,*APT] #f 
,*RI/IANITY-,! ,MIDDLE ,AGES -- ,! ,R5AISSANCE 

#aibdaibd 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,PET] ,KROPOTK9 

,TEXT 3 

  

,PHOTO BY ,KEV9 ,H>B]1,C,C ,B,Y-,N,C-,N,D ,LIC5SE ,SUMM+ UP ! PRE-,*RI/IAN E?ICS ( ANCI5T ,GREECE1 WE SEE ?AT 9 SPITE ( ! DIFF]5T 9T]PRETATIONS ( MORALITY BY ! ,GREEK ?9K]S !Y ALL AGRE$ ON ONE PO9T3 !Y SAW ! S\RCE ( MORALITY 9 ,MAN1 9 HIS NATURAL T5D5CIES & 9 HIS REASON4 ,!Y W]E F> FROM HAV+ A CLE> IDEA AS TO ! TRUE NATURE ( !SE T5D5CIES4 ,BUT !Y TAU<T ?AT1 [+ TO HIS REASON & [+ TO HIS SOCIAL MODE ( LIFE1 ,MAN NATURALLY DEVELOPS & /R5G!NS HIS MORAL T5D5CIES1 :I* >E USEFUL = ! MA9T5ANCE ( ! SOCIALITY ESS5TIAL TO HIM4 ,= ?IS REASON ! ,GREEK ?9K]S DID NOT LOOK = ANY EXT]NAL1 SUP]NATURAL =CES TO COME TO ! AID ( ,MAN4 

,SU* WAS ! ESS5CE ( ! TEA*+ ( ,SOCRATES1 ,>I/OTLE1 & P>TLY EV5 ( ,PLATO & ( ! E>LY ,/OICS1 ?\< ,>I/OTLE ALREADY ATTEMPT$ TO BASE MORALITY ON A NATURAL-SCI5TIFIC BASIS4 ,ONLY ,PLATO 9TRODUC$ 9TO MORALITY A SEMI-RELIGI\S ELEM5T4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 ,EPICURUS1 POSSIBLY 9 OPPOSITION TO ,PLATO1 ADVANC$ A NEW DOCTR9E3 A RATIONAL /RIV+ ( ,MAN T[>D HAPP9ESS1 T[>D PLEASURE1 & HE TRI$ TO PRES5T ?IS SE>* = HAPP9ESS AS ! PR9CIPAL S\RCE ( ! MORAL 9 A ?9K+ MAN4 

,EPICURUS WAS UNQUE/IONABLY RI<T 9 ASS]T+ ?AT MAN'S /RIV+1 CORRECTLY UND]/OOD1 = P]SONAL HAPP9ESS1 = FULLNESS ( LIFE1 IS A MORAL MOTIVE =CE4 ,& 9DE$1 A MAN :O FULLY REALIZES H[ V]Y MU* SOCIABILITY1 JU/ICE1 & A K9D1 EQUITABLE ATTITUDE T[>D ONE'S FELL[-M5 CONTRIBUTE TO ! HAPP9ESS ( EA* 9DIVIDUAL AS WELL AS TO ! HAPP9ESS ( SOCIETY AS A :OLE-SU* A MAN WILL NOT BE UNMORAL4 ,9 O!R WORDS1 A MAN :O HAS RECOGNIZ$ ! PR9CIPLE ( EQUALITY & :O HAS BE5 TAU<T BY EXP]I5CE TO ID5TIFY HIS 9T]E/S ) ! 9T]E/S ( ALL1 UNQUE/IONABLY MU/ F9D 9 SU* AN 9T]PRETATION ( P]SONAL HAPP9ESS A SUPPORT = HIS MORALITY4 ,BUT ,EPICURUS NE$LESSLY N>R[$ ! ACTUAL F\NDATIONS ( MORALITY 9 ASS]T+ ?AT ! RATIONAL SE>* = HAPP9ESS WILL BY ITSELF LEAD MAN TO ! MORAL ATTITUDE T[>D O!RS4 ,EPICURUS =GOT ?AT NO MATT] H[ GREAT ! TRIBUTE ?AT ,MAN PAYS TO EGOISM1 HE /ILL RETA9S ! HABITS ( SOCIALITY2 HE ALSO HAS A CONCEPTION ( JU/ICE :I* LEADS TO A RECOGNITION1 TO SOME EXT5T ( ! EQUALITY ( M51 & ?AT !RE IS1 EV5 9 M5 :O HAVE FALL5 TO A V]Y L[ MORAL LEVEL1 A VAGUE CONCEPTION ( ! IDEAL & ( MORAL BEAUTY4 

,EPICURUS ?US M9IMIZ$ ! IMPORTANCE ( ! SOCIAL 9/9CTS 9 MAN & HELP$ MAN TO PUT PRACTICAL 0REASONABL5ESS0 9 ! PLACE ( ,REASON BAS$ ON JU/ICE1 :I* IS ! NECESS>Y CONDITION = ! PROGRESSIVE DEVELOPM5T ( SOCIETY4 ,AT ! SAME TIME1 HE OV]LOOK$ ! 9FLU5CE ( ! 5VIRONM5T & ( ! DIVISION 9TO CLASSES1 :I* IS 9IMICAL TO MORALITY :5 A PYRAMIDAL /RUCTURE ( SOCIETY P]MITS TO SOME :AT IS =BIDD5 TO O!RS4 

,& 9DE$1 ! FOLL[]S ( ,EPICURUS1 :O W]E FAIRLY NUM]\S 9 ! EMPIRE ( ,ALEX&] ! ,GREAT & LAT] 9 ! ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE1 F\ND A JU/IFICATION = !IR 9DIFF]5CE TO ! ULC]S ( ! SOCIAL SY/EM 9 ?IS ABS5CE ( A MORAL IDEAL :I* W\LD UPHOLD JU/ICE & ! EQUALITY ( M5 AS ! AIM ( MORALITY4 #a 

,A PROTE/ AGA9/ ! SOCIAL HORRORS ( ?AT TIME & AGA9/ ! DECL9E ( SOCIALITY WAS 9EVITABLE4 ,&1 AS WE HAVE SE51 ?IS PROTE/ MANIFE/$ ITSELF FIR/ 9 ! TEA*+S ( ! ,/OICS1 & LAT] 9 ,*RI/IANITY4 

,9 ! FIF? C5TURY ,B4 ,C4 !RE BEGAN ! W>S BETWE5 ,GREECE & ,P]SIA1 & !SE W>S GRADUALLY L$ TO A COMPLETE DECL9E ( ! SY/EM ( FREE ,CITY-,REPUBLICS ( ,ANCI5T ,GREECE1 UND] :I* DEVELOPM5T4 SCI5CE1 >T1 & PHILOSOPHY REA*$ A HI< /AGE ( DEVELOPM5T4 ,!N1 9 ! F\R? C5TURY ,B4 ,C41 ! ,MAC$ONIAN ,REALM WAS CREAT$ & ! MILIT>Y EXP$ITIONS ( ,ALEX&] ! ,GREAT 9TO 9N] ,ASIA BEGAN4 ,FL\RI%+1 9DEP5D5T DEMOCRACIES ( ,GREECE W]E !N BE+ CONV]T$ 9TO PROV9CES SUBJECT$ TO ! NEW1 VANQUI%+ ,EMPIRE4 ,! CONQU]ORS W]E BR++ ! SLAVES & ! PLUND]$ RI*ES FROM ! ,EA/ & AT ! SAME TIME 9TRODUC$ C5TRALIZATION & ITS 9EVITABLE CONSEQU5CES3 POLITICAL DESPOTISM & ! SPIRIT ( PLUND]+ GRE$4 ,& :AT IS MORE1 ! RI*ES IMPORT$ 9TO ,GREECE ATTRACT$ TO IT ! PLUND]]S FROM ! ,WE/1 & ALREADY 9 ! ?IRD C5TURY ,B4,C4 !RE BEGAN ! CONQUE/ ( ,GREECE BY ,ROME4 

,ANCI5T ,HELLAS1 ONCE A CONS]VATORY ( KN[L$GE & >T1 N[ BECAME A PROV9CE ( A ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE LU/+ = CONQUE/4 ,! BEACON ( SCI5CE ?AT HAD %ONE 9 ,GREECE WAS EXT+UI%$ = MANY C5TURIES1 :ILE ,ROME SPREAD 9 ALL DIRECTIONS ITS C5TRALIZ$1 PLUND]+ /ATE1 :]E LUXURY ( ! UPP] CLASSES WAS BAS$ ON ! SLAVE-LABOR ( ! CONQU]$ PEOPLES1 & :]E ! VISES ( ! UPP]1 ! RUL+ CLASSES1 REA*$ EXTREME LIMITS4 

,UND] SU* CIRCUM/ANCES A PROTE/ WAS 9EVITABLE1 & IT CAME FIR/ 9 ! =M ( E*OES ( ! NEW RELIGION -- ,BUDDHISM1 :I* ORIG9AT$ 9 ,9DIA :]E A SOCIAL DIS9TEGRATION SIMIL> TO ?AT ( ! ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE WAS TAK+ PLACE1 -- & !N1 AB\T F\R HUNDR$ YE>S LAT]1 9 ! =M ( ,*RI/IANITY1 RIS+ 9 ,JUDEA1 :5CE IT SOON SPREAD TO ,ASIA ,M9OR1 :]E ,GREEK COLONIES AB\ND$1 & !NCE TO ! V]Y C5T] ( ,ROMAN DOM9ATION -- TO ,ITALY4 

,IT IS EASY TO IMAG9E H[ DEEP AN IMPRESSION1 ESPECIALLY AMONG ! POOR CLASSES1 WAS PRODUC$ BY ! APPE>ANCE ( !SE TWO TEA*+S ?AT HAVE SO MU* 9 COMMON4 ,TID+S ( ! NEW RELIGION BEGAN TO P5ETRATE FROM ,9DIA1 ITS L& ( ORIG91 9TO ,JUDEA & ,ASIA ,M9OR DUR+ ! LA/ TWO C5TURIES BE=E \R ]A4 ,!RE WAS A RUMOR ?AT ! ,K+'S SON1 ,GAUTAMA1 SPURR$ BY ! NE$ ( A NEW FAI?1 HAD P>T$ ) HIS Y\NG WIFE & ) HIS PALACE1 HAD ?R[N (F HIS ROYAL G>M5TS1 R5\NC$ WEAL? & P[]1 & BECOME A S]VANT ( HIS PEOPLE4 ,SUBSI/+ ON ALMS1 HE TAU<T CONTEMPT = WEAL? & P[]1 LOVE = ALL M51 FRI5DS & 5EMIES ALIKE2 HE TAU<T SYMPA?Y = ALL LIV+ CREATURES1 HE PREA*$ K9DNESS1 & RECOGNIZ$ ! EQUALITY ( ALL CLASSES1 9CLUD+ ! L[E/4 

,! TEA*+ ( ,BUDDHA ,GAUTAMA #b SPE$ILY F\ND NUM]\S FOLL[]S AMONG ! PEOPLES WE>I$ BY W>S & EXTORTIONS & (F5D$ 9 !IR BE/ FEEL+S BY ! RUL+ CLASSES4 ,GRADUALLY ?IS TEA*+ SPREAD FROM ,NOR? ,9DIA TO ! S\? & EA/W>D OV] ! :OLE ( ,ASIA4 ,T5S ( MILLIONS ( PEOPLE EMBRAC$ ,BUDDHISM4 

,A LIKE SITUATION >OSE AB\T F\R HUNDR$ YE>S LAT]1 :5 A SIMIL>1 BUT A /ILL HI<] TEA*+1 ,*RI/IANITY1 BEGAN TO SPREAD FROM ,JUDEA TO ! ,GREEK COLONIES 9 ,ASIA ,M9OR1 & !N P5ETRAT$ 9TO ,GREECE1 & !NCE TO ,SICILY & ,ITALY4 

,! SOIL WAS WELL PREP>$ = ! NEW RELIGION ( ! POOR1 :O ROSE AGA9/ ! DEPRAVITY ( ! RI*4 ,& !N ! VA/1 ELEM5TAL MIGRATIONS ( 5TIRE PEOPLES FROM ,ASIA TO ,EUROPE1 :I* BEGAN AB\T ! SAME TIME & LA/$ = FULLY TWELVE C5TURIES1 CA/ SU* A HORROR OV] ! M9DS ( PEOPLE ?AT ! NE$ ( A NEW RELIGION BECAME ACUTE4 #c 

,AMID ! HORRORS ?AT W]E !N EXP]I5C$1 EV5 SOB] ?9K]S LO/ !IR FAI? 9 A BETT] FUTURE = HUMANITY1 :ILE ! MASSES REG>D$ !SE 9VASIONS AS ! WORK ( AN ,EVIL ,P[]4 ,! IDEA ( 0! 5D ( ! WORLD0 >OSE 9VOLUNT>ILY 9 PEOPLE'S M9DS1 & M5 ! MORE WILL+LY S\<T SALVATION 9 RELIGION4 ,! PR9CIPAL PO9T :]E9 ,*RI/IANITY & ,BUDDHISM DIFF]$ FROM ALL PREC$+ RELIGIONS WAS 9 ! FACT ?AT 9/EAD ( ! CRUEL1 REV5GEFUL GODS TO :OSE WILL M5 HAD TO SUBMIT1 !SE TWO RELIGIONS BR\<T =W>D-AS AN EXAMPLE = M5 & NOT TO 9TIMIDATE !M -- AN IDEAL MAN-GOD4 ,9 ! CASE ( ,*RI/IANITY ! LOVE ( ! DIV9E TEA*] = M51 -- = ALL M5 )\T DI/9CTION ( NATION OR CONDITION1 & ESPECIALLY = ! L[E/1 -- L$ TO ! HI<E/ H]OIC SACRIFICE -- TO DEA? ON ! CROSS = ! SALVATION ( HUMANITY FROM ! P[] ( EVIL4 

,9/EAD ( FE> ( A REV5GEFUL ,JEHOVAH1 OR ( GODS P]SONIFY+ ! EVIL =CES ( NATURE1 ,*RI/IANITY ADVOCAT$ LOVE = ! VICTIMS ( OPPRESSION4 ,! MORAL TEA*] 9 ,*RI/IANITY WAS NOT A REV5GEFUL DEITY1 NOT A PRIE/1 NOT A MAN ( ! PRIE/LY CA/1 & NOT EV5 A ?9K] FROM AMONG ! SAGES1 BUT A SIMPLE MAN FROM ! PEOPLE4 ,:ILE ! F\ND] ( ,BUDDHISM1 ,GAUTAMA1 WAS A K+'S SON :O VOLUNT>ILY BECAME A PAUP]1 ! F\ND] ( ,*RI/IANITY WAS A C>P5T] :O LEFT HIS H\SE & HIS K91 & LIV$ AS 0! BIRDS ( HEAV50 LIVE1 9 EXPECTATION ( ! APPROA*+ 0,DAY ( ,JUDGM5T40 ,! LIFE ( !SE TWO TEA*]S WAS PASS$1 NOT 9 TEMPLES1 NOT 9 ACADEMIES1 BUT AMONG ! POOR1 & FROM AMONG !SE POOR & NOT FROM AMONG ! TEMPLE-PRIE/S CAME ,*RI/'S APO/LES4 ,& IF AT A LAT] DATE ,*RI/IANITY AS WELL AS ,BUDDHISM EVOLV$ 9TO ! 0,*UR*10 I4E41 ! GOV]NM5T ( ! 0*OS510 ) ! 9EVITABLE VISES ( ALL GOV]NM5TS -- SU* DEVELOPM5T CON/ITUT$ A FLAGRANT DEVIATION FROM ! WILL ( ! TWO F\ND]S ( RELIGION1 NOT)/&+ ALL ! ATTEMPTS ?AT W]E LAT] MADE TO JU/IFY ?IS DEVIATION BY CIT+ ! BOOKS WRITT5 MANY YE>S AFT] ! DEA? ( ! TEA*]S !MSELVES4 

