,*APT] #h 
,DEVELOPM5T ( ,MORAL ,TEA*+S 9 ! ,MOD]N ,]A 7#a#g? & #a#h? ,C5TURIES4-CONT9U$7 

#aibdaibd 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,PET] ,KROPOTK9 

,TEXT 3 

,! LIB]ATION ( SCI5CE FROM ! ,*UR*'S YOKE-& 
CONSEQU5TLY ALSO ( E?ICAL 
TEA*+S1-CAME AB\T 9 ,FRANCE APPROXIMATELY AT ! SAME TIME AS 9 ,5GL&4  
,! ,FR5* ?9K]1 ,]N@&EACUTE ,DESC>TES1 TOOK ! SAME LEAD 9 ?IS MOVEM5T AS DID 
,FRANCIS ,BACON 9 ,5GL&1 & !IR PR9CIPAL WORKS APPE>$ ALMO/ 
SIMULTANE\SLY4#a 

,BUT DUE TO V>I\S CAUSES1 ! ,FR5* MOVEM5T TOOK A 
SOME:AT DIFF]5T TURN FROM ! ,5GLI%2 & 9 ,FRANCE1 LIB]T>IAN IDEAS 
P5ETRAT$ TO MU* WID] CIRCLES & EX]CIS$ A MU* DEEP] 9FLU5CE ?R\<\T 
,EUROPE ?AN ! MOVEM5T ORIG9AT$ BY ,BACON1 :I* CREAT$ A REVOLUTION 9 
SCI5CE & 9 SCI5TIFIC SPECULATION4 

,! LIB]AT+ MOVEM5T 9 ,FRANCE BEGAN AT 
! 5D ( ! SIXTE5? C5TURY1 BUT IT FOLL[$ A PA? DIFF]5T FROM ?AT 9 
,5GL& :]E IT TOOK ! =M ( ! ,PROTE/ANT MOVEM5T & ( ! PEASANT & 
T[NSFOLK REVOLUTION4 ,9 ,FRANCE ! ,REVOLUTION BROKE \T ONLY AT ! 5D ( ! 
EI<TE5? C5TURY1 BUT LIB]T>IAN IDEAS BEGAN TO SPREAD WIDELY 9 ,FR5* 
SOCIETY LONG BE=E ! ,REVOLUTION4 ,LIT]ATURE WAS ! *IEF CONDUCTOR ( !SE 
IDEAS4 ,! FIR/ TO EXPRESS LIB]T>IAN IDEAS 9 ,FR5* LIT]ATURE WAS ,RABELAIS 
7#a#d#h#c787-#a#e#e#c71 :OM ,MI*EL ,MONTAIGNE FOLL[$ 9 SPIRIT4 

,MONTAIGNE WAS ONE ( ! MO/ BRILLIANT ( ,FR5* WRIT]S4 ,HE WAS ! FIR/ TO 
EXPRESS 9 A LI<T1 
EASILY READABLE =M1 PRECISELY FROM ! /&PO9T ( 0PLA9 COMMON S5SE10 BOLD 
& MO/ 0H]ETICAL0 VIEWS AB\T RELIGION4 

,MONTAIGNE'S FAM\S BOOK1 0,ESSAIS10 :I* APPE>$ 9 #a#e#h#c1 MET ) GREAT 
SUCCESS2 IT W5T ?R\< MANY $ITIONS & WAS READ EV]Y:]E 9 ,EUROPE1 & 
LAT] EV5 ! PROM95T WRIT]S ( ! EI<TE5? & N9ETE5? C5TURIES 
WILL+LY RECOGNIZ$ ,MONTAIGNE AS ONE ( !IR TEA*]S4 ,MONTAIGNE'S BOOK AID$ 
CONSID]ABLY 9 ! LIB]ATION ( E?ICS FROM ! OLD S*OLA/IC DOGMAS4 

,9 HIS 0,ESSAIS0 ,MONTAIGNE GAVE NO?+ BUT A S]IES ( FRANK CONFESSIONS AB\T HIS [N 
*>ACT] & ! MOTIVES ( HIS JUDGM5TS & ACTS1 & ALSO AB\T ! *>ACT] 
( ! PEOPLE ( HIS CIRCLE1 = HE WAS 9TIMATE ) ! BE/ SOCIETY4 ,& HE 
JUDG$ HUMAN ACTIONS AS A REF9$1 SOME:AT HUMANIT>IAN ,EPICUREAN1 :OSE EGOTISM 
WAS S(T5$ BY A SLI<T T+E ( PHILOSOPHY2 HE EXPOS$ ! RELIGI\S HYPOCRISY 
BEH9D :I* O!R EPICUREAN EGOI/S & !IR RELIGI\S M5TORS >E ACCU/OM$ 
TO HIDE4 ,?US1 [+ TO HIS GREAT LIT]>Y TAL5T1 HE PREP>$ ! SOIL = ?AT 
CRITICAL1 S>CA/IC TONE ) RESPECT TO RELIGION1 :I* LAT]1 9 ! EI<TE5? 
C5TURY1 P]MEAT$ ! :OLE ( ,FR5* LIT]ATURE4 ,UN=TUNATELY1 NEI!R 
,MONTAIGNE1 NOR HIS FOLL[]S UP TO ! PRES5T TIME1 HAVE SUBJECT$ TO ! SAME 
SORT ( POPUL>1 S>CA/IC CRITIQUE FROM )91 ! MA*9E ( ! /ATE 
GOV]NM5T1 :I* HAS N[ TAK5 ! PLACE ( ! HI]>*Y ( ! ,*UR* 9 
RUL+ ! SOCIAL LIFE ( M54 

,A SOME:AT MORE S]I\S 9QUIRY1 BUT /ILL 9 ! SAME /YLE1 WAS UND]TAK5 
SOME:AT LAT] BY ! !OLOGIAN & FA!R-CONFESSOR ( ,QUE5 ,M>G>ET1 ,PI]RE 
,*>RON 7#a#e#d#a-#a#f#c74 ,HIS BOOK 0,TRAIT@&EACUTE DE LA ,SAGESSE0 7,TREATISE ON ,WISDOM71 
APPE>$ 9 #afa & AT ONCE BECAME POPUL>4 ,AL?\< ,*>RON REMA9$ A PRIE/1 
HE WAS 9 REALITY A TRUE SKEPTIC1 & HIS SKEPTICISM WAS EV5 %>P] ?AN ?AT 
( ,MONTAIGNE4 ,9 DISCUSS+ SIMIL> DOCTR9ES 9 DIFF]5T RELIGIONS-,*RI/IAN 
& PAGAN-,*>RON %[$ H[ MU* !Y HAVE 9 COMMON & H[ LITTLE MORALITY 
NE$S RELIGION4#b 

,G5]ALLY SPEAK+1 ?IS SKEPTICAL & AT ! SAME TIME REALI/IC ATTITUDE T[>D 
RELIGION LAT] =M$ ! DI/+UI%+ FEATURE ( ,FR5* LIT]ATURE ( ! 
EI<TE5? C5TURY1 & MANIFE/$ ITSELF ) ESPECIAL PROM95CE 9 ! 
WRIT+S ( ,VOLTAIRE & ( ! ,5CYCLOP@&AELIGDI/S1 AS WELL AS 9 ! NOVEL1 & 
P>TICUL>LY 9 ! DRAMATIC WORKS1 ( ! PRE-REVOLUTION>Y P]IOD1 & F9ALLY 
9 ! ,REVOLUTION ITSELF4 

,BACON GAVE SCI5CE A NEW & A V]Y FRUITFUL ME?OD ( 
/UDY+ NATURAL PH5OM5A1-! 9DUCTIVE ME?OD1-& !REBY MADE POSSIBLE 
! BUILD+ UP ( A SCI5CE AB\T LIFE ON ! GLOBE & AB\T ! ,UNIV]SE1 
)\T ! 9T]F]5CE ( RELIGI\S & METAPHYSICAL EXPLANATIONS4 ,DESC>TES1 
H[EV]1 CONT9U$ 9 SOME MEASURE TO USE ! D$UCTIVE ME?OD4 ,HIS ?\<T 
PREC$$ ! DISCOV]IES TO :I* ! 9DUCTIVE 9VE/IGATION ( NATURE WAS TO 
LEAD1 & HE ATTEMPT$ TO EXPLA9 BY MEANS ( PHYSICO-MA!MATICAL !OREMS 
SU* REGIONS 9 ! LIFE ( NATURE :I* HAD NOT YET YIELD$ TO SCI5TIFIC 
EXPLANATION1-! REGIONS :I* WE >E ONLY N[ BEG9N+ TO P5ETRATE4 ,HE ALWAYS 
REMA9$1 H[EV]1 ON ! FIRM GR\ND ( ! PHYSICAL 9T]PRETATION ( 
PH5OM5A4 ,EV5 9 HIS BOLDE/ SUPPOSITIONS AB\T ! /RUCTURE ( MATT] HE 
REMA9$ A PHYSICI/1 & 5DEAVOR$ TO EXPRESS HIS HYPO!SES 9 MA!MATICAL 
LANGUAGE4 

,PUBLI%+ HIS WORKS 9 ,FRANCE1 :I* HAD NOT YET FRE$ ITSELF FROM ! YOKE ( 
! ,CA?OLIC ,*UR*1 AS HAD ,5GL&1 ,DESC>TES WAS COMPELL$ TO EXPRESS HIS 
CONCLUSIONS V]Y GU>D$LY4 #c 

,9 #afbh HE HAD TO LEAVE ,FRANCE & TO SETTLE 9 ,HOLL&1 :]E HE PUBLI%$ HIS 
0,ESSAIS PHILOSOPHIQUES0 9 #a#f#c#g4 ,?IS BOOK 9CLUD$ HIS FUNDAM5TAL WORK1 
0,DISC\RS DE LA M@&EACUTE?ODE10 :I* EX]CIS$ A DEEP 9FLU5CE UPON ! DEVELOPM5T 
( PHILOSOPHICAL ?\<T & LAID ! F\NDATION ( ! ME*ANI/IC 
9T]PRETATION ( NATURE4 

,DESC>TES GAVE BUT LITTLE SPECIAL ATT5TION TO ! 
QUE/ION ( MORALITY & ITS RELATION TO RELIGION1 & HIS VIEWS ON MORAL 
MATT]S CAN BE LE>N$ ONLY FROM HIS LETT]S TO ! ,SW$I% PR9CESS1 ,*RI/9A4 

,EV5 ! RELATION ( SCI5CE TO RELIGION 9T]E/$ HIM BUT LITTLE1 & HIS 
ATTITUDE T[>D ! ,*UR* WAS V]Y RES]V$1 LIKE ?AT ( ALL ! ,FR5* WRIT]S 
( HIS TIME4 ,! BURN+ ( ,GIORDANO ,BRUNO WAS /ILL WELL REMEMB]$4 ,BUT 
,DESC>TES'S ATTEMPT TO EXPLA9 ! LIFE ( ! ,UNIV]SE ?R\< PHYSICAL 
PH5OM5A :I* >E SUBJECT TO ACCURATE MA!MATICAL 9VE/IGATION-7?IS ME?OD 
RECEIV$ ! NAME ( 0,C>TESIANISM07-SO DEF9ITELY SET ASIDE ALL ! TEA*+S ( 
! ,*UR*1 ?AT ! ,C>TESIAN PHILOSOPHY SOON BECAME JU/ AS P[]FUL A WEAPON 
= LIB]AT+ KN[L$GE FROM FAI?1 AS ,BACON'S 09DUCTIVE ME?OD0 HAD PROV$ TO 
BE4 

,DESC>TES C>EFULLY AVOID$ ALL ATTACKS UPON ! TEA*+S ( ! ,*UR*2 HE 
EV5 ADVANC$ A S]IES ( PRO(S ( ! EXI/5CE ( ,GOD4 ,!SE PRO(S1 H[EV]1 
>E BAS$ ON SU* AB/RACT REASON+ ?AT !Y PRODUC$ ! IMPRESSION ( BE+ 
9S]T$ ONLY = ! PURPOSE ( AVOID+ ! ACCUSATION ( A!ISM4 ,BUT ! 
SCI5TIFIC P>T ( ,DESC>TES'S TEA*+ WAS SO CON/RUCT$ ?AT IT CONTA9$ NO 
EVID5CE ( ! 9T]F]5CE ( ! ,CREATOR'S WILL4 ,DESC>TES'S ,GOD1 LIKE 
,SP9OZA'S ,GOD 9 LAT] TIMES1 WAS ! GREAT ,UNIV]SE AS A :OLE1 ,NATURE ITSELF4 
,:5 HE WROTE ( ! PSY*IC LIFE ( MAN HE 5DEAVOR$ TO GIVE IT A 
PHYSIOLOGICAL 9T]PRETATION DESPITE ! LIMIT$ KN[L$GE !N AVAILABLE 9 ! 
FIELD ( PHYSIOLOGY4 

,BUT 9 ! WORLD ( ! EXACT SCI5CES1 P>TICUL>LY 9 ! FIELD ( ! 
MA!MATICAL 9VE/IGATION ( PHYSICAL PH5OM5A1 ,DESC>TES'S ACCOMPLI%M5T WAS 
CONSID]ABLE4 ,IT IS SAFE TO SAY ?AT HE 9V5T$ A NEW SCI5CE ?R\< HIS 
ME?ODS ( MA!MATICAL 9VE/IGATION1 ESPECIALLY 9 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY1 :I* 
HE RE-CREAT$4 ,HE NOT ONLY DISCOV]$ NEW ME?ODS BUT HE ALSO APPLI$ !M TO ! 
9VE/IGATION ( SOME ( ! MO/ DIFFICULT PROBLEMS ( UNIV]SAL PHYSICS1 
NAMELY1-TO ! /UDY ( ! VORTEX-MOTION ( ! 9F9ITESIMAL P>TICLES ( 
MATT] 9 COSMIC SPACE4 ,ONLY N[1 9 ITS /UDY ( ! UNIV]SAL E!R1 HAS MOD]N 
PHYSICS AGA9 APPROA*$ !SE FUNDAM5TAL PROBLEMS ( COSMIC LIFE4 

,9 GIV+ SCI5CE A NEW ME?OD ( P5ETRAT+ 9TO ! MY/]IES ( NATURE1 
,DESC>TES1 LIKE 
,BACON1 DEMON/RAT$ AT ! SAME TIME ! P[] ( SCI5CE AS COMP>$ TO ! 
IMPOT5CE ( SUP]/ITIONS & ( 9TUITIVE1 I4E41 CONJECTURAL1 EXPLANATIONS4 

,%ORTLY BE=E1 ,COP]NICUS HAD PROV$ ?AT \R GLOBE IS BUT ONE ( ! SATELLITES 
( ! SUN1 & ?AT ! 9NUM]ABLE />S :I* WE SEE >E MILLIONS ( WORLDS 
SIMIL> TO \R SOL> SY/EM4 ,?US ! 5IGMA ( ! ,UNIV]SE UNFOLD$ BE=E MAN 
9 ALL ITS GR&EUR1 & ! HUMAN M9D BEGAN TO SEEK ! EXPLANATION ( COSMIC 
EXI/5CE4 ,BACON WAS ! FIR/ TO ASS]T ?AT EXP]IM5T & 9DUCTIVE ME?OD CAN 
HELP US UND]/& ?IS LIFE1 :ILE ,DESC>TES 5DEAVOR$ TO P5ETRATE 9TO 
COSMIC BE+ & TO DIV9E AT LEA/ SOME ( ITS FUNDAM5TAL LAWS-! LAWS ?AT 
>E OP]ATIVE NOT ONLY )9 ! LIMITS ( \R SOL> SY/EM1 BUT ALSO F> BEYOND 
ITS BORD]S1 9 ! /ELL> WORLD4 

,IT IS TRUE1 ?AT 9 SEEK+ ! BASES = A 
KN[L$GE ( NATURE 9 MA!MATICAL ?9K+1 AS WAS ! DREAM ( ,PY?AGORAS & 
HIS PUPILS1 & LAT] ( ,GIORDANO ,BRUNO1 ,DESC>TES !REBY 9CREAS$ ! 
IMPORTANCE ( METAPHYSICS 9 ! PHILOSOPHY ( ! SEV5TE5? & ! EI<TE5? 
C5TURY2 & HE HELP$ ?IS PHILOSOPHY TO BE> A SEMBLANCE ( SCI5CE 9 ITS 
SE>* = TRU?1 NOT ?R\< OBS]VATION & EXP]IM5T1 BUT ?R\< AB/RACT 
?9K+4 ,BUT1 ON ! O!R H&1 ,DESC>TES PUT PHYSICS ON A BASIS :I* 5ABL$ 
IT1 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 TO MAKE ! DISCOV]Y ?AT ! ESS5CE ( HEAT & 
ELECTRICITY IS 9 ! VIBRATIONS ( POND]ABLE P>TICLES2 & ?US PHYSICS WAS 
ABLE TO DISCOV] T[>DS ! 5D ( ! C5TURY A S]IES ( 9VISIBLE VIBRATIONS1 
AMONG :I* ! ,RO5TG5 RAYS W]E ONLY AN 9TRODUCTION TO A VA/ REGION :]E 
SEV]AL O!R DISCOV]IES >E ALREADY G]M9AT+1 JU/ AS A/\ND+ AS !SE 
RAYS1 OR AS WIRELESS TELEPHONY4 #d 

,BACON F\ND$ A NEW ME?OD ( SCI5TIFIC RESE>* & =E%AD[$ ! 
DISCOV]IES ( ,LAM>CK & ,D>W91 BY PO9T+ \T ?AT UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( 
*ANG+ CONDITIONS ,NATURE CONT9UALLY EVOLVES NEW SPECIES ( ANIMALS & PLANTS1 
:ILE ,DESC>TES1 BY HIS 0!ORY ( VORTICES10 =E%AD[$ 9 A S5SE ! 
SCI5TIFIC DISCOV]IES ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY4 

