,*APT] #e 
,DEVELOPM5T ( ,MORAL ,TEA*+S -- ,ANCI5T ,GREECE 

#aibdaibd 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,PET] ,KROPOTK9 

,TEXT 3 

  

,PHOTO BY ,M>TIJN ,S*ORNANGEL1,C,C ,B,Y-,N,C-,N,D ,LIC5SE ,WE HAVE SE5 9 ! PREVI\S *APT] ?AT ! MO/ PRIMITIVE PEOPLES 
DEVELOP !IR [N MODE ( SOCIAL LIFE & EVOLVE !IR [N C>EFULLY PRES]V$ 
CU/OMS & TRADITIONS1 -- !IR [N CONCEPTIONS ( :AT IS GOOD & :AT IS BAD1 :AT IS NOT TO BE DONE1 & :AT IS PROP] 9 DIFF]5T SITUATIONS4 ,9 %ORT1 !Y EVOLVE !IR [N MORALITY1 !IR [N ,E?ICS4 

,P>T ( SU* RULES ( CONDUCT IS PLAC$ UND] ! PROTECTION ( CU/OM4 ,C]TA9 ACTS >E TO BE AVOID$ BECAUSE !Y >E 0WRONG0 OR 0%AMEFUL02 !Y W\LD 9DICATE A PHYSICAL WEAKNESS OR A WEAKNESS ( *>ACT]4 ,BUT !RE >E ALSO MORE S]I\S (F5SES & /]N] RULES4 ,HE :O BREAKS !SE RULES NOT ONLY DISPLAYS UNDESIRABLE TRAITS ( *>ACT]1 BUT ALSO DOES HURT TO HIS TRIBE4 ,BUT ! WELF>E ( ! TRIBE IS BE+ WAT*$ OV] BY ! 0GREAT MULTITUDE0 ( ! DEAD ANCE/ORS1 & IF ANYONE BREAKS ! RULES ( CONDUCT E/ABLI%$ FROM G5]ATION TO G5]ATION1 ! DEAD ANCE/ORS TAKE REV5GE NOT ONLY ON ! (F5D] AGA9/ ! RULES LAID D[N BY !M1 BUT ALSO ON ! 5TIRE TRIBE ?AT P]MITT$ ! VIOLATIONS ( ! ANCI5T TRADITIONS4 #a ,! ANIMAL K+DOM1 AS WE HAVE SE5 9 ! SECOND *APT] 1 ASSI/S ! GOOD & ! JU/ MAN1 & 9 ALL POSSIBLE WAYS 9T]F]ES ) ! EVIL & ! UNJU/ ONE4 ,BUT 9 CASES :]E ! 5TIRE TRIBE TAKES P>T 9 A DE$ ( EVIL1 !N ! =CES ( NATURE 9T]F]E1 !SE =CES BE+ P]SONIFI$ BY B5EVOL5T OR EVIL CREATURES1 ) :OM ! DEAD ANCE/ORS ( M5 >E 9 COMMUNICATION4 ,9 G5]AL1 AMONG ! PRIMITIVE PEOPLES MU* MORE ?AN AMONG ! CIVILIZ$1 EA* MEMB] ( ! TRIBE IS ID5TIFI$ ) HIS TRIBE4 ,9 CLAN V5GEANCE1 :I* EXI/S AT PRES5T1 & EXI/$1 AS IS KN[N FROM HI/ORY1 AMONG ALL ! PRIMITIVE PEOPLES1 EA* IS RESPONSIBLE = ALL1 & ALL = EA* ( !IR K9SM54 

,CU/OM1 I4E41 ! HABIT ( LIV+ ACCORD+ TO E/ABLI%$ TRADITIONS1 ! FE> ( *ANGE1 & 9]TIA ( ?\<T1 PLAYS1 ACCORD+LY1 ! PR9CIPAL ROLE 9 ! PRES]VATION ( ! E/ABLI%$ RULES ( SOCIAL LIFE4 ,BUT ACCID5TAL DEVIATIONS >E ALWAYS POSSIBLE1 & 9 ORD] TO PRES]VE 9TACT ! E/ABLI%$ MODE ( LIFE ! ELD]S1 ! PROPHETS1 ! SORC]]S RESORT TO 9TIMIDATION4 ,!Y ?REAT5 VIOLATORS ( CU/OM ) ! V5GEANCE ( ! ANCE/ORS & ( V>I\S SPIRITS POPULAT+ ! A]IAL REGION4 ,! M\NTA91 ! =E/-SPIRITS1 AVALAN*ES1 SN[-/ORMS1 FLOODS1 SICKNESS1 ETC41 ALL RISE TO ! DEF5SE ( VIOLAT$ CU/OM4 ,& 9 ORD] TO MA9TA9 ?IS FE> ( RETRIBUTION = ! DESECRATION ( RULES & CU/OMS1 SACR$ RITES SIGNIFY+ ! WOR%IP ( ! =CES ( NATURE >E E/ABLI%$1 SACRIFICES TO !SE =CES >E MADE1 & V>I\S SEMI-!ATRICAL C]EMONIES >E CONDUCT$4 #b 

,MORALITY IS ?US PLAC$ UND] ! PROTECTION ( ! DEIFI$ P[]S1 & ! WOR%IP ( !SE P[]S EVOLVES 9 TO RELIGION1 :I* SANCTIFIES & /R5G!NS ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS4 
#c 

,9 SU* AN ATMOSPH]E ! MORAL ELEM5T 9 ,MAN IS SO 9TIMATELY 9T]WOV5 ) MY?OLOGY & RELIGION1 ?AT IT BECOMES EXTREMELY DIFFICULT TO SEP>ATE ! MORAL ELEM5T FROM MY/ICAL COMM&S H&$ D[N FROM ABOVE1 & FROM RELIGION 9 G5]AL4 ,[+ TO ?IS CIRCUM/ANCE1 ! L9K+ ( MORALITY ) RELIGION HAS 5DUR$ TO ! PRES5T TIME4 

,LIKE ALL ! PRIMITIVE PEOPLES1 ! ANCI5T ,GREEKS = A LONG TIME PICTUR$ TO !MSELVES ! CELE/IAL BODIES & ! =MIDABLE PH5OM5A ( NATURE 9 ! =M ( MI<TY BE+S 9 HUMAN LIK5ESS1 :O CONT9UALLY 9T]F]$ ) ! LIFE ( M54 ,A SPL5DID MONUM5T ( ?OSE TIMES HAS COME D[N TO US 9 ! 0,ILIAD40 ,IT IS CLE> FROM ?IS WORK ?AT ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS ( ITS TIME W]E ( ! SAME NATURE AS >E N[ F\ND AMONG MANY SAVAGE PEOPLE4 

,! VIOLATION ( :AT WAS !N CONSID]$ MORAL1 WAS PUNI%$ BY ! GODS1 EA* ( ! GODS P]SONIFY+ 9 HUMAN LIK5ESS ?IS OR ?AT =CE ( NATURE4 

,BUT1 :ILE MANY PEOPLES REMA9$ = A LONG TIME 9 ?IS /AGE ( DEVELOPM5T1 9 ,ANCI5T ,GREECE1 AS E>LY AS A FEW HUNDR$ YE>S AFT] ! TIME DEPICT$ 9 ! 0,ILIAD0 7I4E41 AB\T ! SEV5? & ! SIX? C5TURY1 ,B4,C47 ?9K]S BEGAN TO APPE> :O /ROVE TO BASE ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS ( ,MAN NOT M]ELY ON FE> ( ! GODS1 BUT ALSO ON AN UND]/&+ ( MAN'S [N NATURE3 ON SELF-RESPECT1 ON ! S5SE ( DIGNITY1 & ON ! COMPREH5SION ( ! HI<] 9TELLECTUAL & MORAL AIMS4 

,9 ?OSE E>LY DAYS1 ! ?9K]S W]E ALREADY DIVID$ 9TO SEV]AL S*OOLS4 ,SOME ATTEMPT$ TO EXPLA9 ! :OLE ( NATURE1 & CONSEQU5TLY ! MORAL ELEM5T 9 ,MAN1 9 A NATURALI/IC WAY1 I4E41 ?R\< /UDY ( NATURE & ?R\< EXP]IM5T1 -- AS IS N[ DONE 9 ! NATURAL SCI5CES4 ,O!RS1 H[EV]1 MA9TA9$ ?AT ! ORIG9 ( ! UNIV]SE & ITS LIFE CANNOT BE EXPLA9$ 9 ! NATURALI/IC WAY1 BECAUSE ! VISIBLE WORLD IS ! CREATION ( SUP]NATURAL P[]S4 ,IT CON/ITUTES ! EMBODIM5T ( SOME?+1 ( SOME =CES OR 0ESS5CES10 ?AT LIE \TSIDE ! REGIONS ACCESSIBLE TO HUMAN OBS]VATION4 ,H5CE ,MAN CAN COME TO KN[ ! ,UNIV]SE NOT ?R\< ! IMPRESSIONS :I* HE RECEIVES FROM ! EXT]NAL WORLD1 BUT ONLY BY MEANS ( AB/RACT SPECULATION -- 0METAPHYSICS40 #d 

,NEV]!LESS1 9 ALL !SE ESS5CES HIDD5 FROM \R EYE OR UND]/&+1 ! ?9K]S ( ! TIME SAW ! P]SONIFICATION ( ! 0,SUPREME ,9TELLIG5CE10 0,! ,WORD0 7OR ,REASON71 0,! ,SUPREME ,WILL10 OR 0,! ,UNIV]SAL ,S\L10 :I* MAN C\LD CONCEIVE ONLY ?R\< KN[L$GE ( HIMSELF4 ,NO MATT] H[ ! AB/RACT ?9K]1 ! METAPHYSICIAN1 TRI$ TO SPIRITUALIZE !SE QUALITIES & TO ASCRIBE TO !M A SUP]HUMAN OR EV5 A SUP]NATURAL EXI/5CE1 HE ALWAYS PICTUR$ !M TO HIMSELF1 LIKE ! GODS ( ANTIQUITY1 9 ! IMAGE & ! LIK5ESS ( HUMAN REASON & HUMAN FEEL+S1 & :ATEV] HE LE>N$ AB\T !SE QUALITIES & FEEL+S CAME AB\T SOLELY ?R\< SELF-OBS]VATION & ! OBS]VATION ( O!RS4 ,! CONCEPTION ( ! SPIRITUAL SUP]NATURAL WORLD ?US CONT9U$ TO BE> ! TRACES ( ! MO/ PRIMITIVE AN?ROPOMORPHISM ( NATURE4 ,! ,HOM]IC GODS W]E RETURN+1 ONLY 9 MORE SPIRITUALIZ$ =M4 

,IT MU/ BE SAID1 H[EV]1 ?AT FROM ! TIME ( ,ANCI5T ,GREECE1 & UP TO ! PRES5T DAY1 ! METAPHYSICAL PHILOSOPHY F\ND HI<LY GIFT$ FOLL[]S4 ,!Y W]E NOT CONT5T ) DESCRIPTIONS ( ! CELE/IAL BODIES & ( !IR MOVEM5T1 ( ?UND]1 LI<TN+1 FALL+ />S1 OR ( PLANETS & ANIMALS1 BUT !Y /ROVE TO UND]/& SURR\ND+ NATURE AS A COSMIC :OLE4 ,= ?IS REASON !Y SUCCE$$ 9 MAK+ A CONSID]ABLE CONTRIBUTIONS TO ! DEVELOPM5T ( G5]AL KN[L$GE4 ,EV5 ! FIR/ ?9K]S ( ! METAPHYSICAL S*OOL UND]/OOD -- & !RE9 LIES !IR GREAT M]IT -- ?AT :ATEV] BE ! EXPLANATION GIV5 TO NATURAL PH5OM5A1 !Y CANNOT BE REG>D$ AS >BITR>Y ACTS ( C]TA9 RUL]S ( ! UNIV]SE4 ,NEI!R >BITR>9ESS1 NOR ! PASSIONS ( ! GODS1 NOR BL9D ACCID5T CAN EXPLA9 ! LIFE ( NATURE4 ,WE >E COMPELL$ TO ACKN[L$GE ?AT EV]Y NATURAL PH5OM5ON -- ! FALL ( ANY P>TICUL> /ONE1 ! FL[ ( A BROOK1 OR ! LIFE ( ANY ONE TREE OR ANIMAL1 CON/ITUTES ! NECESS>Y MANIFE/ATION ( ! PROP]TIES ( ! :OLE1 ( ! SUM TOTAL ( ANIMATE & 9ANIMATE NATURE4 ,!Y >E ! UNAVOIDABLE & LOGICAL CONSEQU5CES ( ! DEVELOPM5T ( FUNDAM5TAL PROP]TIES 9 NATURE & ITS 5TIRE ANTEC$5T LIFE4 ,& !SE LAWS CAN BE DISCOV]$ BY HUMAN 9TELLECT4 ,9 VIEW ( !SE FACTS ! 0METAPHYSICIANS0 (T5 ANTICIPAT$ ! DISCOV]IES ( SCI5CE1 EXPRESS+ !M 9 A POETICAL =M4 ,& 9DE$1 [+ TO SU* 9T]PRETATION ( ! UNIV]SAL LIFE1 AS E>LY AS ! FIF? C5TURY ,B4,C41 SOME ,GREEK ?9K]S EXPRESS$1 9 SPITE ( !IR METAPHYSICS1 SU* SUPPOSITIONS AB\T NATURAL PH5OM5A ?AT !Y MAY BE CALL$ ! =]UNN]S ( MOD]N SCI5TIFIC PHYSICS & *EMI/RY4 ,SIMIL>LY1 9 ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 & LAT]1 UP TO ! EI<TE5? C5TURY1 SOME IMPORTANT DISCOV]IES W]E MADE BY 9VE/IGATORS :O1 :ILE KEEP+ TO ! METAPHYSICAL OR EV5 PURELY RELIGI\S EXPLANATIONS 9 9T]PRET+ ! 9TELLECTUAL & ESPECIALLY ! MORAL LIFE ( MAN1 ADOPT$1 NEV]!LESS1 ! SCI5TIFIC ME?OD :5 !Y UND]TOOK ! /UDY ( ! PHYSICAL SCI5CES4 

