?AT IS ABLE TO BUY DIRECTLY FROM ! PRODUC]S4 ,ALL ( !M >E !N NETWORK$ 9 WID] ASSOCIATIONS ORGANIZ$ ON A REGIONAL & !N NATIONAL LEVEL4.<#b#f#i.> ,?R\< ! FLEXIBLE LOGIC ( NETWORK+1 MEMB]S ( ! ,G,A,S >E ABLE TO BUY PRODUCTS ( A V]Y HI< QUALITY = A R$UC$ PRICE & AT ! SAME TIME SUPPORT SMALL 5T]PRISES ?AT ESCAPE ! LOGIC ( CORPORATE CAPITALISM4 ,SU* NETWORKS >E V]Y EFFICI5T 9 PROVID+ MAT]IAL GOODS = V]Y CONV5I5T PRICES BUT ALSO WORKS AS PLAT=M = ! DIFFUSION ( 9=MATION4 

,! SECOND EXAMPLE CONC]NS 9/EAD EXACTLY ?IS PO9T1 ! %>+ ( 9=MATION4 ,FEW PEOPLE HAVE 9 MY VIEW YET SUFFICI5TLY /RESS$ ! REVOLUTION ?AT ! 9T]NET IS BR++ AB\T = ! DIFFUSION ( KN[L$GE4.<#b#g.> ,9T]NET HAS NOT ONLY DEEPLY *ANG$ \R POSSIBILITIES = NETWORK+1 BUT ALSO ! WAY WE CAN ?9K AB\T ! WORLD4 ,9 O!R WORDS1 IT HAS *ANGE ! SPECTACLE ( IT4 ,9DEP5D5T M$IA1 WEBSITES ( ! MO/ DIFF]5T SORTS1 OP5 ACCESS S\RCES SU* AS ,WIKIP$IA4 ,! LATT] IS 9 MY VIEW AN HAPPY EXAMPLE ( ! EFFICI5CY ( AN>*ISM3 APPLY TO ! PR9CIPLE ?AT ! COMPET5CE IS NOT 9DIVIDUAL BUT A COLLECTIVE PROCESS ( FREE CONTRIBUTION & :AT Y\ OBTA9 IS ! BIGGE/ 5CYCLOP$IA EV] REALIZ$1 WORK+ 9 MANY DIFF]5T LANGUAGES & :OSE QUALITY1 ACCORD+ TO AN 9DEP5D5T /UDY1 IS EQUIVAL5T TO ?AT ( ! ,5CYCLOP$IA ,BRITANNICA4.<#b#g#a.> ,SURE 9T]NET REQUIRES TE*NICAL SKILLS & ! POSSIBILITY TO HAVE ACCESS TO IT1 BUT ALL ?OSE :O CAN HAVE !M AUTOMATICALLY GA9 ACCESS TO AN IMM5SE RES]VOIR ( KN[L$GE4 ,?IS ,I BELIEVE IS V]Y LIKELY TO *ALL5GE ! NATURE ( ! PRODUCTION ( KN[L$GE & 9 P>TICUL> ITS EXTREMELY SPECIALIZ$ NATURE ?AT RESULT$ FROM ! LOGIC ( ! MOD]NITY4 

,CONCLUSIONS 

,GLOBALIZATION HAS BECOME REFLEXIVE4 ,PEOPLE ACT 9 ! WORLD & ?9K AB\T !IR ACTION ) ! 5TIRE GLOBE AS !IR HORIZON ( EXP]I5CE4 ,ACTIVI/S NETWORK+ FROM ONE SIDE ( ! GLOBE TO ! O!R1 MIGRANTS CROSS+ 7LEGALLY OR ILLEGALLY7 BORD]S &1 TO A C]TA9 EXT5T1 EV5 MULT9ATIONAL CORPORATIONS & POLITICAL 9/ITUTIONS ABOVE & BEL[ ! NATION /ATES1 !Y ALL SAY ONE & ! SAME ?+3 NETWORKS >E BETT] ?AN HI]>*IES4 ,O!RWISE SAID1 GLOBALIZATION HAS DEMON/RAT$ :AT MOD]N POLITICAL ?\<T HAS ALWAYS BE5 RELUCTANT TO RECOGNIZE3 AN AN>*IC ORD] IS POSSIBLE & EV5 DESIRABLE4 

,9 CONCLUSION1 LET ME RECALL ,P$R9I'S POEM FROM :I* WE BEGAN4 ,IT IS NOT BY *ANCE ?AT HIS POEM1 FIR/ PUT 9TO MUSIC BY ,PAOLA ,NICOLAZZI1 HAS ONLY REC5TLY BECOME A V]Y POPUL> SONG 9 ,ITALY & ELSE:]E UND] ! TILE ( 0,! GALEON0 7,IL GALEONE74 ,RECOV]$ BY ! CONTEMPOR>Y ROCK B&1 0,LES AN>*I/ES10 IT ACCOMPANI$ ! RISE ( ! NEW-GLOBAL MOVEM5TS 9 ,ITALY & ELSE:]E4 ,! REASON :Y SO MANY PEOPLE F\ND IT SO 9SPIR+ 9 !SE DAYS IS ?AT IT P]FECTLY EXPRESSES ! VIEW ( FRE$OM \TL9$ BE=E3 ONE IS ! WORLD1 ONE MU/ BE FRE$OM1 BECAUSE WE >E ALL ON ! SAME BOAT4 ,9 A WORLD 9 :I* ! FATE ( A FEW ISL&S DEP5DS ON ! BEHAVIOR ( ! 9DU/RIES ON ! O!R SIDE ( ! GLOBE1 9 :I* ! PLANET HAS BECOME A GLOBAL SOCIETY ( 
SPECTACLE1 Y\ CANNOT BE AUTONOM\S )\T BE+ FREE1 OR1 :AT IS ! SAME1 Y\ CANNOT BE FREE ON Y\R [N4 ,IT IS A V]Y RADICAL VIEW ( FRE$OM1 BUT ONE ?AT IS MORE TIMELY ?AN EV] BE=E4 ,HI/ORY ITSELF HAS REV]S$ ! LIB]AL MOTTO 0Y\R FRE$OM 5DS :]E ?AT ( ! O!RS BEG90 9TO A NEW ONE3 0Y\R FRE$OM CAN ONLY BEG9 ) ?AT ( EV]YBODY ELSE40 

,REF]5CES 

,AGAMB51 ,G4 #a#i#i#h1 ,HOMO SAC]3 ,SOV]EIGN ,P[] & ,BA] ,LIFE1 ,/AN=D1 ,/AN=D ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS 

,BAKUN91 ,M4 #a#i#g#b1 ,/ATO E AN>*IA1 ,MILANO1 ,FELTR9ELLI 

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