,9 SPEAK+ ( ,EPICURUS ,I PO9T$ \T ! GREAT 9FLU5CE EX]CIS$ BY HIS 
TEA*+ = FIVE C5TURIES 9 
! ,GREEK & !N 9 ! ,ROMAN WORLD4 ,! ,/OICS /UBBORNLY OPPOS$ ?IS 
TEA*+1 BUT EV5 SU* PROM95T REPRES5TATIVES ( ,/OICISM AS ,S5ECA & 
,EPICTETUS W]E FASC9AT$ BY ,EPICUREANISM4 ,IT WAS VANQUI%$ ONLY BY 
,*RI/IANITY2 BUT EV5 AMONG ! ,*RI/IANS1 AS ,GUYAU REM>K$1 ,LUCIAN1 & EV5 
,/4 ,AUGU/9E1 PAID TRIBUTE TO IT4 

,:51 9 ,R5AISSANCE TIMES1 !RE BEGAN ! 
SE>* = & ! /UDY ( ! MONUM5TS ( ,GRECO-,ROMAN LE>N+1 ! ?9K]'S 
( V>I\S T5D5CIES1 :O WI%$ TO BE LIB]AT$ FROM ! YOKE ( ! ,*UR*1 
BEGAN TO TURN ) SPECIAL AFFECTION TO ! WRIT+S ( ,EPICURUS & HIS 
FOLL[]S3 ,DIOG5ES ,LA]TIUS1 ,CIC]O1 & ESPECIALLY ,LUCRETIUS1 :O WAS ONE ( 
! E>LIE/ PR$ECESSORS ( ! MOD]N SCI5TIFIC 9T]PRETATION ( NATURE4 

,! *IEF /R5G? ( ! ,EPICUREAN TEA*+1 AS WE HAVE SE51 LAY 9 ! FACT ?AT 
9 REJECT+ EV]Y?+ SUP]NATURAL & MIRACUL\S1 IT REJECT$ AT ! SAME TIME 
! SUP]NATURAL ORIG9 ( ! MORAL S5SE 9 MAN4 ,IT EXPLA9$ ?IS S5SE BY ! 
RATIONAL /RIV+ = 
HAPP9ESS4 ,?IS HAPP9ESS1 ACCORD+ TO ,EPICURUS1 CONSI/S NOT M]ELY 9 ! 
GRATIFICATION ( PHYSICAL NE$S1 BUT 9 ! GREATE/ POSSIBLE FULLNESS ( LIFE1 
I4E41 9 ! GRATIFICATION ( ! HI<E/ NE$S & FEEL+S1 9CLUD+ ! NE$ 
( FRI5D%IP & SOCIALITY4 ,IT WAS 9 ?IS =M ?AT 0,EPICUREANISM0 BEGAN TO BE 
ADVOCAT$ BY ?OSE :O REJECT$ !OLOGICAL MORALITY4 

,ALREADY 9 ! SECOND HALF ( ! SIXTE5? 
C5TURY ,MONTAIGNE TOOK AN EXACTLY SIMIL> /&4 ,SOME:AT LAT]1 9 ! 
SEV5TE5? C5TURY1 ! ,EPICUREAN VIEWPO9T ( MORAL QUE/IONS WAS ADOPT$ BY 
! PHILOSOPH] ,PI]RE ,GASS5DI1 A LE>N$ PRIE/1 & A PHYSICI/1 
MA!MATICIAN1 & ?9K]4 

,9 #a#f#b#d1 :5 HE WAS A PR(ESSOR ( PHILOSOPHY 9 
,S\? ,FRANCE1 HE PUBLI%$ 9 ! ,LAT9 LANGUAGE A WORK OP5LY OPPOS$ TO ! 
TEA*+S ( ,>I/OTLE1 :I* !N DOM9AT$ ! ECCLESIA/ICAL S*OOLS4 #e ,9 
A/RONOMY ,GASS5DI PITT$ AGA9/ ,>I/OTLE ! VIEWS ( ,COP]NICUS1 :O1 AS IS 
KN[N1 PROV$ ?AT ! ,E>? IS NOT AT ALL ! C5T] ( ! ,UNIV]SE1 BUT M]ELY 
ONE ( ! LESS] SATELLITES ( ! ,SUN4 ,[+ TO !SE VIEWS ,COP]NICUS WAS 
CONSID]$ BY ! 

,*UR* A DANG]\S H]ETIC4 ,& 9 MORAL QUE/IONS ,GASS5DI TOOK ! EXACT POSITION 
( ,EPICURUS4 ,MAN1 ASS]T$ ,GASS5DI1 SEEKS 9 LIFE1 FIR/ ( ALL1 0HAPP9ESS & 
PLEASURE10 BUT BO? !SE CONCEPTIONS1 AS WAS ALREADY PO9T$ \T BY ! ,GREEK 
PHILOSOPH]1 >E TO BE 9T]PRET$ 9 A WIDE S5SE3 NOT ONLY 9 ! S5SE ( 
BODILY PLEASURES1 = ! SAKE ( :I* MAN IS CAPABLE ( H>M+ O!RS1 BUT 
PRIM>ILY 9 ! S5SE ( ! 9N] PEACE ( ! S\L :I* CAN BE ATTA9$ ONLY 
:5 MAN SEES 9 O!RS NOT 5EMIES BUT COMRADES4 ,?US ! WRIT+S ( ,GASS5DI 
ANSW]$ TO ! NE$ ( ! $UCAT$ CLASSES ( ?AT TIME1 :O W]E ALREADY 
TRY+ TO ?R[ (F ! YOKE ( ! ,*UR* & ( SUP]/ITION1 AL?\< !Y 
HAD NOT YET REALIZ$ ! NE$ ( ! SCI5TIFIC 9T]PRETATION ( ,NATURE 9 
G5]AL4 ,?IS T5D5CY URG$ !M SO MU* MORE T[>D ! NEW IDEAL ( A SOCIAL 
LIFE BAS$ ON EQUITY AMONG M54 ,?IS IDEAL BEGAN TO TAKE =M SOME:AT LAT]1 9 
! EI<TE5? C5TURY4 

,! TIME ( ,BACON & ,DESC>TES1 I4E41 ! TIME ( ! 
REVIVAL ( ! SCI5TIFIC /UDY ( NATURE1 M>KS ALSO ! TURN+ PO9T 9 
E?ICS4 ,! ?9K]S BEGAN TO LOOK = ! NATURAL S\RCES ( MORALITY 9 
HUMAN NATURE ITSELF4 ,HOBBES1 :O LIV$ SOME:AT LAT] ?AN ! TWO F\ND]S1 
ALREADY NAM$1 ( MOD]N NATURAL SCI5CE1 7HIS PR9CIPAL WORKS APPE>$ 9 ! 
MIDDLE ( ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY1 I4E41 BETWE5 #a#f#d#b-#a#f#e#h71 DEVELOP$1 AS WE 
HAVE SE51 A COMPLETE SY/EM ( E?ICS FRE$ FROM RELIGION4 

,UN=TUNATELY1 AS ,I 
HAVE PO9T$ \T1 ,HOBBES SET \T ) AN UTT]LY ]RONE\S CONCEPTION ( 
PRIMITIVE MAN & ( HUMAN NATURE 9 G5]AL1 & CONSEQU5TLY1 HE WAS L$ TO 
CONCLUSION 5TIRELY FALLACI\S4 ,BUT A NEW PA? 9 ! /UDY ( MORALITY WAS 
OP5$1 & FROM ?AT TIME A S]IES ( ?9K]S LABOR$ TO PROVE ?AT ! MORAL 
ELEM5T 9 MAN IS NOT ! RESULT ( FE> ( PUNI%M5T 9 ?IS OR A LAT] LIFE1 
BUT ! RESULT ( ! NATURAL DEVELOPM5T ( ! REALLY FUNDAM5TAL PROP]TIES ( 
HUMAN NATURE4 ,MOREOV]1 9 PROPORTION AS MOD]N HUMANITY FREES ITSELF FROM FE>S 
9CULCAT$ BY RELIGIONS1 !RE IS AN EV]-9CREAS+ NE$ TO ]ECT NOBL] & 
F9] $IFICES ( SOCIAL LIFE1 & ?US TO RAISE ! IDEAL ( MORAL MAN TO EV] HI<] 
P]FECTION4 

,WE HAVE SE5 ALREADY :AT ! PAN!I/ ,SP9OZA1-! FOLL[] ( 
,DESC>TES1-& ALSO HIS CONTEMPOR>Y1 ,LOCKE1 ?\<T 9 ?IS CONNECTION4 ,BUT EV5 
MORE DEF9ITE W]E ! PRON\NCEM5TS ON ?IS SUBJECT BY ! ,FR5* CONTEMPOR>Y 
( ,LOCKE1-,PI]RE ,BAYLE4 

,HAV+ BE5 BR\<T UP ON ! PHILOSOPHY ( ,DESC>TES1 ,BAYLE1 ?R\< HIS 
REM>KABLE ,5CYCLOP@&AELIGDIA1#f LAID ! F\NDATION ( A SCI5TIFIC 9T]PRETATION ( 
NATURE ?AT SOON ACQUIR$ TREM5D\S IMPORTANCE 9 ! 9TELLECTUAL DEVELOPM5T 
( MANK9D DUE TO ,HUME1 ,VOLTAIRE1 ,DID]OT1 & ! ,5CYCLOP@&AELIGDI/S G5]ALLY4 ,HE 
WAS ! FIR/ TO ADVOCATE OP5LY ! LIB]ATION ( MORAL TEA*+S FROM !IR 
RELIGI\S MOTIVATION4 

,/>T+ ) ! DEF9ITIONS GIV5 BY ! ,*UR* ITSELF1 
,BAYLE PROCE$$ TO PROVE ?AT LACK ( FAI? MI<T BE CONSID]$ A S\RCE OR A 
SUPPORT ( ! EVIL WAY ( LIV+ ONLY IF WE >E TO LIMIT ! MEAN+ ( FAI? TO 
LOVE ( ,GOD1 AS ! ,SUPREME ,MORAL ,IDEAL4 ,9 REALITY1 H[EV]1 ?IS IS NOT ! 
CASE4 ,FAI?1 AS IS KN[N1 HAS A DIFF]5T *>ACT] & IS COMB9$ ) NUM]\S 
SUP]/ITIONS4 ,BESIDES1 M]E ADH]5CE TO C]TA9 =MUL@&AELIG1 OR EV5 A S9C]E 
FAI? 9 ! TRU? ( RELIGI\S DOGMAS1 DOES NOT GIVE ! /R5G? TO FOLL[ 
!M2 & [+ TO ?IS CIRCUM/ANCE ALL RELIGIONS ADD TO !IR TEA*+S ?REATS 
( PUNI%M5T = NONOBS]VANCE4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 MORALITY1 AS IS KN[N1 CAN 
V]Y WELL EXI/ SIDE BY SIDE ) A!ISM4 

,IT BECOMES1 !RE=E1 NECESS>Y TO 9VE/IGATE ! POSSIBILITY ?AT  
HUMAN NATURE ITSELF CONTA9S MORAL PR9CIPLES1 RESULT+ FROM ! SOCIAL LIFE ( 
M54 

,GUID$ BY !SE CONSID]ATIONS ,BAYLE REG>D$ ! FIR/ PR9CIPLES ( 
MORALITY AS AN 0ET]NAL LAW10-NOT ( DIV9E ORIG91 BUT AS A FUNDAM5TAL LAW ( 
NATURE1 OR RA!R1 ITS FUNDAM5TAL FACT4 

,UN=TUNATELY1 ,BAYLE'S M9D WAS 
PREEM95TLY ?AT ( A SKEPTIC & A CRITIC1 & NOT ( A BUILD] ( A NEW 
SY/EM4 ,HE DID NOT DEVELOP1 !RE=E1 HIS IDEA ( ! NATURAL ORIG9 ( MORALITY 
9 MAN4 ,BUT HE WAS NOT P]MITT$ TO C>RY HIS CRITIQUE TO ITS CONCLUSIONS1 = HE 
>\S$ SU* ANIMOSITY 9 ! ECCLESIA/ICAL CAMP & AMONG ! RUL+ CLASSES1 
?AT HE HAD TO TEMP] CONSID]ABLY ! EXPRESSION ( HIS IDEAS4 ,NEV]!LESS1 HIS 
EXAM9ATION ( BO? OR?ODOX & MOD]ATE RELIGI\SNESS WAS SO /RONG & WITTY1 
?AT HE MAY BE CONSID]$ A DIRECT PR$ECESSOR ( ,HELV@&EACUTETIUS1 ,VOLTAIRE1 & ! 
,5CYCLOP@&AELIGDI/S ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY4 

,LA ,RO*EF\CAU,ID1 A CONTEMPOR>Y ( 
,BAYLE'S1 ?\< HE WAS NOT A PHILOSOPH] :O CREAT$ HIS [N PHILOSOPHICAL 
SY/EM1 NEV]!LESS DID P]HAPS EV5 MORE ?AN ,BAYLE TO PREP>E 9 ,FRANCE ! 
GR\ND = ! ELABORATION ( A MORALITY 9DEP5D5T ( RELIGION4 ,?IS HE 
ACCOMPLI%$ ?R\< ! 9FLU5CE ( HIS BOOK1 0,MAXIMES40 ,LA ,RO*EF\CAULD WAS A 
MAN ( ! WORLD1 CON/ANTLY MOV+ 9 ! HI<E/ SOCIETY4 ,AS A KE5 
PSY*OLOGI/ & AN ATT5TIVE OBS]V] HE CLE>LY SAW ! EMPT9ESS ( ! UPP] 
LAY] ( ,FR5* SOCIETY ( HIS TIME1 ITS HYPOCRISY & ITS VANITY4 ,HE SAW ?AT 9 
! F9AL ANALYSIS ! PEOPLE ( HIS CIRCLE W]E GUID$ SOLELY BY ! DESIRE ( 
P]SONAL GA9 OR P]SONAL ADVANTAGE4 ,TO ,LA ,RO*EF\CAULD IT WAS APP>5T ?AT 
=MAL RELIGION DOES NOT RE/RA9 M5 FROM IMMORAL ACTS1 & HE PA9T$ 9 D>K 
COLORS ! LIFE ( HIS CONTEMPOR>IES4 ,ON ! BASIS ( HIS OBS]VATIONS ( ?IS 
LIFE HE CAME TO ! CONCLUSION ?AT EGOISM IS ! SOLE MOTIVE P[] ( HUMAN 
ACTIVITY1 & ?IS ?\<T UND]LIES HIS BOOK4 ,MAN1 ACCORD+ TO ,LA ,RO*EF\CAULD1 LOVES ONLY HIMSELF2 EV5 9 O!RS HE LOVES ONLY HIMSELF4 ,ALL HUMAN 
PASSIONS & ATTA*M5TS >E M]ELY V>IATIONS ( ?9LY DISGUIS$ EGOISM4 ,LA 
,RO*EF\CAULD EXPLA9$ BY EGOI/IC MOTIVES  
EV5 ! BE/ FEEL+S ( MAN3 9 BRAV]Y & C\RAGE HE SAW A MANIFE/ATION ( 
VANITY1 9 G5]OSITY ! MANIFE/ATION ( PRIDE1 9 L>GESSE M]E AMBITION1 9 
MODE/Y-HYPOCRISY1 ETC4 ,H[EV]1 9 SPITE ( HIS PESSIMISM1 ,LA ,RO*EF\CAULD 
GREATLY AID$ ! AWAK5+ ( CRITICAL ?\<T 9 ,FRANCE2 & HIS BOOK1 
0,MAXIMES10 & ! WORK ( HIS CONTEMPOR>Y1 ,LA ,BRUY@&EGRAV]E1 0,C>ACT@&EGRAV]ES10 W]E ! 
FAVORITE & ! MO/ WIDELY DI/RIBUT$ BOOKS 9 ,FRANCE AT ! 5D ( ! 
SEV5TE5? & ! BEG9N+ ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY4#g 

,LA ,BRUY@&EGRAV]E WAS LESS 
PESSIMI/IC ?AN ,LA ,RO*EF\CAULD1 ?\< HE1 TOO1 DEPICTS M5 AS UNJU/ & 
UNGRATEFUL1-PITILESS EGOI/S BY NATURE4 ,LA ,BRUY@&EGRAV]E ?\<T1 H[EV]1 ?AT !Y 
DES]VE CLEM5CY1 BECAUSE !Y >E MADE EVIL BY ! EVIL CONDITIONS ( LIFE2 MAN 
IS UN=TUNATE RA!R ?AN CORRUPT4 

,H[EV]1 NEI!R ,BAYLE1 NOR ,LA ,RO*EF\CAULD1 
NOR ,LA ,BRUY@&EGRAV]E1 ?\< !Y D5I$ RELIGI\S MORALITY1 WAS ABLE TO EVOLVE AN 
E?ICAL SY/EM BAS$ ON PURELY NATURAL LAWS4 ,?IS TASK WAS ATTEMPT$ SOME:AT 
LAT] BY ,LA ,METTRIE1 ,HELV@&EACUTETIUS1 & ,HOLBA*4 

,LA ,METTRIE WAS ONE ( ! MO/ 
REBELLI\S M9DS ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY2 9 HIS WRIT+S HE DECL>$ W> UPON 
ALL METAPHYSICAL1 RELIGI\S1 & POLITICAL TRADITIONS1 & LIKE ,HOBBES1 HE 
PROCE$$ TO ELABORATE A MAT]IALI/IC COSMOLOGY ) ! SAME D>+ ?AT M>K$ 
ITS DEVELOPM5T 9 \R TIME1 9 ! 'FIFTIES & ! 'SIXTIES ( ! N9ETE5? 
C5TURY4 ,9 HIS WORKS1 0,HI/OIRE NATURELLE DE ,I'@&ACIRCME HUMA9E10 
,L'HOMME-PLANTE10 0,L'HOMME MA*9E10 HE D5I$ ! IMMORTALITY ( ! S\L & 
ADVOCAT$ MAT]IALI/IC IDEAS4#h ,! V]Y TITLES ( HIS BOOKS1 ESPECIALLY 
0,MAN-,MA*9E10 :I* APPE>$ 9 ,P>IS 9 #a#g#d#h1 %[ H[ HE 9T]PRET$ HUMAN 
NATURE4 0,\R S\L10 WROTE ,LA ,METTRIE1 0RECEIVES EV]Y?+ FROM FEEL+ & S5SATIONS1 & 
NATURE CONTA9S NO?+ BEYOND MATT] SUBJECT$ TO ME*ANICAL LAWS40 ,= HIS 
IDEAS ,LA ,METTRIE WAS EXIL$ FROM ,FRANCE1 & HIS BOOK1 0,MAN-,MA*9E10 WAS BURN$ 
BY AN EXECUTION] 9 ,P>IS4 ,SIMULTANE\SLY ) ,LA ,METTRIE1 MAT]IALI/IC 
PHILOSOPHY WAS EXP\ND$ BY ,CONDILLAC 7#a#g#a#e-#a#g#h71 :O DEVELOP$ HIS IDEAS 9 TWO 
WORKS3 0,TREATISE ON ! ,ORIG9 ( ,HUMAN ,KN[L$GE0 7#a#g#d#f71 & 0,TREATISE ON 
,S5SATIONS0 7#a#g#e#d74#i 