,AT ! SAME TIME RELIGION BEGAN TO ACQUIRE A MORE SPIRITUAL *>ACT]4 ,9/EAD ( ! CONCEPTION ( SEP>ATE1 MAN-LIKE GODS1 !RE APPE>$ 9 ,GREECE1 ESPECIALLY AMONG ! ,PY?AGOREANS1 CONCEPTIONS ( SOME SORT ( G5]AL =CES CREAT+ ! LIFE ( ! UNIV]SE4 ,SU* WAS ! CONCEPTION ( 0FIRE0 7I4E41 0CALORIC07 P]MEAT+ ! :OLE WORLD1 ( 0NUMB]S10 I4E41 ! MA!MATICAL LAWS ( MOTION1 ( 0H>MONY10 I4E41 A RATIONAL ESS5CE 9 ! LIFE ( NATURE2 :ILE ON ! O!R H&1 !RE WAS ORIG9AT+ A CONCEPTION ( A ,S+LE ,BE+1 RUL+ ! UNIV]SE4 ,!RE W]E ALSO H9TS ( 0,UNIV]SAL ,TRU?10 & 0,JU/ICE40 

,H[EV]1 ,GREEK PHILOSOPHY C\LD NOT CONT5T ITSELF = A LONG TIME ) SU* AB/RACT CONCEPTIONS4 ,MORE ?AN F\R C5TURIES ,B4,C4 !RE APPE>$1 ON ! ONE H&1 ! ,SOPHI/S & ! AMORALI/S 7H$ONI/S1 ETC41 :O DID NOT RECOGNIZE ! OBLIGATORY NATURE ( MORAL PR9CIPLES7 &1 ON ! O!R H&1 ?9K]S LIKE ,SOCRATES & ,PLATO 79 ! FIF? C5TURY ,B4,C471 ,>I/OTLE 79 ! F\R?71 & ,EPICURUS 79 ! ?IRD71 :O LAID ! F\NDATIONS ( ,E?ICS1 I4E41 ! SCI5CE ( MORAL1 & !SE F\NDATIONS HAVE NOT LO/ !IR IMPORTANCE TO ! PRES5T DAY4 

,! WRIT+S ( ! ,SOPHI/ ,PROTAGORAS 7BORN AB\T #dh ,B4,C47 HAVE REA*$ US ONLY 9 FRAGM5TS & WE CANNOT1 !RE=E1 =M A COMPLETE IDEA ( HIS PHILOSOPHY4 ,WE ONLY KN[ ?AT HE ADOPT$ A NEGATIVE ATTITUDE T[>D RELIGIONS1 & AS = MORALITY1 HE CONSID]$ IT AN 9/ITUTION ( HUMAN SOCIAL ORIG94 ,?IS MORALITY1 9 HIS OP9ION1 WAS DET]M9$ BY ! DEVELOPM5T 9 ALL RESPECTS ( EA* PEOPLE AT A P>TICUL> P]IOD4 ,?IS ACC\NTS = ! DIFF]5CES 9 MORAL PR9CIPLES AMONG DIFF]5T PEOPLES4 ,H5CE FOLL[S ! CONCLUSION ?AT 0GOOD0 & 0EVIL0 >E RELATIVE CONCEPTIONS4 

,SU* IDEAS W]E ADVOCAT$ NOT ONLY BY ,PROTAGORAS1 BUT !RE SOON =M$ 9 ,GREECE A :OLE S*OOL ( ,SOPHI/S1 :O HELD TO !SE NOTIONS4 

,9 G5]AL1 WE F9D 9 ,ANCI5T ,GREECE NO LEAN+ T[>D ! IDEALI/IC PHILOSOPHY2 ! PR$OM9AT+ ELEM5T 9 ,GREECE WAS ! /RIV+ = ACTIONS & = ! TRA9+ ( WILL1 = ACTIVE P>TICIPATION 9 ! LIFE ( SOCIETY1 & = ! DEVELOPM5T ( M5 9TELLECTUALLY /RONG1 & 5]GETIC4 ,FAI? 9 GODS AS GOV]N+ ! ACTS ( M51 WAS ON ! WANE4 ,! :OLE MODE ( LIFE ( ,ANCI5T ,GREECE1 -- :I* !N CONSI/$ ( SMALL 9DEP5D5T REPUBLICS1 -- ! ?IR/ = AN UND]/&+ ( NATURE1 ! GR[+ ACQUA9TANCE ) ! SURR\ND+ WORLD [+ TO TRAVEL & COLONIZATION -- ALL !SE FACTORS URG$ ,MAN T[>D ! ASS]TION ( HIS 9DIVIDUALITY1 T[>D ! NEGATION ( ! P[] ( CU/OM & FAI?1 T[>D ! LIB]ATION ( ! 9TELLECT4 ,& SIDE BY SIDE ) ?IS PROCESS CAME ! RAPID DEVELOPM5T ( ! SCI5CES4 ,?IS DEVELOPM5T WAS SO MU* ! MORE REM>KABLE BECAUSE1 ONLY A FEW C5TURIES LAT]1 DUR+ ! EXI/5CE ( ! ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE1 & ESPECIALLY AFT] ! 9VASION ( ! ,B>B>IANS1 :O MOV$ UPON ,EUROPE FROM ,ASIA1 SCI5TIFIC PROGRESS CAME TO A HALT ?R\<\T ! 5TIRE HUMAN RACE4 ,= MANY C5TURIES SCI5CE WAS AT A /&/ILL4 

,! 9TELLECTUAL MOVEM5T ORIG9AT$ BY ! ,SOPHI/S C\LD NOT REMA9 LONG 9 ! SAME =M4 ,IT UNAVOIDABLY L$ TO A DEEP] /UDY ( M5 -- HIS ?9K+1 HIS FEEL+1 HIS WILL1 & HIS SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS1 & ALSO ( ! :OLE LIFE ( ! ,COSMOS-,UNIV]SE1 I4E41 ( ,NATURE 9 G5]AL4 ,& ) SU* /UDY ! SUP]FICIAL ATTITUDE ( ! ,SOPHI/S T[>D MORAL QUE/IONS SOON CEAS$ TO SATISFY ?\<TFUL M54 ,& ON ! O!R H&1 ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! SCI5CES1 LIB]AT+ MAN FROM SLAVI% OB$I5CE TO RELIGION & CU/OM1 L$ TO CULTIVATION ( ! MORAL PR9CIPLES ?R\< EXP]IM5TAL KN[L$GE & 9 A MANN] MU* MORE ?OR\< ?AN ! ,SOPHI/S C\LD ATTA9 BY MEANS ( !IR DIALECTS4 

,ALL ?IS TAK5 TOGE!R UND]M9E ! PHILOSOPHY ( M]E NEGATION4 

,SOCRATES 7BORN #d#f#i1 DI$ #cii ,B4,C47 CAME \T AGA9/ ! ,SOPHI/S 9 ! NAME ( TRUE KN[L$GE4 ,HE %>$ !IR REVOLUTION>Y T5D5CIES1 BUT HE S\<T A MORE SOLID SUPPORT = ! F\NDATION ( MORALITY ?AN ! SUP]FICIAL CRITIQUE ( ! ,SOPHI/S4 ,:ILE REMA9+ A REVOLUTION>Y 9 RELIGION & 9 PHILOSOPHY1 HE HUNG EV]Y?+ UPON ! SUPREME REASON ( ,MAN1 & UPON ! ATTA9+ BY MAN ( ! 9N] H>MONY BETWE5 REASON & ! V>I\S FEEL+S & PASSIONS4 ,BESIDES1 ,SOCRATES DID NOT1 ( C\RSE1 0NEGATE VIRTUE10 BUT M]ELY 9T]PRET$ IT V]Y BROADLY1 AS ! ABILITY TO ATTA9 PR(ICI5CY 9 9TELLECTUAL DEVELOPM5T1 9 ! >TS1 & 9 CREATIVE WORK4 ,TO REA* ?IS GOAL1 FIR/ ( ALL KN[L$GE IS NECESS>Y2 NOT SO MU* SCI5TIFIC KN[L$GE1 AS ! UND]/&+ ( SOCIAL LIFE & ( ! 9T]-RELATIONS AMONG MAN4 ,VIRTUE1 HE TAU<T1 IS NOT A REVELATION FROM ! GODS1 BUT A RATIONAL 9NATE KN[L$GE ( :AT IS TRULY GOOD1 & ( :AT MAKES MAN CAPABLE ( LIV+ )\T OPPRESS+ O!RS BUT TREAT+ !M JU/LY2 MAKES HIM CAPABLE ( S]V+ SOCIETY1 & NOT HIMSELF ALONE4 ,)\T ?IS1 SOCIETY IS 9CONCEIVABLE4 

,A DISCIPLE ( ,SOCRATES1 ,PLATO 7#d#b#h-#c#d#h ,B4,C47 EXP\ND$ !SE IDEAS MORE COMPLETELY & SPIRITUALIZ$ !M ) AN IDEALI/IC CONCEPTION ( MORALITY4 ,HE 9QUIR$ EV5 MORE DEEPLY 9TO ! ESS5CE ( MORALITY1 AL?\< HIS MODE ( ?9K+ WAS METAPHYSICAL4 )\T ATTEMPT+ TO PRES5T ,PLATO'S PR9CIPAL IDEAS 9 !IR AB/RACT =M1 BUT M]ELY DWELL+ ON !IR ESS5CE1 HIS TEA*+ MAY BE =MULAT$ AS FOLL[S3 ! PR9CIPLES ( GOOD & JU/ICE >E CONTA9$ 9 ,NATURE ITSELF4 ,!RE IS AN ABUNDANCE ( EVIL & 9JU/ICE 9 ! COSMIC LIFE1 BUT SIDE BY SIDE ) !M >E LAID ! F\NDATIONS ( ALL GOOD4 ,IT WAS ?IS ELEM5T ( ,GOOD & ,JU/ICE ?AT ,PLATO 5DEAVOR$ TO REVEAL & TO SET =? 9 ALL ITS P[]1 SO ?AT IT %\LD BECOME ! GUID+ PR9CIPLE 9 HUMAN LIFE4 

,UN=TUNATELY1 9/EAD ( FOLL[+ ! PA? :I* WAS !N ALREADY BE+ M>K$ \T 9 ,GREECE1 9/EAD ( %[+ 9 :AT =M ! FUNDAM5TAL PR9CIPLES ( MORALITY RESULT FROM ! LIFE ( ,NATURE ITSELF1 FROM ! SOCIALITY ( M51 & FROM ! NATURE ( MAN'S 9TELLIG5CE1 FROM 9NATE 9TELLIG5CE AS WELL AS FROM ?AT DEVELOP$ BY SOCIAL LIFE -- ,PLATO S\<T ! F\NDATIONS ( MORALITY \TSIDE ( ! UNIV]SE1 9 ! 0IDEA0 :I* UND]LIES ! /RUCTURE ( COSMIC LIFE1 BUT :I* IS NOT EXPRESS$ 9 IT QUITE DEF9ITELY4 

,9 SPITE ( ! UN5D+ NUMB] ( 9T]PRETATIONS ( ,PLATO'S AB/RACT ?\<T1 IT IS DIFFICULT TO GET AT ! ESS5CE ( HIS PHILOSOPHY4 ,BUT WE WILL H>DLY MAKE A MI/AKE 9 SAY+ ?AT ! GREAT ,GREEK ?9K]1 ) HIS DEEP UND]/&+ ( ! 9TIMATE CONNECTION BETWE5 HUMAN LIFE & ! LIFE ( ,NATURE AS A :OLE1 F\ND IT IMPOSSIBLE TO EXPLA9 ! MORAL ELEM5T 9 ,MAN BY M]E /RIV+ = :AT IS 9DIVIDUALLY ACCEPTABLE1 AS WAS DONE BY ! ,SOPHI/S4 ,HE WAS /ILL LESS CAPABLE ( CONSID]+ MORALITY AN ACCID5TAL PRODUCT ( SOCIAL LIFE SIMPLY BECAUSE MORALITY ASSUM$ DIFF]5T =MS 9 DIFF]5T PLACES & AT DIFF]5T TIMES4 HE MI<T HAVE ASK$ HIMSELF ! QUE/ION1 -- AS P]HAPS HE DID3 H[ DOES IT HAPP5 ?AT ?\< MAN IS L$ BY A /RIV+ = :AT IS ACCEPTABLE TO HIM P]SONALLY1 HE NEV]!LESS >RIVES AT MORAL CONCEPTIONS ?AT >E1 AFT] ALL1 SIMIL> AMONG DIFF]5T PEOPLES & AT DIFF]5T TIMES1 S9CE !Y ALL HOLD AS DESIRABLE ! HAPP9ESS ( ALL8 ,:Y IS IT ?AT1 9 F9AL ANALYSIS1 ! HAPP9ESS ( !  9DIVIDUAL IS ID5TIFI$ ) ! HAPP9ESS ( ! MAJORITY ( M58 ,:Y IS NOT ! =M] POSSIBLE )\T ! O!R8 & :AT TRANS=MS MAN FROM A SELF-LOV+ CREATURE 9TO A BE+ CAPABLE ( CONSID]+ ! 9T]E/S ( O!RS1 & NOT 9FREQU5TLY ( SACRIFIC+ = !M HIS P]SONAL HAPP9ESS & EV5 HIS LIFE8 