,ANO!R FUNDAM5TAL FEATURE ( ,*RI/IANITY :I* WAS ! *IEF S\RCE ( ITS /R5G? WAS ! FACT ?AT IT ADVANC$ AS ! LEAD+ PR9CIPLE ( MAN'S LIFE NOT HIS P]SONAL HAPP9ESS1 BUT ! HAPP9ESS ( SOCIETY1 -- & CONSEQU5TLY AN IDEAL1 A SOCIAL IDEAL1 = :I* A MAN W\LD BE READY TO SACRIFICE HIS LIFE 7SEE1 = EXAMPLE1 ! T5? & ! ?IRTE5? *APT] ( ! ,GOSPEL ( ,/4 ,M>K74 ,! IDEAL ( ,*RI/IANITY WAS NOT ! RETIR$ LIFE ( A ,GREEK SAGE1 & NOT ! MILIT>Y OR ! CIVIC EXPLOITS ( ! H]OES ( ANCI5T ,GREECE OR ,ROME1 BUT A1 PREA*] :O ROSE AGA9/ ! ABUSES ( CONTEMPOR>Y SOCIETY & :O WAS READY TO FACE DEA? = ! GOSPEL ( HIS FAI?1 :I* CONSI/$ 9 JU/ICE = ALL1 9 RECOGNITION ( ! EQUALITY ( ALL M51 9 LOVE = ALL1 FRI5DS & /RANG]S ALIKE1 & F9ALLY1 9 =GIV5ESS ( 9JURIES1 CONTR>Y TO ! G5]AL RULE ( ?OSE TIMES ( ! OBLIGATORY REV5GE = 9JURIES4 

,UN=TUNATELY1 JU/ !SE FUNDAM5TAL FEATURES ( ,*RI/IANITY1 -- ESPECIALLY EQUALITY & =GIV5ESS ( 9JURIES -- V]Y SOON BEGAN TO BE TON$ D[N & ALT]$ 9 ! PREA*+ ( ! NEW RELIGION1 & TEA*+S1 V]Y SOON1 9 ! TIME ( ! APO/LES 9 FACT1 BECAME !N W]E =GOTT5 ALTOGE!R4 ,*RI/IANITY1 LIKE ALL O!R MORAL CONTAM9AT$ BY OPPORTUNISM1 I4E41 BY ! TEA*+ ( ! 0HAPPY MEAN4 ,& ?IS PROCESS WAS MADE EASI] BY ! =MATION 9 ,*RI/IANITY1 AS 9 ALL O!R RELIGIONS1 ( A GR\P ( M5 :O ASS]T$ ?AT !Y :OSE DUTY IT WISE TO P]=M ! RITES & ! SACRAM5TS1 >E ! ONES :O PRES]VE ! TEA*+ ( ,*RI/ 9 ALL ITS PURITY & MU/ WAGE W> ON ! CONT9UALLY >IS+ FAULTY 9T]PRETATIONS ( ?IS TEA*+4 

,!RE IS NO D\BT ?AT ?IS COMPLIANCE ON ! P>T ( ! APO/LES HAS ITS EXPLANATION1 9 A MEASURE1 9 ! CRUEL P]SECUTIONS TO :I* ! FIR/ ,*RI/IANS W]E SUBJECT$ 9 ! ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE1 -- UNTIL ,*RI/IANITY BECAME ! /ATE RELIGION2 & IT IS ALSO LIKELY ?AT ! CONCESSIONS W]E MADE ONLY = APPE>ANCE' SAKE1 :ILE ! 9N] NUCLEUS ( ! ,*RI/IAN COMMUNES ADH]$ TO ! TEA*+ 9 ALL ITS PURITY4 ,& 9DE$1 IT HAS N[ BE5 E/ABLI%$ ?R\< A LONG S]IES ( C>EFUL 9VE/IGATIONS ?AT ! F\R GOSPELS ?AT W]E RECOGNIZ$ BY ! ,*UR* AS ! MO/ TRU?FUL ACC\NTS ( ! LIFE & ( ! TEA*+ ( ,*RI/1 AS WELL AS ! 0,ACTS0 & ! 0,EPI/LES0 ( ! ,APO/LES 9 ?OSE V]SIONS ?AT HAVE REA*$ US1 W]E ALL WRITT5 NOT E>LI] ?AN BETWE5 #f-#i ,A4 ,D41 & PROBABLY EV5 LAT]1 BETWE5 #i-#a#b ,A4,D4 ,BUT EV5 AT ?AT TIME ! ,GOSPELS & ! ,EPI/LES W]E ALREADY COPIES ( MORE ANCI5T RECORDS1 :I* ! COPYI/S USUALLY SUPPLEM5T$ ) LEG5DS ?AT REA*$ !M4 #d ,BUT IT WAS JU/ DUR+ ?OSE YE>S ?AT !RE TOOK PLACE ! MO/ REL5TLESS P]SECUTION ( ! ,*RI/IANS BY ! ,ROMAN ,/ATE4 ,EXECUTIONS 9 ,GALILEE COMM5C$ ONLY AFT] ! REBELLION ( ,JUDAH ! ,GALILEAN AGA9/ ! ,ROMAN RULE1 #i ,A4,D41 & LAT] EV5 MORE CRUEL P]SECUTIONS AGA9/ ! ,JEWS BEGAN AFT] !IR UPRIS+1 ?AT LA/$ FROM #ff TO #ga ,A4,D41 & ! EXECUTIONS W]E NUMB]$ 9 HUNDR$S4 #e 

,9 VIEW ( !SE P]SECUTIONS1 ! ,*RI/IAN PREA*]S :O !M SELVES W]E READY TO P]I% ON ! CROSS OR 9 ! FIRE1 NATURALLY MADE SOME M9OR CONCESSIONS 9 !IR EPI/LES TO ! FAI?FUL1 P]HAPS 9 ORD] NOT TO SUBJECT TO P]SECUTION ! /ILL Y\?FUL ,*RI/IAN COMMUNES4 ,?US1 = EXAMPLE1 ! WORDS1 SO GLIBLY CIT$ BY ! RUL+ CLASSES3 0,R5D] UNTO ,CAES> ! ?+S ?AT >E ,CAES>'S1 & UNTO ,GOD ! ?+S ?AT >E ,GOD'S0 7,/4 ,M>K1 XII1 #a#g71 MAY HAVE GOTT5 9TO ! GOSPELS AS AN UNIMPORTANT CONCESSION1 ?AT DID NOT AFFECT ! ESS5CE ( ! TEA*+1 ALL ! MORE S9CE ,*RI/IANITY ADVOCAT$ R5UNCIATION ( WORLDLY GOODS4 ,FUR!RMORE1 HAV+ ORIG9AT$ 9 ! ,EA/1 ,*RI/IANITY WAS 9FLU5C$ BY ,EA/]N BELIEFS 9 ONE V]Y IMPORTANT DIRECTION4 ,! RELIGIONS ( ,EGYPT1 ,P]SIA1 & ,9DIA W]E NOT CONT5T ) SIMPLE HUMANIZATION ( ! =CES ( ,NATURE1 AS WAS CONCEIV$ BY ! ,GREEK & ! ,ROMAN HEA!NDOM4 ,!Y SAW 9 ! UNIV]SE A /RUGGLE ( TWO EQUALLY P[]FUL ESS5CES -- ! ,GOOD & ! ,EVIL1 ,LI<T & ,D>KNESS1 -- & !Y TRANSF]R$ ?IS /RUGGLE TO ! HE>T ( MAN4 ,& ?IS CONCEPTION ( TWO ANTAGONI/IC =CES BATTL+ = SUPREMACY 9 ! WORLD1 GRADUALLY P5ETRAT$ ,*RI/IANITY & BECAME ITS FUNDAM5TAL PR9CIPLE4 ,& !N1 = MANY C5TURIES1 ! ,*RI/IAN ,*UR*1 9 ORD] TO ANNIHILATE ) UNSPEAKABLE CRUELTY ALL ?OSE :O D>$ TO CRITICIZE ITS H5*M51 UTILIZ$ TO ! FULL ?IS CONCEPTION ( ! P[]FUL DEVIL :O OBTA9S POSSESSION ( ! HUMAN S\L4 

,?US DIRECTLY REJECT$ ! K9DNESS & ALL-=GIV+NESS :I* W]E ADVOCAT$ BY ! F\ND] ( ,*RI/IANITY & :I* CON/ITUT$ ITS DIFF]5CE FROM ALL O!R RELIGIONS1 ) ! EXCEPTION ( ,BUDDHISM4 ,& MORE ?AN ?AT3 9 ITS P]SECUTION ( ITS ANTAGONI/S IT KNEW NO LIMIT ( CRUELTY4 

,LAT]1 ! FOLL[]S ( ,*RI/1 EV5 ! NE>E/1 W5T EV5 FUR!R ON ! ROAD ( DEVIATION4 ,MORE & MORE ALI5AT$ FROM ! ORIG9AL TEA*+1 !Y CAME TO ! PO9T :]E ! ,*RI/IAN ,*UR* MADE A COMPLETE ALLIANCE ) ! RUL]S1 SO ?AT 9 ! EYES ( ! 0PR9CES ( ! ,*UR*0 ! TRUE TEA*+S ( ,*RI/ EV5 CAME TO BE CONSID]$ AS DANG]\S1 SO DANG]\S1 9DE$1 ?AT ! ,WE/]N ,*UR* =BADE ! PUBLICATION ( ! ,NEW ,TE/AM5T 9 ANY O!R ?AN ! ,LAT9 LANGUAGE1 UTT]LY 9COMPREH5SIBLE TO ! PEOPLE1 & 9 ,RUSSIA1 9 ! SLI<TLY MORE COMPREH5SIBLE OLD-,SLAVONIC TONGUE4 #f 

,BUT WOR/ ( ALL WAS ! FACT ?AT ON BECOM+ TRANS=M$ 9TO ! ,/ATE ,*UR*1 (FICIAL ,*RI/IANITY =GOT ! FUNDAM5TAL DIFF]5CE DI/+UI%+ IT FROM ALL ! PREC$+ RELIGIONS EXCEPT ,BUDDHISM4 ,IT =GOT ! =GIV5ESS ( 9JURIES1 & IT AV5G$ EV]Y 9JURY 9 ! SPIRIT ( ,EA/]N DESPOTISM4 ,F9ALLY1 ! REPRES5TATIVES ( ! ,*UR* SOON BECAME ! [N]S ( S]FS EQUALLY ) ! LAY NOBILITY1 & !Y GRADUALLY ACQUIR$ ! SAME PR(ITABLE JUDICIAL P[] AS ! C\NTS1 ! DUKES1 & ! K+S2 & 9 US+ ?IS P[] ! PR9CES ( ! ,*UR* PROV$ TO BE JU/ AS V5GEFUL & GRE$Y AS ! LAY RUL]S4 ,& LAT]1 9 ! FIFTE5? & SIXTE5? C5TURIES1 :5 ! C5TRALIZ$ P[] ( ! K+S & ! CZ>S BEGAN TO EXT5D OV] ! /ATES ?AT W]E !N =M+1 ! ,*UR* NEV] FAIL$ TO HELP ) ITS 9FLU5CE & ITS WEAL? ! CREATION & EXPANSION ( ?IS P[]1 & %IELD$ ) ITS CROSS SU* BEA/-LIKE RUL]S AS ,L\IS ,X,I41 ,PHILLIP ,I,I41 & ,IVAN ! ,T]RIBLE4 ,! ,*UR* PUNI%$ ANY %[ ( OPPOSITION TO ITS P[] ) PURELY ,EA/]N CRUELTY -- ) TORTURE & FIRE1 & ! ,WE/]N ,*UR* EV5 CREAT$ = ?IS PURPOSE A SPECIAL 9/ITUTION -- ! 0,HOLY0 ,9QUISITION4 

,?US1 CONCESSIONS TO SECUL> P[]S MADE BY ! E>LY FOLL[]S ( ,*RI/ L$ ,*RI/IANITY F> AFIELD FROM ! TEA*+ ( ITS ,F\ND]4 ,=GIV5ESS ( P]SONAL 9JURIES WAS ?R[N OV]BO>D1 LIKE UNNECESS>Y BALLA/1 & 9 ?IS WAY WAS DISC>D$ ?AT :I* CON/ITUT$ ! FUNDAM5TAL DIFF]5CE BETWE5 ,*RI/IANITY & ALL PREC$+ RELIGIONS EXCEPT ,BUDDHISM4 #g 

,& REALLY1 IF WE EXAM9E )\T PREJUDICE NOT ONLY ! E>LI] RELIGIONS BUT EV5 ! USAGES & CU/OMS ( ! E>LIE/ TRIBAL MODE ( LIFE AMONG ! SAVAGES1 WE %ALL F9D ?AT 9 ALL ! PRIMITIVE RELIGIONS & 9 ! MO/ PRIMITIVE GR\PS IT WAS ALREADY CONSID]$1 & IS N[ CONSID]$1 A RULE NOT TO DO UNTO O!RS1 I4E41 TO M5 ( ! SAME TRIBE1 ?AT :I* Y\ DO NOT WANT DONE UNTO Y\RSELF4 ,= ?\S&S ( YE>S ALL HUMAN SOCIETIES HAVE BE5 BUILT ON ?IS RULE1 SO ?AT 9 ADVOCAT+ AN EQUITABLE ATTITUDE TO ONE'S [N PEOPLE ,*RI/IANITY 9TRODUC$ NO?+ NEW4 #h 

,AS A MATT] ( FACT1 9 SU* AN OLD MONUM5T ( ! TRIBAL SY/EM AS ! ,OLD ,TE/AM5T1 WE F9D A RULE3 0,?\ %ALT NOT AV5GE1 NOR BE> ANY GRUDGE AGA9/ ! *ILDR5 ( ?Y PEOPLE1 BUT ?\ %ALT LOVE ?Y NEI<BOR AS ?YSELF40 ,?IS IS SAID 9 ! NAME ( ,GOD 9 ! ?IRD BOOK ( ! ,P5TATEU* 7,LEVITICUS1 XIX1 #a#h74 ,& ! SAME RULE WAS APPLI$ TO ! /RANG]3 0,! /RANG] ?AT DWELLE? ) Y\ %ALL BE UNTO Y\ AS ONE BORN AMONG Y\1 & ?\ %ALT LOVE HIM AS ?YSELF3 = YE W]E /RANG]S 9 ! L& ( ,EGYPT40 7,LEVITICUS1 XIX1 #c#d74 ,SIMIL>LY1 ! ASS]TION ( ! ,EVANGELI/S1 SO POETICALLY EXPRESS$ 9 ! GOSPEL ( ,/4 ,M>K 7*4 XIII71  ?AT !RE IS NO HI<] M]IT ?AN TO LAY D[N ONE'S S\L = ONE'S 'PEOPLE1 EV5 ?IS APPEAL CANNOT BE CONSID]$ AS A DI/+UI%+ FEATURE ( ,*RI/IANITY1 BECAUSE SELF-SACRIFICE = ONE'S [N PEOPLE WAS EULOGIZ$ BY ALL ! HEA!N PEOPLES1 & ! DEF5SE ( NE> ONES AT ! RISK ( ONE'S LIFE IS A COMMON PH5OM5ON NOT ONLY AMONG ! MO/ SAVAGE TRIBES1 BUT ALSO AMONG MO/ ( ! SOCIAL ANIMALS4 