,! EI<TE5? C5TURY WAS A REM>KABLE P]IOD 9 ! 
HI/ORY ( ! DEVELOPM5T ( MANK9D4 ,A SUCCESSION ( ?9K]S1 :O BECAME 
PROM95T 9 ,5GL& & 9 ,FRANCE1 REBUILT COMPLETELY ! V]Y BASES = \R 
?9K+1-= \R \TLOOK BO? ON ! EXT]NAL UNIV]SE & 9 \R UND]/&+ 
( \RSELVES & \R MORAL CONCEPTIONS4 ,! ,FR5* PHILOSOPH]1 ,CLAUDE 
,HELV@&EACUTETIUS1 ATTEMPT$1 9 ! MIDDLE ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY1 TO SUM UP !SE 
CONQUE/S ( SCI5TIFIC ?\<T 9 HIS FAM\S BOOK 0,ON ! ,9TELLECT40#a ,9 ?IS 
BOOK ,HELV@&EACUTETIUS EXP\ND$ 9 A CLE>LY UND]/&ABLE & VIVID =M ALL ! 
SCI5TIFIC A*IEVEM5TS ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY & ( ! 5D ( ! 
SEV5TE5?1 ESPECIALLY 9 ! FIELD ( MORALITY4 

,AT ! REQUE/ ( ! ,P>ISIAN 
CL]GY1 ,HELV@&EACUTETIUS' BOOK WAS BURN$ 9 #a#g#e#i1 :I* DID NOT PREV5T IT FROM 
5JOY+ A /ILL GREAT] SUCCESS4 ,! ESS5TIAL FEATURES ( ,HELV@&EACUTETIUS' IDEAS >E 
AS FOLL[S3 MAN IS A 0S5SUAL0 ANIMAL1 & AT ! BASIS ( HUMAN NATURE LIE ! 
S5SATIONS1 FROM :I* RESULT ALL ! =MS ( HUMAN ACTIVITY1 DIRECT$ BY 
PLEASURE OR SUFF]+4 ,!RE=E1 ! HI<E/ MORAL LAW LIES 9 FOLL[+ 
PLEASURE & AVOID+ PA92 !SE TWO 5ABLE US TO JUDGE ! PROP]TIES ( ?+S 
& ! ACTIONS ( O!RS4 ,WE CALL ! PLEASANT & ! USEFUL-VIRTUE1 & ITS 
OPPOSITE WE CALL VISE4 ,9 HIS NOBLE/ & MO/ DIS9T]E/$ ACTS MAN IS BUT 
SEEK+ PLEASURE1 
& HE P]=MS !SE ACTS :5 ! PLEASURE :I* !Y AF=D EXCE$S ! 
SUFF]+ :I* !Y MAY POSSIBLY 5TAIL4 ,9 ! TASK ( DEVELOP+ MORAL 
*>ACT] ,HELV@&EACUTETIUS ASCRIB$ GREAT IMPORTANCE TO $UCATION1 :I* MU/ AIM TO 
MAKE MAN REALIZE ! FACT ?AT \R P]SONAL 9T]E/S CONSI/ 9 !IR BL5D+ 
) ! 9T]E/S ( O!RS4 

,HELV@&EACUTETIUS' PHILOSOPHY & HIS VIEWS MET ) GREAT 
SUCCESS1 & EX]CIS$ A /RONG 9FLU5CE UPON ,FR5* SOCIETY BY PREP>+ ! 
GR\ND = ! IDEAS ( ! ,5CYCLOP@&AELIGDI/S1 :O >OSE 9 ,FRANCE 9 ! SECOND 
HALF ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY4 

,9 HIS WRIT+S ,HOLBA* FOLL[$ ! TR5D ( ! 
PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS ( ,LA ,METTRIE & ,HELV@&EACUTETIUS4 ,HE EXP\ND$ HIS IDEAS ON 
MORALITY 9 HIS BOOK 0,! ,SOCIAL ,SY/EM10 :I* APPE>$ 9 #a#g#g#c4 ,?IS BOOK WAS 
CONDEMN$ BY ! ,FR5* ,P>LIAM5T 9 #a#g#g#f4 

,HO,IBA* 5DEAVOR$ TO GR\ND E?ICS 
ON A PURELY NATURALI/IC BASIS1 )\T ANY METAPHYSICAL ASSUMPTIONS4 ,HE 
MA9TA9$ ?AT MAN IS ALWAYS /RIV+ = HAPP9ESS3 HIS V]Y NATURE URGES HIM 
TO AVOID SUFF]+ & TO SEEK PLEASURE4 ,9 HIS SE>* = HAPP9ESS MAN IS 
GUID$ BY ,REASON1 I4E41 BY ! KN[L$GE ( TRUE HAPP9ESS & ( ! MEANS = 
ITS ATTA9M5T4#a#a ,JU/ICE CONSI/S 9 P]MITT+ MAN TO AVAIL HIMSELF1 OR 9 NOT 
9T]F]+ ) HIS AVAIL+ HIMSELF1 ( HIS ABILITIES1 HIS RI<TS1 & ( 
EV]Y?+ NECESS>Y = LIFE & HAPP9ES4#a#b 

,HOLBA*'S IDEAS W]E %>$ BY 
MO/ ( ! ,FR5* ,5CYCLOP@&AELIGDI/S1 :O W]E ON V]Y FRI5DLY T]MS ) 
,HOLBA*4 ,HIS SALON 9 ,P>IS WAS ! GA!R+ PLACE = ! MO/ PROM95T 
?9K]S ( ?AT TIME3 ,DID]OT1 D',ALEMB]T1 ,GRIMM1 ,R\SSEAU1 ,M>MONTEL1 & 
O!RS4 ,?R\< !M ,HOLBA*'S IDEAS RECEIV$ FUR!R DEVELOPM5T & BECAME 
ONE ( ! FUNDAM5TAL ELEM5TS 9 ! PHILOSOPHIC SY/EM ( ! 
,5CYCLOP@&AELIGDI/S4#a#c 

,! ,5CYCLOP@&AELIGDI/S & !IR PHILOSOPHY >E ! PR9CIPAL & 
! MO/ *>ACT]I/IC EXPRESSION ( ! SPIRIT ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY4 ,! 
,5CYCLOP@&AELIGDIA SUMS UP ALL ! A*IEVEM5TS ( MANK9D 9 ! REALM ( SCI5CE 
& POLITICS UP TO ! 5D ( ?AT P]IOD4 ,IT CON/ITUTES A REAL MONUM5T ( ! 
SCI5TIFIC ?\<T ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY1 = IT WAS PRODUC$ BY ! 
COLLABORATION ( ALL ! LIB]ALLY M9D$1 NOTABLE M5 ( ,FRANCE2 & !Y 
EVOLV$ ?AT SPIRIT ( DE/RUCTIVE CRITICISM :I* LAT] S]V$ TO 9SPIRE ! 
BE/ M5 ( ! ,GREAT ,REVOLUTION4 

,AS IS KN[N1 ! 9ITIATORS & ! 9SPIR]S 
( ! ,5CYCLOP@&AELIGDIA W]E ! PHILOSOPH]S ,DID]OT 7#a#g#a#c-#a#g#h#d7 & D',ALEMB]T 
7#a#g#a#g-#a#g#h#c74 ,! ,5CYCLOP@&AELIGDI/S AIM$ AT ! LIB]ATION ( ! HUMAN M9D 
?R\< KN[L$GE2 !Y TOOK A HO/ILE ATTITUDE T[>D ! GOV]NM5T & T[>D 
ALL ! TRADITIONAL IDEAS UPON :I* ! OLD SOCIAL ORD] RE/$4 ,NO WOND]1 
!RE=E1 ?AT BO? ! GOV]NM5T & ! CL]GY1 FROM ! V]Y \TSET1 
DECL>$ W> AGA9/ ! ,5CYCLOP@&AELIGDI/S & PUT MANY OB/ACLES 9 ! WAY ( ! 
,5CYCLOP@&AELIGDIA4 

,! E?ICS ( ! ,5CYCLOP@&AELIGDI/S WAS1 ( C\RSE1 9 ACCORD ) 
! IDEAS PREVAL5T AT ?AT TIME 9 ,FRANCE4 ,ITS BASIC PR9CIPLES MAY BE /AT$ AS 
FOLL[S3 MAN /RIVES = HAPP9ESS1 & = ITS ATTA9M5T M5 COMB9E 9TO 
SOCIETIES2 ALL M5 HAVE EQUAL RI<TS TO HAPP9ESS1 & CONSEQU5TLY TO ! MEANS 
( REA*+ ?IS HAPP9ESS2 !RE=E1 ! JU/ IS ID5TIFI$ ) ! USEFUL4 
,MISUND]/&+S ?AT >ISE FROM CONFLICTS BETWE5 V>I\S RI<TS %\LD BE 
ADJU/$ BY ! LAWS1 :I* >E ! EXPRESSION ( ! COMMON WILL & :I* MU/ 
SANCTIFY ONLY ?AT :I* IS USEFUL = ! HAPP9ESS ( ALL4 ,! SAME G5]AL 
T5D5CY WAS FOLL[$ BY ,ABB@&EACUTE ,RAYNAL 7#a#g#a#c-#a#g#i#f71 :OSE WORK1 0,HI/ORY ( ! 
,SETTLEM5TS & ,TRADE ( ! ,EUROPEANS 9 ! ,9DIES10 WAS WRITT5 SO MU* 9 
! SPIRIT ( ! ,5CYCLOP@&AELIGDIA ?AT BY MANY IT WAS ASCRIB$ TO ,DID]OT4 ,IT WAS 
WRITT5 9 SU* AN ATTRACTIVE /YLE ?AT IT W5T ?R\< SEV]AL $ITIONS 9 A 
%ORT TIME4 ,9 ?AT BOOK ! 0NATURAL /ATE0 ( ! SAVAGES WAS DEPICT$ 9 TRUE 
COLORS1 & ! TRU? WAS REE/ABLI%$ AS TO ! REAL NATURE ( PRIMITIVE M51 
:OM ,CA?OLIC MISSION>IES HAD BE5 9 ! HABIT ( PA9T+ 9 ! D>KE/ 
COLORS AS ! IMPS ( HELL4 ,MOREOV]1 ,RAYNAL W>MLY ADVOCAT$ ! NECESSITY ( 
! LIB]ATION ( ! NEGROES1 SO ?AT HIS BOOK WAS LAT] NICKNAM$ 0,! ,BIBLE ( 
! ,NEGROES40 #ad 

,! SAME HUMANIT>IAN & SCI5TIFIC SPIRIT MANIFE/$ ITSELF 
ALSO 9 ! WRIT+S ( ! ,ITALIAN1 ,BECC>IA 7#a#g#c#h-#a#g#i#d74 ,HE CAME \T AGA9/ 
CRUELTY1 & ADVOCAT$ ! ABOLITION ( TORTURE & EXECUTIONS4 ,HE PREA*$ 9 
,ITALY ! IDEAS ( ! ,FR5* ,5CYCLOP@&AELIGDI/S1 & 9 #agfd HE WROTE 0,DEI DELITTI 
E DELLE P5E0 7,ON ,CRIMES & ,PUNI%M5T74#a#e ,! BOOK WAS AT ONCE TRANSLAT$ 9TO 
,FR5* BY ,&R@&EACUTE ,MORELLET2 & ,VOLTAIRE1 ,DID]OT1 & ,HELV@&EACUTETIUS WROTE ADDITIONS 
TO IT4 ,BECC>IA PROV$ 9 HIS BOOK ?AT ! H>% PUNI%M5TS !N PRACTIC$ 9 
,EUROPE NOT ONLY FAIL TO ]ADICATE CRIME1 BUT1 ON ! CONTR>Y1 MAKE ! G5]AL 
MODE ( LIFE MORE SAVAGE & CRUEL4 ,HE ADVOCAT$ ! 5LI<T5M5T ( ! MASSES 
AS A WAY TO PREV5T CRIME4 

,AT ! 5D ( ! SEV5TE5? & ! BEG9N+ ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY !RE 
APPE>$ 9 ,FRANCE NUM]\S 0,UTOPIAS10 I4E41 ATTEMPTS TO PICTURE AN IDEAL HUMAN 
SOCIETY BAS$ ON REASON4 ,ALL !SE ,UTOPIAS W]E BAS$ ON FAI? 9 ! P[] ( 
,REASON1 & ON ! FAI? ?AT MORALITY IS ! 9H]5T PROP]TY ( HUMAN NATURE4 
,! MO/ REM>KABLE ( ALL ! ,FR5* WRIT]S :O PRODUC$ SU* ,UTOPIAS WAS ,ABB@&EACUTE 
,MORELLY4 ,9 #agec HE PUBLI%$ A COMMUNI/IC NOVEL1 0,NAUFRAGE DES @&ICIRCLES 
FLOTTANTES10 #af :]E HE ATTEMPTS TO PROVE ?AT PEOPLES MAY ATTA9 ! HAPPY LIFE 
NOT ?R\< POLITICAL RE=MS BUT ?R\< CON=MITY ) ! LAWS ( NATURE4 
,MORELLY 
DEVELOP$ HIS COMMUNI/IC IDEAS MORE 9 DETAIL 9 HIS WORK 0,CODE DE LA ,NATURE3 \ 
LE V@&EACUT]ITABLE ESPRIT DE SES LOIX0 7,P>IS1 #a#g#e#e74 ,9 ?IS WORK ,MORELLY DESCRIBES 9 
DETAIL ! COMMUNI/IC /RUCTURE ( SOCIETY1 :]E NO?+ CAN BE ! PROP]TY ( 
AN 9DIVIDUAL1 EXCEPT ! OBJECTS ( DAILY USE4 

,MORELLY'S BOOKS EX]CIS$ A 
MI<TY 9FLU5CE 9 ! PR]EVOLUTION>Y P]IOD1 & = A LONG TIME S]V$ AS 
A MODEL = ALL ! PLANS ( REORGANIZATION ( SOCIETY ALONG COMMUNI/IC 
PR9CIPLES4 ,!SE BOOKS1 MO/ LIKELY1 9SPIR$ ,MABLY 7#a#g#i-#a#g#h#e71 :O1 9 HIS 
WORKS 0,5TRETI5S DE ,PHOCION SUR LE RAPPORT DE LA MORALE AVEC LA POLITIQUE10 
7#a#g#f#c7 & 0,LE ,DROIT ET LES DEVOIRS DU CITOY510 #ag ADVOCAT$ COMMUNISM & 
COMMUNITY ( PROP]TY 7COMMUNIT@&EACUTE DES BI5S74 ,ACCORD+ TO ,MABLY1 GRE$ IS ! 
MA9 OB/ACLE 9 ! ROAD ( MANK9D TO A HAPPY & MORAL LIFE4 ,IT IS NECESS>Y1 
!RE=E1 TO DE/ROY FIR/ ( ALL ?IS 0ET]NAL 5EMY ( EQUALITY0 & TO 
CREATE A SOCIAL SY/EM :]E NO ONE W\LD HAVE A MOTIVE TO SEEK HAPP9ESS 9 
AUGM5T+ HIS MAT]IAL WELF>E4 ,LAT] !SE IDEAS 9SPIR$ ,GRAC*US ,BABEUF1 :O1 
TOGE!R ) HIS FRI5DS ,BUON>ROTI & ,SYLVA9 ,M>@&EACUTE*AL1 =M$ ! 
0CONSPIRACY ( ! ,EQUALS10 = :I* ,BABEUF WAS EXECUT$ 9 #a#g#i#g4#a#h 

,SIDE BY SIDE 
) ! ,UTOPIAN CRITIQUE ( ! COMMUNI/S1 9 ! MIDDLE ( ! EI<TE5? 
C5TURY1 ! PHYSIOCRATS1 HEAD$ BY ,QUESNAY #ai 7#a#f#i#d-#a#g#g#d71 UND]TOOK A PURELY 
SCI5TIFIC SCRUT9Y ( CONTEMPOR>Y SOCIETY1 & = ! FIR/ TIME PO9T$ \T 
! FUNDAM5TAL FAULT ( ! SOCIAL SY/EM1-! DIVISION ( SCICIETY 9TO 
! PRODUC+ CLASS & 9TO ! P>ASITIC PROPRIETOR CLASS4 ,!Y ALSO RAIS$ = 
! FIR/ TIME ! QUE/ION ( ! NATIONALIZATION ( L&4 ,! NE$ ( SOCIAL 
REORGANIZATION WAS BE+ FELT MORE & MORE URG5TLY 9 ,FRANCE1 & 9 ! MIDDLE 
( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY ,B>ON ,MONTESQUIEU1 ! GREATE/ ?9K] ( HIS TIME1 
CAME1 =? ) HIS CRITIQUE ( ! OLD ORD]4 

,MONTESQUIEU'S FIR/ WORK1 9 
:I* HE SUBJECT$ DESPOTISM & ! SOCIAL SY/EM 9 G5]AL TO CRITICAL 
EXAM9ATION1 WAS ! 0,P]SIAN1 ,LETT]S40 ,9 #agdh HE PUBLI%$ HIS PR9CIPAL 
WORK1 0,! ,SPIRIT ( ,LAWS10 :I* IS ONE ( ! REM>KABLE PRODUCTIONS ( ?AT 
EPO*4 ,9 HIS BOOK1 0,! ,SPIRIT ( ,LAWS10 ,MONTESQUIEU 9TRODUC$ A NEW 
9T]PRETATION ( HUMAN SOCIETY & ITS USAGES & LAWS1 :I* HE REG>D$ AS 
NATURAL RESULTS ( TNE DEVELOPM5T ( SOCIAL LIFE UND] DIFF]+ CONDITIONS4 