,AS A DISCIPLE ( ,SOCRATES1 ,PLATO C\LD NO LONG] ASCRIBE ! ORIG9 ( ! CONCEPTION ( ! GOOD TO ! REVELATION ( GODS3 ,?UND]1 ,SUN1 ,MOON1 ETC41 I4E41 TO ! =CES ( ,NATURE 5D[$ ) HUMAN ATTRIBUTES4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 [+ TO ! RUDIM5T>Y /ATE ( KN[L$GE AB\T HUMAN SOCIETIES1 HE C\LD NOT LOOK = ! EXPLANATION ( ! GOOD1 -- AS WE >E SEEK+ IT N[ & F9D+ IT1 -- 9 ! GRADUAL DEVELOPM5T ( SOCIALITY & ( ! CONSCI\SNESS ( EQUITY4 ,HE F\ND1 !RE=E1 ! EXPLANATION ( ! GOOD 9 ! ,IDEA1 9 SOME?+ AB/RACT :I* P]VADES ! :OLE UNIV]SE1 & CONSEQU5TLY1 ,MAN AS WELL4 0,NO?+ CAN MANIFE/ ITSELF 9 ?IS WORLD1 :I* IS NOT ALREADY IMPLI$ 9 ! LIFE ( ! :OLE10 SU* WAS HIS FUNDAM5TAL ?\<T1 -- A P]FECTLY TRUE PHILOSOPHIC ?\<T4 ,HE DID NOT C>RY IT1 H[EV]1 TO ITS ULTIMATE CONCLUSION4 ,IT W\LD SEEM ?AT HE %\LD HAVE >RIV$ AT ! CONCLUSION ?AT IF ! HUMAN REASON SEEKS GOOD1 JU/ICE1 ORD]1 9 ! =M ( ! 0LAWS ( LIFE10 IT DOES IT BECAUSE ALL !SE ELEM5TS >E CONTA9$ 9 ! LIFE ( ,NATURE2 HE %\LD HAVE CONCLUD$ ?AT ! M9D ( MAN DRAWS FROM ,NATURE ITS CONCEPTIONS ( ! PR9CIPLES ( GOOD1 JU/ICE1 SOCIAL LIFE4 ,9/EAD ( ?AT1 AL?\< HE TI$ TO FREE HIMSELF FROM ! ]ROR ( HIS PR$ECESSORS1 ,PLATO CAME TO ! CONCLUSION ?AT MAN'S SE>* = SOME?+ HI<] ?AN ! EV]YDAY LIFE1 I4E41 HIS SE>* = ,GOOD & ,JU/ICE1 HAS ITS EXPLANATION & ITS BASIS NOT 9 ,NATURE1 BUT 9 SOME?+ :I* IS BEYOND ! LIMITS ( \R KN[L$GE1 ( \R S5SES1 & ( \R EXP]I5CE1 -- NAMELY1 9 ! ,UNIV]SAL ,IDEA4 

,IT CAN BE EASILY UND]/OOD H[1 9 AFT] TIMES1 ! 0,NEO-,PLATONI/S10 & LAT] ,*RI/IANITY1 TOOK ADVANTAGE ( ?IS CONCLUSION ( ! BRILLIANT & /IMULAT+ ,GREEK ?9K]1 -- FIR/ = ! PURPOSE ( ,MY/ICISM1 & !N = ! JU/IFICATION ( MONO!ISM1 & = ! EXPLANATION ( ALL ! MORAL ELEM5TS 9 MAN AS COM+ BY NO MEANS ?R\< ! NATURAL DEVELOPM5T ( ! SOCIAL S5TIM5TS & ( REASON1 BUT ?R\< REVELATION1 I4E41 9SPIRATION FROM ABOVE ORIG9AT+ 9 A ,SUPREME ,BE+4 

,IT CAN ALSO BE READILY UND]/OOD H[1 NOT HAV+ CONSID]$ ! NECESSITY ( E/ABLI%+ MORALITY ON ! V]Y FACT ( SOCIAL LIFE1 :I* W\LD PROBABLY HAVE L$ HIM TO RECOGNIZE ! EQUALITY ( M51 -- NOT BE+ P]MEAT$ ) ! IDEA ?AT ALL MORAL TEA*+S WILL BE IMPOT5T IF ! SY/EM ( SOCIAL LIFE IS 9 CONTRADICTION ) !M4 ,PLATO1 LIKE HIS PR$ECESSORS1 PICTUR$ 9 HIS 0,REPUBLIC0 AS AN IDEAL SOCIAL SY/EM1 A CLASS REPUBLIC1 BAS$ ON ! SUBJUGATION ( SOME CLASSES BY O!RS1 & EV5 ON SLAV]Y1 & EV5 ON ! DEA? P5ALTY4 

,?IS ALSO EXPLA9S :Y1 LAT]1 ?R\<\T ! 5TIRE HI/ORY ( ,E?ICS AS A SCI5CE ( ! DEVELOPM5T ( MORAL CONCEPTIONS 9 ,MAN1 BEG9N+ ) ANCI5T ,GREECE & UP TO ! TIME ( ,BACON & ,SP9OZA1 !RE PREVAILS ! SAME FUNDAM5TAL IDEA ( ! EXTRA-HUMAN & EXTRA-NATURAL ORIG9 ( MORALITY4 

,IT IS TRUE ?AT C]TA9 ,SOPHI/S1 PR$ECESSORS ( ,PLATO1 >RIV$ AT A NATURAL EXPLANATION ( PH5OM5A4 ,ALREADY 9 ?OSE E>LY TIMES !Y TRI$ TO EXPLA9 ! LIFE ( ,NATURE BY ME*ANICAL CAUSES1 JU/ AS !Y TRI$ TO EXPLA9 ! LIFE ( ,NATURE BY ME*ANICAL CAUSES1 JU/ AS IT IS N[ BE+ EXPLA9$ BY ! 0POSITIVI/0 PHILOSOPHY2 & SOME ,SOPHI/S EV5 REG>D$ MORAL CONCEPTIONS AS ! NECESS>Y CONSEQU5CE ( ! PHYSICAL /RUCTURE ( MAN4 ,BUT ! SCI5TIFIC KN[L$GE ( MANK9D ( ?AT EPO* WAS NOT SUFFICI5T TO R5D] SU* 9T]PRETATIONS ( MORALITY ACCEPTABLE1 & = MANY C5TURIES ,E?ICS REMA9$ UND] ! GU>DIAN%IP ( RELIGION4 ,ONLY N[ IS IT BEG9N+ TO BE BUILT UP ON ! BASIS ( ! NATURAL SCI5CES4 

,[+ TO ! FACT ?AT ! /UDY ( ,NATURE HAD MADE BUT SMALL PROGRESS 9 ?OSE DAYS1 ! TEA*+ ( ,PLATO WAS1 NATURALLY1 ! MO/ ACCESSIBLE TO ! MAJORITY ( $UCAT$ M54 ,PROBABLY IT ALSO H>MONIZ$ ) ! NEW RELIGI\S 9FLU5CES COM+ FROM ! ,EA/1 :]E ,BUDDHISM WAS ALREADY BE+ DEVELOP$4 ,!SE CIRCUM/ANCES ALONE1 H[EV]1 DO NOT SUFFICE TO EXPLA9 ! 9FLU5CE ( ,PLATO1 -- AN 9FLU5CE ?AT HAS LA/$ TO \R [N ]A4 ,! PO9T IS ?AT ,PLATO 9TRODUC$ 9TO ,E?ICS ! IDEALI/IC 9T]PRETATIONS ( MORALITY4 ,A 0S\L0 WAS TO HIM A BL5D+ ( REASON1 FEEL+ & WILL1 FROM :I* COME WISDOM1 C\RAGE1 & MOD]ATION 9 PASSION4 ,HIS IDEAL WAS -- ,LOVE1 ,FRI5D%IP2 BUT ! WORD ,LOVE 7,]OS7 HAD AT ?AT TIME A BROAD] MEAN+ ?AN IT BE>S N[1 & ,PLATO UND]/OOD BY ,]OS NOT ONLY A MUTUAL ATTA*M5T ( TWO BE+S1 BUT ALSO ! SOCIALITY BAS$ ON ! ACCORD BETWE5 ! DESIRES ( ! 9DIVIDUAL & ! DESIRES ( ALL ! O!R MEMB]S ( SOCIETY4 ,HIS ,]OS WAS ALSO :AT WE N[ CALL SOCIABILITY1 MUTUAL SYMPA?Y1 ! FEEL+ :I*1 AS CAN BE SE5 FROM ! PREVI\SLY M5TION$ FACTS TAK5 FROM ! LIFE ( ANIMALS & ( HUMAN BE+S1 P]MEATES ! :OLE WORLD ( LIV+ CREATURES & :I* IS JU/ AS NECESS>Y A CONDITION ( !IR LIVES AS IS ! 9/9CT ( SELF-PRES]VATION4 ,PLATO DID NOT KN[ ?IS1 BUT HE ALREADY FELT ! IMPORTANCE ( ?IS FUNDAM5TAL FACTOR ( ALL PROGRESSIVE DEVELOPM5T1 I4E41 ( ?AT :I* WE N[ CALL ,EVOLUTION4 

,FUR!RMNORE1 ?\< ,PLATO DID NOT REALIZE ! IMPORTANCE ( JU/ICE 9 ! DEVELOPM5T ( MORALITY1 HE NEV]!LESS PRES5T$ JU/ICE 9 SU* A =M ?AT ONE REALLY WOND]S :Y SUBSEQU5T ?9K]S DID NOT PUT IT AT ! BASIS ( ,E?ICS4 ,?US1 9 ! DIALOGUE 0,ALCIBIADES 7,I710 :I* IS ASCRIB$ TO A /ILL Y\?FUL ,PLATO1 ,SOCRATES MAKES ,ALCIBIADES ACKN[L$GE ?AT AL?\< M5 >E CAPABLE ( WAG+ DESP]ATE W>S1 PRESUMABLY = ! SAKE ( JU/ICE1 !Y >E1 NEV]!LESS1 REALLY FI<T+ = :AT !Y CONSID] MO/ USEFUL = !MSELVES4 ,! JU/1 H[EV]1 IS ALWAYS BEAUTIFUL2 IT IS ALWAYS GOOD1 I4E41 ALWAYS EXP$I5T2 SO ?AT !RE CANNOT BE 0ANY MATT]S GREAT] ?AN ! JU/1 ! HONORABLE1 ! GOOD1 & ! EXP$I5T4 
0#e 

,IT IS 9T]E/+ TO NOTE ?AT :5 ,PLATO1 9 ! SAME ,DIALOGUE1 SPEAKS ?R\< ! M\? ( ,SOCRATES AB\T ! S\L & ITS DIV9E ASPECT HE CONSID]S 0DIV9E0 ?AT P>T ( ! S\L 0:I* HAS TO DO ) WISDOM & KN[L$GE10 I4E41 NOT ! FEEL+S1 BUT ! REASON4 ,& HE CONCLUDES ! ,DIALOGUE ) ! FOLL[+ WORDS1 SPOK5 BY ,SOCRATES3 0,Y\ & ! ,/ATE1 IF Y\ ACT WISELY & JU/LY1 WILL ACT ACCORD+ TO ! WILL ( ,GOD10 -- & 0Y\ WILL LOOK ONLY AT :AT IS BRI<T & DIV9E10 7I4E41 AT ! REASON :I* GIVES /R5G? TO ! S\L7 & 09 ?AT MIRROR Y\ WILL SEE & KN[ Y\RSELVES & Y\R [N GOOD40 .<,ALCIBIADES ,I 8 #a#c#d3 P #e#g.>4 

,PLATO WROTE /ILL MORE DEF9ITELY AB\T JU/ICE1 & MORALITY 9 G5]AL1 9 HIS DIALOGUE1 0,! ,SYMPOSIUM10 :]E ! P>TICIPANTS 9 ! FEA/ EXTOLL ! GOD ( LOVE1 ,]OS4 ,( C\RSE1 NOT 9 ! FIR/ P>T ( ?IS DISC\RSE1 :]E COMMONPLACES >E BE+ SAID AB\T ! GOD1 BUT 9 ! SECOND P>T1 :]E ! CONV]SATION IS BETWE5 ! POET-DRAMATI/ ,AGA?ON1 & ,SOCRATES4 

,! VIRTUES ( ,]OS1 SAYS ! POET1 >E HIS ,JU/ICE1 HIS ,TEMP]ANCE1 & HIS ,C\RAGE2 !N HIS LOVE ( BEAUTY2 HE TOL]ATES NO UGL9ESS ,HE IS ! GOD 0:O EMPTIES M5 ( DISAFFECTION & FILLS !M ) AFFECTION444:O S5DS C\RTESY & S5DS AWAY DISC\RTESY2 :O GIVES K9DNESS EV]1 & NEV] GIVES UNK9DNESS10 ETC4 .<,SYMPOSIUM 8 P4 #e#f#g4.> 

