,*APT] #d 
,MORAL ,CONCEPTIONS ( ,PRIMITIVE ,PEOPLES 

#aibdaibd 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,PET] ,KROPOTK9 

,TEXT 3 

  

,PHOTO BY ,OBRA FOTOGRAFICA DE ,F$]ICO ,ROM]O1,C,C ,B,Y-,N,C-,N,D ,LIC5SE ,! PROGRESS MADE BY ! NATURAL SCI5CES 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY AWAK5$ 9 MOD]N ?9K]S ! DESIRE TO WORK \T A NEW SY/EM ( E?ICS ON POSITIVE BASES4 ,AFT] HAV+ E/ABLI%$ ! FUNDAM5TAL PR9CIPLES ( A UNIV]SAL PHILOSOPHY FREE FROM PO/ULATES ( SUP]NATURAL =CES1 & AT ! SAME TIME1 MAJE/IC1 POETICAL1 & CAPABLE ( /IMULAT+ 9 M5 ! HI<E/ MOTIVES1-MOD]N SCI5CE NO LONG] NE$S TO RESORT TO SUP]NATURAL 9SPIRATION TO JU/IFY ITS IDEALS ( MORAL BEAUTY4 ,BESIDES1 SCI5CE =ESEES ?AT 9 ! NOT-DI/ANT FUTURE1 HUMAN SOCIETY1 LIB]AT$1 ?R\< ! PROGRESS ( SCI5CE1 FROM ! POV]TY ( =M] AGES1 & ORGANIZ$ ON ! PR9CIPLES ( JU/ICE & MUTUAL AID1 WILL BE ABLE TO SECURE = MAN FREE EXPRESSION ( HIS 9TELLECTUAL1 TE*NICAL1 & >TI/IC CREATIVE IMPULSES4 ,& ?IS PREVISION OP5S UP SU* BROAD MORAL POSSIBILITIES = ! FUTURE1 ?AT = !IR REALIZATION !RE IS NO LONG] ANY NE$ EI!R ( ! 9FLU5CE ( ! SUP]NATURAL WORLD1 OR ( FE> ( PUNI%M5T 9 AN EXI/5CE AFT] DEA?4 ,!RE IS1 CONSEQU5TLY1 ! NE$ ( A NEW E?ICS ON A NEW BASIS4 ,! FIR/ *APT] ( ?IS 9QUIRY WAS DEVOT$ TO DEMON/RAT+ ! PRES5T NECESSITY ( ! NEW E?ICS4 

,HAV+ AWAK5$ FROM A P]IOD ( TEMPOR>Y /AGNATION1 MOD]N SCI5CE1 AT ! 5D ( ! FIFTIES ( ! LA/ C5TURY1 BEGAN TO PREP>E ! MAT]IALS = WORK+ \T ?IS NEW1 RATIONAL E?ICS4 ,9 ! WORKS ( ,JODL1 ,WUNDT1 ,PAULS5 & ( MANY O!RS1 WE HAVE EXCELL5T SURVEYS ( ALL PREVI\S ATTEMPTS TO BASE E?ICS ON V>I\S F\NDATIONS3 RELIGI\S1 METAPHYSICAL1 & PHYSICAL4 ,?R\<\T ! 5TIRE N9ETE5? C5TURY A S]IES ( ATTEMPTS WAS MADE TO F9D ! BASES ( ! MORAL NATURE ( MAN 9 RATIONAL SELF-LOVE1 9 LOVE ( HUMANITY 7,AUGU/E ,COMTE & HIS FOLL[]S71 9 MUTUAL SYMPA?Y & 9TELLECTUAL ID5TIFICATION ( ONE'S P]SONALITY ) MANK9D1 7,S*OP5HAU]71 9 USEFULNESS 7UTILIT>IANISM ( ,B5?AM & ,MILL7 & 9 A !ORY ( DEVELOPM5T1 I4 E41 9 EVOLUTION 7,D>W91 ,SP5C] & ,GUYAU74 