,?IS WORK ( ,MONTESQUIEU'S EX]CIS$ A VA/ 9FLU5CE UPON ALL ! ?9K]S ( 
! SECOND HALF ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY & 9SPIR$ MANY 9VE/IGATIONS 9 ! 
SAME DIRECTION 9 ! BEG9N+ ( ! N9ETE5?4 ,ESPECIALLY IMPORTANT 9 
,MONTESQUIEU'S REM>KABLE WORK WAS ! APPLICATION ( ! 9DUCTIVE ME?OD TO ! 
QUE/ION ( ! DEVELOPM5T ( SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS1-9 ! /RICT S5SE 9 :I* 
,BACON UND]/OOD ! ME?OD2 SOME ( HIS [N F9D+S W]E ( NO LITTLE 
IMPORTANCE = HIS TIME4 ,HIS CRITIQUE ( ! MON>*ICAL P[]1 HIS PREVISION ( 
! PEACEFUL MODE ( LIFE 9 PROPORTION AS ! 9DU/RIAL =M ( ! SOCIAL 
SY/EM DEVELOPS1 HIS CRUSADE AGA9/ CRUEL PUNI%M5T = CIVIL CRIMES1 ETC41 
BECAME ! WAT*WORD ( ALL ! LIB]AL MOVEM5TS ( ,EUROPE4 

,! 9FLU5CE EX]T$ BY ,MONTESQUIEU ON ! ?\<T ( HIS TIME WAS F>-REA*+1-BUT 
BY ITS /YLE & MANN] ( PRES5TATION BOOK WAS ACCESSIBLE ONLY TO $UCAT$ 
PEOPLE4 ,MONTESQUIEU C\LD NOT1 OR P]HAPS SIMPLY W\LD NOT1 WRITE = ! POPUL> 
MASSES4 ,SPECIAL QUALITIES >E NECESS>Y = ?IS PURPOSE3 MA9LY A /YLE ?AT 
COMM&S ! ATT5TION ( ! M9D & ?AT MAKES CLE> ALL IDEAS EXP\ND$4 
,!SE QUALITIES W]E POSSESS$ 9 A HI< DEGREE BY ! TWO PHILOSOPH]S ( ?AT 
TIME3 ,VOLTAIRE & ,JEAN ,JACQUES ,R\SSEAU1 :O ?US BECAME ! TWO ?9K]S ?AT 
PREP>$ ,FRANCE = ! ,GREAT ,REVOLUTION & WIELD$ A POT5T 9FLU5CE UPON ?AT 
REVOLUTION4 

,VOLTAIRE WAS A MAN ( EXCEPTIONAL GIFTS ( 9TELLECT4 ,HE WAS 
NOT A PHILOSOPH] 9 ! N>R[ S5SE ( ! WORD1 BUT HE UTILIZ$ PHILOSOPHY AS 
A /RONG WEAPON AGA9/ PREJUDICE & SUP]/ITION4 ,HE WAS NOT A MORALI/ 9 ! 
TRUE S5SE ( ! WORD2 HIS E?ICAL TEA*+S >E NOT DEEP1 BUT !Y W]E1 
NEV]!LESS1 HO/ILE TO ALL ASCETIC & METAPHYSICAL EXAGG]ATIONS4 ,VOLTAIRE HAD 
NO E?ICAL SY/EM ( HIS [N1 BUT BY HIS WORKS HE AID$ CONSID]ABLY ! 
/R5G!N+ 9 E?ICS ( HUMANIT>IANISM1 ( RESPECT = HUMAN P]SONALITY4 ,9 
ALL HIS WRIT+S ,VOLTAIRE BRAVELY DEM&$ FRE$OM ( CONSCI5CE1 ! ABOLITION 
( ! ,9QUISITION1 ( TORTURES1 EXECUTION1 ETC4 ,VOLTAIRE SPREAD WIDELY IDEAS ( 
CIVIC EQUITY & CIVIC LAW1 :I* ! ,REVOLUTION LAT] 5DEAVOR$ TO APPLY TO 
LIFE4 #b 

,/IMULTANE\SLY ) ,VOLTAIRE ! PHILOSOPH]1 ,JEAN-,JACQUES 
,R\SSEAU1 EX]T$ A /RONG 9FLU5CE UPON ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION4 ,R\SSEAU WAS A 
MAN ( 5TIRELY DIFF]5T *>ACT] FROM ,VOLTAIRE'S2 HE CAME =W>D ) AN 
ATTACK ON ! CONTEMPOR>Y SOCIAL SY/EM1 & CALL$ M5 TO A SIMPLE & NATURAL 
LIFE4 ,HE TAU<T ?AT MAN IS GOOD & K9D ( NATURE1 BUT ?AT ALL EVIL COMES FROM 
CIVILIZATION4 ,R\SSEAU EXPLA9$ MORAL T5D5CIES BY ! DESIRE = 
SELF-ADVANCEM5T1 PROP]LY UND]/OOD1 BUT AT ! SAME TIME HE HELD AS ! GOAL 
( DEVELOPM5T ! HI<E/ SOCIAL IDEALS4 ,HE SAW ! />T+ PO9T ( EV]Y 
RATIONAL SOCIAL SY/EM 9 EQUITY 70ALL M5 >E BORN EQUAL07 & HE UPHELD ?IS 
PR9CIPLE SO PASSIONATELY1 SO ALLUR+LY1 SO CONV9C+LY ?AT HIS WRIT+S 
EX]T$ A TREM5D\S 9FLU5CE NOT ONLY 9 ,FRANCE1 :]E ! ,REVOLUTION WROTE ON 
ITS BANN] 0,LIB]TY1 ,EQUALITY1 ,FRAT]NITY10 BUT ?R\<\T ,EUROPE AS WELL4 ,G5]ALLY 
SPEAK+1 ,R\SSEAU APPE>S 9 ALL HIS WORKS AS ! PHILOSOPH] ( FEEL+1 9 
:I* HE SEES ! VITAL =CE CAPABLE ( CORRECT+ ALL DEFECTS & ( DO+ 
GREAT DE$S4 ,HE IS ! 5?USIA/ & ! POET ( HI< IDEALS1 ! 9SPIR] ( 
! RI<TS ( A CITIZ5 & ( A MAN4 

,SPEAK+ ( ! ,FR5* PHILOSOPHY ( ! 
SECOND HALF ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY WE CANNOT FAIL TO M5TION H]E TWO MORE 
?9K]S1 :O W]E ! FIR/ TO =MULATE ! IDEA ( PROGRESS1 ! IDEA :I* 
HAS PLAY$ A GREAT P>T 9 ! DEVELOPM5T ( MOD]N MORAL PHILOSOPHY4 ,!SE TWO 
?9K]S >E ,TURGOT & ,CONDORCET4 

,TURGOT 7#a#g#b#g-#a#g#h#a7 WAS ! FIR/ TO DEVELOP 
! IDEA ( HUMAN PROGRESS 9TO A COMPLETE TEA*+ 9 HIS WORK1 0,DISC\RSE ON 
,UNIV]SAL ,HI/ORY40 #ba ,TURGOT =MULAT$ ! LAW ( PROGRESS AS FOLL[S3 0,! 
HUMAN RACE1 :ILE GRADUALLY PASS+ FROM QUIESC5CE TO ACTIVITY1 SL[LY BUT 
UNSW]V+LY MOVES T[>D GREAT] & GREAT] P]FECTION1 :I* CONSI/S 9 
S9C]ITY 9 ?\<T1 K9DL9ESS 9 CU/OMS1 & JU/ICE 9 LAWS40 

,CONDORCET 
7#a#g#d#c-#a#g#i#d71 :O FELL A VICTIM ( ! ,T]ROR1 9 #a#g#i#d1 GAVE A FUR!R DEVELOPM5T 
( ! IDEA ( PROGRESS 9 HIS FAM\S WORK1 0,TABLEAU DES PROGR@&EGRAVES DE #a'ESPRIT 
HUMA940 #bb ,HE NOT ONLY 5DEAVOR$ TO PROVE ! EXI/5CE ( ! LAW ( 
PROGRESS1 BUT HE ALSO ATTEMPT$ TO D]IVE ! LAWS ( FUTURE SOCIAL DEVELOPM5T 
FROM ! PA/ HI/ORY ( MANK9D4 ,CONDORCET ASS]T$ ?AT PROGRESS CONSI/S 
9 /RIV+ = ! ABOLITION ( SOCIAL 9EQUALITIES AMONG CITIZ5S4 ,HE PR$ICT$ 
?AT 9 ! FUTURE M5 WILL LE>N TO UNITE P]SONAL 5DS ) ! COMMON 
9T]E/S1 & ?AT MORALITY ITSELF WILL BECOME A NATURAL NE$ ( MAN4 

,ALL !SE 
TEA*+S & IDEAS 9FLU5C$ 9 ONE WAY OR ANO!R ! GREAT SOCIAL MOVEM5T 
:I* IT IS CU/OM>Y TO CALL ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION4 ,?IS REVOLUTION1 AS WE HAVE 
SE51 HAD ALREADY TAK5 
PLACE 9 ! M9DS ( PEOPLE T[>D ! 5D ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY2 & NEW1 
D>+ IDEAS1 9SPIR$ BY ! S5SE ( HUMAN DIGNITY1 SWEPT LIKE A TURBUL5T 
/REAM OV] SOCIETY1 DE/ROY+ ! ANTIQUAT$ 9/ITUTIONS & PREJUDICES4 ,! 
,REVOLUTION BROKE UP ! LA/ REMNANTS ( ! FEUDAL SY/EM1 BUT ! NEW 
9/ITUTIONS CREAT$ BY ! ,REVOLUTION W]E ! FRUIT ( ! PHILOSOPHICAL 
MOVEM5T :I* BEGAN 9 ,5GL& & F\ND ITS CONSUMMATION 9 ,FRANCE4 ,! FAM\S 
0,DECL>ATION ( ,RI<TS ( ,MAN & ,CITIZ5S1 PROCLAIM$ BY ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 
IS COMPOS$ ( ! IDEAS DEVELOP$ 9 ! WRIT+S ( ,MONTESQUIEU1 ,VOLTAIRE1 
,R\SSEAU1 & ,CONDORCET4 ,ITS FUNDAM5TAL PR9CIPLES >E3 ALL M5 >E BORN FREE 
& EQUAL2 ALL HAVE EQUAL RI<T TO 5JOY LIFE & LIB]TY2 ALL HAVE EQUAL RI<T 
= ! DEVELOPM5T ( !IR NATURAL P[]S & ABILITIES2 ALL HAVE A RI<T TO 
RELIGI\S FRE$OM & FRE$OM ( CONSCI5CE4 ,9 ALL !SE PR9CIPLES WE SEE 9 A 
CLE> & CONCISE =M ! IDEAS ( ,HOBBES & ,LOCKE AS DEVELOP$ BY ! ,FR5* 
?9K]S & PHILOSOPH]S4 ,! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION LEFT TO FUTURE G5]ATIONS ! 
REALIZATION ( ?IS PROGRAM4 

,! IDEAS ( ,BACON & ,LOCKE W]E BRILLIANTLY 
DEVELOP$ 9 ,5GL& 9 ! SECOND HALF ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY BY A GREAT 
?9K] & PHILOSOPH]1 ,DAVID ,HUME1 :O HAD ! MO/ 9DEP5D5T M9D ( ! 
EI<TE5? C5TURY4 ,HUME GAVE ! NEW PHILOSOPHY A SOLID BASIS3 HE APPLI$ IT TO 
ALL REGIONS ( KN[L$GE1 AS ,BACON WI%$ IT1 & !REBY EX]T$ /RONG 9FLU5CE 
UPON ALL SUBSEQU5T ?9K+4 ,HUME BEGAN BY /RICTLY DIVID+ MORALITY FROM 
RELIGION2 HE D5I$ ! 9FLU5CE1 9 ! EVOLUTION ( MORAL CONCEPTIONS1 ?AT 
WAS ASCRIB$ TO RELIGION BY HIS ,5GLI% & ,SCOT* PR$ECESSORS1 EXCEPT 
,%AFTESBURY4 ,HE HIMSELF TOOK ! SAME SKEPTICAL ATTITUDE AS ,BAYLE1 AL?\< HE 
MADE SOME CONCESSIONS 9 HIS 0,DIALOGUES CONC]N+ ,NATURAL ,RELIGION40 #bc 

,9 DEVELOP+ ! IDEAS ( ,BACON & ,BAYLE1 ,HUME WROTE ?AT 
M5 ( 9DEP5D5T TYPE WILL EVOLVE !IR [N MORAL CONCEPTIONS1 BUT 09 EV]Y 
RELIGION1 H[EV] SUBLIME ! V]BAL DEF9ITION :I* IT GIVES ( ITS DIV9ITY1 
MANY ( ! VOT>IES1 P]HAPS ! GREATE/ NUMB]1 WILL /ILL SEEK ! DIV9E 
FAVOR1 NOT BY VIRTUE & GOOD MORALS1 :I* ALONE CAN BE ACCEPTABLE TO A P]FECT 
BE+1 BUT EI!R BY FRIVOL\S OBS]VANCES1 BY 9TEMP]ATE ZEAL1 BY RAPTUR\S 
EC/ASIES1 OR BY ! BELIEF ( MY/]I\S & ABSURD OP9IONS40 #bd 

,HUME 
FREQU5TLY SPEAKS ( ! 0,SUPREME ,CREATOR10 BUT IT WAS NOT TO HIM ?AT HE 
ASCRIB$ ! S\RCE ( MORAL JUDGM5TS 9 MAN3 0,NO?+ CAN PRES]VE UNTA9T$ 
! G5U9E PR9CIPLES ( MORALS 9 \R JUDGM5T ( HUMAN CONDUCT1 BUT ! 
ABSOLUTE NECESSITY ( !SE PR9CIPLES TO ! EXI/5CE ( SOCIETY40 7,IBID41 
,SECT4 XIII1 P4 #d#d#c47 

,! E?ICAL P>T ( ,HUME'S PHILOSOPHY REPRES5TS1 ( C\RSE1 
ONLY A SPECIAL CASE ( HIS G5]AL VIEW ON ! ORIG9 ( KN[L$GE 9 MAN3 0,ALL 
! MAT]IALS ( ?9K+ >E D]IV$ EI!R FROM \R \TW>D OR 9W>D 
S5TIM5T10 & ALL \R CONCEPTIONS ORIG9ATE FROM IMPRESSIONS & FROM IDEAS #be 
?AT >E ! PRODUCT ( MEMORY1 IMAG9ATION1 & ?\<T4#b#f ,! BASES ( ALL 
KN[L$GE RE/ ON NATURAL SCI5CE1 & ITS ME?ODS %\LD BE ADOPT$ 9 O!R 
SCI5CES4 ,ONLY1 IT MU/ BE REMEMB]$ ?AT 9 \R /UDY ( ! 0LAWS0 ( ! 
PHYSICAL WORLD WE ALWAYS PROCE$ ?R\< SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATIONS40 

,AS REG>DS 
MORALITY1 ,HUME PO9T$ \T ?AT !RE HAVE BE5 CONT9UAL DISPUTES AS TO :]E 
ITS BASES >E TO BE S\<T3 9 REASON1 OR 9 S5TIM5T8 ,DO WE >RIVE AT MORALITY 
?R\< A *A9 ( REASON+ PROCESSES1 OR DIRECT ?R\< FEEL+ & 9TUITION8 
,>E ! FUNDAM5TAL PR9CIPLES ( MORALITY ID5TICAL = ALL ?9K+ CREATURES1 
OR1 LIKE4JUDGM5TS ON BEAUTY & UGL9ESS1 DO !Y DIFF] AMONG DIFF]5T 
PEOPLES1 ?US BECOM+ ! PRODUCT ( ! HI/ORICAL DEVELOPM5T ( MAN8 ,! 
ANCI5T PHILOSOPH]S1 ?\< !Y (T5 
AFFIRM$ ?AT MORALITY IS NO?+ BUT CON=MITY TO REASON1 /ILL MORE (T5 
D]IV$ IT FROM TA/E & S5TIM5T4 ,MOD]N ?9K]S1 H[EV]1 >E MORE 9CL9$ 
TO FAVOR REASON1 & !Y D]IVE MORALITY FROM ! MO/ AB/RACT PR9CIPLES4 
,BUT IT IS V]Y LIKELY ?AT \R F9AL JUDGM5T 9 MORAL QUE/IONS1-?AT :I* 
MAKES MORALITY AN ACTIVE FACTOR 9 \R LIFE1-IS DET]M9$ BY 0SOME 9T]NAL 
S5SE OR FEEL+1 :I* NATURE HAS MADE UNIV]SAL 9 ! :OLE SPECIES40 ,BUT 9 
ORD] TO PAVE ! WAY = SU* A S5TIM5T1 IT MU/ BE PREC$$ BY MU* 
PRELIM9>Y ?9K+1 BY CORRECT CONCLUSIONS1 KE5 ANALYSIS ( COMPLEX RELATIONS1 
& ! E/ABLI%M5T ( G5]AL FACTS-9 %ORT1 BY ! EF=T ( REASON4 #bg ,9 
O!R WORDS1 \R MORAL CONCEPTIONS >E ! PRODUCT ( BO? \R FEEL+S & \R 
REASON1-& ( !IR NATURAL DEVELOPM5T 9 ! LIFE ( HUMAN SOCIETIES4 