,9 ! SAME WORK ,PLATO ASS]TS1 & PROVES ?R\< ! WORDS ( 
,SOCRATES1 ?AT ,LOVE IS 9SEP>ABLE FROM GOODNESS & BEAUTY4 ,LOVE1 SAYS 
,SOCRATES 9 ! 0,SYMPOSIUM10 IS 0BIR? 9 BEAUTY1 :E!R ( BODY OR 
S\L40 ,LOVE /RIVES TO CLEAVE TO ! GOOD & ! BEAUTIFUL1 & ?US1 
9 ! F9AL ANALYSIS1 LOVE COMES TO BE ! SE>* = ! GOOD & ! 
BEAUTIFUL4 04444,! BEAUTY ( ONE =M IS AK9 TO ! BEAUTY ( 
ANO!R44440 ,:5 A MAN P]CEIVES ?IS HE 0WILL BECOME A LOV] ( ALL 
BEAUTIFUL =MS2 9 ! NEXT /AGE HE WILL CONSID] ?AT ! BEAUTY ( 
! M9D IS MORE HONORABLE ?AN ! BEAUTY ( ! \TW>D =M0 & 9 
?IS MANN] HE WILL COME TO ! CONTEMPLATION ( BEAUTY :I* CONSI/S 
9 P]=M+ HIS DUTY1 & !N HE WILL UND]/& ?AT 0! BEAUTY 9 
EV]Y =M IS ONE & ! SAME10 & BEAUTY ( =M WILL NO LONG] BE TO 
HIM SO IMPORTANT4 ,HAV+ ATTA9$ ?IS /AGE ( 9T]PRET+ BEAUTY1 
SAYS ,PLATO1 A MAN 0WILL P]CEIVE A NATURE ( WONDR\S BEAUTY444:I* IS 
EV] LA/+1 NOT GR[+ & DECAY+1 OR WAX+ & WAN+10 BUT :I* 
IS 0ABSOLUTE )\T DIM9UTION1 & )\T 9CREASE1 OR ANY *ANGE0 9 
ALL ITS P>TS1 AT ALL TIMES1 9 ALL RESPECTS1 9 ALL PLACES1 & = ALL 
M54 ,PLATO REA*ES ! HI<E/ DEGREE ( IDEALISM :5 HE ADDS3 ?IS 
BEAUTY WILL NOT APPE> AS SOME?+ CONTA9$ 9 ANY?+ ELSE1 
SOME?+ 0EXI/+ = EXAMPLE 9 AN ANIMAL1 OR 9 HEAV51 OR 9 E>?1 
OR 9 ANY O!R PLACE20 BUT AS SOME?+ 0ABSOLUTE1 SEP>ATE1 SIMPLE10 
:I* EXI/S 9DEP5D5TLY & IS SELF CONTA9$40 .<,SYMPOSIUM 
8 #b#a#a2 P4 #e#h#a4.> 

,SU* WAS ,PLATO'S IDEALISM1 & IT IS NO WOND]1 
!RE=E1 ?AT IT HAS FOLL[]S TO ! PRES5T DAY4 ,ON ONE SIDE1 IT 
PREP>$ ! PA? = ! POPUL\S S*OOL ( ! 0,EUDEMONI/S0 :O >E 
/ILL 9 ! MAJORITY 9 ,E?ICS & :O ASS]T 7JU/ AS ! ,SOPHI/S 
ASS]T$ BE=E ,PLATO1 & AFT] HIM ,EPICURUS & HIS FOLL[]S7 ?AT 
:ATEV] MAN DOES1 HE DOES 0= HIS [N PLEASURE40 ,NE$LESS TO SAY1 
,PLATO UND]/OOD ?IS 0PLEASURE0 NOT 9 ! N>R[ S5SE :I* HE 
DEF9$ 9 ! ,DIALOGUES 0,LA*ES0 & ! 0,SYMPOSIUM40 ,BUT ON ! O!R 
H&1 9TRODUC+ AT ! SAME TIME ! CONCEPTIONS ( 0S\L0 & 
0BEAUTY10 AS ( SOME?+ :I* IS1 9 A S5SE1 CONTA9$ 9 ,NATURE1 & 
YET /&S ABOVE IT1 HE PREP>$ ! GR\ND = RELIGI\S E?ICS1 & HE 
REMA9S1 !RE=E1 TO \R TIME ! FAVORITE ( RELIGI\S ?9K]S4 ,HE 
WAS !IR PR$ECESSOR4 ,IT IS REM>KABLE1 H[EV]1 ?AT HIS HI< 
CONCEPTION ( ,NATURE & ( MORAL BEAUTY 9 ,NATURE -- :I* REMA9S 
9SUFFICI5TLY APPRECIAT$ TO ?IS TIME BY BO? ! RELIGI\S & ! 
NON-RELIGI\S E?ICS -- SEP>ATES HIM FROM ! =M]1 AS WELL AS FROM 
! LATT]4 

,9 ! SECOND HALF ( HIS LIFE1 :5 ,PLATO FELL UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( ! ,PY?AGOREANS1 HE ATTEMPT$1 ) ! ASSI/ANCE ( ,TYRANT ( ,SYRACUSE1 ,DIONYSIUS1 TO E/ABLI% A /ATE ACCORD+ TO ! PLAN :I* HE EXP\ND$ 9 HIS WORKS1 0,/ATESMAN0 & 0,LAWS0 7A PRODUCT ( A M9D ALREADY FALL+ 9TO DECREPITUDE74 ,AT ?AT TIME HE WAS NO LONG] ! SAME IDEALI/ AS AT ! FIR/ P]IOD ( HIS LIFE & TEA*+4 ,9 HIS 0,/ATE10 AS ONE ( HIS GREAT ADMIR]S1 ,VLADIMIR ,SOLOVYEV1 PO9TS \T ) BITT]NESS1 ,PLATO NOT ONLY RETA9$ SLAV]Y1 BUT ALSO ! DEA? S5T5CE = SLAVES = NOT REPORT+ ANO!R'S (F5SE1 & = ! CITIZ5S 9 G5]AL :5 GUILTY ( DISRESPECT T[>D ! E/ABLI%$ RELIGION4 ,HE ?US CALL$ UPON M5 TO COMMIT ! V]Y CRIME :I* SO /RONGLY >\S$ HIS 9DIGNATION :5 HIS TEA*] ,SOCRATES WAS EXECUT$ [+ TO ! SAME RELIGI\S 9TOL]ANCE4 0,]OS10 I4E41 ,LOVE1 :I* ,PLATO PREA*$ 9 SU* WONDR\S =M1 DID NOT PREV5T HIM FROM APPROV+ !SE CRIMES4 ,LAT] !Y W]E P]PETRAT$ ALSO BY ! ,*RI/IAN ,*UR*1 9 SPITE ( ! LOVE-GOSPEL ( ITS F\ND]4 

,! MIDDLE POSITION BETWE5 ! NATURAL-SCI5TIFIC & ! METAPHYSICAL UND]/&+ ( MORALITY IS OCCUPI$ BY ! TEA*+ ( ,>I/OTLE1 :O LIV$ 9 ! F\R? C5TURY ,B4,C4 7#c#h#d-#c#b#b ,B4,C474 

,>IO/OTLE S\<T ! EXPLANATION ( \R MORAL CONCEPTIONS NOT 9 ! ,SUPREME ,REASON OR 9 ! ,UNIV]SAL ,IDEA1 AS ,PLATO DID1 BUT 9 ! ACTUAL LIFE ( M53 9 !IR /RIV+ = HAPP9ESS & = :AT IS USEFUL TO !M1 -- & 9 HUMAN REASON4 ,9 ?IS /RIV+1 HE TAU<T1 TWO PR9CIPAL SOCIAL VIRTUES W]E EVOLV$3 FRI5D%IP1 I4E41 LOVE = \R FELL[MAN 7WE %\LD N[ CALL IT SOCIALITY7 & ,JU/ICE4 ,BUT HE UND]/OOD ,JU/ICE1 AS WE %ALL SEE LAT]1 NOT 9 ! S5SE ( EQUALITY ( RI<TS4 

,?US 9 ,>I/OTLE'S PHILOSOPHY WE F9D = ! FIR/ TIME ! DOCTR9E ( ! SELF-SUFFICI5CY ( HUMAN REASON4 ,LIKE ,PLATO1 HE ?\<T ?AT ! S\RCE ( REASON IS ! ,DIV9ITY1 BUT ?IS DIV9ITY1 ?\< IT IS ! S\RCE ( 0REASON & MOVEM5T 9 ! UNIV]SE10 DOES NOT 9T]F]E ) ! UNIV]SAL LIFE4 ,9 G5]AL1 :ILE ,PLATO /ROVE TO E/ABLI% ! EXI/5CE ( TWO SEP>ATE WORLDS3 ! S5SIBLE WORLD :I* WE KN[ ?R\< \R S5SES1 & ! SUP]-S5SIBLE WORLD :I* IS 9ACCESSIBLE TO !M1 ,>I/OTLE /ROVE TO UNITE !M4 ,!RE WAS NO ROOM = FAI? 9 HIS TEA*+1 & HE DID NOT RECOGNIZE P]SONAL IMMORTALITY4 ,WE CAN ATTA9 ! TRUE UND]/&+ ( \R LIFE1 TAU<T ,>I/OTLE1 ONLY ?R\< ! UND]/&+ ( ! UNIV]SE4 

,HE SAW ! F\NDATION ( ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS ( MAN 9 ! FACTS ( ACTUAL LIFE4 ,ALL >E /RIV+ = ! GREATE/ HAPP9ESS4 ,HAPP9ESS IS :AT MAKES LIFE 0ELIGIBLE & 9 WANT ( NO?+40 ,! CRUDE MOB SEEKS HAPP9ESS 9 5JOYM5T1 :ILE ! 5LI<T5$ PEOPLE SEEK IT 9 SOME?+ HI<]1 NOT 9 ! 0IDEA10 AS ,PLATO TAU<T1 BUT 9 0AN 5]GY #f ( ! S\L & ACTIONS P]=M$ ) REASON1 0OR1 AT LEA/1 NOT CONTR>Y TO REASON4 0,MAN'S *IEF GOOD IS 0AN 5]GY ( ! S\L ACCORD+ TO VIRTUE1 0 &1 IT MU/ BE ADD$1 9 ! C\RSE ( ! MAN'S 5TIRE LIFE1 -- AN ACTIVE VIRTUE COMB9$ ) 5]GY4 ,HAPP9ESS IS ATTA9$ ?R\< A LIFE :I* IS 9 ACCORDANCE ) ! REQUIREM5TS ( JU/ICE1 & SU* A LIFE IS MORE BEAUTIFUL ?AN ANY?+ ELSE3 ,IT COMB9ES ) ! ABOVE B5EFITS ALSO HEAL? & 0! OBTA9+ :AT WE LOVE40 7,E?ICA1 BOOK ,I1 *4 VII4-VIII41 PP4 #a#g-#b47 0,NEV]!LESS10 ADDS ,>I/OTLE1 0IT APPE>S TO /& 9 NE$ ( ! ADDITION ( EXT]NAL GOODS10 AMONG :I* HE 9CLUDES 0FRI5DS1 MONEY1 POLITICAL 9FLU5CE1 NOBLE BIR?1 GOOD *ILDR51 & BEAUTY40 ,)\T ?IS 0EXT]NAL PROSP]ITY10 HAPP9ESS IS NOT COMPLETE4 7*4 VIII1 #a#b1 PP4 #b-#b#a47 ,*ANCE PLAYS A P>T 9 APPORTION+ HAPP9ESS1 BUT 0IT IS POSSIBLE1 ?AT BY MEANS ( SOME TEA*+ & C>E1 IT %\LD EXI/ 9 EV]Y P]SON :O IS NOT 9CAPACITAT$ = VIRTUE0 7*4 IX1 #c1 P4 #b#a71 = EV5 ! IRRATIONAL P>T ( MAN'S S\L 7I4E41 \R PASSIONS7 09 SOME S5SE P>TAKES ( REASON40 7*4 XIII1 #a#c2 P4 #c#a47 ,9 G5]AL1 ,>I/OTLE ASCRIB$ TREM5D\S IMPORTANCE TO REASON 9 ! DEVELOPM5T ( AN 9DIVIDUAL2 IT IS ! FUNCTION ( REASON TO RE/RA9 ! PASSIONS2 IT IS [+ TO REASON ?AT WE >E ABLE TO UND]/& ?AT /RIV+ = ! GOOD ( SOCIETY GIVES A MU* HI<]1 MU* MORE 0BEAUTIFUL HAPP9ESS0 ?AN /RIV+ = ! SATISFACTION ( ONE'S [N IMPULSES4 

,IT MAY BE SE5 FROM !SE EXTRACTS ?AT 9/EAD ( LOOK+ = ! BASIS ( ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS 9 MAN 9 REVELATIONS FROM ABOVE1 ,>I/OTLE R$UCE !SE CONCEPTIONS TO ! DECISION ( REASON1 SEEK+ = ! HI<E/ SATISFACTION & HAPP9ESS1 & HE UND]/OOD ?AT ! HAPP9ESS ( AN 9DIVIDUAL IS 9TIMATELY CONNECT$ ) ! HAPP9ESS ( SOCIETY 70/ATE10 HE SAID1 MEAN+ BY IT AN ORGANIZ$ COMMUNITY74 ,?US ,>I/OTLE IS ! PR$ECESSOR ( ! L>GE S*OOL ( 0,EUDEMONI/S10 :O LAT] EXPLA9$ ! MORAL 9/9CTS1 FEEL+S1 & ACTS ( MAN AS A /RIV+ FRO P]SONAL HAPP9ESS1 & ALSO ( ! MOD]N S*OOL ( ! 0UTILIT>IANS10 BEG9N+ ) ,B5?AM & ,MILL & REA*+ TO ,H]B]T ,SP5C]4 

,>I/OTLE'S 0,E?ICS10 9 ITS =M & 9 ITS C>EFUL DEVELOPM5T ( EA* SEP>ATE ?\<T1 IS UNQUE/IONABLY JU/ AS REM>KABLE A MONUM5T ( ! DEVELOPM5T ( ,ANCI5T ,GREECE1 AS IS ! RE/ ( HIS WORKS1 SCI5TIFIC & POLITICAL4 ,BUT 9 HIS 0,E?IC10 AS WELL AS 9 ! 0,POLITICS10 HE PAYS FULL TRIBUTE TO :AT WE N[ CALL OPPORTUNISM4 ,SU* IS HIS FAM\S DEF9ITION ( VIRTUE AS 0AS HABIT1 ACCOMPANI$ ) DELIB]ATE PREF]5CE1 9 ! RELATIVE MEAN1 DEF9$ B Y REASON1 & AS ! PRUD5T MAN W\LD DEF9E IT4 ,IT IS  A MEAN /ATE BETWE5 TWO VISES1 ON E 9 EXCESS1 ! O!R 9 DEFECT40 7,BOOK ,I,I1 *4 VI1 #a2 P4 #d#e2 ALSO ,BOOK ,I1 *4 VIII47 