,! SAME IS TRUE ( *>ITY1 :I* IS (T5 REPRES5T$ AS A DI/+UI%+ FEATURE ( ,*RI/IANITY AS CONTRA/$ ) PAGAN ANTIQUITY4 ,! FACT ( ! MATT] IS ?AT EV5 9 ! TRIBAL SY/EM IT WAS & /ILL IS CONSID]$ A CRIME TO REFUSE %ELT] TO ONE ( ! SAME TRIBE -- OR EV5 TO AN UNKN[N W&]]1 -- OR NOT TO %>E A MEAL ) !M4 ,I HAVE ALREADY M5TION$ 9 ! ?IRD *APT] ?AT AN ACCID5TALLY IMPOV]I%$ ,BURIAT HAS A RI<T TO BE F$ 9 TURN BY EA* MEMB] ( HIS TRIBE1 & ALSO ?AT ! ,FUEGIANS1 ! ,HOTT5TOTS1 & ALL O!R 0SAVAGES0 DIVIDE AMONG !MSELVES EQUALLY EV]Y MORSEL ( FOOD GIV5 !M AS A PRES5T4 ,!RE=E1 IF 9 ! ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE1 ESPECIALLY 9 ! CITIES1 SU* CU/OMS ( ! TRIBAL SY/EM HAD ACTUALLY DISAPPE>$1 IT WAS NOT ! FAULT ( ,PAGANISM BUT ( ! 5TIRE POLITICAL SY/EM ( ! ALL-CONQU]+ ,EMPIRE4 ,I WILL REM>K1 H[EV]1 ?AT 9 PAGAN ,ITALY1 9 ! TIMES ( ,NUMA ,POMPILIUS1 & !N MU* LAT]1 9 ! DAYS ( ! ,EMPIRE1 !RE W]E /RONGLY DEVELOP$ ! SO-CALL$ 0COLLEGIA10 I4E41 ASSOCIATIONS ( CRAFTSM51 KN[N1 9 ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 AS ! 0GUILDS40 ,!SE ,COLLEGIA PRACTIC$ ! SAME COMPULSORY MUTUAL AID2 ON C]TA9 DAYS !Y HAD MEALS 9 COMMON1 ETC41 :I* USAGE LAT] BECAME A DI/+UI%+ FEATURE ( EV]Y GUILD4 ,!RE=E1 ! QUE/ION PRES5TS ITSELF3 WAS MUTUAL AID TRULY ALI5 TO ! ,ROMAN PRE-,*RI/IAN SOCIETY1 AS IS ASS]T$ BY SOME WRIT]S1 :O PO9T TO ! ABS5CE ( /ATE*>ITY & ( RELIGI\S *>ITY8 ,OR WAS '! NE$ ( *>ITY BR\<T AB\T BY ! WEAK5+ ( ! CRAFTS ORGANIZATIONS ( ! COLLEGIA AS /ATE C5TRALIZATION 9CREAS$8 

,WE MU/1 !RE=E1 ACKN[L$GE1 ?AT 9 PREA*+ FRAT]NITY & MUTUAL AID AMONG ONE'S [N PEOPLE1 ,*RI/IANITY DID NOT 9TRODUCE ANY NEW MORAL PR9CIPLE4 ,BUT ! PO9T :]E ,*RI/IANITY & ,BUDDHISM DID 9TRODUCE A NEW PR9CIPLE 9TO ! LIFE ( HUMANITY WAS 9 DEM&+ ( MAN COMPLETE =GIV5ESS = ! H>M 9FLICT$ UPON HIM4 ,UP TO ?AT TIME ! TRIBAL MORALITY ,( ALL PEOPLES DEM&$ REV5GE1 P]SONAL OR EV5 TRIBAL1 = EV]Y 9JURY3 = MURD]1 = W\ND1 = 9SULT4 ,BUT ! TEA*+ ( ,*RI/1 9 ITS ORIG9AL =M1 REJECT$ BO? REV5GE & LEGAL PROSECUTION1 DEM&+ FROM ! WRONG$ P]SON A R5UNCIATION ( ALL RETRIBUTION0 & COMPLETE =GIV5ESS = 9JURY1 & NOT M]ELY ONCE OR TWICE1 BUT ALWAYS1 9 EV]Y CASE4 ,9 ! WORDS1 0,DO NOT TAKE V5GEANCE ON Y\R 5EMIES10 LIES ! TRUE GREATNESS ( ,*RI/IANITY4#a 

,BUT ! PR9CIPAL COMM&M5T ( ,*RI/1 DIRECT+ ! R5UNCIATION ( ALL V5GEANCE1 WAS V]Y SOON REJECT$ BY ! ,*RI/IANS4 ,EV5 ! ,APO/LES ADH]$ TO IT 9 A CONSID]ABLY MODIFI$ =M3 0,BE NOT R5D]+ EVIL = EVIL1 OR RAIL+ = RAIL+2 BUT CONTR>IWISE1 BLESS+10 WROTE ,APO/LE ,PET] 9 HIS FIR/ 0,EPI/LE ,G5]AL0 7III1 #i74 ,BUT ,/4 ,PAUL M]ELY H9TS FEEBLY AT ! =GIV5ESS ( 9JURIES1 & EV5 ?AT H9T IS EXPRESS$ 9 EGOI/IC =M3 0,!RE=E ?\ >T 9EXCUSABLE1 ,O MAN1 :OSOEV] ?\ >T1 ?AT JUDGE/ 7ANO!R7 3 = :]E9 ?\ JUDGE/ ANO!R1 ?\ CONDEMNE/ ?YSELF40 7,EPI/LE TO ! ,ROMANS1 II1 #a74 ,9 G5]AL1 9/EAD ( ! DEF9ITE COMM&M5TS ( ,*RI/1 REJECT+ V5GEANCE1 ! APO/LES (F] ! TIMID ADVICE TO 0PO/PONE V5GEANCE10 & ADVISE A G5]AL GOSPEL ( LOVE4 ,?US1 F9ALLY1 V5GEANCE ?R\< ! C\RTS4 EV5 9 ITS MO/ CRUEL =MS1 BECAME A NECESS>Y ESS5CE (?AT :I* IS KN[N AS JU/ICE 9 ,*RI/IAN /ATES & 9 ! ,*RI/IAN ,*UR*4 ,IT IS SIGNIFICANT ?AT PRIE/ & EXECUTION] >E TOGE!R AT ! SCAFFOLD4 

,A SIMIL> FATE BEFELL ANO!R FUNDAM5TAL PR9CIPLE 9 ,*RI/'S TEA*+4 ,HIS TEA*+ WAS ! TEA*+ ( EQUALITY4 ,A SLAVE & A FREE ,ROMAN CITIZ5 W]E = HIM EQUALLY BRO!RS1 *ILDR5 ( ,GOD4 0,& :OSOEV] ( Y\ WILL BE ! *IEFE/1 %ALL BE S]VANT ( ALL10 TAU<T ,*RI/4 7,/4 ,M>K1 X1 #d#d74 ,BUT 9 ! ,APO/LES WE ALREADY F9D DIFF]5T IDEAS4 ,! SLAVES & ! SUBJECTS >E EQUAL TO !IR MA/]S 444 09 ,*RI/40 ,BUT 9 REALITY ! ,APO/LES ,/4 ,PET] & ,/4 ,PAUL PRES5T AS A FUNDAM5TAL ,*RI/IAN VIRTUE ! OB$I5CE ( SUBJECTS TO ! E/ABLI%$ AU?ORITIES AS TO ,GOD'S ANO9T$ ) 0FE> & TREPIDATION10 & ! OB$I5CE ( SLAVES TO !IR MA/]S4 ,!SE TWO ,APO/LES M]ELY RECOMM5D TO ! SLAVEHOLD]S A MORE K9DLY ATTITUDE T[>D !IR S]VANTS1 & NOT AT ALL ! R5UNCIATION ( ! RI<T TO [N SLAVES1 EV5 9 CASES :]E ! SLAVE-[N]S HAPP5 TO BE 0FAI?FUL & BELOV$10 I4E41 ?OSE CONV]T$ TO ,*RI/IANITY4 #aa 

,?IS ADVICE ( ! ,APO/LES C\LD ( C\RSE BE EXPLA9$ BY !IR DESIRE NOT TO SUBJECT !IR FOLL[]S TO ! BEA/LY CRUELTY ( ! ,ROMAN ,EMP]ORS4 ,BUT ?R\< PREA*+ OB$I5CE TO ! BEA/-LIKE ,CAES>S AS TO ,GOD'S ANO9T$1 ,*RI/IANITY DEALT ITSELF A BL[ FROM :I* IT HAS NOT RECOV]$ TO ?IS DAY4 ,IT BECAME ! RELIGION ( ! ,/ATE4 

,AS A RESULT1 SLAV]Y & SLAVI% OB$I5CE TO ! RUL]S1 BO? SUPPORT$ BY ! ,*UR*1 5DUR$ = ELEV5 C5TURIES1 UP TO ! FIR/ T[NSFOLK & PEASANT UPRIS+S ( ! ELEV5? & TWELF? C5TURIES4 

,JOHN ,*RYSO/OM1 ,POPE ,GREGORY1 :OM ! ,*UR* CALL$ ! ,GREAT1 & V>I\S PEOPLE :OM ! ,*UR* 9CLUD$ AMONG ! SA9TS1 APPROV$ SLAV]Y1 & ,/4 ,AUGU/9E EV5 V9DICAT$ IT1 ASS]T+ ?AT S9N]S BECAME SLAVES 9 PUNI%M5T = !IR S9S4 ,EV5 ! COMP>ATIVELY LIB]AL PHILOSOPH]1 ,?OMAS ,AQU9AS1 ASS]T$ ?AT SLAV]Y IS A 0DIV9E LAW40 ,V]Y FEW SLAVE-[N]S SET !IR SLAVES FREE1 & SOME BI%OPS COLLECT$ MONEY 9 ORD] TO BUY ! SLAVES !IR FRE$OM4 ,& ONLY ) ! BEG9N+ ( ! ,CRUSADES C\LD ! SLAVES BE LIB]AT$ FROM !IR MA/]S BY SEW+ A CROSS TO !IR SLEEVES & GO+ TO ! ,EA/ = ! CONQUE/ ( ,J]USALEM4 

,! ,*UR* WAS FOLL[$ OP5LY OR TACITLY BY MO/ PHILOSOPH]S4 ,ONLY 9 ! EI<TE5? C5TURY1 ON ! EVE ( ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 W]E VOICES ( ! FREE?9K]S RAIS$ AGA9/ SLAV]Y4 ,IT WAS ! ,REVOLUTION & NOT ! ,*UR* ?AT ABOLI%$ SLAV]Y 9 ! ,FR5* ,COLONIES & S]FDOM 9 ,FRANCE ITSELF4 ,BUT DUR+ ! FIR/ HALF ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 TRAD+ 9 NEGRO-SLAVES FL\RI%$ 9 ,EUROPE & 9 ,AM]ICA & ! ,*UR* WAS SIL5T4 ,9 ,RUSSIA ! ABOLITION ( SLAV]Y1 KN[N AS PEASANT S]FDOM1 BECAME AN ACCOMPLI%$ FACT ONLY 9 #a#h#f#a4 ,IT WAS PREP>$ = BY ! PLOTS ( ! ,DECEMBRI/S 9 #ahbe & ( ! ,PETRA%EVI/S 9 #a#h#d#h1 AS WELL AS BY ! PEASANT UPRIS+ ( ! 'FIFTIES1 REAWAK5+ 9 ! NOBILITY ! FE> ( ANO!R ,PUGA*EV REBELLION4 ,9 #ahfc ! ABOLITION ( SLAV]Y TOOK PLACE ALSO 9 ! 0DEEPLY RELIGI\S0 ,UNIT$ ,/ATES4 ,AFT] A BLOODY /RUGGLE ) ! SLAVE-[N]S1 ! SLAVES W]E PROCLAIM$ FREE2 !Y W]E GIV5 = !IR SUBSI/5CE1 H[EV]1 NOT EV5 AN 9* ( ! SOIL ?AT !Y HAD CULTIVAT$4 

,*RI/IANITY PROV$ IMPOT5T 9 ! /RUGGLE AGA9/ ! GRE$ ( ! SLAVE-[N]S & ! SLAVE-DEAL]S4 ,SLAV]Y 5DUR$ UNTIL ! SLAVES !MSELVES BEGAN TO REVOLT1 & UNTIL ! DEVELOPM5T ( MA*9E PRODUCTION (F]$ ! POSSIBILITY ( EXTRACT+ MORE PR(ITS FROM HIR$ LABOR ?AN FROM ! LABOR ( ! PEASANT S]FS OR ! SLAVES4 

,?US ! TWO FUNDAM5TAL PR9CIPLES ( ,*RI/IANITY -- EQUALITY1 & ! =GIV5ESS ( 9JURIES -- W]E REJECT$ BY ITS FOLL[]S & BY ITS PREA*]S4 ,& FIFTE5 C5TURIES PASS$ BE=E SOME WRIT]S BROKE ) RELIGION & D>$ TO RECOGNIZE ONE ( !SE PR9CIPLES1 EQUALITY ( RI<TS1 AS ! F\NDATION ( CIVIC SOCIETY4 

,F9ALLY1 IT MU/ BE PO9T$ \T ?AT ,*RI/IANITY HAD ALSO CON-FIRM$ ! BELIEF 9 ! DEVIL & HIS HO/S AS ! P[]FUL RIVALS ( ! ,GOOD4 ,! BELIEF 9 ! MI<T ( ! ,EVIL ,P[] BECAME ESPECIALLY /R5G!N$ AT ! TIME ( ! GREAT TRANSMIGRATIONS ( ! PEOPLES4 ,LAT] ! ,*UR* FULLY UTILIZ$ ?IS BELIEF 9 ORD] TO ANNIHILATE ?OSE 0S]VANTS ( ! DEVIL0 :O D>$ TO CRITICIZE ITS LEAD]S4 ,MORE ?AN ?AT3 -- ! ,ROMAN ,*UR* EV5 CONSID]$ ! ,*RI/IAN PROHIBITION ( V5GEANCE AS A MI/AKE ( A TOO K9D ,TEA*]1 & IT SUB/ITUT$ = M]CY ITS SWORD & ITS BONFIRES1 TO DE/ROY ?OSE :OM IT CONSID]$ H]ETICS4 #ab 

,9 SPITE ( ALL ! P]SECUTIONS ( ! ,*RI/IANS 9 ! ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE1 & 9 SPITE ( ! SMALL NUMB]S ( ! E>LY ,*RI/IAN COMMUNES DUR+ ! FIR/ FEW C5TURIES1 ,*RI/IANITY CONT9U$ TO CONQU] M9DS1 FIR/ 9 ,ASIA ,M9OR1 & !N 9 ,GREECE1 9 ,SICILY1 9 ,ITALY1 &1 9 G5]AL1 ?R\<\T ,WE/]N ,EUROPE4 ,*RI/IANITY WAS A PROTE/ AGA9/ ! 5TIRE MODE ( LIFE 9 ! ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE ( ?AT TIME1 & AGA9/ ! IDEALS ( ?AT LIFE1 :]E ! OPUL5CE ( ! RUL+ CLASSES WAS BAS$ ON ! DESP]ATE POV]TY ( ! PEASANTS & ( ! T[N PROLET>IAT1 & :]E ! 0CULTURE0 ( ! WELL-TO-DO WAS LIMIT$ TO ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! COM=TS ( LIFE & TO A C]TA9 EXT]NAL ELEGANCE1 ) TOTAL NEGLECT ( ! HI<] SPIRITUAL NE$S1 BO? M5TAL & MORAL4 #ac ,BUT ALREADY AT ?AT TIME MANY FELT DISSATISFI$ ) ! REF9EM5TS ( ! PLEASURES ( ! HI<] CLASSES1 C\PL$ ) ! G5]AL DEGRADATION2 & !RE=E1 NOT ONLY ! POOR :OM ,*RI/IANITY PROMIS$ LIB]ATION1 BUT ALSO SEP>ATE 9DIVIDUALS FROM AMONG ! FREE & ! WEAL?Y CLASSES S\<T 9 ,*RI/IANITY A WAY TO A MORE SPIRITUAL LIFE4 

,AT ! SAME TIME1 MI/RU/ ( HUMAN NATURE WAS DEVELOP+4 ,IT HAD BEGUN TO MANIFE/ ITSELF ALREADY 9 ! ,GRECO-,ROMAN WORLD ( ! TIME ( ,PLATO & HIS FOLL[]S4 ,& N[1 UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( ! H>% CONDITIONS ( LIFE AT ! TIME ( ! GREAT TRANSMIGRATIONS ( ! PEOPLES1 9 ! FACE ( ! 9IQUITIES ( ,ROMAN SOCIETY1 & UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( ! ,EA/1 PESSIMISM BEGAN TO DEVELOP2 FAI? 9 ! POSSIBILITY ( ATTA9+ A BETT] FUTURE ?R\< ! EF=TS ( ,MAN HIMSELF1 WAS WAN+4 ,! ASSURANCE GREW ( ! TRIUMPH ( ! ,EVIL ,P[] ON E>?1 & PEOPLE WILL+LY S\<T CONSOLATION 9 ! FAI? 9 LIFE AFT] DEA?1 :]E !RE IS TO BE NO E>?LY EVIL OR SUFF]+4 