,A /RIV+ = ! G5]AL GOOD IS ! DI/+UI%+ FEATURE ( EV]Y ACT :I* WE 
CALL MORAL1 & MORAL DUTY MEANS BE+ GUID$ BY ! CONSID]ATIONS ( ! 
G5]AL GOOD4 ,HUME DID NOT D5Y ! DESIRE = P]SONAL HAPP9ESS 9 ?IS 
/RIV+ = ! COMMON WELF>E1 BUT HE ALSO UND]/OOD ?AT MORAL FEEL+ 
CANNOT BE EXPLA9$ BY EGOI/IC MOTIVES ALONE1 AS1 = EXAMPLE1 ,HOBBES EXPLA9$ 
IT4 ,9 ADDITION TO ! DESIRE = P]SONAL GOOD HE RECOGNIZ$ AS FUR!R S\RCES ( 
MORALITY1 SYMPA?Y1 ! CONCEPTION ( JU/ICE1 & ! FEEL+ ( B5EVOL5CE4 ,BUT 
HE 9T]PRET$ JU/ICE NOT AS CONSCI\SNESS ( SOME?+ OBLIGATORY1 EVOLV+ 9 
\R M9D 9 ! C\RSE ( SOCIAL LIFE1 BUT RA!R AS VIRTUE1 AS A =M ( *>ITY4 
,!N1 FOLL[+ ,%AFTESBURY1 HE PO9T$ \T ! FEEL+ ( H>MONY & COMPLET5ESS  
9H]5T 9 MORAL *>ACT]1 ! DESIRE = SELF-IMPROVEM5T1 ! POSSIBILITY 
( A FULL DEVELOPM5T ( HUMAN NATURE1 & ! ES!TIC EMOTION ( BEAUTY1 
RESULT+ FROM ! FULLE/ DEVELOPM5T ( P]SONALITY1-! IDEA :I*1 AS IS 
KN[N1 WAS LONG AFT] DEVELOP$ SO ADMIRABLY BY ,M4 ,GUYAU4 

,! SECOND P>T ( 
,HUME'S TREATISE IS DEVOT$ TO B5EVOL5CE3 9 ?IS HE PO9T$ \T AMONG O!R 
?+S ?AT \R LANGUAGE CONTA9S  
V]Y MANY WORDS :I* PROVE ?AT MUTUAL B5EVOL5CE HAS ! G5]AL APPROVAL 
( MANK9D4 ,!N1 9 DISCUSS+ JU/ICE 9 ! NEXT P>T ( HIS BOOK1 ,HUME MAKES 
AN 9T]E/+ REM>K CONC]N+ IT4 ,?AT JU/ICE IS USEFUL TO SOCIETY & IS 
!RE=E RESPECT$-IS CLE>4 ,BUT SU* A CONSID]ATION CAN NOT POSSIBLY BE ! SOLE 
S\RCE ( ?IS RESPECT4 ,JU/ICE HAS PROV$ TO BE NECESS>Y4 

,EV]Y MANN] ( SOCIAL 
VIRTUE W\LD FL\RI% 9 A SOCIETY SUPPLI$ ABUNDANTLY ) EV]Y?+1 )\T 
NE$ ( LABOR1 BUT UND] SU* CONDITIONS !RE W\LD BE NO ?\<T ( SO 
CAUTI\S1 JEAL\S A VIRTUE AS JU/ICE4 7,IBID41 ,SECT4 III1 P>T ,I1 P4 #b#b#b47 
,BECAUSE ( ?IS FACT1 EV5 N[ ?OSE ?+S ?AT >E AVAILABLE 9 ABUNDANCE >E 
[N$ 9 COMMON4 ,SIMIL>LY1 IF \R REASON1 FRI5D%IP1 G5]OSITY1 W]E /RONGLY 
DEVELOP$-!RE W\LD BE NO NE$ ( JU/ICE4 0,:Y %\LD ,I B9D ANO!R BY A DE$ 
OR PROMISE1 :5 ,I KN[ ?AT HE IS ALREADY PROMPT$ BY ! /RONGE/ 9CL9ATION 
TO SEEK MY HAPP9ESS8 4 4 4 ,:Y RAISE L&M>KS BETWE5 MY NEI<BOR'S FIELD & 
M9E80 ETC4 7P4 #b#b#c47 ,9 G5]AL1 ! MORE MUTUAL B5EVOL5CE1 ! LESS NE$ ( 
JU/ICE4 ,BUT S9CE HUMAN SOCIETY 9 REALITY PRES5TS A MIDDLE /ATE1 F> REMOV$ 
FROM ! IDEAL1 MAN NE$S ! CONCEPTION ( PROP]TY2 HE ALSO NE$S JU/ICE4 
,:5CE IT IS CLE>LY SE5 ?AT ! IDEA ( JU/ICE PRES5T$ ITSELF TO ,HUME 
*IEFLY UND] ! GUISE ( SQU>E DEAL+ 9 ORD] TO PROTECT ! RI<TS ( 
PROP]TY1 & NOT AT ALL 9 ! BROAD] S5SE ( EQUITY4 ,HE WROTE3 0,?US ! 
RULES ( EQUITY OR JU/ICE DEP5D 5TIRELY ON ! P>TICUL> /ATE & CONDITION 
9 :I* M5 >E PLAC$1 & [E !IR ORIG9 & EXI/5CE TO ?AT ,UTILITY1 
:I* RESULTS TO ! PUBLIC FROM !IR /RICT & REGUL> OBS]VANCE40 7P4 #b#b#f47 

,HUME1 ( C\RSE1 DID NOT BELIEVE 9 ! EXI/5CE ( ! 0,GOLD5 ,AGE10 NOR 9 ! 
LIKELIHOOD ( A P]IOD :5 MAN L$ A SOLIT>Y EXI/5CE4 ,SOCIETY ALWAYS EXI/$1 
& IF M5 HAD LIV$ ISOLAT$ LIVES1 !Y W\LD NEV] HAVE DEVELOP$ ! 
CONCEPTION ( JU/ICE1 OR EVOLV$ RULES ( CONDUCT4 7PP4 #b#b#g-#b#b#h47 ,ACCORD+ TO 
,HUME ! S5SE ( JU/ICE MAY HAVE ORIG9AT$ EI!R FROM REFLECT+ AB\T ! 
MUTUAL RELATIONS ( M51 OR FROM !  
NATURAL 9/9CT 0:I* NATURE HAS IMPLANT$ 9 US = SALUT>Y PURPOSES40 7P4 
#b#c#h47 ,BUT ! SECOND SUPPOSITION MU/ OBVI\SLY BE REJECT$4 ,! UNIV]SAL 
*>ACT] ( ! CONCEPTION ( JU/ICE %[S ?AT IT WAS ! 9EVITABLE \TCOME 
( SOCIAL LIFE ITSELF4 ,SOCIETY C\LD NOT EXI/ )\T ?IS CONCEPTION4 ,WE MU/1 
!RE=E1 ACKN[L$GE ?AT 0! NECESSITY ( JU/ICE TO ! SUPPORT ( SOCIETY IS 
! SOLE F\NDATION ( ?AT VIRTUE40 ,ITS UNQUE/IONABLE USEFULNESS EXPLA9S ITS 
G5]AL DI/RIBUTION1 & BESIDES1 IT IS 0! S\RCE ( A CONSID]ABLE P>T ( ! 
M]IT ASCRIB$ TO HUMANITY1 B5EVOL5CE1 FRI5D%IP1 PUBLIC SPIRIT1 & O!R 
SOCIAL VIRTUES4 7,IBID4 ,SECT4 III1 P>T II1 P4 #b#d#a47 

,HUME ASCRIB$ TO SELF-LOVE AN 
IMPORTANT P>T 9 ! EVOLUTION MORAL USAGES & CONCEPTIONS1 & HE UND]/OOD 
:Y SOME PHILOSOPH]S F\ND IT CONV5I5T TO REG>D ALL CONC]N = ! WELF>E 
( SOCIETY SIMPLY AS A MODIFICATION ( P]SONAL 9T]E/4 ,BUT !RE >E MANY CASES 
9 :I* ! MORAL FEEL+ IS PRES]V$ EV5 :5 P]SONAL 9T]E/S DO NOT 
CO9CIDE ) ! SOCIAL2 !RE=E1 9 CIT+ A NUMB] ( SU* EXAMPLES1 ,HUME 
DEF9ITELY CONCLUDES3 0WE MU/ R5\NCE ! !ORY :I* ACC\NTS = EV]Y MORAL 
S5TIM5T BY ! PR9CIPLE ( SELF-LOVE40 7,SECT4 V1 P>T II1 P4 #b#e#f47 0,! S5TIM5TS 
:I* >ISE FROM HUMANITY1 >E ! SAME 9 ALL HUMAN CREATURES1 & PRODUCE ! 
SAME APPROBATION OR C5SURE40 7,SEC IX1 P>T I1 P4 #c#a47 

,& S9CE !RE IS NO MAN 
:O WI%ES TO DES]VE ! CONDEMNATION ( O!RS1 ,HUME MA9TA9$ ?AT FAI? 9 
,GOD CANNOT BE ! S\RCE ( MORALITY1 = RELIGI\SNESS DOES NOT MAKE M5 MORAL4 ,MANY 
RELIGI\S PEOPLE1 P]HAPS EV5 ! MAJORITY1 AIM TO DES]VE 0DIV9E FAVOR0 NOT BY 
VIRTUE & BY A MORAL LIFE1 BUT BY P]=M+ MEAN+LESS RITES1 OR BY EXALT$ 
FAI? 9 MY/ICAL SACRAM5TS4 #bh 

,:ILE NOT %>+ ! VIEWS ( ,HOBBES ?AT 9 ANCI5T TIMES M5 
LIV$ 9 P]PETUAL /RIFE ) ONE ANO!R1 ,HUME WAS F> FROM SEE+ 9 HUMAN 
NATURE NO?+ BUT ELEM5TS ( GOOD4 ,HE RECOGNIZ$ ?AT MAN IS GUID$ 9 HIS 
ACTIONS BY SELF-LOVE1 BUT HE CLAIM$ ?AT MAN ALSO DEVELOPS A S5SE ( DUTY T[>D 
O!RS4 

,:5 MAN REASONS CALMLY AB\T ?OSE ( HIS ACTS ?AT W]E PROMPT$ BY 
V>I\S IMPRESSIONS1 IMPULSES1 OR PASSIONS1 HE FEELS A DESIRE TO BE 5D[$ ) 
C]TA9 QUALITIES1 & ?US ! S5SE ( DUTY COMES TO BIR? )9 HIM4 ,ON ?IS 
PO9T1 !RE=E1 ,HUME AGRE$ ) ,SP9OZA4 ,BUT 9 HIS ANALYSIS ( ! ORIG9 ( 
! MORAL JUDGM5TS ( \R ACTIONS1 9/EAD ( RECOGNIZ+ !IR TWO-FOLD 
S\RCE-FROM FEEL+ & FROM REASON-,HUME VACILLAT$ BETWE5 !M1-FAVOR+ N[ 
ONE & N[ ! O!R4 ,HE EV5 RAIS$ ! QUE/ION AS TO AN 9T]M$IATE FACULTY 
BETWE5 REASON & FEEL+1 & F9ALLY EXPRESS$ HIMSELF 9 FAVOR ( FEEL+4 
,LIKE ,%AFTESBURY & ,HUT*ESON1 HE EVID5TLY ASSIGN$ TO REASON ONLY ! 
PREP>ATION ( JUDGM5TS & ! CONSID]ATION ( FACTS4 ,BUT ! DECISIVE V]DICT 
BELONGS TO FEEL+1 AFT] :I* ! TASK ( REASON IS TO 
ELABORATE G5]AL RULES4 #bi 

,HUME ASCRIB$ A SPECIAL IMPORTANCE TO SYMPA?Y4 ,IT S(T5S \R 
N>R[LY SELFI% T5D5CIES1 &1 TOGE!R ) ! G5]AL1 NATURAL B5EVOL5CE 
( MAN1 OV]COMES !M4 ,?US1 EV5 IF CONSID]ATIONS ( ! UTILITY ( ?IS OR 
?AT WAY ( ACT+ EX]CISE A C]TA9 9FLU5CE1 IT IS NOT UPON !M ?AT ! 
F9AL DECISION 9 MORAL QUE/IONS RE/S4 ,ADAM ,SMI?1 AS IS KN[N1 LAT] 
DEVELOP$ ?IS CONCEPTION ( SYMPA?Y & ASCRIB$ TO IT ! PRIM>Y IMPORTANCE 
9 ! EVOLUTION ( MORAL PR9CIPLES4 

,MO/ 9T]E/+ IS ,HUME'S ATTITUDE TO ! 
CONCEPTION ( JU/ICE4 ,HE C]TA9LY C\LD NOT OV]LOOK ITS 9FLU5CE & HE 
RECOGNIZ$ ! SIGNIFICANCE ( JU/ICE 9 ! DEVELOPM5T ( MORAL CONCEPTIONS4 
,BUT EI!R BECAUSE HE DID NOT V5TURE TO ASCRIBE A PREPOND]ANCE TO REASON 9 ITS 
/RUGGLE ) FEEL+1 OR BECAUSE HE UND]/OOD ?AT 9 ! F9AL ANALYSIS 
JU/ICE IS ! RECOGNITION ( ! EQUALITY ( ALL ! MEMB]S ( SOCIETY1-! 
V]Y PR9CIPLE ?AT WAS NOT RECOGNIZ$ BY ! LAWS1-,HUME =BORE TO BREAK AS 
%>PLY ) ! EXI/+ LAWS AS HE HAD ALREADY BROK5 ) RELIGION4#c  
,ACCORD+LY1 HE REMOV$ JU/ICE FROM ! REALM ( E?ICS & PICTUR$ IT AS 
SOME?+ ?AT DEVELOPS 9DEP5D5TLY 9 SOCIETY1 AS ! RESULT ( REGULATIONS 
IMPOS$ BY ! ,/ATE4 

,9 ?IS QUE/ION ,HUME APP>5TLY FOLL[$ ,HOBBES1 :O1 
AFT] HAV+ PO9T$ \T ?AT >BITR>9ESS 7OR1 MORE CORRECTLY1 ! 9T]E/S 
( ! RUL+ CLASSES7 HAS ALWAYS PREVAIL$ 9 ! REALM ( LAWMAK+1 COMPLETELY 
REMOV$ ,LAW FROM ! REALM ( MORALITY AS SOME?+ 5TIRELY UNCONNECT$ ) IT4 
,H[EV]1 ON ?IS PO9T TOO1 AS ON ! QUE/ION ( ! P>T PLAY$ BY FEEL+ & 
REASON 9 ! EVOLUTION ( MORAL PR9CIPLES1 ,HUME DID NOT >RIVE AT A DEF9ITE 
CONCLUSION1 SO ?AT ?OSE :O HAVE WRITT5 ON HIS PHILOSOPHY DIFF] 9 !IR 
9T]PRETATIONS4 #ca ,9 G5]AL1 ,HUME DID NOT (F] A SY/EMATIC EXPLANATION ( 
! MORAL CONCEPTIONS1 & DID NOT CREATE 
A NEW1 WELL-ORGANIZ$ SY/EM ( ,E?ICS4 ,BUT NOT CONT5T ) /]EOTYP$ 
EXPLANATIONS1 HE SO C>EFULLY &1 9 SPOTS1 SO BRILLIANTLY ANALYZ$ ! MOTIVES 
( MAN 9 ! 9F9ITE V>IETY ( HIS ACTIONS1-HE ASCRIB$ SO SLI<T AN 
9FLU5CE BO? TO RELIGION & TO EGOISM1 AS WELL AS TO CONSID]ATIONS ( ! 
UTILITY ( \R ACTS1 ?AT HE COMPELL$ LAT] WRIT]S TO ?9K !SE PROBLEMS OV] 
MORE ?OR\<LY ?AN HAD HI!RTO BE5 DONE4 ,HE PREP>$ ! GR\ND = ! 
SCI5TIFIC1 NATURALI/IC EXPLANATION ( ! MORAL ELEM5T1 BUT AT ! SAME TIME1 
AS SOME ( HIS 9T]PRET]S HAVE PO9T$ \T1 HE ALSO PREP>$ ! GR\ND = ! 
OPPOSITE1 NON-RATIONAL1 ,KANTIAN EXPLANATIONS4 ,! 9FLU5CE ,HUME EX]CIS$ UPON 
! SUBSEQU5T DEVELOPM5T ( ,E?ICS WILL BE DET]M9$ AS WE ADVANCE 9 \R 
DISCUSSION4 

,ONE ( ! PROM95T CONT9UATORS ( ,HUME 9 ,5GL& WAS ,ADAM ,SMI?1 
:OSE WORK1 0,! ,!ORY ( ,MORAL ,S5TIM5T10 APPE>$ 9 #agei & W5T ?R\< 
T5 $ITIONS 9 ! EI<TE5? C5TURY4 ,LAT] ,SMI? BECAME P>TICUL>LY FAM\S AS 
! AU?OR ( A S]I\S SCI5TIFIC RESE>* 9 ,ECONOMICS1#c#b & HIS WORK 9 ! 
FIELD ( ,E?ICS HAS BE5 FREQU5TLY OV]LOOK$4 ,BUT HIS 9VE/IGATION ( ! 
MORAL S5TIM5TS WAS A NEW & A CONSID]ABLE /EP =W>D1 = IT EXPLA9$ 
MORALITY ON A PURELY NATURAL BASIS1 AS AN 9H]5T QUALITY ( HUMAN NATURE & 
NOT AS A REVELATION FROM ABOVE1 & AT ! SAME TIME IT DID NOT REG>D MORALITY 
AS DEP5D5T ON MAN'S CONSID]ATIONS ( ! UTILITY ( ?IS OR ?AT ATTITUDE 
T[>D HIS FELL[ M54 