,! SAME CAN BE SAID ( HIS CONCEPTION ( ,JU/ICE4  
#g ,AL?\< ,>I/OTLE DEVOT$ TO IT A SEP>ATE *APT] 9 HIS 0E?ICS10 HE DEF9$ IT 9 ! SAME SPIRIT AS HE DEF9$ VIRTUE 9 G5]AL1 I4E41 AS ! MIDDLE BETWE5 TWO EXTREMES1 & HE UND]/OOD IT NOT AS A PR9CIPLE ( EQUALITY ( M51 BUT 9 A V]Y LIMIT$ S5SE4 

#h 

,SU* AN 9T]PRETATION ( JU/ICE IS WOR?Y ( P>TICUL> NOTE1 BECAUSE HE CONSID]$ JU/ICE ! GREATE/ ( ALL ! VIRTUES1 0& NEI!R ! EV5+ NOR ! MORN+ /> IS SO ADMIRABLE40 

0,9 JU/ICE ALL VIRTUE IS COMPREH5D$10 SAYS A PROV]B ( ?AT TIME4 ,>I/OTLE UND\BT$LY UND]/OOD ! MORAL IMPORTANCE ( JU/ICE1 BECAUSE HE TAU<T ?AT 0JU/ICE ALONE ( ALL ! VIRTUES SEEMS TO BE A GOOD TO ANO!R P]SON0  7,BOOK ,V1 *4 ,I41 #a#c2 P4 #a#b72 9 O!R WORDS1 IT IS A 0VIRTUE0 :I* IS NOT EGOTI/ICAL4 

#i ,MOREOV]1 ,>I/OTLE V]Y JU/LY CONCLUD$ ?AT 09 ALL O!R ACTS ( 9JU/ICE IT IS POSSIBLE ALWAYS TO REF] ! ACTION TO SOME SPECIFIC VISE40 .<,BOOK ,V1 *4 II1 #c2 P4 #a#b#a4.> ,FROM ?IS IT CAN BE SURMIS$ ?AT HE ALSO UND]/OOD ?AT ANY ACT :I* WE CONSID] EVIL1 ALMO/ 9V>IABLE TURNS \T TO BE AN ACT ( 9JU/ICE AGA9/ SOMEONE4 

,AT ! SAME TIME1 :ILE DI/+UI%+ BETWE5 TWO DIFF]5T TYPES ( 9JU/ICE -- ! UNIV]SAL1 :I* CONSI/$ 9 BREAK+ ! LAW1 & ! 0P>TICUL> 9JU/ICE10 :I* CONSI/$ 9 AN 9EQUITABLE ATTITUDE T[>D M51 -- & :ILE DI/+UI%+ BETWE5 TWO CORRESPOND+ TYPES ( JU/ICE1 -- ,>I/OTLE RECOGNIZ$ TWO O!R SPECIES ( 0P>TICUL> JU/ICE0 70DI/RIBUTIVE0 & 0CORRECTIVE074 0ONE SPECIES IS ?AT :I* IS CONC]N$ 9 ! DI/RIBUTIONS ( HONOR1 EQUAL OR UNEQUAL1 OR ( WEAL? OR ( ANY ( ?OSE O!R ?+S :I* CAN POSSIBLY BE DI/RIBUT$ AMONG ! MEMB]S ( A POLITICAL COMMUNITY04440! O!R IS ?AT :I* IS CORRECTIVE 9 TRANSACTIONS BETWE5 MAN & MAN0 7,BOOK ,V1 *4 III1 #h1 #i2 PP4 #a#b#b-#a#b#c74 ,& TO ?IS ! GREAT ?9K] ( ! ANCI5T WORLD IMM$IATELY ADDS1 ?AT 9 EQUITY1 CONSEQU5TLY ALSO 9 JU/ICE1 !RE %\LD BE ! 0MEAN40 ,& S9CE ! 0MEAN IS A PURELY RELATIVE CONCEPTION1 HE DE/ROY$ !REBY ! V]Y CONCEPTION ( JU/ICE AS ! TRUE SOLUTION ( COMPLEX1 D\BTFUL MORAL QUE/IONS1 :]E A MAN HESITATES BETWE5 TWO POSSIBLE DECISION4 ,&1 ACTUALLY1 ,>I/OTLE1 DID NOT RECOGNIZE EQUALITY 9 0DI/RIBUTION10 BUT M]ELY DEM&$ 0CORRECTIVE0 JU/ICE4 

#a 

,?US IT IS CLE> ?AT1 LIV+ 9 A SOCIETY :]E SLAV]Y EXI/$1 ,>I/OTLE DID NOT V5TURE TO ACKN[L$GE ?AT JU/ICE CONSI/S 9 EQUITY AMONG M54 ,HE LIMIT$ HIMSELF TO COMM]CIAL JU/ICE1 & DID NOT EV5 PROCLAIM EQUITY ! IDEAL ( SOCIAL LIFE4 ,MANK9D HAD TO LIVE = NE>LY TWO ?\S& YE>S LONG] 9 ORGANIZ$ COMMUNITIES1 BE=E1 9 ONE C\NTRY -- ,FRANCE -- EQUALITY WAS PROCLAIM$ AS ! IDEA ( SOCIAL LIFE1 TOGE!R ) LIB]TY & FRAT]NITY4 

,G5]ALLY SPEAK+1 9 QUE/ION ( MORALITY & 9 POLITICS1 ,>I/OTLE WAS NOT 9 ADVANCE ( HIS TIME4 ,BUT 9 HIS DEF9ITIONS ( SCI5CE1 WISDOM & >T1 7,BOOK ,V,I1 *1 III1 IV1 VII7 HE WAS A =]UNN] ( ,BACON'S PHILOSOPHY ,9 HIS DISCUSSION ( ! V>I\S TYPES ( ! 0GOOD10 & 9 HIS CLASSIFICATION ( PLEASURES1 HE ANTICIPAT$ ,B5?AM4 ,MOREOV]1 HE UND]/OOD ! IMPORTANCE ( M]E SOCIALITY1 :I*1 H[EV]1 HE CONFUS$ ) FRI5D%IP & MUTUAL LOVE 7,BOOK ,V,I,I,I1 *4 VI71 &1 ON ! O!R H&1 HE WAS ! FIR/ TO REALIZE :AT HAS BE5 SO FREQU5TLY OV]LOOK$ BY ! MAJORITY ( ?9K]S ( \R TIME1 NAMELY1 -- ?AT 9 SPEAK+ ( MORALITY1 DI/9CTION %\LD BE MADE BETWE5 ?AT :I* WE HAVE ! RI<T TO DEM& FROM ALL1 & ?AT H]OIC VIRTUE :I* EXCE$S ! P[]S ( ! ORD9>Y MAN 7,BOOK ,V,I,I1 *4 ,I74 ,& IT IS JU/ ?IS QUALITY 7:I* WE N[ CALL SELF-SACRIFICE OR G5]OSITY7 -- ?AT MOVES HUMANITY =W>D & DEVELOPS /RIV+ = ! BEAUTIFUL1 -- :I* ,>I/OTLE'S ,E?ICS AIMS TO DEVELOP4 7,! :OLE ( ,*4 VIII ( ,BOOK ,I,X47 #aa ,BUT1 ( C\RSE1 WE HAVE NO RI<T TO DEM& IT FROM EV]YBODY4 

,SU* WAS ! MORAL PHILOSOPHY ( A GREAT1 BUT NOT A PR(\ND SCI5TI/1 :O /OOD \T 9 ! CIVILIZATION ( HIS TIME & :O HAS EX]CIS$ = ! LA/ ?REE C5TURIES 7FROM ! TIME ( ! ,R5AISSANCE 9 ! SIXTE5? C5TURY7 A /RONG 9FLU5CE ON SCI5CE 9 G5]AL1 & ALSO ON E?ICAL PHILOSOPHY4 

,! TEA*+ ( ,PLATO & ! TEA*+ ( ,>I/OTLE ?US REPRES5T$ TWO S*OOLS :I* DIFF]$ SOME:AT RADICALLY 9 ! 9T]PRETATION ( MORALITY4 ,DISPUTES BETWE5 ! TWO DID NOT CEASE EV5 LONG AFT] ! DEA? ( !IR F\ND]S4 ,LITTLE BY LITTLE1 H[EV]1 !SE DISPUTES LO/ !IR 9T]E/ BECAUSE BO? S*OOLS W]E ALREADY AGRE$ ?AT ! MORAL ELEM5T 9 MAN IS NOT AN ACCID5TAL PH5OM5ON1 BUT ?AT IT HAS ITS DEEP F\NDATION 9 HUMAN NATURE1 & ?AT !RE >E MORAL CONCEPTIONS ?AT >E COMMON TO ALL HUMAN SOCIETIES4 

,9 ! ?IRD C5TURY ,B4,C4 APPE>$ TWO NEW S*OOLS -- ! ,/OICS & ! ,EPICUREANS4 ,! ,/OICS TAU<T1 9 AGREEM5T ) !IR PR$ECESSORS1 ,PLATO & ,>I/OTLE1 ?AT MAN MU/ LIVE 9 ACCORDANCE ) HIS NATURE1 I4E41 ) HIS 9TELLIG5CE & HIS ABILITIES1 BECAUSE ONLY SU* A LIFE CAN GIVE ! HI<E/ HAPP9ESS4 ,BUT1 AS IS KN[N1 !Y P>TICUL>LY 9SI/$ ?AT MAN F9DS HAPP9ESS1 0EUDEMONIA10 NOT 9 ! PURSUIT ( EXT]NAL B5EFITS3 WEAL?1 HONORS1 ETC41 BUT 9 /RIV+ = SOME?+ HI<]1 SOME?+ IDEAL2 9 ! DEVELOPM5T ( A SPIRITUAL LIFE = ! GOOD ( ! MAN HIMSELF1 HIS FAMILY1 & SOCIETY2 & MO/ ( ALL1 9 ! ATTA9M5T ( 9N] FRE$OM4 ,! TEA*+ ( ! ,/OICS WILL BE DISCUSS$ FUR!R ON 9 ?IS *APT]4 ,I %ALL ONLY REM>K AT ?IS PO9T ?AT AL?\< ! ,/OICS REJECT$ 9 !IR TEA*+S ! ,SOCRATIC METAPHYSICS ( MORALITY1 !Y NEV]!LESS CONT9U$ HIS WORK1 = !Y 9TRODUC$ ! CONCEPTION ( KN[L$GE1 :I* 5ABLES MAN TO DI/+UI% BETWE5 DIFF]5T TYPES ( 5JOY+ LIFE & TO SEEK = HAPP9ESS 9 ITS MORE P]FECT & SPIRITUAL =M4 ,! 9FLU5CE ( ! ,/OICS1 AS WE %ALL SEE1 WAS TREM5D\S1 ESPECIALLY LAT]1 9 ! ,ROMAN WORLD2 IT PREP>$ M9DS = ! ACCEPTANCE ( ,*RI/IANITY1 & WE FEEL IT TO \R TIME4 ,?IS IS ESPECIALLY TRUE ( ! TEA*+ ( ,EPICTETUS 75D ( ! SECOND & BEG9N+ ( ! FIR/ C5TURY ,B4,C471 ! ESS5CE ( :I* WAS ABSORB$ BY POSITIVISM & ! MOD]N NATURAL-SCI5TIFIC S*OOL ( E?ICS4 

,9 CONTRA/ ) ! ,/OICS1 ! ,SOPHI/S1 ESPECIALLY ,DEMOCRITUS 7#d#g-#c#h ,B4,C47 F\ND] ( MOLECUL> PHYSICS1 & ! S*OOL ( ! ,CYR5AICS 9 G5]AL1 HELD AS ! FUNDAM5TAL TRAIT ( MAN OR ( ANY LIV+ CREATURE ! SE>* = PLEASURE1 = DELI<T1 = HAPP9ESS 70H$ONISM40 FROM ! ,GREEK WORK 0H$ONE074 ,H[EV]1 !Y DID NOT SUFFICI5TLY EMPHASIZE ! ?\<T ?AT !RE MAY BE DIFF]5T =MS ( /RIV+ = HAPP9ESS1 RANG+ FROM PURELY ANIMAL SELF-GRATIFICATION TO ! MO/ ALTRUI/IC SELF-SACRIFICE2 FROM N>R[-P]SONAL ASPIRATIONS TO ASPIRATIONS ( A BROADLY SOCIAL NATURE4 ,BUT ?AT IS JU/ ! PROBLEM ( ,E?ICS1 -- NAMELY1 TO ANALYZE !SE DIFF]5T =MS ( /RIV+ = HAPP9ESS1 & TO %[ :]E !Y LEAD & :AT DEGREE ( SATISFACTION EA* ONE ( !M GIVES4 ?IS WAS V]Y CONSCI5TI\SLY DONE BY ,EPICURUS1 :O LIV$ 9 ! ?IRD C5TURY ,B4,C4 & :O ACQUIR$ WIDE POPUL>ITY 9 ! ,GRECO-,ROMAN WORLD ( ?AT TIME1 [+ TO HIS C>EFULLY WORK$ \T ,EUDEMONISM1 I4E41 A MORAL TEA*+ :I* IS ALSO BAS$ ON ! /RIV+ = HAPP9ESS1 BUT ) C>EFUL *OICE ( MEANS TO ?AT HAPP9ESS4 

0,! AIM ( LIFE T[>D :I* ALL LIV+ BE+S >E UNCONSCI\SLY /RIV+ IS HAPP9ESS10 TAU<T ,EPICURUS3 7ONE MI<T CALL IT 0! PLEASANT07 0BECAUSE1 AS SOON AS !Y >E BORN1 !Y ALREADY DESIRE GRATIFICATION & RESI/ SUFF]+40 ,REASON HAS NO?+ TO DO ) IT3 NATURE ITSELF GUIDES !M 9 ?AT DIRECTION4 ,REASON & FEEL+ BL5D 9 ?IS CASE1 & REASON IS SUBJECT$ TO FEEL+4 ,9 %ORT1 0PLEASURE IS ! ESS5CE & ! AIM ( A HAPPY LIFE -- ! PRIM>Y & NATURAL GOOD40 ,VIRTUE IS DESIRABLE ONLY IF IT LEADS TO ?AT GOOD1 :ILE PHILOSOPHY  
#ab IS 5]GY :I*1 ?R\< REASON+1 GIVES A HAPPY LIFE4 