,UND] SU* CIRCUM/ANCES ,*RI/IANITY ACQUIR$ GREAT] & GREAT] P[] OV] ! M9D4 ,IT IS REM>KABLE1 H[EV]1 ?AT IT PRODUC$ NO SUB/ANTIAL *ANGE 9 ! G5]AL MODE ( LIFE4 ,& 9DE$1 NOT ONLY DID IT FAIL TO ORIG9ATE ANY NEW =MS ( LIFE AT ALL WIDELY DI/RIBUT$1 BUT IT EV5 BECAME RECONCIL$1 LIKE PAGANISM =M]LY1 TO ,ROMAN SLAV]Y1 TO ,NORMAN S]FDOM1 & TO ! ABOM9ATIONS ( ,ROMAN ABSOLUTISM4 ,! ,*RI/IAN PRIE/S SOON BECAME ! SUPPORT]S ( ! EMP]ORS4 ,PROP]TY 9EQUALITY & POLITICAL OPPRESSION REMA9$ ! SAME AS BE=E1 & ! M5TAL DEVELOPM5T ( SOCIETY WAS CONSID]ABLY L[]4 ,*RI/IANITY DID NOT DEVELOP ANY NEW SOCIAL =MS4 ,& REALLY1 AWAIT+ A SPE$Y 5D ( ! WORLD1 IT TOOK LITTLE 9T]E/ 9 SU* RE=MS1 SO ?AT MORE ?AN A ?\S& YE>S ELAPS$ BE=E1 FROM 5TIRELY DIFF]5T S\RCES1 NEW SY/EMS ( LIFE BEGAN TO BE DEVELOP$ 9 ,EUROPE 9 ! CITIES ?AT DECL>$ !MSELVES 9DEP5D5T1 FIR/ ALONG ! %ORES ( ! ,M$IT]RANEAN1 & LAT] 9L& AS WELL4 ,9 !SE NEW C5T]S ( FREE LIFE1 :I* RESEMBL$ 9 ?IS RESPECT ! FREE CITIES ( ,ANCI5T ,GREECE1 !RE BEGAN ALSO ! REVIVAL ( ! SCI5CES1 :I* HAD SUFF]$ A DECL9E FROM ! TIME ( ! ,MAC$ONIAN & ,ROMAN ,EMPIRES4 

,AT ! TIME ( ! ,APO/LES1 ! FOLL[]S ( ,*RI/1 :O LIV$ 9 EXPECTATION ( ! SPE$Y ,SECOND ,ADV5T1 W]E *IEFLY CONC]N$ 9 SPREAD+ ! TEA*+ ?AT PROMIS$ M5 SALVATION4 ,!Y HA/5$ TO SPREAD ! 0HAPPY TID+S10 &1 IF NECESS>Y1 P]I%$ BY ! M>TYR'S DEA?4 ,BUT AS E>LY AS ! SECOND C5TURY ( ! ,*RI/IAN ,]A ! ,*RI/IAN 0,*UR*0 BEGAN TO DEVELOP4 ,IT IS WELL KN[N H[ EASILY NEW RELIGIONS SPLIT 9TO NUM]\S FACTIONS 9 ! ,EA/4 ,EV]Y ONE 9T]PRETS ! NEW TEA*+ 9 HIS [N WAY & ADH]ES FANATICALLY TO HIS 9T]PRETATION4 ,*RI/IANITY WAS ALSO 9 DANG] ( SU* A SPLITT+ 9TO SMALL P>TS1 ALL ! MORE BECAUSE 9 ,ASIA ,M9OR & 9 ,EGYPT1 :]E IT WAS RAPIDLY SPREAD+1 IT WAS BE+ COMM+L$ ) O!R RELIGIONS3 ,BUDDHISM & ANCI5T PAGANISM4 #ad ,9 VIEW ( ?IS FACT1 FROM ! E>LIE/ TIMES ! TEA*] ( ,*RI/IANITY AIM$ TO CREATE 9 ACCORDANCE ) ! ANCI5T TRADITION1 A 0*UR*10 I4E41 A CLOSELY ASSOCIAT$ GR\P ( TEA*]S :O W]E TO KEEP ! TEA*+ 9 ALL ITS PURITY1 OR1 AT LEA/1 9 UNI=M CONDITION4 

,BUT ) ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! *UR*ES AS ! GU>DIANS ( ! TEA*+ & ( ITS RITES1 !RE CAME 9TO EXI/5CE1 AS 9 ,BUDDHISM1 ON ! ONE H& ! MONA/IC 9/ITUTION1 I4E41 ! )DRAWAL ( SOME ( ! TEA*]S FROM SOCIETY1 & ON ! O!R H&1 !RE WAS =M$ A SPECIAL1 P[]FUL CA/E1 ! CL]GY1 & ! RAPPRO*EM5T ( ?IS CA/E ) ! SECUL> P[] GREW /EADILY4 ,9 GU>D+ :AT IT CONSID]$ ! PURITY ( FAI?1 & 9 P]SECUT+ :AT IT CONSID]$ P]V]SION & CRIM9AL H]ESY1 ! ,*UR* SOON REA*$ ! LIMIT ( CRUELTY 9 ITS P]SECUTIONS ( ! 0APO/ATES40 ,& = ! SAKE ( SUCCESS 9 ?IS /RUGGLE1 IT FIR/ S\<T & !N DEM&$ SUPPORT FROM ! SECUL> P[]S1 :I* 9 TURN DEM&$ FROM ! ,*UR* A B5EVOL5T ATTITUDE T[>D !M & A SUPPORT BY RELIGION ( !IR TYRANNICAL P[] OV] ! PEOPLE4 

,?US ! FUNDAM5TAL ?\<T ( ! ,*RI/IAN TEA*+1 ITS MODE/Y1 ITS 0SPIRIT ( MEEK WISDOM0 WAS BE+ =GOTT54 ,! MOVEM5T :I* BEGAN AS A PROTE/ AGA9/ ! ABOM9ATIONS ( ! RUL+ P[]1 N[ BECAME A TOOL ( ?AT P[]4 ,! BLESS+ ( ! ,*UR* NOT ONLY =GAVE ! RUL]S !IR CRIMES1 -- IT ACTUALLY EV5 REPRES5T$ !SE CRIMES AS ! FULFILLM5T ( ,GOD'S WILL4 

,AT ! SAME TIME ! ,*RI/IAN ,*UR* US$ ALL ITS EF=TS TO PREV5T ! /UDY+ BY ! ,*RI/IANS ( 0PAGAN ANTIQUITY40 ,! MONUM5TS & ! MANUSCRIPTS ( ANCI5T ,GREECE1 ! ONLY S\RCES ( KN[L$GE AT ?AT TIME1 W]E BE+ DE/ROY$1 = ! ,*UR* SAW 9 !M ONLY 0PRIDE0 & 0FAI?LESSNESS0 SUGGE/$ BY ! DEVIL4 ,?IS PROHIBITION WAS SO /RICT1 & SUIT$ SO WELL ! G5]AL 9TOL]ANT SPIRIT ( ,*RI/IANITY1 ?AT SOME ( ! WRIT+S ( ! ,GREEK ?9K]S DISAPPE>$ COMPLETELY1 & !Y REA*$ ,WE/]N ,EUROPE ONLY BECAUSE !Y W]E PRES]V$ BY ! ,>ABS 9 ,>ABIAN TRANSLATIONS4 ,?US ZEAL\SLY1 ,*RI/IANITY WAS /AMP+ \T ! 0,HELL5IC WISDOM40 #ae 

,9 ! MEANTIME1 H[EV]1 ! FEUDAL SY/EM1 ) ITS S]FDOM1 :I* E/ABLI%$ ITSELF 9 ,EUROPE AFT] ! DISRUPTION ( ! ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE1 BEGAN TO DIS9TEGRATE1 ESPECIALLY FROM ! TIME ( ! ,CRUSADES & AFT] A S]IES ( S]I\S PEASANT UPRIS+S & ( REVOLTS 9 T[NS4 #af 

,[+ TO ! 9T]C\RSE ) ! ,EA/1 & [+ TO ! 9CREAS+ COMM]CIAL ACTIVITY ON SEA & L&1 ,EUROPE GRADUALLY DEVELOP$ CITIES 9 :I*1 SIDE BY SIDE ) ! DEVELOPM5T ( COMM]CE1 CRAFTS1 & >TS1 WAS DEVELOP$ ALSO ! SPIRIT ( FRE$OM4 ,BEG9N+ ) ! T5? C5TURY !SE CITIES BEGAN TO OV]?R[ ! P[] ( !IR SECUL> RUL]S & ( ! BI%OPS4 ,SU* REVOLTS SPREAD RAPIDLY4 ,! CITIZ5S ( ! REVOLT+ CITIES DREW UP = !MSELVES ! 0*>T]S0 OR ! 0/ATUTES0 ( !IR RI<TS1 & EI!R =C$ ! RUL]S TO RECOGNIZE & TO SIGN !SE *>T]S1 OR SIMPLY EXPELL$ !IR RUL]S & SWORE TO OBS]VE AMONG !MSELVES !SE NEW /ATUTES ( FRE$OM4 ,! T[NSFOLK FIR/ ( ALL REFUS$ TO RECOGNIZE ! C\RTS ( ! BI%OPS OR ( ! PR9CES1 & ELECT$ !IR [N JUDGES2 !Y CREAT$ !IR [N T[N MILITIA = ! DEF5SE ( ! CITY & APPO9T$ ITS COMM&]1 & F9ALLY1 !Y 5T]$ 9TO ALLIANCES & F$]ATIONS ) O!R FREE CITIES4 ,MANY CITIES ALSO LIB]AT$ FROM ! YOKE ( ! SECUL> & ! ECCLESIA/ICAL RUL]S ! PEASANTS ( ! NEI<BOR+ DI/RICTS1 BY S5D+ ! T[N MILITIA TO ! ASSI/ANCE ( ! VILLAGES4 ,G5OA1 = EXAMPLE1 ACT$ 9 ?IS MANN] AS E>LY AS ! T5? C5TURY4 ,& GRADUALLY ! LIB]ATION ( ! CITIES & ! =MATION ( FREE COMMUNITIES SPREAD ?R\<\T ,EUROPE3 FIR/ 9 ,ITALY & 9 ,SPA91 !N 9 ! TWELF? C5TURY 9 ,FRANCE1 9 ! ,NE!RL&S1 & 9 ,5GL&1 & F9ALLY ?R\<\T ! :OLE ( ,C5TRAL ,EUROPE1 AS F> AS ,BOHEMIA1 ,POL&1 & EV5 ,NOR?WE/]N ,RUSSIA1 :]E ,NOVGOROD & ,PSKOV1 ) !IR COLONIES 9 ,VIATKA1 ,VOLOGDA1 ETC41 EXI/$ AS FREE DEMOCRACIES = A P]IOD ( A FEW C5TURIES4 ,9 ?IS MANN] ! FREE CITIES W]E REVIV+ ! FREE POLITICAL SY/EM1 DUE TO :I*1 FIFTE5 HUNDR$ YE>S E>LI]1 5LI<T5M5T HAD BLOSSOM$ =? SO SPL5DIDLY 9 ,ANCI5T ,GREECE4 ,! SAME SITUATION N[ REPEAT$ ITSELF 9 ! FREE CITIES ( ,WE/]N & ,C5TRAL ,EUROPE4 #ag 

,& SIMULTANE\SLY ) ! BIR? ( ! NEW FREE LIFE1 !RE BEGAN ALSO ! REVIVAL ( KN[L$GE1 >T1 & FRE$OM ( ?\<T :I* HAS RECEIV$ 9 HI/ORY ! NAME ( 0,! ,R5AISSANCE4 

,I %ALL REFRA9 H]E1 H[EV]1 FROM AN ANALYSIS ( ! CAUSES :I* BR\<T ,EUROPE TO 0R5ASC5CE & !N TO ! SO-CALL$ 0,EPO* ( ,5LI<T5M5T40 ,!RE >E MANY SPL5DID WORKS AB\T ?IS REAWAK5+ ( ! HUMAN M9D FROM A LONG SLEEP1 & EV5 A BRIEF SURVEY ( !M W\LD LEAD US TOO F> AFIELD FROM \R IMM$IATE PURPOSE4 ,MOREOV]1 ,I %\LD HAVE TO DISCUSS MU* MORE FULLY ?AN HAS HI!RTO BE5 DONE1 NOT ONLY ! 9FLU5CE EX]CIS$ ON ! DEVELOPM5T ( SCI5CE & >T BY ! DISCOV]Y ( ! MONUM5TS ( ANCI5T ,GREEK SCI5CE1 >T1 & PHILOSOPHY1 AS WELL AS ! 9FLU5CE ( ! F> VOYAGES & TRAVELS UND]TAK5 9 ?IS P]IOD ( TRAD+ ) ! ,EA/1 ! DISCOV]Y ( ,AM]ICA1 ETC41 BUT ,I %\LD ALSO HAVE TO CONSID] ! 9FLU5CE ( ! NEW =MS ( SOCIAL LIFE ?AT DEVELOP$ 9 ! FREE CITIES4 ,!N IT W\LD ALSO BE NECESS>Y TO %[ H[ !SE CONDITIONS ( T[N LIFE & ! AWAK5+ ( ! PEASANT POPULATION L$ TO A NEW UND]/&+ ( ,*RI/IANITY & TO ! DEEP-ROOT$ POPUL> MOVEM5TS 9 :I* ! PROTE/ AGA9/ ! P[] ( ! ,*UR* WAS BL5D$ ) ! /RIV+ TO ?R[ (F ! YOKE1 ( S]FDOM4 

,SU* UPRIS+S SPREAD 9 A MI<TY WAVE OV] ! :OLE ( ,EUROPE4 ,!Y BEGAN ) ! MOVEM5T ( ! ,ALBIG5SES 9 ,S\!RN ,FRANCE 9 ! ELEV5? & TWELF? C5TURIES4 ,!N1 AT ! 5D ( ! F\RTE5? C5TURY1 9 ,5GL&1 !RE TOOK PLACE ! PEASANT UPRIS+S ( ,JOHN ,BALL1 ,WAT ,TYL]1 & ( ! ,LOLL>DS1 DIRECT$ AGA9/ ! LORDS & AGA9/ ! /ATE1 9 CONNECTION ) ! ,PROTE/ANT MOVEM5T ( ,WICKLIFFE4 ,9 ,BOHEMIA !RE DEVELOP$ ! TEA*+ ( ! GREAT RE=M] & M>TYR1 ,JOHN ,HUSS 7BURN$ AT ! /AKE BY ! ,*UR* 9 #a#d#a#e71 :OSE NUM]\S FOLL[]S ROSE UP AGA9/ ! ,CA?OLIC ,*UR* AS WELL AS AGA9/ ! YOKE ( ! FEUDAL LORDS4 ,!N BEGAN ! COMMUNI/IC MOVEM5T ( ! ,MORAVIAN ,BRO!RS 9 ,MORAVIA & ( ! ,ANABAPTI/S 9 ,HOLL&1 ,WE/]N ,G]MANY1 & ,SWITZ]L&4 ,BO? !SE MOVEM5TS AIM$ NOT ONLY TO PURIFY ,*RI/IANITY FROM ! EVILS ?AT HAD COME TO IT [+ TO ! SECUL> P[] ( ! CL]GY1 BUT ALSO TO *ANGE ! 5TIRE SOCIAL SY/EM TO ONE ( EQUALITY & COMMUNISM4 ,F9ALLY1 IT W\LD BE NECESS>Y TO DWELL ON ! GREAT PEASANT W>S ( ,G]MANY 9 ! SIXTE5? C5TURY1 :I* BEGAN 9 CONNECTION ) ! ,PROTE/ANT MOVEM5T1 -- AS WELL AS ON ! UPRIS+S AGA9/ ! P[] ( ! ,POPE1 ! L&LORDS1 & ! K+S1 :I* SPREAD OV] ,5GL& FROM #afci TO #afdh & :I* 5D$ 9 ! EXECUTION ( ! K+ & ! ABOLITION ( ! FEUDAL SY/EM4 ,( C\RSE1 NONE ( !SE MOVEM5TS ACCOMPLI%$ ITS POLITICAL1 ECONOMIC1 & MORAL AIMS4 ,BUT AT ANY RATE !Y CREAT$ 9 ,EUROPE TWO COMP>ATIVELY FREE F$]ATIONS -- ,SWITZ]L& & ,HOLL&1 -- & !N TWO COMP>ATIVELY FREE C\NTRIES -- ,5GL& & ,FRANCE1 -- :]E M9DS W]E ALREADY PREP>$ TO SU* AN EXT5T ?AT ! TEA*+S ( ! FREE-?9K+ WRIT]S F\ND NUM]\S FOLL[]S1 & :]E ?9K]S C\LD WRITE1 & SOMETIMES EV5 PR9T !IR WORKS1 )\T ! RISK ( BE+ BURN$ AT ! /AKE BY ! PR9CES ( ! ,*RI/IAN ,*UR*1 OR ( BE+ IMPRISON$ = LIFE4 