,! *IEF MOTIVE =CE 9 ! DEVELOPM5T ( MORAL 
CONCEPTIONS ,SMI? SAW 9 ,SYMPA?Y1 I4E41 9 ! FEEL+ 9H]5T 9 MAN AS A 
SOCIAL BE+4 ,:5 WE APPROVE C]TA9 ACTS & DISAPPROVE ( O!RS WE >E GUID$ 
NOT BY CONSID]ATIONS ( ! SOCIAL B5EFIT OR H>M1 AS ! UTILIT>IANS 
ASS]T$1 BUT WE >E CONSCI\S ( H[ !SE ACTIONS W\LD REACT UPON \RSELVES1 
& !RE >ISES 9 US1 !RE=E1 ! AGREEM5T OR DISAGREEM5T ( \R [N 
FEEL+S ) ! 
FEEL+S ?AT PROMPT$ !SE ACTIONS4 ,:5 WE WITNESS ! MIS]Y ( O!RS WE >E 
CAPABLE ( LIV+ ?R\< IT )9 \RSELVES1 & WE CALL ?IS FEEL+ 
CO-MIS]ATION2 NOT 9FREQU5TLY WE RU% TO ! AID ( ! SUFF]+ OR ( ! 
WRONG$4 ,& SIMIL>LY1 :5 WITNESS+ ! JOY ( O!RS WE \RSELVES 
EXP]I5CE A JOY\S EMOTION4 ,WE FEEL DISSATISFI$ & DISPLEAS$ :5 WE SEE EVIL 
BE+ DONE TO ANO!R1 & WE FEEL GRATITUDE AT ! SI<T ( GOOD4 ,?IS IS A 
QUALITY ( HUMAN NATURE2 IT HAS DEVELOP$ FROM SOCIAL LIFE1 & NOT AT ALL FROM 
REASON+ AB\T ! H>M OR ! SOCIAL UTILITY ( ?IS OR ?AT ACT1 AS ! 
UTILIT>IANS ASS]T$1 & ,HUME ) !M4 ,WE SIMPLY LIVE ?R\< ) O!RS 
:AT !Y !MSELVES EXP]I5CE1 & 9 CONDEMN+ ONE :O HAS CAUS$ SUFF]+ 
TO ANO!R1 WE LAT] APPLY ! SAME CONDEMNATION TO \RSELVES IF WE BR+ SORR[ 
TO A FELL[-MAN4 ,?US1 LITTLE BY LITTLE1 \R MORALITY WAS EVOLV$4#c#c 

,?US ,ADAM ,SMI? REJECT$ ! SUP]NATURAL ORIG9 ( MORALITY & GAVE IT A NATURAL 
EXPLANATION1 & AT ! SAME TIME HE %[$ H[ ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS ( MAN CAN 
DEVELOP ASIDE FROM CONSID]ATIONS ( ! UTILITY ( ?IS OR ?AT TYPE ( MUTUAL 
RELATIONS1-!SE CONSID]ATIONS HAV+ BE51 HI!RTO1 ! ONLY WAY TO ACC\NT 
= ! MORAL ELEM5T 9 MAN 0)\T DIV9E REVELATION40 ,MOREOV]1 ,SMI? DID 
NOT RE/ CONT5T ) ! G5]AL 9DICATION ( ?IS ORIG9 ( ! MORAL 
S5TIM5TS4 ,ON ! CONTR>Y1 HE DEVOT$ ! GREATE/ P>T ( HIS WORK TO AN 
ANALYSIS ( ! MANN] ( DEVELOPM5T ( V>I\S MORAL CONCEPTIONS1 TAK+ 9 
EA* CASE AS ! />T+ PO9T ! EMOTION ( SYMPA?Y1 REG>DLESS ( ALL 
O!R CONSID]ATIONS4 ,AT ! 5D ( HIS WORK HE EXPLA9$ H[ ALL RELIGIONS1 
FROM ! V]Y />T1 TOOK UPON !MSELVES AS A MATT] ( C\RSE ! PROTECTION 
& ! SUPPORT ( USEFUL MANN]S & CU/OMS4 

,IT W\LD APPE> ?AT HAV+ 
>RIV$ AT SU* AN UND]/&+ ( MORALITY1 ,SMI? W\LD HAVE TO RECOGNIZE AS 
! BASIS ( ! MORAL 
NOT ONLY ! FEEL+ ( SYMPA?Y1 :I* DEVELOPS 9 SOCIAL LIFE & :I* 
ACTUALLY LEADS TO MORAL JUDGM5TS1 BUT ALSO A C]TA9 M5TAL MAKE-UP1 :I* IS 
! \TCOME ( ! SAME SOCIALITY & :I* TAKES ! =M ( JU/ICE1 I4E41 ! 
RECOGNITION ( EQUITY AMONG ALL ! MEMB]S ( SOCIETY4 ,BUT :ILE ADMITT+ ! 
P>TICIPATION ( BO? REASON & FEEL+ 9 ! ELABORATION ( MORAL JUDGM5TS1 
,SMI? DID NOT DRAW ANY L9E ( DEM>CATION BETWE5 !M4 

,BESIDES1 IT IS ALSO 
POSSIBLE ?AT AT ! TIME ,SMI? WROTE HIS TREATISE1 I4E41 LONG BE=E ! ,FR5* 
,REVOLUTION1 ! CONCEPTION ( EQUITY WAS /ILL ALI5 TO HIM4 ,!RE=E1 ?\< HE 
ASCRIB$ GREAT IMPORTANCE TO ! VALUE ( JU/ICE 9 \R MORAL JUDGM5TS1 HE 
NEV]!LESS UND]/OOD JU/ICE MA9LY 9 ! JUDICIAL S5SE-9 ! S5SE ( 
COMP5SATION TO ! WRONG$ & PUNI%M5T = ! (F5D]4 ,! S5SE ( 
9DIGNATION :I* WE EXP]I5CE AT SEE+ SOMEONE WRONG$ HE ASCRIB$ TO :AT HE 
CALL$ ! NATURAL DESIRE = RETRIBUTION & PUNI%M5T2 & HE CONSID]$ 
?IS DESIRE ONE ( ! BASES ( SOCIALITY4 ,HE ADD$1 ( C\RSE1 ?AT ONLY HURTFUL 
ACTS1 PROMPT$ BY UNWOR?Y MOTIVES1 DES]VE PUNI%M5T4#c#d ,BUT HE DID NOT UTT] A 
WORD AB\T ! EQUALITY ( M51#c#e &1 9 G5]AL1 HE WROTE AB\T JUDICIAL 
JU/ICE1 & NOT AB\T ?AT JU/ICE :I* \R M9D SEEKS1 REG>DLESS ( C\RTS 
& !IR V]DICTS4#c#f ,BUT [+ TO ?IS LIMITATION WE LOSE SI<T ( SOCIAL 
9JU/ICE1-CLASS 9JU/ICE :I* IS UPHELD BY ! C\RTS1-DUE TO :I* FACT 
SOCIETY1 BY NOT PROTE/+ AGA9/ IT1 GIVES IT SUPPORT4 

,AS A RULE1 ! PAGES DEVOT$ BY ,SMI? TO ! SUBJECT ( ,JU/ICES #cg 
PRODUCE ! IMPRESSION AS ( SOME?+ LEFT UNSAID4 ,IT IS EQUALLY IMPOSSIBLE TO 
DET]M9E :AT P>T 9 ! DEVELOPM5T ( MORALITY ,SMI? ASCRIB$ TO FEEL+ & 
:AT P>T TO REASON4 ,BUT ONE ?+ /&S \T CLE>LY3 ?AT ,SMI? UND]/OOD ! 
MORAL ELEM5T 9 MAN NOT AS SOME?+ MY/]I\S1 9NATE1 OR AS A REVELATION FROM 
)\T1 BUT AS A PRODUCT ( SOCIALITY1 SL[LY EVOLV+ 9 MANK9D1 ORIG9AT+ 
NOT 9 CONSID]ATIONS ( ! UTILITY OR H>MFULNESS ( V>I\S TRAITS ( 
*>ACT]1 BUT AS ! 9EVITABLE CONSEQU5CE ( EV]Y MAN'S SYMPA?Y ) ! 
JOYS & SORR[S ( HIS FELL[ MAN4 

,SMI? DEVOT$ A FEW ADMIRABLE *APT]S 
.<P>TICUL>LY ,*AP4 III1 ( P>T ,I,I,I1.> :I* TO ?IS DAY HAVE NOT LO/ !IR 
FRE%NESS & BEAUTY1 TO ! ANALYSIS ( ! NATURAL DEVELOPM5T 9 MAN ( 
CONSCI5CE1 ! 0IMP>TIAL SPECTATOR0 )9 US1 & ) IT ( LOVE = DIGNITY 
( *>ACT] & = MORAL BEAUTY4 ,HIS EXAMPLES >E TAK5 FROM ACTUAL LIFE 
7SOMETIMES FROM CLASSICAL LIT]ATURE7 & >E FULL ( 9T]E/ TO EV]Y ONE :O 
?\<TFULLY CONSID]S ! MORAL QUE/IONS1 & SEEKS /R5G?1 NOT 9 
REVELATIONS FROM ABOVE1 BUT 9 HIS [N FEEL+S & REASON4 ,9 READ+ !SE 
PAGES1 H[EV]1 ONE REGRETS ?AT ,SMI? DID NOT CONSID] FROM ! SAME PO9T ( 
VIEW MAN'S ATTITUDE TO V>I\S PROBLEMS ( ! SOCIAL SY/EM1 SO MU* MORE ?AT 
AT ! TIME :5 HE WROTE1 !SE QUE/IONS W]E ALREADY AGITAT+ SOCIETY2 & 
! DAY WAS APPROA*+ :5 !SE PROBLEMS W]E TO BE BR\<T =W>D 9 ! 
=M ( A DEM& = SOCIAL JU/ICE4 #* 

,AS WE HAVE SE51 ,SMI? (F]$ ONLY ONE EXPLANATION ( \R SYMPA!TIC ATTITUDE 
T[>D C]TA9 ACTS1 & \R ATTITUDE ( CONDEMNATION T[>D O!RS4 ,IT WAS HIS 
IDEA ?AT WE M5TALLY APPLY !SE ACTS TO \RSELVES & PICTURE \RSELVES 9 ! 
CONDITION ( ! SUFF]]4 

,IT W\LD SEEM ?AT 9 ASSUM+ ?IS M5TAL 
SUB/ITUTION ( ONE-SELF = ! ONE :O IS BE+ WRONG$1 ,SMI? %\LD HAVE 
NOTIC$ ?AT :AT REALLY TAKES PLACE 9 ONE'S M9D AT ! TIME IS ! RECOGNITION 
( EQUITY4 ,IF ,I PUT MYSELF M5TALLY 9 ! PLACE ( ! WRONG$ ONE1 ,I !REBY 
RECOGNIZE \R EQUALITY1 & \R EQUAL CAPACITY TO FEEL ! 9JURY4 ,BUT ,SMI? 
CONCEIVES NO?+ ( ! K9D4 ,HE FAIL$ TO 9CLUDE 9 SYMPA?Y ! ELEM5T ( 
EQUITY & JU/ICE4 ,9 G5]AL1 AS ,JODL REM>K$1 HE EV5 AVOID$ GIV+ AN 
OBJECTIVE BASIS TO ! MORAL JUDGM5T4 ,BESIDES1 ,SMI? COMPLETELY OV]LOOK$ ! 
NECESSITY ( PO9T+ \T ! CONT9U\S DEVELOPM5T ( ! MORAL S5TIM5T 9 
MAN4 ,( C\RSE1 HE CANNOT BE BLAM$ = NOT HAV+ >RIV$ AT ! IDEA ( ! 
GRADUAL ZO@&\MLLOGICAL EVOLUTION ( MAN1 TO :I* WE W]E BR\<T 9 ! N9ETE5? 
C5TURY BY ! /UDY ( EVOLUTION 9 NATURE4 ,BUT HE OV]LOOK$ ! LESSONS 9 
GOODNESS :I* PRIMITIVE MAN WAS ABLE TO D]IVE FROM NATURE1 FROM ! LIFE ( 
ANIMAL SOCIETIES1 & :I* W]E ALREADY H9T$ AT BY ,GROTIUS & ,SP9OZA4 ,WE 
MU/ FILL 9 ?IS OMISSION & PO9T \T ?AT SO IMPORTANT A FACT 9 ! DEVELOPM5T ( MORALITY AS 
SYMPA?Y1 DOES NOT CON/ITUTE A DI/+UI%+ FEATURE ( 
MAN3 IT IS 9H]5T 9 ! VA/ MAJORITY ( LIV+ CREATURES1 & IT HAD ALREADY 
BE5 DEVELOP$ BY ALL ! GREG>I\S & SOCIAL 
ANIMALS4 ,SYMPA?Y IS A FUNDAM5TAL FACT ( NATURE1 & WE MEET IT 9 ALL H]D 
ANIMALS & 9 ALL BIRDS NE/+ 9 COMMON4 ,9 BO? CASES ! /RONGE/ 
9DIVIDUALS RU% =W>D TO DRIVE AWAY ! 5EMY1 BE IT BEA/ OR BIRD ( PREY4 
,& AMONG BIRDS WE HAVE ! 9/ANCE ( A BIRD ( ONE SPECIES PICK+ UP ! 
FL$GL+S ( SOME O!R SPECIES1 :5 !Y FELL \T ( ! NE/4 ,?IS FACT1 AS 
IS KN[N1 GREATLY DELI<T$ OLD ,GOE! :5 HE FIR/ LE>N$ ( IT FROM 
,ECK]MANN4 

,SMI?'S 5TIRE WORK ON MORALITY AIMS TO %[ ?AT1 AS ! RESULT ( 
MAN'S V]Y NATURE1 MORALITY HAD TO DEVELOP 9 HIM4 ,9 %[+ H[ ! 
DEVELOPM5T ( *>ACT] WAS 9FLU5C$ BY ! RULES ( MUTUALITY & MORALITY 
EVOLV$ BY MANK9D1 ,SMI? SPOKE AS A TRUE NATURALI/ 9 ! REALM ( ?\<T4 ,9 
PO9T+ \T C]TA9 T5D5CIES ?AT MAY SW]VE MAN FROM ! MORAL ATTITUDE 
T[>D O!RS1 HE ADD$ ?AT \R NATURE CONTA9S 9 ITSELF A CORRECTIVE FACTOR 
= ?IS DEFECT4 ,OBS]V+ CONT9UALLY ! CONDUCT ( O!RS WE >RIVE AT C]TA9 
RULES AS TO :AT TO DO & :AT NOT TO DO4 ,?US !RE TAKES PLACE ! SOCIAL 
$UCATION ( *>ACT]I/ICS1 & ?US ! G5]AL RULES ( MORALITY >E =M$4 
7,P>T ,I,I,I1 *4 ,I,V1 PP4 #b#b#a-#b#b#h47 ,BUT IMM$IATELY AFT]1 9 ! NEXT *APT]1 HE 
ALREADY ASS]TS ?AT ! RULES ( LIFE ?AT W]E EVOLV$ 9 ?IS MANN] >E 
JU/LY REG>D$ AS ,DIV9E ,LAWS4 0,! REG>D TO ?OSE G5]AL RULES ( CONDUCT IS 
:AT IS PROP]LY CALL$ A S5SE ( DUTY1 A PR9CIPLE ( ! GREATE/ CONSEQU5CE 
9 HUMAN LIFE1 & ! ONLY PR9CIPLE BY :I* ! BULK ( MANK9D >E CAPABLE ( 
DIRECT+ !IR ACTIONS40 ,& HE ADDS1-0,IT CANNOT BE D\BT$ ?AT !Y .<! MORAL 
RULES.> W]E GIV5 US = ! DIRECTION ( \R CONDUCT 9 ?IS LIFE40 7,P>T ,I,I,I1 
*4 ,V1 P4 #b#c#c47 

,!SE REM>KS ( ,SMI? %[ TO :AT AN EXT5T HE WAS /ILL B\ND 
BY HIS TIME1 & H[ DIFFICULT IT WAS1 EV5 = A V]Y BRILLIANT & BOLD 
?9K]1 TO ANALYZE ! SUBJECT ( ! ORIG9 ( MORALITY BE=E M5 HAD BECOME 
FAMILI> ) ! FACT ( ! REVOLUTION ( SOCIAL =MS1 AS WELL AS ! 
JUDGM5TS AB\T !SE =MS & ! ATTITUDE ( ! 9DIVIDUAL T[>D !M4 

,SMI? DID NOT LIMIT HIMSELF TO ! EXPLANATION ( ! ORIG9 ( MORALITY4 ,HE 
ANALYZ$ MANY FACTS ( EV]YDAY LIFE 9 ORD] TO DEMON/RATE ! TRUE NATURE ( 
! MORAL ATTITUDE ( M5 9 !IR ORD9>Y RELATIONS4 ,& 9 ?IS RESPECT HIS 
ATTITUDE WAS ! SAME AS ?AT ( ! ,/OICS ( ,ANCI5T ,GREECE & ,ROME1 
ESPECIALLY ( ,S5ECA & ,EPICTETUS4 ,HE REG>D$ SYMPA?Y AS ! GUID+ & ! 
DECID+ EMOTION 9 ! EVOLUTION ( MORALITY1 OV]LOOK+ ! IMPORTANCE ( 
REASON 9 QUE/IONS ( JU/ICE & EQUITY4 ,IT IS TRUE HE HAS A FEW EXCELL5T 
REM>KS ON JU/ICE1#c#i BUT HE DOES NOT 9DICATE ANY:]E ITS FUNDAM5TAL 
SIGNIFICANCE 9 ! ELABORATION ( MORAL CONCEPTIONS4 ,HE CONC5TRAT$ ATT5TION 
ON ! S5SE ( DUTY4 ,& ON ?IS PO9T HE WAS 9 COMPLETE ACCORD ) !  
,/OICS-ESPECIALLY ,EPICTETUS & ,M>CUS ,AURELIUS4 

,G5]ALLY SPEAK+1 ,ADAM ,SMI? PLAC$ 
E?ICS ON A REALI/IC BASIS & %[$ ?AT ! MORAL S5TIM5TS ( MAN 
ORIG9AT$ FROM SYMPA?Y ) O!R M51 UNAVOIDABLE 9 SOCIAL LIFE1 & ?AT 
LAT]1 ! $UCATION ( SOCIETY WAS C>RI$ ON 9 ?IS MANN] & ! G5]AL 
RULES ( MORALITY EVOLV$4 ,HE DEMON/RAT$ H[ !SE RULES F\ND SUPPORT 9 ! 
COMMON AGREEM5T ( M51 & H[ AT PRES5T WE TURN TO !M 9 CASE ( D\BT1 AS 
TO ! BASES ( \R JUDGM5TS4 