,!N ,EPICURUS EXPRESSES HIS FUNDAM5TAL ?\<T &1 PROBABLY ) 9T5TION1 9 A RA!R BLUNT =M4 0,! ORIG9 & ! ROOT ( ALL GOOD IS ! PLEASURE ( ! BELLY40 ,HIS OPPON5TS FREELY TOOK ADVANTAGE ( ?IS SAY+1 ?US BR++ ,EPICUREANISM 9TO DISREPUTE4 ,:]EAS ,EPICURUS1 OBVI\SLY1 M]ELY MEANT TO SAY ?AT ! PLEASURE ( N\RI%M5T IS ! />T+ PO9T ( ALL PLEASANT S5SATIONS1 FROM :I* LAT] EVOLVE ALL ! BASE1 AS WELL AS ALL ! SUBLIME S5SATIONS4 ,LITTLE BY LITTLE ?IS FUNDAM5TAL PLEASURE ASSUMES ?\S&S ( V>IATIONS1 TRANS=MS ITSELF 9TO PLEASURES ( TA/E1 SI<T1 IMAG9ATION1 -- BUT ! />T+ PO9T ( ALL PLEASURABLE S5SATIONS 9 MAN OR 9 ANIMAL IS ! PLEASANT S5SATION EXP]I5C$ :ILE TAK+ N\RI%M5T4 ,?OSE MOD]N BIOLOGI/S :O >E 9VE/IGAT+ ! FIR/ /EPS ( CONSCI\S LIFE1 WILL READILY AGREE ) ?IS IDEA1 ESPECIALLY IF FUR!R EXPLANATIONS ( ! ,EPICUREANS >E TAK5 9TO ACC\NT4 

0,WISE & BEAUTIFUL ?+S10 WROTE ,EPICURUS1 0>E CONNECT$ ) ?IS PLEASURE40 ,?IS PLEASURE1 ( C\RSE1 DOES NOT CON/ITUTE ! F9AL AIM ( HAPP9ESS1 BUT CAN BE TAK5 AS ! />T+ PO9T1 BECAUSE LIFE IS IMPOSSIBLE )\T N\RI%M5T4 ,HAPP9ESS1 H[EV]1 RESULTS FROM ! SUM TOTAL ( PLEASURES2 & :ILE O!R H$ONI/S 7,>I/IPPUS ! ,Y\NG]1 = EXAMPLE71 DID NOT MAKE SUFFICI5T DI/9CTION BETWE5 V>I\S PLEASURES1 ,EPICURUS 9TRODUC$ A VALUATION ( PLEASURES1 DEP5D+ ON !IR 9FLU5CE ON \R LIFE AS A :OLE4 ,\R V]Y SUFF]+S -- HE TAU<T -- MAY BE USEFUL1 & MAY LEAD TO GOOD4 ,?US ! ,EPICUREAN ,E?ICS RISES MU* HI<] ?AN ! ,E?ICS ( M]E PLEASURE3 #ac IT CAME UPON ! PA? :I* WAS FOLL[$ 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY BY ,B5?AM & ,JOHN ,/U>T ,MILL4 

,PUTT+ AS MAN'S AIM ! HAPPY LIFE 9 ITS 5TIRETY1 & NOT ! GRATIFICATION ( MOM5T>Y :IMS & PASSIONS1 ,EPICURUS PO9T$ ! WAY TO A*IEV+ SU* HAPP9ESS4 ,FIR/ ( ALL A MAN MU/ LIMIT HIS DESIRES & BE CONT5T$ ) LITTLE4 ,EPICURUS1 :O 9 HIS [N LIFE WAS READY TO BE CONT5T ) A B>LEY MILLCAKE & WAT]1 SPEAKS H]E AS A MO/ RIGOR\S ,/OIC4#a#d 
,& !N ONE MU/ LIVE )\T 9N] CONFLICTS1 ) A :OLE LIFE1 9 H>MONY ) ONESELF1 & MU/ FEEL ?AT ONE LIVES 9DEP5D5TLY1 & NOT 9 5SLAVEM5T TO EXT]NAL 9FLU5CES4 

#ae 

,AT ! BASIS ( HUMAN CONDUCT %\LD BE ?AT :I* GIVES MAN HI<E/ SATISFACTION4 ,BUT ASPIRATIONS = P]SONAL GA9 CANNOT S]VE AS SU* A BASIS1 BECAUSE ! HI<E/ HAPP9ESS IS ATTA9$ BY CONCORD BETWE5 P]SONAL ASPIRATIONS & ! ASPIRATIONS ( O!RS4 ,HAPP9ESS IS FRE$OM FROM EVIL2 BUT ?IS FRE$OM CANNOT BE ATTA9$ UNLESS ! LIFE ( EA* 9DIVIDUAL IS 9 ACCORD ) ! 9T]E/S ( ALL4 ,LIFE TEA*ES US ?IS LESSON1 & ,MAN1 AS A REASON+ CREATURE1 CAPABLE ( UTILIZ+ ! LESSONS ( EXP]I5CE1 *OOSES BETWE5 ! ACTS ?AT LEAD TO ?IS ACCORD1 & ! ACTS ?AT LEAD AWAY FROM IT4 ,?US ! MORAL /RUCTURE ( SOCIETY1 ITS ,E?ICS1 IS DEVELOP$4 

,N[ IT IS EASY TO UND]/& H[1 />T+ ) ! ASS]TION ?AT VIRTUE 9 ITSELF1 OR DIS9T]E/$NESS 9 ! EXACT MEAN+ ( ! WORD1 DOES NOT EXI/1 & ?AT ! :OLE ( MORALITY IS NO?+ BUT A RATIONALIZ$ EGOTISM 7SELF-LOVE71 ,EPICURUS >RIV$ AT A MORAL TEA*+ :I* IS 9 NO WISE 9F]IOR 9 ITS CONCLUSIONS TO ! TEA*+S ( ,SOCRATES OR EV5 ( ! ,/OICS4 ,PURELY PHYSICAL PLEASURE DOES NOT EMBRACE ! :OLE LIFE ( MAN2 SU* PLEASURE IS FLEET+ ,BUT !RE IS A LIFE ( M9D & HE>T1 A LIFE ( REM9ISC5CE & HOPES1 ( MEMORY & =ESI<T1 :I* OP5S TO MAN A :OLE P>ADISE ( NEW DELI<TS4 

,EPICURUS ALSO 5DEAVOR$ TO FREE M5 FROM ! FE>S 9/ILL$ 9 !M BY FAI? 9 GODS 5D[$ ) ALL K9DS ( EVIL QUALITIES2 HE TRI$ TO FREE !M FROM DREAD ( ! HORRORS ( LIFE BEYOND ! GRAVE1 & FROM FAI? 9 ! 9FLU5CE ( 0FATE10 -- A FAI? SUPPORT$ EV5 BY ! TEA*+S ( ,DEMOCRITUS4 ,TO FREE M5 FROM ALL !SE FE>S IT WAS NECESS>Y1 FIR/ ( ALL1 TO FREE !M FROM FE> ( DEA?1 OR RA!R FROM FE> ( LIFE AFT] DEA?4 ,?IS FE> WAS V]Y /RONG 9 ANTIQUITY1 = LIFE AFT] DEA? WAS !N PICTUR$ AS A SLEEP 9 SUBT]RANEAN D>KNESS1 DUR+ :I* MAN RETA9$ SOME?+ LIKE CONSCI5CE1 TO TORTURE HIM4 #af 
,AT ! SAME TIME ,EPICURUS COMBAT$ ! PESSIMISM ?AT WAS PREA*$ BY ,HEGESIAS 7HIS PESSIMISM WAS AK9 TO ! MOD]N PESSIMISM ( ,S*OP5HAU]7 I4E41 ! DESIRABILITY ( DEA?1 9 VIEW ( ! ABUNDANT PRES5CE ( EVIL & SUFF]+ 9 ! WORLD4 

,G5]ALLY SPEAK+1 ! :OLE ( ,EPICURUS'S TEA*+S /ROVE = 9TELLECTUAL & MORAL LIB]ATION ( M54 ,BUT IT CONTA9$ ONE IMPORTANT OMISSION3 IT SUPPLI$ NO HI< MORAL AIMS1 NOT EV5 ! ONE ( SELF-SACRIFICE = ! GOOD ( SOCIETY4 ,EPICURUS DID NOT =ESEE SU* AIMS AS ! EQUALITY ( RI<TS ( ALL ! MEMB]S ( SOCIETY1 OR EV5 ! ABOLITION ( SLAV]Y4 ,C\RAGE1 = EXAMPLE1 CONSI/$ = HIM NOT 9 SEEK+ P]ILS1 BUT 9 ! ABILITY TO AVOID !M4 ,! SAME ) REG>D TO LOVE3 A WISE MAN MU/ AVOID PASSIONATE LOVE1 = IT CONTA9S NO?+ NATURAL & RATIONAL2 IT R$UCES LOVE TO A PSY*OLOGICAL ILLUSION1 & IS A =M ( RELIGI\S ADORATION1 -- :I* IS NOT TO BE TOL]AT$4 ,HE WAS AGA9/ M>RIAGE1 BECAUSE M>RIAGE1 & LAT] *ILDR51 GIVE TOO MU* TR\BLE 7NEV]!LESS HE LOV$ *ILDR574 ,BUT FRI5D%IP HE VALU$ V]Y HI<LY4 ,9 FRI5D%IP MAN =GETS SELF-9T]E/2 9 DO+ AN ACT PLEAS+ TO \R FRI5D1 WE GIVE PLEASURE TO \RSELVES4 ,EPICURUS WAS ALWAYS SURR\ND$ ) FRI5DS1 & HIS DISCIPLES ATTRACT$ SO MANY FOLL[]S BY ! SPIRIT ( GOOD FELL[%IP 9 !IR COMMON LIFE1 ?AT1 AS ONE ( !IR CONTEMPOR>IES1 ,DIOG5ES ,LA]TIUS PUT IT1 05TIRE CITIES W\LD NOT PROVIDE ROOM = !M ALL40 ,CONTEMPOR>Y WRIT]S C\LD NOT PRAISE 5\< ! ,EPICUREAN FIDELITY 9 FRI5D%IP4 

,9 HIS ANALYSIS ( ! TEA*+S ( ! ,EPICUREANS1 ,GUYAU PO9T$ \T AN 9T]E/+ PECULI>ITY 9 !M4 ,AT ! FIR/ GLANCE FRI5D%IP & SELF-SACRIFICE = ! FRI5D'S SAKE SEEM TO CONTRADICT ! PR9CIPLE ( SELF-9T]E/1 BY :I*1 ACCORD+ TO ,EPICUREAN !ORY1 A RATIONALLY ?9K+ MAN %\LD BE GUID$4 ,& 9 ORD] TO AVOID ?IS CONTRADICTION1 ! FOLL[]S ( ,EPICURUS EXPLA9$ FRI5D%IP AS A TACIT UND]/&+ BAS$ ON JU/ICE 7I4E41 RECIPROCITY1 OR EQUITY -- WE WILL ADD74 ,?IS UND]/&+ IS MA9TA9$ ?R\< HABIT4 ,AT FIR/1 ! RELATION >ISES ?R\< A P]SONAL PLEASURE ?AT IS MUTUAL1 BUT LITTLE BY LITTLE SU* RELATIONS *ANGE 9TO A HABIT2 LOVE SPR+S UP1 & !N WE LOVE \R FRI5DS )\T CONSID]+ :E!R !Y >E USEFUL TO US4 ,?US ! ,EPICUREANS JU/IFI$ FRI5D%IP1 PROV+ ?AT IT DOES NOT CONTRADICT !IR FUNDAM5TAL PR9CIPLE -- ! /RIV+ = P]SONAL HAPP9ESS4 

,BUT ! QUE/ION PRES5T$ ITSELF3 0,:AT POSITION IS AN ,EPICUREAN TO TAKE ) REF]5CE TO ! :OLE SOCIETY80 ,PLATO HAD ALREADY EXPRESS$ ! ?\<T 79 ! DIALOGUE 0,GORGIAS071 SAYS ,GUYAU1 ?AT ! ONLY LAW ( NATURE IS ! RI<T ( ! /RONG4 ,AFT] ,PLATO1 ! SKEPTICS & ,DEMOCRITUS D5I$ 0NATURAL JU/ICE10 & MANY ?9K]S ( ?AT TIME ACKN[L$G$ ?AT ! RULES ( CIVIC LIVE W]E E/ABLI%$ BY =CE1 & !N BECAME FIRMLY IMPLANT$ ?R\< HABIT4 

,EPICURUS WAS ! FIR/1 ,GUYAU ASS]TS1 TO EXPRESS ! ?\<T ?AT WAS LAT] DEVELOP$ BY ,HOBBES1 & AFT] HIM BY MANY O!RS1 ?AT ! SO-CALL$ 0NATURAL LAW0 WAS NO?+ BUT A 0MUTUAL AGREEM5T NOT TO 9FLICT H>M NOR TO SUFF] H>M AT ! H&S ( ANO!R04440,JU/ICE HAS NO VALUE 9 ITSELF3 IT EXI/S ONLY MUTUAL AGREEM5TS & IS E/ABLI%$ :]EV] A MUTUAL OBLIGATION IS ASSUM$ NOT TO DO H>M TO O!RS1 NOR TO SUFF] H>M FROM !M40 0,SU* COV5ANTS >E 9TRODUC$ BY WISE M510 SAYS ,EPICURUS4 0,& NOT 9 ORD] TO AVOID DO+ AN 9JU/ICE1 BUT 9 ORD] NOT TO SUFF] IT FROM O!RS40 ,IT IS [+ TO RECIPROCITY ?AT IT TURNS \T ?AT 9 PROTECT+ \RSELVES FROM O!RS WE ALSO PROTECT O!RS FROM \RSELVES4 ,)\T SU* COV5ANTS & LAWS1 SOCIETY W\LD BE IMPOSSIBLE2 PEOPLE W\LD DEV\R EA* O!R1 SAYS ,METRODORUS1 A FOLL[] ( ,EPICURUS4 #ag 