,9 ORD] TO EXPLA9 FULLY ! REVIVAL ( PHILOSOPHICAL ?\<T :I* *>ACT]IZ$ ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY1 IT W\LD BE NECESS>Y1 !RE=E1 TO TRACE ! 9FLU5CE ( !SE REVOLUTION>Y POPUL> MOVEM5TS TOGE!R ) ! 9FLU5CE ( ! !N NEWLY DISCOV]$ REMA9S ( ANCI5T ,GREEK LIT]ATURE1 -- ?OSE WORKS ?AT >E SO EASILY DISCUSS$ 9 ALL ! HI/ORIES ( ! ,R5AISSANCE1 ) NO M5TION MADE ( ! POPUL> MOVEM5TS4 ,BUT SU* AN 9VE/IGATION 9 ! REALM ( ! G5]AL PHILOSOPHY ( HI/ORY W\LD LEAD US TOO F> AFIELD FROM \R IMM$IATE PURPOSE4 ,I WILL !RE=E LIMIT MYSELF TO PO9T+ \T ?AT ALL !SE CAUSES TAK5 TOGE!R HELP$ TO DEVELOP A NEW & FRE] MODE ( LIFE4 ,& BY GIV+ A NEW DIRECTION TO ?\<T !Y HELP$ GRADUALLY ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! NEW SCI5CE :I* WAS SL[LY LIB]AT+ ITSELF FROM ! W>D%IP ( !OLOGY2 !Y HELP$ ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! NEW PHILOSOPHY :I* WAS /RIV+ TO EMBRACE ! LIFE ( ALL ( ,NATURE & TO EXPLA9 IT ON A NATURAL BASIS2 & F9ALLY1 !Y HELP$ TO AWAK5 ! CREATIVE P[]S ( ! HUMAN M9D4 ,AT ! SAME TIME ,I %ALL ATTEMPT TO %[ ! EV]-9CREAS+ PROM95CE ASSUM$ !REAFT] 9 ! MORAL FIELD BY FREE P]SONALITY1 :I* PROCLAIM$ ITS 9DEP5D5CE ( ! ,*UR*1 ! ,/ATE1 & ! E/ABLI%$ TRADITIONS4 

,9 ! C\RSE ( ! FIR/ T5 C5TURIES ( \R ]A ! ,*RI/IAN ,*UR* SAW 9 ! /UDY ( ,NATURE SOME?+ UNNECESS>Y1 OR EV5 H>MFUL1 LEAD+ TO CONCEIT & TO 0PRIDE10 & PRIDE WAS P]SECUT$ AS A S\RCE ( FAI?LESSNESS4 ,! MORAL ELEM5T 9 M51 ASS]T$ ! ,*UR*1 ORIG9ATES NOT AT ALL 9 HIS NATURE1 :I* CAN ONLY URGE HIM T[>D EVIL1 BUT EXCLUSIVELY 9 DIV9E REVELATION4 ,EV]Y 9VE/IGATION ( ! NATURAL S\RCES ( MORALITY 9 MAN WAS REJECT$1 & !RE=E ,GREEK SCI5CE1 :I* ATTEMPT$ TO BASE MORALITY ON A NATURALI/IC F\NDATION1 WAS CATEGORICALLY REJECT$4 ,=TUNATELY1 ! SCI5CES ORIG9AT$ 9 ,GREECE F\ND A REFUGE AMONG ! ,>ABS1 :O TRANSLAT$ ,GREEK WRIT]S 9TO !IR LANGUAGE1 & :O !MSELVES CONTRIBUT$ TO \R KN[L$GE1 ESPECIALLY AB\T ! GLOBE & ! CELE/IAL BODIES1 -- AS WELL AS MA!MATICS 9 G5]AL & M$IC9E4 ,! KN[L$GE ( ! MORAL WAS CONSID]$ BY ,>ABIAN SCI5CE1 AS BY ,GREEK1 A P>T ( ! KN[L$GE ( ,NATURE4 ,BUT ! ,*RI/IAN ,*UR* REJECT$ ?IS KN[L$GE AS H]ETICAL4 ,?IS SITUATION LA/$ = OV] A ?\S& YE>S & ONLY 9 ! ELEV5? C5TURY1 :5 ! T[N REVOLTS BEGAN 9 ,EUROPE1 DID !RE BEG9 ALSO ! FREE-?9K+ 7RATIONALI/IC7 MOVEM5T4 ,A DILIG5T SE>* WAS MADE = ! SCATT]$ SURVIV+ MONUM5TS ( ANCI5T ,GREEK SCI5CE & PHILOSOPHY2 & FROM !SE S\RCES GEOMETRY1 PHYSICS1 A/RONOMY1 & PHILOSOPHY BEGAN TO BE /UDI$4 ,AMID ! DEEP D>KNESS ?AT HAD REIGN$ OV] ,EUROPE = SO MANY C5TURIES1 A DISCOV]Y & A TRANSLATION ( A MANUSCRIPT ( ,PLATO OR ,>I/OTLE BECAME AN EV5T ( WORLD IMPORTANCE2 IT OP5$ NEW1 UNKN[N HORIZONS1 IT AWAK5$ M9DS1 IT REVIV$ ! FEEL+ ( DELI<T 9 ,NATURE1 & IT >\S$ AT ! SAME TIME FAI? 9 ! P[] ( HUMAN REASON1 -- ! FAI? :I* ! ,*RI/IAN ,*UR* TOOK SU* PA9S TO DISC\RAGE4 ,FROM ?AT TIME !RE />T$ ! REVIVAL1 FIR/ ( SCI5CES & !N ( KN[L$GE 9 G5]AL1 AS WELL AS ( ! 9VE/IGATIONS 9TO ! ESS5CE & ! F\NDATIONS ( MORALITY4 ,ABEL>D ( ! MANY SORR[S1 7#a#g#i-#a#a#d#b71 E>LY 9 ! BEG9N+ ( ! TWELF? C5TURY1 D>$ TO ASS]T1 9 ACCORDANCE ) ! ?9K]S ( ,ANCI5T ,GREECE1 ?AT MAN C>RIES 9 HIMSELF ! RUDIM5TS ( MORAL CONCEPTIONS4 ,HE DID NOT F9D1 H[EV]1 ANY SUPPORT = ?IS H]ESY1 & ONLY 9 ! NEXT C5TURY DID !RE APPE> 9 ,FRANCE ! ?9K] ,?OMAS ,AQU9AS 7#a#b#b#e-#a#b#g#h71 :O TRI$ TO COMB9E ! TEA*+ ( ! ,*RI/IAN ,*UR* ) A P>T ( ,>I/OTLE'S TEA*+4 ,AB\T ! SAME TIME1 9 ,5GL&1 ,ROG] ,BACON 7#a#b#a#d-#a#b#i#d7 ATTEMPT$ AT LA/ TO REJECT SUP]NATURAL =CES 9 ! 9T]PRETATION ( NATURE 9 G5]AL1 AS WELL AS ( ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS ( MAN4 

,?IS T5D5CY1 H[EV]2 WAS SOON SUPPRESS$1 & IT TOOK ! ALREADY M5TION$ POPUL> MOVEM5TS1 7SPREAD+ ?R\< ,BOHEMIA1 ,MORAVIA1 ! L&S N[ =M+ ,G]MANY1 ,SWITZ]L&1 ,FRANCE1 -- ESPECIALLY ! ,S\!RN P>T1 -- ! ,NE!RL&S & ,5GL&71 -- IT TOOK HUNDR$S ( ?\S&S ( PEOPLE :O P]I%$ BY FIRE & SWORD :ILE !IR LEAD]S W]E SUBJECT$ TO T]RIBLE TORTURES1 -- 9 %ORT1 IT TOOK ! TREM5D\S UPHEAVAL ?AT GRADUALLY 9VOLV$ ! :OLE ( ,EUROPE FROM ! TWELF? TO ! SIXTE5? C5TURY1 BE=E ! ,*UR* & ! SECUL> RUL]S GUID$ BY IT1 P]MITT$ ?9K]S TO SPEAK & TO WRITE AB\T ! SOCIAL 9/9CT ( MAN AS ! S\RCE ( MORAL CONCEPTIONS1 & AB\T ! SIGNIFICANCE ( HUMAN REASON 9 ! WORK+ \T ( MORAL PR9CIPLES4 ,BUT EV5 !N ,?\<T1 FREE+ ITSELF FROM ! YOKE ( ! ,*UR*1 PREF]R$ TO ASCRIBE TO WISE RUL]S & LAWMAK]S ?AT :I* WAS =M]LY ASCRIB$ TO DIV9E REVELATION1 -- UNTIL AT LA/ A NEW CURR5T ( ?\<T D>$ TO ACKN[L$GE ?AT ! WORK+ \T ( ! MORAL PR9CIPLES WAS ! CREATIVE EF=T ( ALL ( HUMANITY4 

,9 ! MIDDLE ( ! SIXTE5? C5TURY1 %ORTLY BE=E ! DEA? ( ,COP]NICUS 7#a#d#g#c-#a#e#d#c71 APPE>$ HIS BOOK ON ! /RUCTURE ( \R PLANET>Y SY/EM4 ,?IS BOOK GAVE A P[]FUL IMPETUS TO SCI5TIFIC ?\<T4 ,! BOOK PROV$ ?AT ! ,E>? IS BY NO MEANS SITUAT$ 9 ! C5T] ( ! ,UNIV]SE1 & NOT EV5 9 ! C5T] ( \R PLANET>Y SY/EM2 ?AT ! SUN & ! />S DO NOT REVOLVE >\ND ! ,E>? AS IT SEEMS TO US2 & ?AT NOT ONLY \R ,E>? BUT ALSO ! ,SUN >\ND :I* IT REVOLVES >E M]E GRA9S ( S& AMID ! 9F9ITE NUMB] ( WORLDS4 ,!SE IDEAS DIFF]$ FUNDAM5TALLY FROM ! TEA*+S ( ! ,*UR*1 :I* ASS]T$ ?AT ! ,E>? IS ! C5T] ( ! ,UNIV]SE1 & ?AT ,MAN IS ! OBJECT ( SPECIAL CONC]N TO ! ,CREATOR ( ,NATURE4 ,( C\RSE ! ,*UR* BEGAN TO P]SECUTE CRUELLY ?IS TEA*+1 & MANY M5 FELL VICTIMS ( ?IS P]SECUTION4 ,?US AN ,ITALIAN1 ,GIORDANO ,BRUNO 7#a#e#d#h-#a#f71 WAS BURN$ BY ! ,9QUISITION AT ,ROME 9 #af = HIS WORK1 0,SPACCIO DELLA BE/IA TRIONFANTE10 9 :I* HE GAVE SUPPORT TO ! ,COP]NICAN H]ESY4 ,BUT ! NEW T5D5CY HAD ALREADY BE5 SET BY A/RONOM]S1 & 9 G5]AL !RE CAME A REALIZATION ( ! IMPORTANCE ( ACCURATE OBS]VATION & ( MA!MATICAL ANALYSIS1 & ( KN[L$GE BAS$ ON EXP]IM5T1 AS CONTRA/$ ) CONCLUSIONS BAS$ ON METAPHYSICS4 ,9 ,FLOR5CE !RE WAS EV5 ORGANIZ$ AN ,ACADEMY 0DEL ,CIM5TO10 I4E41 ( EXP]IM5T4 

,SOON AFT]W>DS1 9 #afi & #a#f#a#i1 DETAIL$ 9VE/IGATIONS ( ! LAWS ( PLANET>Y MOTION >\ND ! SUN BY ,KEPL] 7#a#e#g#a-#a#f#c7 CONFIRM$ ,COP]NICUS'S CONCLUSIONS1 & TW5TY YE>S LAT] ! ,ITALIAN SCI5TI/ ,GALILEO 7#a#e#f#d-#a#f#d#b7 PUBLI%$ HIS PR9CIPAL WORKS1 :I* NOT ONLY CONFIRM$ ! TEA*+ ( ,COP]NICUS BUT DEMON/RAT$ EV5 FUR!R :]E PHYSICS BAS$ ON EXP]IM5T LEADS4 ,= HIS ADH]5CE TO ! TEA*+ ( ,COP]NICUS ! ,*UR* SUBJECT$ ,GALILEO TO TORTURE 9 #a#f#c#c1 & HE WAS =C$ UND] TORTURE TO R5\NCE HIS 0H]ESY40 ,BUT ?\<T WAS ALREADY BE+ LIB]AT$ FROM ! YOKE ( ! ,*RI/IAN & ( ! OLD ,HEBREW TEA*+S1 & 9 ! ,5GLI% ?9K] & EXP]IM5T]1 ,FRANCIS ,BACON 7( ,V]ULAM7 SCI5CE F\ND1 NOT ONLY A CONT9UATOR ( ! BOLD 9VE/IGATIONS ( ,COP]NICUS1 ,KEPL]1 & ,GALILEO1 BUT ALSO ! F\ND] ( A NEW ME?OD ( SCI5TIFIC 9VE/IGATION -- ! 9DUCTIVE ME?OD1 BAS$ ON ! C>EFUL /UDY ( ! FACTS ( NATURE & ! DRAW+ ( CONCLUSIONS FROM !SE FACTS1 AS AGA9/ ! D$UCTIVE 9T]PRETATION ( NATURE1 I4E41 ON ! BASIS ( PREVI\SLY ASSUM$ AB/RACT PR9CIPLES4 ,MORE ?AN ?AT1 -- ,BACON \TL9$ ! ESS5TIALS ( ! NEW SCI5CE BAS$ 9 ALL ITS BRAN*ES ON OBS]VATION & EXP]IM5T4 ,ALREADY AT ?AT TIME !RE WAS S]I\S UNRE/ 9 ,5GL&1 :I* SOON CULM9AT$ 9 ! REVOLUTION ( ! PEASANTS & ESPECIALLY ( ! MIDDLE CLASSES 7#a#f#c#b-#a#f#d#h71 5D+ 9 ! PROCLAMATION ( ! ,REPUBLIC & 9 ! EXECUTION ( ! K+4 ,& SIDE BY SIDE ) ! ECONOMIC & ! POLITICAL UPHEAVAL1 I4E41 ) ! ABOLITION ( ! P[] ( ! FEUDAL L&LORDS & ) ! ADV5T TO P[] ( ! URBAN MIDDLE CLASS1 !RE WAS TAK+ PLACE ! LIB]ATION ( M9DS FROM ! YOKE ( ! ,*UR*ES1 & ! DEVELOPM5T ( A NEW PHILOSOPHY1 ( A NEW 9T]PRETATION ( ,NATURE1 BAS$ NOT ON M5TAL SPECULATIONS BUT ON ! S]I\S /UDY ( NATURE & ON ! GRADUAL DEVELOPM5T ( LIFE1 I4E41 EVOLUTION1 :I* CON/ITUTES ! ESS5CE ( MOD]N SCI5CE4 