,BY ?IS VIEW ,SMI? UND\BT$LY PREP>$ ! GR\ND 
= ! UND]/&+ ( MORALITY AS ! NATURAL PRODUCT ( SOCIAL LIFE3 ?IS 
MORALITY DEVELOP$ SL[LY 9 MAN FROM ! TIME ( MAN'S MO/ PRIMITIVE /ATE1 & 
HAS CONT9U$ 9 ! SAME DIRECTION UP TO ! PRES5T1-ALWAYS )\T NE$ ( 
EXT]NAL AU?ORITY = ITS FUR!R PROGRESS4 ,?IS WAS1 9DE$1 ! PA? FOLL[$ 
BY MORAL PHILOSOPHY 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY4 

,9 SUMM+ UP1 WE MU/ NOTE ?AT 
9 ALL ! MORAL TEA*+S ?AT ORIG9AT$ & DEVELOP$ 9 ! SEV5TE5? & 
! EI<TE5?  
C5TURY1 /RIV+ TO EXPLA9 ! ORIG9 ( MORALITY 9 A PURELY SCI5TIFIC1 
NATURALI/IC WAY1 IT IS ! 9FLU5CE ( ! ,EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY ?AT /&S 
\T4 ,ALMO/ ALL ! =EMO/ REPRES5TATIVES ( PHILOSOPHY1 ESPECIALLY 9 ! 
EI<TE5? C5TURY1 W]E ! FOLL[]S ( ! ,EPICUREAN TEA*+4 ,BUT1 :ILE 
RE/+ ON ! PHILOSOPHY ( ,EPICURUS1 ! E?ICAL DOCTR9ES ( ! NEW TIME 
DIVID$ 9TO TWO DIFF]5T CURR5TS4 ,! CURR5TS W]E UNIT$ ONLY BY ! FACT 
?AT !Y BO? REJECT$ ! RELIGI\S AS WELL AS ! METAPHYSICAL  
9T]PRETATIONS ( MORALITY4 ,REPRES5TATIVES ( BO? T5D5CIES AIM$ TO EXPLA9 
! ORIG9 ( ! MORAL 9 A NATURAL WAY1 & OPPOS$ ! PRET5SIONS ( ! 
,*UR* TO CONNECT MORALITY ) RELIGION4 

,ONE ( !SE GR\PS 9 PHILOSOPHY1 
:ILE RECOGNIZ+ ) ,EPICURUS ?AT MAN /RIVES FIR/ ( ALL = HAPP9ESS1 
AFFIRM$1 H[EV]1 ?AT MAN F9DS GREATE/ HAPP9ESS NOT 9 EXPLOIT+ O!R 
PEOPLE = HIS P]SONAL B5EFIT1 BUT 9 FRI5DLY MUTUAL RELATIONS ) ALL 
>\ND HIM2 :]EAS ! ADH]5TS ( ! O!R B5T1-! *IEF REPRES5TATIVE 
( :I* WAS ,HOBBES1-CONT9U$ TO LOOK UPON MORALITY AS UPON SOME?+ =CIBLY 
5GRAFT$ UPON MAN4 ,HOBBES & HIS FOLL[]S LOOK$ UPON MORALITY NOT AS ! 
\TCOME ( HUMAN NATURE BUT AS SOME?+ PRESCRIB$ TO IT BY AN EXT]NAL =CE4 
,ONLY1 9 PLACE ( ! ,DEITY & ! ,*UR* !Y PUT ! ,/ATE & ! FE> ( 
?IS 0,LEVIA?AN0-! IMPLANT] ( MORALITY 9 MANK9D4 

,ONE MY? WAS ?US REPLAC$ 
BY ANO!R4 ,IT MU/ BE NOT$ ?AT 9 ITS TIME ! SUB/ITUTION ( ! ,/ATE1 
BAS$ ON CONTRACT1 = ! ,*UR*1 WAS ( GREAT IMPORTANCE = POLITICAL 
PURPOSES4 ,! ,*UR* TRAC$ ITS ORIG9 TO ! ,DIV9E ,WILL3 %E CALL$ H]SELF ! 
REPRES5TATIVE ( ,GOD ON E>?4 ,:]EAS TO ! ,/ATE1 ?\< IT FREELY AVAIL$ 
ITSELF1 FROM TIME IMMEMORIAL1 ( ! SUPPORT ( ! ,*UR*1 ! ADVANC$ ?9K]S 
( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY BEGAN AT ONCE TO ASCRIBE AN E>?LY ORIG93 !Y 
D]IV$ ! 9CEPTION ( ! /ATE FROM ! COV5ANT ( M54 ,& !RE IS NO 
D\BT ?AT :51 AT ! 5D ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY1 !RE BEGAN ! /RUGGLE 
9 ,EUROPE AGA9/ ! AUTOCRATIC P[] ( K+S 0BY GRACE ( ,GOD10 ! 
DOCTR9E ( ! /ATE AS ORIG9AT+ FROM ! SOCIAL CONTRACT1 S]V$ A USEFUL 
PURPOSE4 

,! SUBDIVISION 9TO TWO CAMPS ( ! ?9K]S :O EXPLA9$ MORALITY 9 
A PURELY SCI5TIFIC1 NATURALI/IC WAY1 IS OBS]V$ ?R\<\T ! P]IOD ( 
! SEV5TE5? & EI<TE5? C5TURIES4 ,9 ! C\RSE ( TIME ?IS DIVISION 
BECOMES WID] & %>P]4 ,:ILE ONE GR\P ( ?9K]S MORE & MORE COMES TO 
REALIZE ?AT MORALITY IS NO?+ BUT A GRADUAL DEVELOPM5T ( A SOCIALITY 
+RA9$ 9 MAN1 O!R ?9K]S EXPLA9 MORALITY AS ! /RIV+ ( MAN = 
P]SONAL HAPP9ESS1 RI<TLY REG>D$4 ,& TWO DIFF]5T CONCLUSIONS >E 
REA*$1 DEP5D+ ON :I* ( ! TWO GR\PS ! ?9K] HOLDS TRUE4 ,SOME 
CONT9UE TO AFFIRM1 LIKE ,HOBBES1 ?AT MAN IS 0/EEP$ 9 EVIL10 & !Y SEE 
SALVATION ONLY 9 A /RICTLY ORGANIZ$ C5TRAL P[]1 :I* RE/RA9S M5 FROM 
CON/ANT /RIFE AMONG !MSELVES4 ,!IR IDEAL IS A C5TRALIZ$ ,/ATE1 GOV]N+ 
! 5TIRE LIFE ( SOCIETY1-& 9 ?IS !Y GO H& 9 H& ) ! ,*UR*4 ,! 
O!RS1 H[EV]1 MA9TA9 ?AT ONLY WIDE FRE$OM ( P]SONALITY1 & WIDE 
OPPORTUNITY = M5 TO 5T] 9TO V>I\S AGREEM5TS AMONG !MSELVES1 WILL LEAD 
US TO A NEW SOCIAL SY/EM1 BAS$ ON JU/ ATTA9M5T ( ALL NE$S4 

,!SE TWO 
VIEWS1 ) SOME 9T]M$IATE /EPS1 & ALSO SOME DOCTR9ES ?AT PAY TRIBUTE 
MORE OR LESS TO ! IDEA ( ! RELIGI\S ORIG9 ( MORALITY1 PR$OM9ATE AT ! 
PRES5T TIME4 ,BUT FROM ! MOM5T ?AT ! !ORY ( EVOLUTION1 I4E41 ( ! 
GRADUAL DEVELOPM5T ( BELIEFS1 CU/OMS1 & 9/ITUTIONS1 CONQU]$ = ITSELF 
A PLACE 9 SCI5CE1 ! SECOND VIEW1-! ONE AIM+ AT ! FREE UPBUILD+ ( 
LIFE1-GRADUALLY ACQUIR$ ! ASC5DANCY4 

,9 ! NEXT *APT] WE %ALL 5DEAVOR 
TO TRACE ! DEVELOPM5T ( !SE TWO CURR5TS ( E?ICAL ?\<T 9 ! 
PHILOSOPHY ( MOD]N TIMES4 

,FOOTNOTES 

#a 
,BACON'S ,NOVUM ,ORGANUM  APPE>$ 9 #a#f#b4 ,DESC>TES'S ,DISC\RS DE LA M@&EACUTE?ODE  
WAS PUBLI%$ 9 #afcg .<,P>IS2 ,5GLI% TRANSLATIONS1 ,LONDON1 #a#f#d#i2 ,$9BUR<1 
#a#h#e4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#b 
,JODL CITES1 9 HIS ,GESCBI*TE1 D] ,E?IK ALS PHILOS4 ,WISS5S*AFT1 A PASSAGE 
FROM ! FIR/ $ITION ( ! ,TRAIT@&EACUTE DE LA SAGESSE1 #a#f#a1 :I* WAS OMITT$ 9 
! LAT] $ITIONS1 ,9 ?IS PASSAGE ,*>RON PLA9LY /ATES ?AT HE 0W\LD ALSO 
LIKE TO SEE DEVOTION & RELIGI\SNESS1 BUT NOT 9 ORD] ?AT !Y %\LD IMPLANT 
9 MAN MORALITY1 :I* IS BORN ) HIM & IS GIV5 BUT 9 ORD] TO CR[N 
MORALITY ) COMPLET5ESS40 .<,VOL4 #a1 PAGE #a#h#i1 ,/UTTG>T2 ,B]L9 #a#i#a#b4.> ,?IS 
QUOTATION %[S ?AT ! 9T]PRETATION ( MORALITY AS AN 9H]5T FACULTY ( MAN 
WAS F> MORE WIDESPREAD AMONG ?9K]S ?AN IS APP>5T 
FROM !IR WRIT+S4 .<,= A NOTE ON ,*>RON'S ,TRAIT@&EACUTE 1 SEE 
SUPRA 1 P4 #a#c#i4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#c 
,?US1 = EXAMPLE1 FROM ,DESC>TES'S ,IETT]S TO HIS FRI5D ,M]S5NE1 9 ,JULY1 #afcc 
& ,JANU>Y1 #a#f#c#d1 CIT$ BY ,LANGE 9 HIS ,HI/ORY ( ,MAT]IALISM  7,NOTE #f#i1 ,P>T 
,I,I1 VOL4 #a71 IT IS SE5 ?AT UPON LE>N+ ( ! SECOND >RE/ ( ,GALILEO BY ! 
,9QUISITION1 & ( ! V]DICT AGA9/ HIS BOOK1-MO/ LIKELY BECAUSE ( HIS 
OP9ION AB\T ! ROTATION ( ! E>?1-,DESC>TES WAS READY TO  
R5\NCE ! SAME OP9ION1 :I* HE WAS AB\T TO EXPRESS 9 HIS WORK4 ,!RE >E 
ALSO 9DICATIONS ( O!R CONCESSIONS ( ?IS K9D4 .<,FRI$RI* ,ALB]T ,LANGE1 
,GES*4 D] ,MAT]IALISMUS 1 ,IS]LOHN1 TWO VOLS4 9 ONE3 ,5G4 TR4 BY ,]NE/ ,C4 
,?OMAS1 ,LONDON @& ,BO/ON1 #a#h#g#i-#h#a1 #c VOLS4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4  

#d 
,SEE ! >TICLE1 ,UNSUSPECT$ ,RADIATIONS 1 9 ! REVIEW ( ! SCI5TIFIC 
DISCOV]IES ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY PR9T$ 9 ,! ,ANNUAL ,REPORT ( ! 
,SMI?SONIAN ,9/ITUTE 1 = #a#i1 & 9 ! MAGAZ9E1 ,N9ETE5? ,C5TURY 1 
= ,DECEMB] #a#i1-.<AN >TICLE BY ,KROPOTK94.>-,TRANS1 ,NOTE4 

#e,EX]CITATIONES P>ADOXICAE-ADV]SUS ,>I/OTELAE 4 ,UPON ! 9SI/5CE ( HIS 
FRI5DS1 H[EV]1 HE HAD TO OMIT FIVE *APT]S FROM ?IS WORK1 BECAUSE ! 
,*UR*1 RE/+ ITS CASE ON ! BOOKS :I* %E RECOGNIZ$ AS SACR$1 /AUN*LY 
SUPPORT$ ,>I/OTLE & ,PTOLEMY1 :O TAU<T ?AT ! E>? IS SITUAT$ 9 ! 
C5T] ( ! ,UNIV]SE1 & ?AT ! SUN1 ! PLANETS1 & ! />S REVOLVE 
>\ND IT2 MOREOV]1 ONLY FIVE YE>S PREVI\SLY .<9 #a#f#a#i.> ,VAN9I WAS BURN$ AT 
! /AKE = A SIMIL> H]ETICAL WORK4 ,9 ADDITION1 ,GASS5DI REFUT$ ! 
TEA*+ ( ,DESC>TES ON ! /RUCTURE ( MATT]1 & EXP\ND$ HIS [N VIEW 
CLOSELY APPROA*+ ! MOD]N ATOMIC !ORY4 ,TWO ( HIS WORKS AB\T ,EPICURUS1 
,GASS5DI PUBLI%$ HIMSELF AT ! TIME :5 HE OCCUPI$ A *AIR AT ! ,COLL@&EGRAVEGE 
DE ,FRANCE2 HIS FUNDAM5TAL WORK1 H[EV]1 ,SYNTAGMA PHILOSOPHIAE ,EPICURI  APPE>$ 
ONLY AFT] HIS DEA?4 .<,AM/]DAM1 #a#f#g#h4 ,GASS5DI'S O!R WORKS ON ,EPICURUS >E3 
,ANIMADV]SIONES 1 ETC41 ,LUGDIUM1 #a#f#d#i1 #c VOLS42 ,DE ,VITA ET MORIBUS ,EPICURI 1 
,HAGGAE-,COMITUM1 #a#f#e#f1 7#bND4 $474 ,SEE ,G4 ,S4 ,BRETT'S ,PHILOSOPHY ( ,GASS5DI 1 
,LONDON1 #a#i#h4 ,ACCORD+ TO ,MR4 ,BRETT1 ! ,EX]CITATIONES ADV]SUS ,>I/OTELAE  WAS 
NEV] F9I%$4 ,BOOK ,I WAS PUBLI%$ 9 #a#f#b#d1 AS ,KROPOTK9 SAYS1 & FRAGM5TS ( 
,BOOK ,I,I W]E 9CLUD$ 9 ,GASS5DI'S COLLECT$ WORKS4 ,9 #afbd ,GASS5DI /ILL HELD 
HIS PR(ESSOR%IP AT ,DIGNE 9 ,PROV5CE1 9 ADDITION TO A CANONRY AT ,GR5OBLE4 ,= 
,VAN9I 7,LUCILIO1 CALL$  ,JULIUS ,C@&AELIGS>7 #a#e#h#e-#a#f#a#i1 SEE ! ,FR5* TRANS4 ( HIS 
WORKS1 7,EUVRES ,PHILOSOPHIQUES 1 ,P>IS1 #a#h#d#b2 ALSO ,VICTOR ,C\S91 ,VAN9I3 ,SES 
@&EACUTECRITS1 SA VIE ET SA MORT 1 70,REVUE DES DEUX MONDES01 ,DEC4 #a#h#d#c74.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4  

#f,DICTIONNAIRE HI/ORIQUE ET CRITIQUE 1 :I* APPE>$ AT ,ROTT]DAM 9 #a#f#i#g1 FIR/ 
9 TWO VOLUMES1 & LAT]1 9 #a#h#b1 9 #af VOLUMES4 .<,P>IS.>4 ,BAYLE EXPRESS$ = 
! FIR/ TIME HIS ANTI-RELIGI\S VIEWS 9 #afh 9 CONNECTION ) ! APPE>ANCE 
( A COMET & ! SUP]/ITIONS ?AT IT CALL$ =?1 9 A PAMPHLET 5TITL$ 
,P5S@&EACUTEES DIV]SES SUR LA COM@&EGRAVETE 4 ,?IS PAMPHLET WAS1 ( C\RSE1 PROHIBIT$ SOON 
AFT] ITS APPE>ANCE4 .<,P5S@&EACUTEES DIV]GES @&EACUTECRITES-@&AGRAVE L'OCCASION DE LA ,COM@&EGRAVETE 1 #a#f#h#c2 
AN E>LI] ,LETT] ON ! APPE>ANCE ( ! COMET 79 #a#f#h71-9SI/+ ?AT !RE 
WAS NO?+ MIRACUL\S 9 ! PASS+ ( COMETS-WAS WRITT5 9 #a#f#h4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#g 
.<,LA ,RO*EF\CAULD1 ,R@&EACUTEFLEXIONS \ S5T5CES ET MAXIMES MORALES 1 ,! ,HAGUE1 
#a#f#f#d4 ,LA ,BRUY@&EGRAV]E1 ,C>ACT@&EGRAV]ES 1 ,P>IS1 #a#f#h#h4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#h 
.<,LA ,METTRIE 7,JULIAN 
,(FRAY DE71 ,L',HOMME MA*9E 1 ,LEYD5 #a#g#d#h1 IS TRANSLAT$ 9TO ,5GLI% AS ,MAN A 
,MA*9E 1 ,LONDON1 #a#g#e1 &1 BY ,G4,S4 ,BUSSEY1 ,*ICAGO1 #a#i#a#b4 ,! LATT] VOLUME 
9CLUDES EXTRACTS FROM ! ,ESSAI SUR L'ORIG9E DE ,I'@&ACIRCME HUMA9E  7#a#g#e#b72 7,LA ,HAYE 
#a#g#d#e74 ,L',HOMME-PLANTE 1 ,POTSDAM1 #a#g#d#h4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#i 
7,CONDILLAC'S ,ESSAI SUR L'ORIG9E DES CONNAISSANCES HUMA9ES 1 ,AM/]DAM #a#g#d#f2 
,TRAIT@&EACUTE DES S5SATIONS 1 #a#g#e#d2 ,5G4 TRANS41 BY ,NUG5T1 ,LONDON1 #a#g#e#f4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#a 
.<,HELV@&EACUTETIUS' ,DE L',ESPRIT 1 #b VOLS41 ,P>IS1 #a#g#e#h4 ,5G4 TRANS4 ,LONDON1 #a#h#a4.>- 
,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#a#a,SY/@&EGRAVEME SOCIAL 1 ,VOL4 ,I1 P4 #a#g4 .<,LONDON #a#g#g#c1 #c VOLS4 9 #a4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4  