,CONSEQU5TLY1 ! CONCLUSION FROM ! 5TIRE ,EPICUREAN TEA*+ WAS1 ?AT :AT WE CALL DUTY & VIRTUE IS ID5TICAL ) ! 9T]E/S ( ! 9DIVIDUAL4 ,VIRTUE IS ! SURE/ MEANS ( ATTA9+ HAPP9ESS1 & 9 CASE ( D\BT AS TO H[ TO ACT1 IT IS BE/ ALWAYS TO FOLL[ ! PA? ( VIRTUE4 

,BUT ?AT VIRTUE DID NOT CONTA9 EV5 ! RUDIM5TS ( HUMAN EQUALITY4 ,SLAV]Y R\S$ NO 9DIGNATION 9 ,EPICURUS4 ,HE HIMSELF TREAT$ HIS SLAVES WELL1 BUT HE DID NOT RECOGNIZE ?AT !Y HAD ANY RI<TS3 ! EQUALITY ( M51 APP>5TLY1 DID NOT EV5 OCCUR TO HIM4 ,& IT TOOK MANY HUNDR$S ( YE>S BE=E ?OSE ?9K]S :O DEVOT$ !MSELVES TO MORAL PROBLEMS V5TUR$ TO PROCLAIM AS ! WAT*WORD ( MORALITY -- EQUAL RI<TS1 ! EQUALITY ( ALL HUMAN BE+S4 

,IT MU/ BE NOT$1 H[EV]1 = ! SAKE ( COMPLET5ESS 9 *>ACT]IZ+ ! ,EPICUREAN TEA*+S1 ?AT 9 ! WRIT+S ( ONE ( ,EPICURUS'S FOLL[]S1 :]E WE F9D ! MO/ COMPLETE EXPOSITION ( HIS TEA*+S1 I4E41 9 ! WORK ( ! ,ROMAN WRIT] ,LUCRETIUS 7FIR/ C5TURY ,B4,C471 9 HIS CELEBRAT$ POEM 0,ON ! ,NATURE ( ,?+S10 WE F9D ALREADY ! EXPRESSION ( ! IDEA ( PROGRESSIVE DEVELOPM5T1 I4E41 ( EVOLUTION1 :I* N[ LIES AT ! BASE ( MOD]N PHILOSOPHY4 ,HE ALSO EXP\NDS ! SCI5TIFIC1 MAT]IALI/IC UND]/&+ ( ! LIFE ( ,NATURE1 AS IT IS 9T]PRET$ BY MOD]N SCI5CE4 ,G5]ALLY SPEAK+1 ,EPICURUS'S CONCEPTION ( ,NATURE & ! UNIV]SE WAS BUILT1 LIKE HIS E?ICS1 )\T ANY RECOGNITION ( FAI?1 :ILE ! ,/OICS1 AS PAN!I/S1 CONT9U$ TO BELIEVE 9 ! CON/ANT 9T]F]5CE ( SUP]-NATURAL =CES 9 \R LIFE4 ,& ! FOLL[]S ( ,PLATO1 ESPECIALLY ! PHILOSOPH]S ( ! ,ALEX&RIAN S*OOL1 :O BELIEV$ 9 MIRACLES & MAGIC1 HAD TO SUCCUMB ( NECESSITY BE=E ! ,*RI/IAN FAI?4 ,ONLY ! ,EPICUREANS CONT9U$ TO REMA9 NONBELIEV]S1 & !IR TEA*+ 5DUR$ V]Y LONG1 I4E41 OV] FIVE HUNDR$ YE>S4 ,UNTIL ! APPE>ANCE ( ,*RI/IANITY IT WAS ! MO/ WIDELY SPREAD TEA*+ 9 ! ANCI5T WORLD1 & !REAFT] IT REMA9$ POPUL> = AB\T F\R HUNDR$ YE>S4 ,& :5 9 ! TWELF? C5TURY1 & LAT] 9 ! EPO* ( ! ,R5AISSANCE1 ! RATIONALI/IC MOVEM5TS BEGAN 9 ,EUROPE1 !IR FIR/ /EPS 9 ,ITALY W]E DIRECT$ BY ! TEA*+S ( ,EPICURUS4  
#ah 

,! ,EPICUREAN TEA*+ EX]CIS$ /RONG 9FLU5CE UPON ! RATIONALI/1 7SEV5TE5?-C5TURY7 ,GASS5DI 7#a#e#i#b-#a#f#e#e7 & ALSO UPON HIS DISCIPLE1 ,HOBBES1 & EV5 UPON ,LOCKE1 :O PREP>$ ! GR\ND = ! ,5CYLCOPA$I/S & = MOD]N NATURALI/IC PHILOSOPHY4 ,HIS 9FLU5CE WAS ALSO /RONG ON ! PHILOSOPHY ( 0NEGATIONI/S0 LIKE ,LA ,RO*EF\CAULD & ,M&EVILLE1 & 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY UPON ,/IRN]1 ,NIETZS*E1 & !IR IMITATORS4 

,F9ALLY1 ! F\R? S*OOL1 :I* WAS ALSO DEVELOP+ 9 ANCI5T ,GREECE1 & LAT] CAME TO ,ROME1 & :I* HAS LEFT TO ?IS DAY DEEP TRACES ON E?ICAL ?9K+1 WAS ! S*OOL ( ! ,/OICS4 ,! F\ND+ ( ?IS S*OOL IS ASCRIB$ TO ,Z5O 7#c#d-#b#f#e ,B4,C47 & ,*RYSIPPUS 7#b#h#a OR #b#g#f1 TO #bh OR #bd ,B4,C472 & LAT] 9 ! ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE ! SAME TEA*+S W]E DEVELOP$ BY ,S5ECA 7#e#d ,B4,C4 - #cf ,A4,D47 & ESPECIALLY BY ,EPICTETUS 75D ( ! FIR/ & BEG9N+ ( ! SECOND C5TURY ,A4,D47 & BY ,M>CUS ,AURELIUS 7#a#b#a-#a#h ,A4,D474 

,! ,/OICS AIM$ TO LEAD M5 TO HAPP9ESS ?R\< CULTIVAT+ 9 !M VIRTUE1 :I* CONSI/$ 9 A LIFE ?AT IS 9 ACCORD ) NATURE1 & ?R\< DEVELOP+ REASON1 & ! KN[L$GE ( ! LIFE ( ! UNIV]SE4 ,!Y DID NOT SEEK ! ORIG9 ( ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS & ASPIRATIONS ( MAN 9 ANY SUP]NATURAL P[]3 ON ! CONTR>Y1 !Y ASS]T$ ?AT NATURE ITSELF CONTA9S MORAL LAWS1 & CONSEQU5TLY ALSO ! EXAMPLE ( MORALITY4 ,?AT :I* M5 CALL MORAL LAW IS ! SEQU5CE ( ! UNIV]SAL LAWS ?AT GOV]N ! LIFE ( NATURE1 !Y SAID4 ,!IR PO9T ( VIEW1 ACCORD+LY1 IS 9 L9E ) ! IDEAS ?AT >E APP>5T 9 ! MOD]N E?ICS ( ,BACON1 ,SP9OZA1 ,AUGU/E ,COMTE1 & ,D>W94 ,ONLY1 IT %\LD BE NOT$ ?AT :5 ! ,/OICS SPOKE ( ! PRIM>Y F\NDATIONS ( MORALITY & ( ! LIFE ( ,NATURE 9 G5]AL1 !Y (T5 CLO!D !IR IDEAS 9 WORDS NATURAL TO METAPHYSICIANS4 ,?US !Y TAU<T ?AT ,REASON OR ! 0,WORD0 7FROM ! ,GREEK WORD 0LOGOS07 P]MEATES ! UNIV]SE AS ! ,G5]AL ,UNIV]SAL ,REASON1 & ?AT ! ?+ :I* M5 CALL MORAL LAW IS ! SEQU5CE ( ! UNIV]SAL LAWS ?AT GOV]N ! LIFE ( ,NATURE4 #ai ,HUMAN REASON1 SAID ! ,/OICS1 & CONSEQU5TLY \R CONCEPTIONS ( MORALITY1 >E NO?+ BUT ONE ( ! MANIFE/ATIONS ( ! =CES ( NATURE3 ?IS VIEW1 ( C\RSE1 DID NOT PREV5T ! ,/OICS FROM HOLD+ ?AT ! EVIL 9 NATURE & 9 MAN1 PHYSICAL AS WELL AS MORAL1 IS JU/ AS NATURAL A CONSEQU5CE ( ! LIFE ( NATURE AS IS ! GOOD4 ,ACCORD+LY1 ALL !IR TEA*+S W]E DIRECT$ T[>D HELP+ MAN TO DEVELOP ! GOOD 9 HIMSELF & TO COMBAT EVIL1 ?US ATTA9+ ! GREATE/ HAPP9ESS4 

,OPPON5TS ( ! ,/OICS PO9T$ \T ?AT !IR TEA*+S ANNIHILATE ! DI/9CTION BETWE5 ! GOOD & ! EVIL1 & IT MU/ BE ADMITT$ ?AT1 ?\< 9 ACTUAL LIFE MO/ ( ! ,/OICS DID NOT CONFUSE !SE CONCEPTIONS1 !Y NEV]!LESS FAIL$ TO PO9T \T A DEF9ITE CRIT]ION = DI/+UI%+ BETWE5 ! GOOD & ! EVIL1 AS WAS DONE1 = EXAMPLE1 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY BY ! UTILIT>IANS1 :O HELD AS ! E?ICAL AIM ! GREATE/ HAPP9ESS ( ! GREATE/ NUMB] ( PEOPLE 7,B5?AM71 -- OR BY ?OSE :O REF] TO ! NATURAL PREPOND]ANCE ( ! SOCIAL 9/9CT OV] ! P]SONAL 7,BACON1 ,D>W971 -- OR BY ?OSE :O 9TRODUCE 9TO E?ICS ! IDEA ( JU/ICE1 I4E41 EQUALITY4 

,9 G5]AL1 IT HAS BE5 WELL SAID ?AT 9 !IR REASON+ ! ,/OICS DID NOT GO SO F> AS ACTUALLY TO CON/RUCT ! !ORY ( MORALITY ON ! NATURAL BASIS4 ,IT IS TRUE ?AT :5 ! ,/OICS ASS]T$ ?AT MAN %\LD LIVE 9 ACCORDANCE ) ! LAWS ( ,NATURE1 SOME ( !M HAD 9 VIEW ! FACT ?AT MAN IS A SOCIAL ANIMAL1 & %\LD !RE=E SUBORD9ATE HIS IMPULSES TO REASON & TO ! AIMS ( SOCIETY AS A :OLE1 & ,CIC]O 7#a#f-#a#d#c ,A4,D47 EV5 REF]R$ TO JU/ICE AS TO A F\NDATION = MORALITY4 ,MAN CAN ATTA9 WISDOM1 VIRTUE1 & HAPP9ESS1 SAID ! ,/OICS1 ONLY BY LIV+ 9 ACCORDANCE ) UNIV]SAL REASON1 & ,NATURE ITSELF +RA9S 9 US HEAL?Y MORAL 9/9CTS4 0,BUT H[ BADLY ! ,/OICS KNEW H[ TO F9D ! MORAL 9 ! NATURAL1 & ! NATURAL 9 ! MORAL10 ,JODL JU/LY OBS]V$ 9 HIS 0,HI/ORY ( ,E?ICS40 
#b ,& ON ACC\NT ( ?IS DEFICI5CY 9 !IR TEA*+1 A DEFICI5CY :I* WAS1 AFT] ALL1 UNAVOIDABLE 9 ?OSE DAYS1 SOME ( ! ,/OICS1 SU* AS ,EPICTETUS1 CAME TO ,*RI/IAN E?ICS1 :I* RECOGNIZES ! NECESSITY ( DIV9E REVELATION = KN[+ ! MORAL2 :ILE O!RS1 LIKE ,CIC]O VACILLAT$ BETWE5 ! NATURAL & ! DIV9E ORIG9 ( MORALITY2 & ,M>CUS ,AURELIUS1 :O HAD WRITT5 SU* BEAUTIFUL MORAL ,MAXIMS1 P]MITT$ ! CRUEL P]SECUTION ( ,*RI/IANS 79 DEF5SE ( ! (FICIALLY RECOGNIZ$ GODS74 ,HIS ,/OICISM HAD ALREADY BECOME TRANS=M$ 9TO RELIGI\S FANATICISM4 