,BACON & ,GALILEO W]E ! =]UNN]S ( ?IS SCI5CE :I*1 9 ! SECOND HALF ( ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY1 MORE & MORE CAME TO FEEL ITS /R5G? & ! NECESSITY ( A COMPLETE LIB]ATION FROM ! ,CA?OLIC AS WELL AS FROM ! NEW ,PROTE/ANT ,*UR*4 ,= ?IS PURPOSE ! SCI5TI/S BEGAN TO COMB9E & TO E/ABLI% SCI5TIFIC 0,ACADEMIES10 I4E41 SOCIETIES = ! FREE /UDY ( ,NATURE4 ,! FUNDAM5TAL PR9CIPLE ( !SE ACADEMIES WAS EXP]IM5TAL 9VE/IGATION1 9/EAD ( ! =M] LOGOMA*Y4 ,SU* W]E ! AIMS ( ! ACADEMIES1 ?AT FIR/ ORIG9AT$ 9 ,ITALY1 & ALSO ( ! ,ROYAL ,SOCIETY :I* WAS E/ABLI%$ 9 ,5GL& 9 ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY & :I* BECAME ! /RON<OLD ( SCI5TIFIC KN[L$GE & A MODEL = SIMIL> SOCIETIES1 E/ABLI%$ 9 ,FRANCE1 ,HOLL&1 & ,PRUSSIA1 ETC4 

,?IS TR5D 9 ,SCI5CE NATURALLY REFLECT$ ITSELF ALSO 9 ! SCI5CE ( MORALITY4 ,FRANCIS ,BACON1 A FEW YE>S BE=E ! ,5GLI% ,REVOLUTION1 MADE AN ATTEMPT -- A V]Y CAUTI\S ONE1 IT IS TRUE -- TO FREE FROM RELIGION ! QUE/ION ( ! ORIG9 & ! ESS5CE ( MORAL CONCEPTIONS4 ,HE D>$ TO EXPRESS ! IDEA ?AT IT IS WRONG TO CONSID] ! ABS5CE ( RELIGI\S CONVICTIONS AS DETRIM5TAL TO MORALITY2 HE MA9TA9$ ?AT EV5 AN A!I/ MAY BE AN HONE/ CITIZ51 :]EAS1 ON ! O!R H&1 SUP]/ITI\S RELIGION IS A REAL DANG] :5 IT UND]TAKES TO GUIDE MAN'S MORAL CONDUCT4 ,BACON EXPRESS$ HIMSELF V]Y GU>D$LY -- IT WAS IMPOSSIBLE TO SPEAK 9 ANY O!R WAY 9 HIS TIME1 -- BUT ! ESS5CE ( HIS ?\<T WAS UND]/OOD1 & FROM ?AT TIME ON ! SAME IDEA BEGAN TO BE MORE & MORE L\DLY & DEF9ITELY EXPRESS$ 9 ,5GL& & 9 ,FRANCE4 ,!N ! PHILOSOPHY ( ,EPICURUS & ( ! ,/OICS WAS RECALL$1 & ! DEVELOPM5T ( RATIONALI/IC E?ICS1 I4E41 E?ICS BAS$ ON SCI5CE1 WAS BEGUN 9 ! WORKS ( ,HOBBES1 ,LOCKE1 ,%AFTESBURY1 ,CUDWOR?1 ,HUT*ESON1 ,HUME1 ,ADAM ,SMI?1 & O!RS 9 ,5GL& & ,SCOTL&1 & ( ,GASS5DI1 ,HELVETIUS1 ,HOLBA*1 & MANY O!RS 9 ,FRANCE4 #ah 

,IT IS 9T]E/+ TO NOTE ?AT ! PR9CIPAL PO9T 9 ,BACON'S 9T]PRETATION ( MORALITY 7:I* ,I HAVE ALREADY PO9T$ \T 9 ! SECOND *APT]7 I4E41 ! FACT ?AT EV5 AMONG ANIMALS ! 9/9CT ( SOCIALITY MAY PROVE /RONG] & MORE /ABLE ?AN ! 9/9CT ( SELF-PRES]VATION1 WAS DISREG>D$ BY HIS FOLL[]S & EV5 BY ! BOLD ADVOCATES ( ! NATURALI/IC 9T]PRETATION ( MORALITY4 #ai 

,ONLY ,D>W91 T[>D ! 5D ( HIS LIFE1 V5TUR$ TO REPEAT ,BACON'S ?\<T ON ! BASIS ( HIS [N OBS]VATIONS ( NATURE1 & HE DEVELOP$ ?IS IDEA 9 A FEW REM>KABLE PAGES ON ! ORIG9 ( ! MORAL S5TIM5TS 9 HIS BOOK1 0,! ,DESC5T ( ,MAN10 7SEE ABOVE1 ,*AP4 ,I,I74 ,BUT EV5 N[ WRIT]S ON E?ICS FAIL TO /RESS ?IS ?\<T1 :I* \<T TO BE ! F\NDATION ( RATIONALI/IC E?ICS1 ALL ! MORE BECAUSE -- ?\< 9 A LESS DEF9ITE =M -- IT IS SUGGE/$ 9 ! ESS5CE ( ALL ! TEA*+S ?AT S\<T ! EXPLANATION ( MORALITY 9 ! NATURE ( MAN HIMSELF4 

,AFT] ,BACON1 AMONG ! PHILOSOPH]S ( ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY1 ! SAME IDEA WAS WELL UND]/OOD & /ILL MORE DEF9ITELY EXPRESS$ BY ,HUGO ,GROTIUS 9 HIS WORK 0,DE JURE BELLIS10 9 #a#f#b#e4 ,AFT] A FEW REM>KS ON ! ,CREATOR & HIS 9FLU5CE ON ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS1 -- NOT DIRECTLY1 BUT ?R\< ! AG5CY ( ,NATURE1 0?\< CREAT$ BY ,HIM1 BUT UN*ANGEABLE & RATIONAL ,NATURE10 -- ,GROTIUS DID NOT HESITATE TO ACKN[L$GE ?AT ! S\RCES ( 0LAW0 & ( ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS SO 9TIMATELY CONNECT$ ) IT1 W]E3 ,NATURE1 & ,REASON :I* 9T]PRETS IT4 

,HE EXCLUD$ RELIGI\S MORALITY & RITUAL REGULATIONS FROM ! REALM ( NATURALI/IC MORALITY1 & HE OCCUPI$ HIMSELF ONLY ) ! /UDY ( ! LATT]4 ,BY NATURE HE MEANT HUMAN NATURE1 & HE D5I$ ?AT IT IS UNABLE TO DI/+UI% BETWE5 ! RI<T & ! WRONG1 BECAUSE MAN AS WELL AS ANIMALS HAS ! 9/9CT ( SOCIALITY1 :I* 9EVITABLY URGES MAN T[>D ! E/ABLI%+ ( A PEACEFUL MODE ( LIFE ) HIS FELL[ CREATURES4 

,9 ADDITION TO HIS /RONG SOCIAL T5D5CIES1 CONT9U$ ,GROTIUS1 MAN1 DUE TO HIS LANGUAGE1 HAS ! ABILITY TO D]IVE G5]AL RULES = ! MA9T5ANCE ( SOCIAL LIV+1 & ! DESIRE TO ACT 9 ACCORDANCE ) !SE RULES4 ,?IS CONC]N AB\T SOCIETY BECOMES ! S\RCE ( E/ABLI%$ CU/OMS & ( ! SO-CALL$ NATURAL LAW OR ! LAW BAS$ ON CU/OM4 ,! DEVELOPM5T ( !SE CONCEPTIONS IS ALSO AID$ BY ! CONCEPTION ( ! COMMON B5EFIT1 -- FROM :I* IS D]IV$ ! CONCEPTION ( :AT IS CONSID]$ JU/4 ,BUT IT IS UTT]LY WRONG TO ASS]T1 HE WROTE1 ?AT M5 W]E COMPELL$ BY !IR RUL]S TO BE CONC]N$ AB\T ! LAW1 OR ?AT !Y W]E CONC]N$ AB\T IT M]ELY = ! SAKE ( B5EFIT4 ,MAN'S NATURE IMPELL$ HIM TO ACT 9 ?IS MANN]4 

0,BECAUSE10 WROTE ,GROTIUS1 0EV5 AMONG ! ANIMALS !RE >E SOME :O1 = ! SAKE ( !IR *ILDR5 OR !IR FELL[ CREATURES1 WILL LIMIT ATT5TION TO !IR [N WANTS1 OR EV5 =GET SELF4 ,?IS1 9 \R OP9ION1 IS DUE TO A SORT ( KN[L$GE COM+ FROM )\T1 & CON/ITUT+ ! PR9CIPLE ( SU* ACTS1 S9CE 9 O!R1 SIMPL] ACTS ?IS 9/9CT IS NOT NOTICEABLE40 #b 

,A SIMIL> T5D5CY TO DO K9D ACTS T[>D O!RS IS F\ND TO A C]TA9 EXT5T AMONG *ILDR54 ,S\ND REASON ALSO ACTS 9 ! SAME DIRECTION 78 #i74 0,! NATURAL LAW10 WROTE ,GROTIUS1 0IS A RULE SUGGE/$ TO US BY REASON1 BY MEANS ( :I* WE JUDGE ! MORAL NECESSITY OR ! MORAL 9ACCEPTABILITY ( AN ACT1 DEP5D+ ON ITS AGREEM5T OR DISAGREEM5T ) RATIONAL NATURE ITSELF0 7) ! V]Y NATURE ( REASON1 8 #a1 ,I74#b#a 

0,MORE ?AN ?AT10 CONT9UES ,GROTIUS1 0! NATURAL LAW IS SO UN*ANGEABLE ?AT ,GOD HIMSELF CANNOT *ANGE IT4 ,=1 ?\< ,GOD'S P[] IS EXCE$+1 IT MAY BE SAID !RE >E ?+S OV] :I* IT DOES NOT EXT5D40 7,BOOK ,I1 *APT] ,I1 8 #a1 #e47 

,9 O!R WORDS1 ON COMB9+ ! TEA*+S ( ,BACON & ,GROTIUS1 ! ORIG9 ( ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS BECOMES CLE>1 IF WE RECOGNIZE ! 9/9CT ( SOCIALITY AS ! FUNDAM5TAL TRAIT ( ,MAN4 ,?IS 9/9CT LEADS TO ! DEVELOPM5T ( SOCIAL LIFE1 ) SOME 9EVITABLE CONCESSIONS TO P]SONAL EGOISM4 ,SOCIAL LIFE1 9 ITS TURN1 AIDS ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! CONCEPTIONS ( TRIBAL MORALITY1 :I* WE F9D AMONG ALL PRIMITIVE SAVAGES4 ,FUR!RMORE1 9 ! FIELD ( LIFE :I* %APES ITSELF UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( ! UNQUE/IONABLY /RONG 9/9CT ( SOCIALITY1 !RE IS A CONT9UAL ACTIVITY ( REASON1 :I* LEADS MAN TO EVOLVE MORE & MORE COMPLICAT$ RULES ( LIFE1 -- & !SE 9 TURN S]VE TO /R5G!N ! DICTATES ( ! SOCIAL 9/9CT & ! HABITS SUGGE/$ BY IT4 ,?US OCCURS1 9 A NATURAL WAY1 ! EVOLUTION ( :AT WE CALL LAW4 

,IT IS ?US CLE> ?AT ! MORAL NATURE & CONCEPTIONS ( ,MAN HAVE NO NE$ ( SUP]NATURAL EXPLANATION4 ,& 9DE$1 DUR+ ! SECOND HALF ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY1 & 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 ! MAJORITY ( WRIT]S ON MORALITY PO9T$ TO ITS ORIG9 FROM A TWO-FOLD S\RCE3 ! 9BORN FEEL+1 I4E41 ! 9/9CT ( SOCIALITY2 & REASON1 :I* /R5G!NS & DEVELOPS ?AT :I* IS SUGGE/$ TO IT BY ! H]$IT>Y EMOTION & BY ! HABITS ?AT HAVE EVOLV$ 9TO 9/9CT4 

,?OSE1 ON ! O!R H&1 :O 9SI/$ ON 9TRODUC+ 9TO E?ICS A SUP]NATURAL1 0DIV9E0 ELEM5T1 EXPLA9$ ! 9/9CT ( SOCIALITY & ! SOCIAL HABITS ( MAN BY DIV9E SUGGE/ION1 COMPLETELY IGNOR+ ! FACT ?AT ! 9/9CT & ! HABITS ( SOCIALITY >E COMMON TO ! GREAT MAJORITY ( ANIMALS4 ,I WILL ADD H]E ?AT WE HAVE N[ LE>N$ ?AT ! HABITS ( SOCIALITY >E ! SURE/ WEAPON 9 ! /RUGGLE = EXI/5CE1 & = ?IS REASON !Y >E BECOM+ MORE & MORE /R5G!N$ AMONG ! SOCIAL SPECIES4 

,! 9T]PRETATION ( MORALITY GIV5 BY ,BACON & ,HUGO ,GROTIUS1 H[EV]1 UNAVOIDABLY L$ TO ! QUE/ION3 ON :AT DOES REASON BASE ITS CONCLUSIONS 9 EVOLV+ ! PR9CIPLES ( MORALITY8 

,!RE >E SUGGE/IONS ( ?IS QUE/ION EV5 9 ,ANCI5T ,GREECE1 & AT ?AT TIME IT WAS GIV5 V>I\S ANSW]S4 ,PLATO1 -- ESPECIALLY DUR+ ! LAT] P]IOD ( HIS LIFE1 -- & HIS FOLL[]S1 9 EXPLA9+ ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS ( MAN AS DUE TO 0LOVE0 SUGGE/$ TO MAN BY SUP]NATURAL P[]S1 NATURALLY ASCRIB$ TO REASON A V]Y MODE/ PLACE4 ,MAN'S REASON S]V$ M]ELY AS ! 9T]PRET] ( ! 0,REASON ( ,NATURE10 I4E41 ( ! SUGGE/IONS ( ! SUP]NATURAL P[]4 

,IT IS TRUE ?AT ! SKEPTICAL S*OOLS ( ! ,SOPHI/S1 & LAT] ,EPICURUS & HIS S*OOL1 ,HELP$ ! ?9K]S ( ,ANCI5T ,GREECE TO RID !MSELVES ( ?IS RELIGI\S E?ICS4 ,!SE TWO S*OOLS1 H[EV]1 AS WELL AS O!RS ?AT DID NOT RECOGNIZE ! 9T]F]5CE ( ! ,SUP]NATURAL ,WILL 7E4G41 ! ,CYR5AICS & ! FOLL[]S ( ,>I/OTLE71 :ILE ATTRIBUT+ GREAT IMPORTANCE TO REASON1 ASCRIB$ TO IT1 H[EV]1 A V]Y LIMIT$ ROLE1 NAMELY1 -- ONLY ! EVALUATION ( V>I\S ACTS & MODES ( LIFE ) ! PURPOSE ( DET]M9+ :I* ( !M >E A SUR] ROAD TO MAN'S HAPP9ESS4 ,! MORAL MODE ( LIFE1 !Y SAID1 IS ?AT :I* GIVES ! GREATE/ P]SONAL HAPP9ESS1 & ! MO/ CONT5T$ CONDITION1 NOT ONLY TO A S+LE 9DIVIDUAL1 BUT ALSO TO ALL4 ,HAPP9ESS IS FRE$OM FROM EVIL2 & [+ TO \R REASON1 BY R5\NC+ MOM5T>Y PLEASURES = ! SAKE ( ! MORE P]MAN5T1 FUTURE JOYS1 WE CAN SELECT 9 \R LIFE ?AT :I* LEADS US MO/ SURELY T[>D ! /ATE ( M5TAL EQUILIBRIUM1 TO G5]AL CONT5TM5T1 TO H>MONI\S LIFE 9 ACCORD ) ONESELF1 & ALSO TO ! DEVELOPM5T ( \R P]SONALITY 9 ACCORDANCE ) ITS 9DIVIDUAL PECULI>ITIES4 