#ab 
.<,IBID4 ,VOL4 #a1 P4 #a#d4.>  

#ac 
,HOLBA*'S IDEAS W]E TO A GREAT EXT5T UTILIZ$ ALSO 
BY ! ,5GLI% ,UTILIT>IANS4  

#ad  
.<,ABB@&EACUTE ,G4,T4,F4 ,RAYNAL1 ,HI/4 PHILOSOPHIQUE ET POLITIQUE DES @&EACUTETABLISSEM5S ET 
DU COMM]CE DES ,EUROP@&EACUTE5S DANS LES DEUX ,9DES 4 ,AM/]DAM1 #a#g#g#c-#g#d1 #g VOLS2 
,P>IS1 #a#h#b1 #ab VOLS4 ,5G4 TR41 ,LONDON #a#g#g#f1 #e VOLS41 & #a#g#g#h1 #h VOLS42 ALSO 
LAT] $ITIONS4 ,EXTRACTS FROM ?IS WORK APPE>$ 9 ,PHILADELPHIA1 7,PA471 9 
#a#g#g#e4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#ae 
7,CES>A ,B4 ,BECC>IA'S BOOK APPE>$ 9 A NEW $ITION1 ,$9BUR<1 #a#h#a2 
,MORELLET'S ,FR5* TRANSLATION WAS PUBLI%$ AT ,LAUSANNE1 #a#g#g#f2 ,5GLI% V]SIONS CAME 9 #a#g#f#g1 ,LONDON2 #a#g#g#g1 ,DUBL92 #a#g#g#h1 ,$9BUR<2 #a#g#i#c1 ,PHILADELPHIA3 
#a#h#i1 ,N4 ,Y42 #a#h#g#b1 ,ALBANY2 & 9 #a#h#h1 ,LONDON1 9 ,JAMES ,A4 ,F>R]'S ,CRIMES & 
,PUNI%M5T 1 PP4 #a#i-#b#e.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4  

#af  
.<,NAUFRAGE DES @&ICIRCLES FLOTTANTES 1 ,MESS9E1 #a#g#e#c4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#ag  
.<,MABLY'S ,LE ,DROIT 1 ETC41 ,KELL1 #a#g#h#i2 ,P>IS 7871 #a#g#h#i4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4  

#ah  
.<,CAIUS ,GRAC*US 7,FRANQOIS ,NO@&EUML#a7 ,BABEUF2 ,FILIPPO ,MI*ELE ,BUON>ROTI1-SEE HIS 
,CONSPIRATION P\R L'@&EACUTEGALIT@&EACUTE DITE DE ,BABEUF 1 ,BRUXELLES1 #b VOLS4 9 #a1 #a#h#b#h2 7,5G4 
TR41 ,JAMES ,B4 ,O',BRI51 ,LONDON1 #a#h#c#f72 ,SYLVIAN ,M>@&EACUTE*AL1 ,LE ,JUGEM5T D]NI] DES 
ROIS  7A ONE-ACT PLAY1 9 PROSE17 9 ,L4,E4,D4 ,MOL&'S ,?@&EACUTE@&ACIRCTRE DE LA ,R@&EACUTEVOLUTION 1 
,P>IS1 #a#h#g#g4 ,ON !SE M5 & !IR CONSPIRACY1 SEE ,KROPOTK9'S ,FR5* 
,REVOLUTION2 ALSO1 ,VICTOR ,ADVIELLE1 ,HI/OIRE DE ,GRAC*US ,BABEUF ET DU BAB\VISME 1 
,P>IS1 #a#h#h#d1 #b VOLS42 ,]NE/ ,B4 ,BAX1 ,! ,EPISODE ( ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION3 BE+ 
A HI/ORY ( ,GRAC*US ,BABEUF & ! CONSPIRACY ( ! ,EQUALS 1 ,LONDON1 
#a#i#a#a4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#ai  
.<,DR4 ,FRANCOIS ,QUESNAY1 ,PHYSIOCRATIE 1 ,LEYD51 #a#g#f#g-#h1 #b 
VOLS4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#b  
,VOLTAIRE1 ( C\RSE1 CANNOT BE REG>D$ EI!R AS A REVOLUTION>Y OR A 
DEMOCRAT2 HE NEV] DEM&$ ! OV]?R[ ( ! SOCIAL SY/EM ( HIS TIME1 & 
EV5 :5 HE SPOKE ( EQUALITY AMONG M5 HE RECOGNIZ$ ?IS EQUALITY 09 
PF9CIPLE10 BUT 9 SOCIETY1 SAID ,VOLTAIRE1 0M5 PLAY DIFF]5T P>TS40 0,ALL M5 
>E EQUAL AS M51 BUT !Y >E NOT EQUAL AS MEMB]S ( SOCIETY40 7,P5S@&EACUTEES SUR 
L',ADM9I/RATION 1 ,WORKS1 VOL4 ,V4 P4 #c#e#a47 ,VOLTAIRE'S POLITICAL IDEAL CONSI/$ 9 
05LI<T5$ DESPOTISM10 DIRECT$ = ! GOOD ( ! PEOPLE4 .<,WORKS  7,5GLI% 
TRANS471 ,N4,Y41 #a#i#a1 VOL4 #a#i1 PT4 #a1 PP4 #b#b#f-#b#c#i4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4  

#ba  
.<,TURGOT1 ,PLAN DE DEUX DISC\RS SUR L'HI/OIRE UNIV]SELLE  7,9 @&,A,ELIGUVRES 1 ,P>IS1 
#a#h#d#d1 VOL4 #b4 PP4 #f#b#f-#f#g#e74.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4  

#bb  
.<,ESQUISSE D'UN TABLEAU HI/ORIQUE DES PROGR@&EGRAVES 1 ETC41 ,P>IS1 #a#g#i#d4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4  

#bc  
,HUME'S PR9CIPAL WORKS >E3 ,TREATISE ,UPON ,HUMAN ,NATURE 1 ,LONDON1 #a#g#c#h-#d1 #c 
VOLS42 ,9QUIRY ,CONC]N+ ! ,PR9CIPLES ( ,MORALS 1 ,$9BUR<1 #a#g#e#a2 ,9QUIRY 
,CONC]N+ ,HUMAN ,UND]/&+ 1 ,LONDON1 #a#g#d#h2 ,NATURAL ,HI/ORY ( ,RELIGION 1 
,LONDON1 #a#g#e#b4  

#b#d,! ,NATURAL ,HI/ORY ( ,RELIGION 1 ,SECTION XIV1 PP4 #d#d#c-#d#d#d 9 VOL4 ,I,I1 ,ESSAYS 
& ,TREATISES ON ,SEV]AL ,SUBJECTS 1 ,$9BUR<1 #a#h#a#g4  

#be  
.<0,S5SATIONS & P]CEPTIONS10 9 MOD]N T]M9OLOGY4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4  

#b#f,AN ,9QUIRY ,CONC]N+ ! ,HUMAN ,UND]/&+ 1 ,SECT4 II1 VOL4 ,I,I1 ,$9BUR<1 #a#h#a#g4  

#b#g,AN ,9QUIRY ,CONC]N+ ! ,PR9CIPLES ( ,MORALS 1 ,SECTION ,I1 9 ,ESSAYS & 
,TREATISES ON ,SEV]AL ,SUBJECTS1 ,IDEM4 1 VOL4 ,I,I4  

#b#h,NATURAL ,HI/ORY ( ,RELIGION 1 ,SECTION XIV1 PP4 #d#d#c-#d#d#d1 VOL4 ,I,I4  
,$9BUR<1 #a#h#a#g4 0',?OSE :O UND]TAKE ! MO/ CRIM9AL & MO/ DANG]\S 5T]PRISES 
>E COMMONLY ! MO/ SUP]/ITI\S'4 4 4 4 ,!IR DEVOTION A 
SPIRITUAL FAI? RISE ) !IR FE>S40 7,IBID 41 P4 #d#d#g47 .<,HUME QUOTES ! FIR/ 
S5T5CE FROM ,DIODORUS ,SICULUS4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4  

#bi  
,! OP9IONS ( V>I\S WRIT]S ON ,HUME'S PHILOSOPHY DIFF] AS TO ?IS PO9T 
,PFLEID]] HELD ?AT ,HUME M]ELY PREP>$ ! GR\ND = ,KANT'S VIEWS 0ON PRACTICAL 
REASON10 :ILE ,GIZYCKI & ,JODL HOLD DIFF]5T VIEWS1 & 9 HIS ,GES*4 D] ,E?IK 1 
,JODL EXPRESS$ A V]Y TRUE ?\<T3 0,MORALITY CAN NEV] BECOME AN ACTIVE FACTOR IF 
MORAL DEVELOPM5T & $UCATION IS TO BE DEPRIV$ ( ITS EFFECTIVE BASES-?IS WAS 
CONCLUSIVELY PROV$ BY ,HUME2 BUT HE =GOT ONE ?+1 NAMELY1 ! CAPACITY = 
=MULAT+ A MORAL IDEAL2 HE LEFT NO PLACE = ?IS CAPACITY 9 HIS EXPLANATION ( 
REASON1 :I* HE PRES5T$ AS OCCUPI$ SOLELY ) ! SYN!SIS & ANALYSIS ( 
CONCEPTIONS4 ,?IS1 ( C\RSE1 IS NOT ! />T+ PO9T ( MORALITY2 NOR IS IT ! 
/>T+ PO9T HUMAN ACTIVITY 9 ! FIELD ( ?9K+ OR ( CREATIVE EF=T4 ,BUT 
! FACTS ( MORAL LIFE BECOME 9TELLIGIBLE ONLY ON ! SUPPOSITION ?AT TRA9+ & 
EXP]I5CE PREP>E ! GR\ND = ! IDEALS1 9 :I* ! 9TELLECTUAL & ! 
PRACTICAL ELEM5TS >E 9EXTRICABLY 9T]WOV51 & :I* CONTA9 AN 9N] T5D5CY 
T[>D REALIZATION40 7,GES*4 D] ,E?IK 1 VOL4 #a1 *4 VII1 NOTE #b#i47 ,9 O!R WORDS1 
FEEL+ & REASON >E EQUALLY NECESS>Y = ! DEVELOPM5T ( MORAL CONCEPTIONS 
& = !IR CONV]SION 9TO ! MOTIVES ( \R ACTIONS4 .<,$MUND ,PFEILD]]1 ,EMPIRIK 
UND ,SKEPSIS 9 ,DAVID ,HUME'S ,PHILOSOPHIE 1 ,B]L9 #a#h#g#d4 ,GEORG VON ,GIZYCKI1 ,DIE ,E?IK 
,DAVID ,HUME'S 1 ,BRESLAU1 #a#h#g#h4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#c  
,HE EXP\ND$ 9 DETAIL VIEWS NE>LY APPROA*+ A!ISM 9 HIS ,DIALOGUES 
CONC]N+ ,NATURAL ,RELIGION  & 9 ,SECTION ,X,V ( HIS ,NATURAL ,HI/ORY ( 
,RELIGION 4 

#ca  
,SEE ,JODL1 ,GES*I*TE D] ,E?IK ALS PHILOSOPHIS*] ,WISS5S*AFT 1 VOL4 ,I1 *4 
VII1 ,SECTION II4 

#cb  
.<,AN ,9QUIRY 9TO ! ,NATURE & ,CAUSES ( ! ,WEAL? ( ,NATIONS 1 ,LONDON1 #a#g#g#f1 
#b VOLS4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#cc  
,SMI? ASCRIB$ SU* IMPORTANCE TO ?IS 9T]PRETATION ?AT HE EV5 9CLUD$ 
IT 9 ! TITLE ( HIS BOOK1 CALL+ IT ,! ,!ORY ( ,MORAL ,S5TIM5TS2 OR AN 
ESSAY T[>DS AN ANALYSIS ( ! PR9CIPLES BY :I* M5 NATURALLY JUDGE 
CONC]N+ ! CONDUCT & *>ACT] FIR/ ( !IR NEI<BORS1 & AFT]W>DS 
( !MSELVES 4 

#c#d,! ,!ORY ( ,MORAL ,S5TIM5TS 1 P>T ,I,I1 SECTION ,I,I1 *4 ,I1 P4 #a#a#b4 ,G4 ,BELL 
& ,SONS1 ,LONDON1 #a#i#a#a4  

#ce  
.<,IT IS 9T]E/+ TO NOTE ?AT 9 ! LATT] P>T ( 
HIS WORK ,SMI? DOES /ATE ! PR9CIPLE ( EQUALITY ( MAN 9 NO UNC]TA9 T]MS3 
0,WE >E BUT ONE ( ! MULTITUDE1 9 NO RESPECT BETT] ?AN ANY O!R 9 IT40 
7,P>T ,I,I,I1 *4 III1 P4 #a#i#d74 ,& YET HE COMPLETELY FAIL$ TO DRAW ! 9EVITABLE 
COROLL>IES FROM ?IS PR9CIPLE1 & HE DID NOT ASSIGN TO IT A PLACE ( DUE 
PROM95CE 9 HIS E?ICAL SY/EM4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4  

#c#f,IBID 4 PP4 #a#a#d-#a#a#e4 ,9 ALL 
?AT ,SMI? WROTE ON JU/ICE 7*4 I-III1 P>T ,I,I1 SECT4 ,I,I1 PP4 #a#a#b-#a#c#b7 IT IS 
MO/ DIFFICULT TO DI/+UI% HIS [N OP9ION FROM ?AT HELD BY JURI/S4  

#c#g,IBID 4 ,P>T ,I,I1 ,SECTIONS ,I,I & ,I,I,I4  

#*  
,9 GIV+ AN HI/ORICAL SURVEY ( E>LI] 9T]PRETATIONS ( MORALITY ,SMI? 
MAKES ! FOLL[+ REM>K4 ,HE IS SPEAK+ AB\T ! UTILIT>IANS & GIVES ?IS 
EXPLANATION ( ! WAY BY :I* !Y >RIVE AT !IR CONCLUSION ?AT MORAL 
CONCEPTIONS HAVE ORIG9AT$ 9 CONSID]ATIONS ( !IR UTILITY3-0,HUMAN SOCIETY10 
WROTE ,SMI?1 0:5 WE CONTEMPLATE IT 9 A C]TA9 AB/RACT & PHILOSOPHICAL 
LI<T1 APPE>S LIKE A GREAT1 AN IMM5SE MA*9E1 :OSE REGUL> & H>MONI\S 
MOVEM5TS PRODUCE A ?\S& AGREEABLE EFFECTS40 ,! LESS UNNECESS>Y FRICTION 
!RE IS 9 ! MA*9E1 ! MORE GRACEFUL & BEAUTIFUL WILL BE ITS ACTION4 
,SIMIL>LY1 9 LIFE1 SOME ACTS T5D TO PRODUCE A LIFE )\T FRICTION & 
COLLISIONS1 :ILE O!RS WILL HAVE ! OPPOSITE EFFECT2 BUT ! FEW] ! REASONS 
= COLLISION1 ! EASI] & SMOO!R WILL FL[ ! C\RSE ( SOCIAL LIFE4 
,!RE=E1 :5 ! ,UTILIT>IAN AU?ORS DESCRIBE TO US ! 9NUM]ABLE ADVANTAGES 
( SOCIAL LIFE1 & ! NEW & BROAD VI/AS ?AT SOCIALITY OP5S TO MAN1 ! 
READ] 0IS COMMONLY SO DELI<T$ ) ! DISCOV]Y1 ?AT HE  
SELDOM TAKES TIME TO REFLECT ?AT ?IS POLITICAL VIEW1 HAV+ NEV] OCCURR$ TO 
HIM 9 HIS LIFE BE=E1 CANNOT POSSIBLY BE ! GR\ND ( ?AT APPROBATION & 
DISAPPROBATION ) :I* HE HAS ALWAYS BE5 ACCU/OM$ TO CONSID] ?OSE 
DIFF]5T QUALITIES40 .<I4E41 ! VISES & VIRTUES ( M54.> ,SIMIL>LY1 :5 WE 
READ 9 HI/ORY ( ! GOOD QUALITIES ( SOME H]O1 WE SYMPA?IZE ) HIM NOT 
BECAUSE !SE QUALITIES MAY PROVE USEFUL TO US1 BUT BECAUSE WE IMAG9E :AT WE 
W\LD HAVE FELT HAD WE LIV$ 9 HIS TIMES4 ,SU* SYMPA?Y ) ! M5 ( ! PA/ 
CANNOT BE REG>D$ AS MANIFE/ATIONS ( \R EGOISM4  

 ,9 G5]AL1 ,SMI? ?\<T 
?AT ! SUCCESS ( !ORIES EXPLA9+ MORALITY BY EGOISM IS DUE TO A FAULTY & 
9SUFFICI5T UND]/&+ ( MORALITY4 7,P>T ,V,I,I1 ,SECTION ,I,I,I1 *4 ,I1 PP4 #a#f#c-#a#f#e47  

#ci  
0,!RE IS1 H[EV]1 ONE VIRTUE1 ( :I* ! G5]AL RULES DET]M9E1 ) ! 
GREATE/ EXACTNESS1 EV]Y EXT]NAL ACTION :I* IT REQUIRES4 ,?IS VIRTUE IS 
,JU/ICE4 4 4 4 ,9 ! PRACTICE ( ! O!R VIRTUES 4 4 4 WE %\LD CONSID] ! 
5D & F\NDATION ( ! RULE MORE ?AN ! RULE ITSELF4 ,BUT IT IS O!RWISE 
) REG>D TO JU/ICE04 4 4 4 ETC4 7,P>T ,I,I,I1 *4 ,V,I1 P4 #b#d#i47  

,FROM 3 ,AN>*Y ,>*IVES4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,NOVEMB] #c1 #aibc 3 ,*APT] #h -- ,PUBLICATION4 
,JANU>Y #a#e1 #bag 3 ,*APT] #h -- ,ADD$4 

 FILE G5]AT$ FROM 3  
HTTP3_/_/REVOLTLIB4COM_/