,G5]ALLY SPEAK+1 ! TEA*+S ( ! ,/OICS CONTA9$ MU* ?AT WAS FRAGM5T>Y1 & EV5 MANY CONTRADICTIONS4 ,REG>DLESS ( ?IS FACT1 H[EV]1 !Y LEFT DEEP TRACES ON ! PHILOSOPHY ( MORALITY4 ,SOME ( !M ATTA9$ ! HEI<T ( ! GOSPEL ( UNIV]SAL BRO!RHOOD2 BUT1 AT ! SAME TIME1 !Y DID NOT REJECT 9DIVIDUALISM1 PASSIONLESSNESS1 & R5UNCIATION ( ! WORLD4 ,S5ECA1 ! TUTOR ( ,N]O 7:O LAT] EXECUT$ HIM7 COMB9$ /OICISM ) ! METAPHYSICS ( ,PLATO1 & ALSO M+L$ ) IT ! TEA*+S ( ,EPICURUS & ( ! ,PY?AGOREANS4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 ,CIC]O HAD A DEF9ITE LEAN+ T[>D ! RELIGI\S 9T]PRETATION ( MORALITY1 SEE+ 9 ! LATT] ! EXPRESSION ( NATURAL & DIV9E LAWS4 #ba ,BUT ! FUNDAM5TAL ?\<T ( ! ,/OICS WAS ! F9D+ ( ! F\NDATION ( MORALITY 9 ! REASON ( MAN4 ,! /RIV+ = ! SOCIAL GOOD !Y CONSID]$ AN 9BORN QUALITY1 :I* DEVELOP$ 9 MAN AS HIS 9TELLECTUAL BROAD5+ PROGRESS$4 ,?AT =M ( CONDUCT IS WISE1 !Y ADD$1 :I* IS 9 ACCORDANCE ) HUMAN NATURE & ) ! NATURE ( 0AL ?+S10 I4E41 ) ,NATURE 9 G5]AL4 ,MAN MU/ BASE ALL HIS PHILOSOPHY & ALL HIS MORALITY ON KN[L$GE3 ON KN[L$GE ( HIMSELF & ( ! :OLE ( ,NATURE4 ,TO LIVE 9 ACCORDANCE ) ,NATURE FIR/ ( ALL1 MEANS1 = ,CIC]O1 TO KN[ ,NATURE & TO CULTIVATE ! SOCIAL IMPULSE 9 ONESELF1 I4E41 ! ABILITY TO *ECK ! IMPULSES LEAD+ TO 9JU/ICE1 9 O!R WORDS1 TO DEVELOP 9 ONESELF JU/ICE1 C\RAGE1 & ! SO-CALL$ CIVIC VIRTUES 9 G5]AL4 ,IT IS EASY TO UND]/& N[ :Y ,CIC]O BECAME ! FAVORITE WRIT] ( ! SEV5TE5? C5TURY1 & :Y HE EX]CIS$ SO M>K$ AN 9FLU5CE UPON ,LOCKE1 ,HOBBES1 ,%AFTESBURY1 & UPON ! =]UNN]S ( ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION1 -- ,MONTESQUIEU1 ,MABLY & ,R\SSEAU4 

,?US ,EUCK5 IS P]FECTLY RI<T :5 HE SAYS ?AT ! FUNDAM5TAL IDEA ( ,/OICISM1 I4E41 ! 9T]PRETATION ( MORALITY FROM A SCI5TIFIC VIEWPO9T1 & ! UPLIFT+ ( MORALITY TO ITS FULL HEI<T & 9DEP5D5CE 9 CONNECTION ) ! REALIZATION ( ! UNIV]SE AS A UNIT1 IS PRES]V$ TO \R [N TIME4#b#b ,TO LIVE 9 ! WORLD & TO SUBMIT TO IT UNCONSCI\SLY IS NOT WOR?Y ( MAN4 ,ONE MU/ ATTA9 ! UND]/&+ ( ! UNIV]SAL LIFE & 9T]PRET IT AS A CONT9U\S DEVELOPM5T 7EVOLUTION71 & ONE MU/ LIVE 9 ACCORDANCE ) ! LAWS ( ?IS DEVELOPM5T4 ,?US DID ! BE/ AMONG ! ,/OICS UND]/& MORALITY1 & BY ?IS 9T]PRETATION ,/OICISM GREATLY ASSI/$ ! PROGRESS ( ! SCI5CE ( MORALITY4 

,FUR!RMORE1 ! WAT*WORD ( ! ,/OICS WAS1 TO ASSUME NOT AN 9DIFF]5T BUT AN ACTIVE ATTITUDE T[>D ! SOCIAL LIFE4 ,= ?IS PURPOSE /R5G? ( *>ACT] WAS DEVELOP$1 & ?IS PR9CIPLE WAS V]Y =CIBLY DEVELOP$ BY ,EPICTETUS4 ,PAULS5 WRITES 9 HIS 0,SY/EM ( ,E?ICS10 0NO:]E %ALL WE F9D MORE =CIBLY EXHORTATIONS TO MAKE \RSELVES 9DEP5D5T ( ! ?+S :I* >E NOT 9 \R P[]1 & TO DEP5D UPON \RSELVES ) 9N] FRE$OM1 ?AN 9 ,EPICTETUS' LITTLE ,MANUAL40 
#bc 

,LIFE DEM&S RIGORISM1 WROTE ! ,/OICS1 I4E41 A /]N ATTITUDE T[>D ONE'S WEAKNESS4 ,LIFE IS A /RUGGLE1 & NOT ! ,EPICUREAN 5JOYM5T ( V>I\S PLEASURES4 ,! ABS5CE ( A HI<] AIM IS ! BITT]E/ 5EMY ( MAN4 ,A HAPPY LIFE REQUIRES 9N] C\RAGE1 L(T9ESS ( S\L1 H]OISM4 ,& SU* IDEAS L$ !M TO ! ?\<T ( UNIV]SAL BRO!RHOOD1 ( 0HUMANITY10 I4E41 TO A ?\<T :I* HAD NOT OCCURR$ TO !IR PR$ECESSORS4 

,BUT SIDE BY SIDE ) !SE BEAUTIFUL ASPIRATIONS1 WE F9D 9 ALL ! PROM95T ,/OICS 9DECISION1 ANTIMONY4 ,9 ! GOV]N+ ( ! UNIV]SE !Y SAW NOT ONLY ! LAWS ( NATURE1 BUT ALSO ! WILL ( ! ,SUPREME ,REASON1 & SU* A CONFESSION UNAVOIDABLY P>ALYZ$ ! SCI5TIFIC /UDY ( ,NATURE4 ,!IR PHILOSOPHY CONTA9$ AN ANTIMONY1 & ?IS CONTRADICTION L$ TO COMPROMISES ?AT W]E CONTR>Y TO ! FUNDAM5TAL PR9CIPLES ( !IR MORALITY -- TO RECONCILIATION ) ?AT :I* !Y REJECT$ 9 !IR IDEAL4 ,! FUNDAM5TAL ANTIMONY L$ SU* A ?9K] AS ,M>CUS ,AURELIUS TO CRUEL P]SECUTIONS ( ! ,*RI/IANS4 ,! ATTEMPT TO M]GE P]SONAL LIFE ) ! SURR\ND+ LIFE L$ TO PITIABLE COMPROMISES1 TO RECONCILIATION ) ! CRUDE1 MIS]ABLE REALITY1 & AS A RESULT1 WE ALREADY F9D 9 ! WRIT+ ( ! ,/OICS ! FIR/ CRIES ( DESPAIR1 -- PESSIMISM4 ,REG>DLESS ( ALL !SE CONSID]ATIONS1 H[EV]1 ! 9FLU5CE EX]CIS$ BY ! ,/OICS WAS V]Y GREAT4 ,IT PREP>$ MANY M9DS = ! ACCEPTANCE ( ,*RI/IANITY1 & WE FEEL ITS 9FLU5CE EV5 N[ AMONG ! RATIONALI/S4 

,FOOTNOTES 

#a,SEE NOTE #c1 PAGE #f#e4 

#b,SOME ,AM]ICAN 9VE/IGATORS CALL !SE RITES 0DANCES02 9 REALITY !Y HAVE A MU* DEEP] SIGNIFICANCE ?AN M]E AMUSEM5T4 ,!Y S]VE TO MA9TA9 ALL ! E/ABLI%$ CU/OMS ( HUNT+ & FI%+1 & ALSO ! 5TIRE TRIBAL MODE ( LIFE4 

#c,9 HIS EXT5SIVE WORK1 BAS$ ON FAMILI>ITY ) ! 9HABITANTS ( ,MOROCCO AS WELL AS ON /UDY ( ! VOLUM9\S LIT]ATURE ON ! PRIMITIVE PEOPLES1 ,PR(ESSOR ,WE/]M>CK %[$ :AT AN IMPORTANT P>T ! 0CURSE0 PLAY$ & /ILL PLAYS 9 ! E/ABLI%M5T ( ! OBLIGATORY CU/OMS & TRADITIONS4 ,A MAN CURS$ BY HIS FA!R OR MO!R1 OR BY ! :OLE CLAN1 OR EV5 BY SOME 9DIVIDUAL NOT CONNECT$ ) HIM 7= REFUSAL ( AID1 OR = AN 9JURY7 IS SUBJECT TO ! V5GEANCE ( ! 9VISIBLE SPIRITS1 ( ! %ADES ( ! ANCE/ORS1 & ( ! =CES ( NATURE4 

#d0,METAPHYSICS0 9 ,GREEK MEANS 0\TSIDE ( PHYSICS10 I4E41 BEYOND ! DOMA9 ( PHYSICAL LAWS4 ,>I/OTLE GAVE ?IS NAME TO ONE ( ! DIVISIONS ( HIS WORKS4 

#e,ALCIBIADES ,I1#a#a#h4 .<,! ,DIALOGUES ( ,PLATO1 TRANSLAT$ BY ,B5JAM9 ,J[ETT1 ,LONDON1 & ,N4,Y41 #a#h#i#b1 #cRD ,$ITION1 P4 #d#h#d4 ,ALL FUR!R REF]5CES WILL BE TO ?IS $ITION.> -- ,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#f.<,! QUOTATIONS >E FROM ,! ,NI*OMA*EAN ,E?ICS ( ,>I/OTLE4 ,! TRANSLATORS HAVE US$ ! V]SION ( ,R4 ,W4 ,BR[NE1 ,BOHN'S ,LIBR>Y1 ,LONDON1 #a#h#e#c4 ,MR4 ,BR[NE GIVES ! FOLL[+ NOTE1 9 P>T1 9 CONNECTION ) ! WORD 05]GY03 0,5]GY IMPLIES AN ACTIVITY1 AN ACTIVE /ATE0 AS CONTRA/$ ) ! POT5TIAL4 7,PAGE #b1 NOTE B74 ,O!R TRANSLATIONS ( ! ,E?ICS >E1 BY ,*ASE1 ,EV]YMAN S]IES1 ,LONDON & ,N4,Y41 #a#i#a#a2 BY ,F4 ,H4 ,PET]S1 ,LONDON1 #a#i#i1 #a#a? $42 BY ,J4 ,E4 ,C4 ,WELLDON1 ,LONDON & ,N4,Y41 #a#i#b4.> -- ,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#g0,BUT WE MU/ 9QUIRE 9TO ! SUBJECT ( JU/ICE & 9JU/ICE1 & SEE :AT K9D ( ACTIONS !Y >E CONC]N$ )1 :AT K9D ( MEAN /ATE JU/ICE IS1 & BETWE5 :AT ?+S '! JU/'1 ?AT IS1 ! AB/RACT PR9CIPLE ( JU/ICE1 IS A MEAN0 -- ?US HE BEG9S ! BOOK ,( ,JU/ICE & ,9JU/ICE4 7,BOOK ,V1 *4 ,I1 ,I2 P4 #a#a#f47 

#h0,N[ ! TRANSGRESSOR ( LAW APPE>S TO BE UNJU/1 & ! MAN :O TAKES MORE ?AN HIS %>E1 & ! UNEQUAL MAN40 ,?US ! CONCEPTION ( JU/ICE MEANS AT ! SAME TIME BO? ! LAWFUL & EQUITABLE 7ATTITUDE T[>D ME7_/4 ,!N HE CONT9UES3 0,BUT LAWS MAKE M5TION ( ALL SUBJECTS1 ) A VIEW EI!R TO ! COMMON ADVANTAGE ( ALL1 OR ( M5 9 P[]1 OR ( ! BE/ CITIZ5S0 7,BOOK ,V1 *4 ,I1 #f1 #a1 PP4 #a#a#h1 #a#a#i74 ,?US1 AS IS TO BE EXPECT$ 9 A SOCIETY BAS$ ON SLAV]Y1 ,>I/OTLE'S 9T]PRETATION ( ,JU/ICE1 AS OB$I5CE TO ! LAW1 LEADS HIM TO A RECOGNITION ( 9EQUALITY AMONG M54 

#i0444JU/ICE1 !RE=E1 IS NOT A DIVISION ( VIRTUE1 BUT ! :OLE ( VIRTUE2 NOR IS ! CONTR>Y 9JU/ICE A P>T ( VISE1 BUT ! :OLE ( VISE40 7,BOOK ,V1 *4 ,I41 #a#d2 P4 #a#b74 

#a,HE ADD$3 0,?IS IS CLE> FROM ! EXPRESSION 'ACCORD+ TO WOR?'2 =1 9 DI/RIBUTIONS ALL AGREE ?AT JU/ICE \<T TO BE ACCORD+ TO SOME /&>D ( WOR?1 YET ALL DO NOT MAKE ?AT /&>D ! SAME2 = ?OSE :O >E 9CL9$ TO DEMOCRACY CONSID] LIB]TY AS ! /&>D2 ?OSE :O >E 9CL9$ TO OLIG>*Y1 WEAL?2 .<O!RS NOBILITY ( BIR?2.> & ?OSE :O >E 9CL9$ TO >I/OCRACY1 VIRTUE40 7,BOOK ,V41 *4 IV41 #c2 P4 #a#b#d74 ,& 9 SUMM>IZ+ ALL ?AT HE HAD SAID 9 SUPPORT ( ?IS IDEA1 HE CONCLUDES ) ! FOLL[+ WORDS3 0,N[ WE HAVE SAID :AT ! JU/ & :AT ! UNJU/ >E4 ,BUT ?IS BE+ DECID$1 IT IS CLE> ?AT JU/ ACT+ IS A MEAN BETWE5 AC 

,FROM 3 ,AN>*Y ,>*IVES4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,NOVEMB] #c1 #aibc 3 ,*APT] #e -- ,PUBLICATION4 
,JANU>Y #a#e1 #bag 3 ,*APT] #e -- ,ADD$4 

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