,?IS VIEW ( E?ICS1 CONSEQU5TLY1 REJECTS ! PURSUIT ( JU/ICE1 -- ( VIRTUE SO -- CALL$1 -- = !IR SOLE SAKE4 ,IT PAYS BUT SLI<T ATT5TION TO LIFE GUID$ BY ! IDEAL ( LOVE1 AS PREA*$ BY ,PLATO4 ,TO ,REASON IS ASCRIB$ AN ESPECIALLY GREAT IMPORTANCE BY ,>I/OTLE4 ,BUT HE SEES ! ACTIVITY ( REASON 9 S5SIBL5ESS & PRUD5CE1 RA!R ?AN 9 BOLD DECISION ( FREE ?\<T4 ,HIS IDEAL IS 0CORRECT0 ?9K+1 ! CURB+ ( ACTS ?AT MAN IS READY TO COMMIT UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( /RONG EMOTION1 & A WILL ?AT KEEPS TO ! 0RATIONAL MEAN0 AS DET]M9$ BY ! NATURE ( EA* SEP>ATE 9DIVIDUAL4 

,>I/OTLE REJECT$ METAPHYSICS & TOOK HIS /& ON A PRACTICAL BASIS1 NAM+ AS ! />T+ PO9T ( ALL ACTIVITY ! /RIV+ = HAPP9ESS1 SELF-LOVE 7EGOISM74 ,! SAME PO9T ( VIEW1 EV5 MORE PRON\NC$ -- WAS HELD1 AS WE HAVE SE51 BY ,EPICURUS & LAT] BY HIS FOLL[]S ?R\<\T FIVE OR ALMO/ SIX C5TURIES4 ,& FROM ! TIME ( ! ,R5AISSANCE1 I4E41 FROM ! SIXTE5? C5TURY1 ?IS PO9T ( VIEW WAS %>$ BY A SUCCESSION ( ?9K]S1 9CLUD+ LAT] ! ,5CYCLOA$I/S ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY1 & \R CONTEMPOR>Y UTILIT>IANS 7,B5?AM1 ,MILL71 & NATURALI/S 7,D>W9 & ,SP5C]74 

,BUT NO MATT] H[ GREAT ! SUCCESS ( !SE TEA*+S MAY HAVE BE51 ESPECIALLY AT ! TIME :5 HUMANITY FELT ! NECESSITY ( BE+ LIB]AT$ FROM ! YOKE ( ! ,*UR* & WAS 5DEAVOR+ TO OP5 NEW WAYS TO DEVELOP NEW =MS ( SOCIAL LIFE1 !SE TEA*+S1 NEV]!LESS1 FAIL$ TO SOLVE ! PROBLEM ( ! ORIG9 ( ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS ( MAN4 

,TO SAY ?AT MAN ALWAYS /RIVES = HAPP9ESS & = ! GREATE/ POSSIBLE FRE$OM FROM EVIL1 IS M]ELY TO UTT] ! =EV] OBVI\S1 SUP]FICIAL TRU?1 EXPRESS$ EV5 9 PROV]BS4 ,& 9DE$1 IT HAS BE5 (T5 REM>K$ ?AT IF ! MORAL LIFE L$ MAN TO UNHAPP9ESS1 ALL MORALITY W\LD HAVE LONG AGO VANI%$ FROM ! WORLD4 ,BUT SU* A G5]ALIZATION IS 9SUFFICI5T4 ,!RE IS NO D\BT ?AT A DESIRE = ! GREATE/ HAPP9ESS IS 9H]5T 9 EV]Y LIV+ CREATURE2 9 ! F9AL ANALYSIS MAN IS GUID$ BY ?IS DESIRE4 ,BUT ?IS IS PRECISELY ! ESS5CE ( ! QUE/ION ?AT N[ CONC]NS US4 0,:Y1 -- DUE TO :AT M5TAL OR S5SE PROCESS1 COMB9$ ) SOME CONSID]ATIONS :I* WE CALL 'MORAL1 '-- DOES MAN SO (T5 R5\NCE ?AT :I* W\LD UNQUE/IONABLY GIVE HIM PLEASURE8 ,:Y DOES HE (T5 SUFF] ALL K9DS ( PRIVATIONS 9 ORD] NOT TO VIOLATE HIS MORAL IDEAL80 ,BUT ! ANSW] (F]$ BY ! A=EM5TION$ ?9K]S ( ,ANCI5T ,GREECE1 & LAT] ALSO BY A :OLE S]IES ( UTILIT>IAN ?9K]S1 DOES NOT SATISFY \R M9D2 WE FEEL ?AT ! CASE IS NOT LIMIT$ TO M]E PRUD5T WEI<+ ( PLEASURES & TO M]E R5UNCIATION ( P]SONAL PLEASURES = ! SAKE ( O!R /RONG] & MORE P]MAN5T JOYS4 ,WE FEEL ?AT WE HAVE H]E TO DEAL ) SOME?+ MORE COMPLICAT$1 & AT ! SAME TIME SOME?+ MORE G5]AL4 

,>I/OTLE P>TIALLY UND]/OOD ?IS :5 HE WROTE ?AT A MAN TO :OM TWO ALT]NATIVES >E OP51 ACTS WISELY IF HE ADOPTS ?AT DECISION :I* DOES NOT BR+ CONFLICT 9TO HIS 9N] SELF & GIVES HIM A GREAT] SATISFACTION ) HIMSELF4 ,WE /RIVE = JOY1 HONOR1 RESPECT1 ETC41 HE WROTE1 NOT ONLY = !IR [N SAKE1 BUT *IEFLY = ! SAKE ( ! S5SE ( SATISFACTION :I* !Y GIVE TO \R REASON4 ,AS WE HAVE SE51 ! SAME IDEA WAS REPEAT$ 9 A /ILL BETT] =M BY ,EPICURUS4 ,BUT IF ! P>T PLAY$ BY REASON IS ACCEPT$ 9 ?IS =M1 ! QUE/ION >ISES3 0,JU/ :AT IS IT 9 \R REASON ?AT IS SATISFI$ 9 SU* CASES80 ,& IF ! QUE/ION IS PUT ?US1 !N1 AS WE %ALL SEE LAT]1 ! ANSW] WILL NECESS>ILY BE3 0! NE$ ( JU/ICE10 I4E41 ( EQUITY4 ,H[EV]1 ADMITT+ ?AT ,>I/OTLE & ,EPICURUS DID PUT TO !MSELVES ?IS QUE/ION1 !Y GAVE NO SU* ANSW]4 ,! 5TIRE /RUCTURE ( ! SOCIETY ( !IR TIME1 BAS$ AS IT WAS ON SLAV]Y = ! MAJORITY1 -- ! 5TIRE SPIRIT ( SOCIETY W]E BO? SO F> REMOV$ FROM JU/ICE & FROM ITS 9EVITABLE CONSEQU5CE-EQUITY 7EQUALITY 9 RI<TS7 ?AT IT IS QUITE PROBABLE ?AT ,>I/OTLE & ,EPICURUS HAD NOT EV5 ?\<T ( ASK+ !MSELVES ! QUE/ION4 

,H[EV]1 AT PRES5T1 :5 ! DAY ( ! OLD PHILOSOPHY IS OV]1 WE CAN NO LONG] BE SATISFI$ ) ! CONCLUSIONS ( !SE TWO ?9K]S1 & WE ASK \RSELVES3 0,:Y IS IT ?AT A MORE DEVELOP$ M9D F9DS GREATE/ SATISFACTION JU/ 9 ?OSE DECISIONS :I* TURN \T TO BE ! BE/ = ! 9T]E/S ( ALL8 ,IS !RE NOT SOME DEEP-LY+1 PHYSIOLOGICAL CAUSE = ?IS FACT80 

,WE HAVE ALREADY SE5 ! ANSW] GIV5 TO ?IS QUE/ION BY ,BACON & !N BY ,D>W9 7SEE ,*AP4 ,I,I74 ,9 MAN1 SAID !Y1 AS 9 ALL H]D+ ANIMALS1 ! 9/9CT ( SOCIALITY IS DEVELOP$ TO SU* AN EXT5T AS TO BE /RONG] & MORE P]MAN5T ?AN ?OSE O!R 9/9CTS ?AT CAN BE GR\P$ TOGE!R UND] ! COMMON NAME ( ! 9/9CT ( SELF-PRES]VATION4 ,MOREOV]1 9 MAN1 AS 9 A RATIONAL BE+ ?AT HAS BE5 LIV+ ! SOCIAL LIFE = T5S ( ?\S&S ( YE>S1 REASON AID$ ! DEVELOPM5T & ! OBS]VANCE ( SU* USAGES1 CU/OMS1 & RULES ( LIFE1 AS L$ TO A FULL] DEVELOPM5T ( SOCIAL LIFE1 -- & AS A CONSEQU5CE CAME ! DEVELOPM5T ( EA* SEP>ATE 9DIVIDUAL4 

,BUT EV5 ?IS ANSW] CANNOT COMPLETELY SATISFY US4 ,FROM \R P]SONAL EXP]I5CE WE KN[ H[ (T51 9 ! /RUGGLE BETWE5 CLA%+ IMPULSES1 N>R[LY EGOI/IC FEEL+S >E VICTORI\S OV] FEEL+S ( A SOCIAL NATURE4 ,WE SEE ?IS 9 9DIVIDUALS AS WELL AS 9 5TIRE SOCIETIES4 ,& WE COME1 !RE=E1 TO ! CONVICTION1 ?AT IF HUMAN REASON DID NOT HAVE AN 9H]5T T5D5CY TO 9TRODUCE 9TO ITS DECISIONS A CORRECTIVE SOCIAL FACTOR1 !N ! N>R[LY EGOI/IC DECISIONS W\LD ALWAYS GA9 ! MA/]Y OV] ! JUDGM5TS ( A SOCIAL NATURE4 ,&1 AS WE %ALL SEE 9 LAT] *APT]S1 SU* A CORRECTIVE FACTOR IS APPLI$4 ,IT SPR+S1 ON ! ONE H&1 FROM \R DEEP-SEAT$ 9/9CT ( SOCIALITY1 AS WELL AS FROM SYMPA?Y T[>D ?OSE ) :OM \R LOT IS CA/1 -- A SYMPA?Y DEVELOP$ 9 US AS A RESULT ( SOCIAL LIFE4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 IT D]IVES FROM ! CONCEPTION ( JU/ICE 9H]5T 9 \R REASON4 

,! FUR!R HI/ORY ( MORAL TEA*+S WILL CONFIRM ?IS CONCLUSION4 

,FOOTNOTES 

#a,GUYAU PO9T$ \T 9 HIS EXCELL5T TREATISE ON ! PHILOSOPHY ( ,EPICURUS1 ?AT ?IS PHILOSOPHY 9 ! C\RSE ( A FEW C5TURIES UNIT$ MANY EXCELL5T M52 & ?IS IS P]FECTLY TRUE4 ,9 ! MASS ( HUMANITY !RE IS ALWAYS A NUCLEUS COMPOS$ ( M5 :OM NO AM\NT ( PHILOSOPHIZ+1 BE IT RELIGI\S OR UTT]LY SKEPTICAL1 CAN MAKE BETT] OR WORSE 9 ! SOCIAL S5SE4 ,BUT SIDE BY SIDE ) !SE !RE >E MASSES ( AV]AGE PEOPLE :O >E =EV] VACILLAT+ & =EV] FALL 9 ) ! PR$OM9ANT TEA*+ ( ! TIME4 ,= ?IS MAJORITY1 WEAK 9 *>ACT]1 ! PHILOSOPHY ( ,EPICURUS S]V$ AS ! JU/IFICATION ( !IR SOCIAL 9DIFF]5CE1 ,! O!RS1 H[EV]1 :O S\<T = AN IDEAL1 TURN$ TO RELIGION TO F9D IT4 .<,= ! REF]5CE TO ,GUYAU'S WORK ON ,EPICURUS1 SEE FOOT-NOTE1 PAGE #a#d.>4 -- ,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#b,! WORD 0,BUDDHA0 MEANS 0TEA*]40 

#c,) ! 5D ( ! ,GLACIAL ,P]IOD1 & !N ( ! ,LAKE ,EPO* :I* FOLL[$ DUR+ ! MELT+ ( ! ICE %EET1 !RE BEGAN A RAPID DRY+-UP ( ! HI< TABLE-L&S ( ,C5TRAL ,ASIA4 ,!SE L&S >E N[ UNPEOPL$ DES]TS1 ) ! REMNANTS ( ONCE POPUL\S CITIES N[ BURI$ 9 S&4 ,?IS DRY+-UP COMPELL$ ! 9HABITANTS ( ! TABLE-L&S TO DESC5D TO ! S\?1 -- TO ,9DIA1 & TO4 ! NOR?1 -- TO ! L[-L&S ( ,JUNG>IA & ,SIB]IA1 :5CE !Y MOV$ WE/W>D TO ! F]TILE PLA9S ( ,S\? ,RUSSIA & WE/]N ,EUROPE4 ,5TIRE PEOPLES MIGRAT$ 9 ?IS MANN]1 & IT IS EASY TO IMAG9E :AT HORROR !SE MIGRATIONS 9SPIR$ 9 ! O!R PEOPLES :O W]E ALREADY SETTL$ ON ! PLA9S ( ,EUROPE4 ,! NEWCOM]S EI!R PLUND]$ ! NATIVE PEOPLES OR ANNIHILAT$ ! POPULATION ( 5TIRE REGIONS :]E RESI/ANCE WAS (F]$4 ,:AT ! ,RUSSIAN PEOPLE LIV$ ?R\< 9 ! ?IRTE5? C5TURY1 AT ! TIME ( ! ,MONGOL 9VASION1 ,EUROPE EXP]I5C$ DUR+ ! FIR/ SEV5 OR EI<T C5TURIES ( \R ]A1 ON ACC\NT ( ! MIGRATIONS ( ! HORDES ?AT ADVANC$1 ONE AFT] ! O!R1 FROM ,C5TRAL ,ASIA4 ,SPA9 & ,S\? ,FRANCE SUFF]$ SIMIL>LY FROM ! 9VASION ( ! ,>ABS1 :O ADVANC$ UPON ,EUROPE FROM ,NOR? ,AFRICA1 DUE TO ! SAME CAUSES ( DRY+-UP4 7,( ! LAKES4 ,KROPOTK9'S REF]5CE TO ! 0,LAKE0 ,EPO* -- A NAME NOT F\ND 9 SEV]AL /&>D WORKS ON GEOLOGY-SEEMS TO REF] TO A SUBDIVISION ( ! LATE-,GLACIAL 7,PLEI/OC5E7 ,EPO*1 :5 LAKES W]E DRY+ UP 9 P>TS ( ! 0OLD0 & ! 0NEW0 WORLD4.> --,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#d,! EVANGELI/ ,/4 ,LUKE TE/IFIES TO ! EXI/5CE ( MANY SU* RECORDS 9 ! OP5+ PASSAGE ( HIS GOSPEL1 7*4 I1 #a-#d7 :]E HE COMPILES & EXT5DS PREVI\S RECORDS4 

#e,DI/URBANCES 9 ,JUDEA BEGAN1 APP>5TLY1 9 ! V]Y YE>S :5 ,*RI/ WAS PREA*+4 7,SEE ,/4 ,LUKE1 XIII1 ,I & ,/4 ,M>K1 XV1 #g74 

#f,9 ,RUSSIA ?IS PROHIBITION REMA9$ 9 =CE UP TO #ahei OR #a#h#f4 ,I VIVIDLY REMEMB] ! IMPRESSION PRODUC$ 9 ,PET]SBURG BY ! FIR/ APPE>ANCE ( ! ,NEW ,TE/AM5T 9 ! ,RUSSIAN LANGUAGE1 & ,I REMEMB] H[ WE ALL HA/5$ TO BUY ?IS UNUSUAL $ITION AT ! ,SYNOD ,TYPOGRAPHY1 ! ONLY PLACE :]E IT C\LD BE OBTA9$4 

#g,!RE EXI/S VOLUM9\S LIT]ATURE ON ! SUBJECT ( ! PREP>+ ( ! GR\ND = ,*RI/IANITY BY ! TEA*+ ( ,PLATO1 ESPECIALLY BY HIS DOCTR9ES AS TO ! S\L2 ALSO BY ! TEA*+S ( ! ,/OICS1 & BY SOME ADAPTATIONS FROM E>LI] TEA*+S4 ,ONE MAY M5TION ESPECIALLY ! WORK BY ,H>NACK1 ,DIE ,MISSION UND ,AUSBREITUNG DES ,*RI/5TBUMS 9 D5 ]/5 DREI ,JAHRHUND]T51 #a#i#b1 .<,LEIPZIG1 #b VOLS4 ,TRANS41 ,N4 ,Y41 #a#i#h1 #b VOLS4 7,!OLOGICAL ,TRANS4 ,LIBR>Y1 VOLS4 #a#i1 #b47.> -- ,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#h,SEE1 = EXAMPLE1 ! DESCRIPTION ( ! LIFE ( ! ,ALEUTS1 :O AT ?AT TIME W]E /ILL MAK+ KNIVES & >R[S ( /ONE4 7,! DESCRIPTION GIV5 BY ! PRIE/1 ,V5YAM9OV1 LAT] ,METROPOLITAN ( ,MOSC[1 9 HIS ,MEMOIRS ( ! ,UNALA%K9SKY ,DI/RICT1 ,/4 ,PET]SBURG1 #a#h#d74 ,SEE ALSO ! EXACTLY SIMIL> DESCRIPTIONS ( ! ,ESKIMOS ( ,GRE5L&1 REC5TLY FURNI%$ BY A ,DANI% ,EXP$ITION4 .<,! ,ESKIMO ,TRIBES1 BY ,DR4 ,H5RY ,R9K1 VOL4 #aa ( ,D5M>K1 ,COMMISSION51 = L$ELS5 AF DE GEOLOGISKE OG GEOGRAFISKE UND]SOGELS] ,I ,GRONT&4 ,KOB5BAV54 7#a#h#h#g-#a#i#b#c74.> -- ,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#i.<,*APT] XIII ( ,/4 ,M>K DOES NOT MAKE ?IS ASS]TION1 BUT ,*APT] VIII ( HIS GOSPEL & A SIMIL> SECTION ( ,MAT!W'S ACC\NT1 CONVEYS ! SAME IDEA 9 WORDS SOME:AT DIFF]5T FROM ?OSE ,KROPOTK9 USES 9 HIS P>APHRASE4.> -- ,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#a,9 ! ,MOSAIC ,LAW1 9 ! A=EM5TION$ PASSAGE FROM ,LEVITICUS 7XIX1 #a#h71 WE ALREADY MEET ) ! WORDS1 0,?\ %ALT NOT AV5GE NOR BE> ANY GRUDGE AGA9/ ! *ILDR5 ( ?Y PEOPLE40 ,?IS COMM&M5T1 H[EV]1 /&S ALONE & !RE >E NO TRACES ( IT 9 ! SUBSEQU5T HI/ORY ( ,ISRAEL4 ,ON ! CONTR>Y1 9 ANO!R PASSAGE1 NAMELY 9 ,EXODUS1 XXI1 #b#a1 IT IS P]MITT$ TO /RIKE ) IMPUNITY ONE'S SLAVE OR MAID-S]VANT1 PROVID$ ONLY ?AT !Y DO NOT DIE )9 A DAY OR TWO1 & F9ALLY1 AS AMONG ALL GR\PS /ILL LIV+ ACCORD+ TO ! TRIBAL SY/EM1 9 CASE ( A FI<T 0IF ANY MIS*IEF FOLL[1 !N ?\ %ALT GIVE LIFE = LIFE1 EYE = EYE1 TOO? = TOO?1 H& = H&1 FOOT = FOOT1 BURN+ = BURN+1 W\ND = W\ND /RIPE = /RIPE0 7VV4 #bc TO #b#e74 

#aa 0,SUBMIT Y\RSELVES TO EV]Y ORD9ANCE ( MAN = ! ,LORD'S SAKE3 :E!R IT BE TO ! K+1 AS SUPREME2 OR UNTO GOV]NORS1 AS UNTO !M ?AT >E S5T BY HIM = ! PUNI%M5T ( EVILDO]S1 & = ! PRAISE ( !M ?AT DO WELL10 WROTE ,/4 ,PET] :5 SU* BEA/S AS ,CALIGULA & ,N]O REIGN$ 9 ,ROME4 7,! ,FIR/ ,EPI/LE ,G5]AL ( ,PET]1 II1 #a#c1 #a#d71 ,& FUR!R1 0,S]VANTS1 BE SUBJECT TO Y\R MA/]S ) ALL FE>2 NOT ONLY TO ! GOOD & G5TLE1 BUT ALSO TO ! =W>D10 ETC4 7,IBID1 #a#h-#b#e74 ,& AS REG>DS ! ADVICES ?AT ,/4 ,PAUL GAVE TO HIS FLOCK1 IT IS REALLY DISGU/+ TO SPEAK ( !M2 !Y W]E 9 DIRECT CONTRADICTION TO ! TEA*+ ( ,*RI/4 0,LET EV]Y S\L BE SUBJECT UNTO ! HI<] P[]S4 ,= !RE IS NO P[] BUT ( ,GOD0 4 4 4 0,HE 7! RUL]7 IS ! M9I/] ( ,GOD40 7,EPI/LE TO ! ,ROMANS1 XIII1 #a-#e74  ,HE SACRILEGI\SLY ORD]$ ! SLAVES TO OBEY !IR MA/]S 0LIKE ,*RI/02 AT ANY RATE1 ?IS IS ! /ATEM5T MADE 9 HIS ,EPI/LE TO ! ,EPHESIANS1 .<VI1 #e#a1 :I* IS RECOGNIZ$ BY ! ,*RI/IAN ,*UR*ES AS ! G5U9E ,EPI/LE ( ,/4 ,PAUL4 ,AS TO ! MA/]S1 9/EAD ( URG+ !M TO R5\NCE ! LABOR ( ! SLAVES1 HE M]ELY ADVIS$ !M TO BE MOD]ATE -- 0MOD]AT+ !IR /RICTNESS04 ,MOREOV]1 ,/4 ,PAUL EXHORTS TO SPECIAL OB$I5CE ?OSE SLAVES :O 0HAVE BELIEV+ MA/]S444BECAUSE !Y >E FAI?FUL & BELOV$40 .<,! FIR/ ,EPI/LE TO ,TIMO?Y1 VI1 #b2 ,COLOSSIANS1 III1 #b#b.>2 ,TITUS1 II1 #i1 & III1 #a4 .<,! TRANSLATORS HAVE CORRECT$ SEV]AL FAULTY REF]5CES ( ! ORIG9AL4.> -- ,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#a#b,EUG5E ,SUE1 9 HIS REM>KABLE NOVEL ,LES MY/]ES DU PEUPLE3 HI/OIRE D'UNE FAMILLE DE PROLETAIRES A TRAV]S LES AGES1 GIVES A DEEPLY /IRR+ SC5E :]E ! ,GREAT ,9QUISITOR REPROA*ES ,*RI/ = HIS ]ROR 9 BE+ TOO M]CIFUL TO M54 ,AS IS KN[N1 ,DO/OYEVSKY1 A GREAT ADMIR] ( ,SUE1 9TRODUC$ A SIMIL> SC5E 9TO HIS NOVEL1 ,! ,BRO!RS ,K>AMAZOV4 ,9 ORD] TO REALIZE FULLY TO :AT AN EXT5T ! ,*UR* 9T]F]$ ) ! FREE DEVELOPM5T ( ,E?ICS1 & ( ALL ! NATURAL SCI5CES1 IT IS SUFFICI5T TO SURVEY ! RULE ( ! ,9QUISITION UP TO ! N9ETE5? C5TURY4 ,9 ,SPA9 IT WAS DE/ROY$ ONLY 9 #ahh BY ! ,FR5* >MY1 AFT] HAV+ SUBJECT$ TO ITS JUDGM5T1 & ALMO/ 9V>IABLY TO ITS TORTURES1 9 ! C\RSE ( #cb YE>S1 MORE ?AN #c#d1 PEOPLE1 AMONG :OM #c#b1 W]E BURN$ 09 P]SON10 #a#g1#f#e#i 09 EFFIGY10 & #b#i#a1#d#e W]E SUBJECT$ TO V>I\S TORTURES1 ,9 ,FRANCE ! ,9QUISITION WAS ABOLI%$ ONLY 9 #a#g#g#b4 ,ITS P[] WAS SO GREAT ?AT IT MADE EV5 SU* A MOD]ATE WRIT] AS ,BUFFON R5\NCE PUBLICLY HIS GEOLOGICAL CONCLUSIONS AS TO ! ANTIQUITY ( ! GEOLOGICAL LAY]S1 :I* HE HAD EXPRESS$ 9 ! FIR/ VOLUME ( FAM\S DESCRIPTION ( ! ANIMALS POPULAT+ ! GLOBE4 ,9 ,ITALY1 AL?\< ! ,9QUISITION WAS LOCALLY ABOLI%$ AT ! 5D ( ! EI<TE5? C5TURY1 IT WAS SOON REE/ABLI%$ & CONT9U$ TO EXI/ 9 ,C5TRAL ,ITALY UP TO ! MIDDLE ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY4 ,9 ,ROME1 I4E41 9 ,PAPAL ,ROME1 ITS REMNANTS /ILL EXI/ 9 ! =M ( ! ,SECRET ,TRIBUNAL1 :ILE C]TA9 GR\PS ( ! ,JESUITS ( ,SPA91 ,BELGIUM1 & ,G]MANY /ILL ADVOCATE ITS REE/ABLI%M5T4 .<,! NOVEL REF]R$ TO H]E IS 9 FIFTE5 VOLUMES2 MANY ( !SE HAVE APPE>$ 9 ,5GLI%1 ,N4 ,Y41 #a#i#a1 ETC4.> -- ,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#a#c,9 REC5T TIMES1 ESPECIALLY 9 ,G]MANY & 9 ,RUSSIA1 ! CONCEPTIONS ( 0CULTURE0 & CIVILIZATION >E (T5 CONFUS$4 ,!Y W]E1 H[EV]1 CLE>LY DI/+UI%$ 9 ! 'SIXTIES4 ,! T]M 0CULTURE0 WAS !N APPLI$ TO ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! EXT]NAL CONV5I5CES ( LIFE3 HYGI5E1 MEANS ( COMMUNICATION1 ELEGANCE ( H\SE-FURNI%+1 ETC41 :ILE ! T]M 0CIVILIZATION10 OR 5LI<T5M5T1 WAS APPLI$ TO ! DEVELOPM5T ( KN[L$GE1 ?\<T1 CREATIVE G5IUS1 & /RIV+ = A BETT] SOCIAL SY/EM4 

#ad ,DRAP]1 9 HIS TREATISE1 ,CONFLICTS ( ,SCI5CE ) ,RELIGION1 %[$ H[ MANY ELEM5TS W]E ADM+L$ TO ,*RI/IANITY FROM ! HEA!N CULTS ( ,ASIA ,M9OR1 ,EGYPT1 ETC4 ,HE DID NOT1 H[EV]1 GIVE SUFFICI5T ATT5TION TO ! MU* GREAT] 9FLU5CE ( ,BUDDHISM1 :I* TO ?IS TIME REMA9S 9SUFFICI5TLY 9VE/IGAT$4 .<,JOHN ,WILLIAMS ,DRAP]1 ,HI/ORY ( ! CONFLICT BETWE5 RELIGION & SCI5CE4 ,N4 ,Y41 #a#h#g#e4.> -- ,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#a#e,! WORKS ( ! GREAT F\ND] ( ,NATURAL ,SCI5CE1 ,>I/OTLE1 BECAME KN[N = ! FIR/ TIME 9 M$IEVAL ,EUROPE ?R\< ! TRANSLATION FROM ! ,>ABIAN LANGUAGE 9TO ,LAT94 

#a#f,! ,CRUSADES CAUS$ VA/ MOVEM5TS ( POPULATION4 ,A PEASANT-S]F :O SEW$ A CROSS UPON HIS SLEEVE & JO9$ ! CRUSAD]S BECAME FREE FROM S]FDOM4 

#a#g,!RE >E MANY EXCELL5T TREATISES COV]+ ?IS P]IOD ( HI/ORY1 BUT !Y >E PASS$ OV] 9 SIL5CE BY \R /ATE S*OOLS & UNIV]SITIES4 ,! READ] WILL F9D A LI/ 9 MY BOOK1 ,MUTUAL ,AID1 :]E !RE IS ALSO GIV5 A BRIEF SKET* ( LIFE 9 ! M$IEVAL FREE CITIES4 

#a#h,! REM>KABLE WORK ( ,GIORDANO ,BRUNO1 ,SPACCIO DELLA BE/IA TRIONFANTE1 PUBLI%$ 9 #a#e#h#d1 PASS$ ALMO/ UNNOTIC$4 ,SIMIL>LY1 ,*>RON'S BOOK ,DE LA SAGESSE1 PUBLI%$ 9 #afa 79 ! $ITION ( #afd ! BOLD PASSAGE AB\T RELIGION IS OMITT$7 :]E ! ATTEMPT WAS MADE TO BASE MORALITY ON PLA9 COMMON S5SE1 WAS NOT WIDELY KN[N1 IT APPE>S1 \TSIDE ( ,FRANCE4 ,H[EV]1 ,MONTAIGNE'S ,ESSAIS 7#a#e#h#h71 :]E V>IETY ( =MS 9 RELIGION IS V9DICAT$1 MET ) GREAT SUCCESS4 .<,9 ,BRUNO'S ,OP]E ITALIANE1 ,GOTT+A1 #a#h#h#h1 TWO VOLS4 9 ONE4 ,& SEE ,V9C5ZO ,SPAMPANATO1 ,LO ,SPACCIO DE LA BE/IA TRIONFANTE CON ALCUNI ANTEC$5TI1 ,PORTICI1 #a#i#b1 ,*>RON'S ,DE LA ,SAGESSE1 ,B\RDEAUS1 #a#f#a1 REPR9T$ ,P>IS1 #a#g#i#g1 ?REE VOLS4 9 TWO4 ,5GLI% TRANSLATION1 ,( WISDOME3 ?REE BOOKS4441 BY ,SAMSON ,L5N>D1 ,LONDON1 #a#f#a#e2 & BY ,GEO4 ,/ANHOPE1 ,LONDON1 #a#g#g1 #b VOLS4.> -- ,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#a#i,IT IS REM>KABLE ?AT ,JODL1 ! HI/ORIAN ( ,E?ICS1 :O IS V]Y KE5 TO NOTE ALL NEW 9FLU5CES 9 E?ICAL PHILOSOPHY1 ALSO FAILS TO GIVE DUE CR$IT TO ! FEW WORDS 9 :I* ,BACON EXPRESS$ HIS IDEA4 ,JODL SAW 9 !SE WORDS ! E*O ( ,GREEK PHILOSOPHY1 OR ( ! SO-CALL$ NATURAL LAW1 LEX NATURALIS 7#a#e#g#c72 :]EAS ,BACON1 9 D]IV+ MORALITY FROM SOCIALITY1 :I* IS 9H]5T 9 MAN AS WELL AS 9 ! MAJORITY ( ANIMALS1 GAVE A NEW1 SCI5TIFIC EXPLANATION ( ! PRIM>Y F\NDATIONS ( MORALITY4 

#b,I QUOTE FROM ! ,FR5* TRANSLATION3 ,DE JURE BELLIS4 ,LE ,DROIT DE GU]RE ET DE PAIX1 TRADUIT DU LAT9 P> ,M4 DE ,CORT91 ,LA ,HAYE1 #a#g#c4 ,PREFACE1 8#g4 .<,! FIR/ $ITION ( ?IS ,FR5* TRANSLATION APPE>$ 9 ,AM/]DAM1 #a#f#h#h2 ! #agc $ITION IS CR$IT$ TO ,M4 DE ,V\RT91 #c VOLS4 ,5GLI% TRANSLATIONS3 ,! RI<TS ( W> & PEACE1 BY ,A4 ,C4 ,CAMPBELL1 ,N4 ,Y41 & ,LONDON1 #a#i#a2 & ,SELECTIONS1 BY ,W4 ,S4 ,M4 ,KNI<T1 ,LONDON1 #a#i#b#b4.> -- ,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#ba .<,KROPOTK9 GIVES ! TWO POSSIBLE 9T]PRETATIONS ( ! CLAUSE4.> -- ,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

,FROM 3 ,AN>*Y ,>*IVES4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,NOVEMB] #c1 #aibc 3 ,*APT] #f -- ,PUBLICATION4 
,JANU>Y #a#e1 #bag 3 ,*APT] #f -- ,ADD$4 

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