,! F\NDATION ( ?IS LA/ E?ICS WAS LAID BY ,D>W92 HE ATTEMPT$ TO D]IVE ! PRIM>Y SUPPORTS ( ! MORAL S5TIM5T FROM ! SOCIAL 9/9CT1 :I* IS DEEPLY +RA9$ 9 ALL SOCIAL ANIMALS4 ,S9CE MO/ WRIT]S ON E?ICS PAY NO ATT5TION TO ?IS ATTEMPT1 & S9CE IT WAS PASS$ OV] 9 SIL5CE BY MO/ ,D>W9IANS1 ,I HAVE DWELT ON IT 9 DETAIL 9 ! ?IRD *APT]1 0,! ,MORAL ,PR9CIPLE 9 ,NATURE40 ,9 MY BOOK1 0,MUTUAL ,AID10 ,I ALREADY PO9T$ \T ! WIDESPREAD OCCURR5CE ( ! SOCIAL 9/9CT AMONG ! MAJORITY ( ANIMALS ( ALL SPECIES & SUBDIVISIONS1 :ILE 9 ! ?IRD *APT] ( ! PRES5T TREATISE WE HAVE SE5 H[ ! MO/ PRIMITIVE M5 ( ! ,GLACIAL & ( ! E>LY ,PO/-GLACIAL P]IOD1 HAD TO LE>N ! WAYS ( SOCIAL LIFE1 & ITS E?ICS1 FROM ! ANIMALS1 ) :OM !Y LIV$ !N 9 CLOSE COMMUNICATION4 ,& WE HAVE DISCOV]$ H[1 9 ! E>LIE/ FAIRY TALES & LEG5DS1 MAN TRANSMITT$ FROM G5]ATION TO G5]ATION ! PRACTICAL 9/RUCTION ACQUIR$ FROM ?IS KN[L$GE ( ANIMAL LIFE4 

,?US ! FIR/ MORAL TEA*] ( MAN WAS ,NATURE4 ,NOT ! NATURE DESCRIB$ BY ! DESK PHILOSOPH]S UNFAMILI> ) IT1 OR BY NATURALI/S :O HAVE /UDI$ NATURE ONLY AMONG ! DEAD SAMPLES 9 ! MUSEUMS4 ,IT WAS ! ,NATURE 9 ! MID/ ( :I* LIV$ & WORK$ ON ! ,AM]ICAN CONT95T1 !N SP>SELY POPULAT$1 & ALSO 9 ,AFRICA & ,ASIA1 ! GREAT F\ND]S ( DESCRIPTIVE ZOOLOGY3 ,AUDUBON1 ,AZ>A1 ,BREHM1 & O!RS4 ,IT WAS1 9 %ORT1 ?AT ,NATURE :I* ,D>W9 HAD 9 M9D :5 HE GAVE 9 HIS BOOK1 0,! ,DESC5T ( ,MAN10 A BRIEF SURVEY ( ! ORIG9 ( ! MORAL S5TIM5T AMONG MANK9D4 

,!RE IS NO D\BT ?AT ! SOCIAL 9/9CT1 9H]IT$ BY MAN & !RE=E DEEPLY ROOT$ 9 HIM1 HAD 9 IT ! G]MS ( LAT] DEVELOPM5T & /R5G!N+1 NO?)/&+ EV5 ! H>D /RUGGLE = EXI/5CE4 ,I ALSO %[$ 9 ! SAME WORK ON ,MUTUAL ,AID-AGA9 ON ! BASIS ( WORKS ( COMPET5T 9VE/IGATORS1-H[ F> SOCIAL LIFE IS DEVELOP$ AMONG SAVAGES1 & ALSO H[ ! S5TIM5T ( EQUITY IS DEVELOP$ 9 ! MO/ PRIMITIVE REPRES5TATIVES ( ! HUMAN RACE4 ,I ALSO %[$ H[1 DUE TO SOCIALITY1 ! DEVELOPM5T ( HUMAN SOCIETIES WAS MADE POSSIBLE1 9 SPITE ( !IR H>D LIFE AMID WILD NATURE4 

,!RE=E1 REF]R+ ! READ] TO 0,MUTUAL ,AID10 ,I WILL N[ ATTEMPT TO ANALYZE H[ FUR!R MORAL CONCEPTIONS W]E DEVELOP$ AMONG ! SOCIETIES ( PRIMITIVE SAVAGES1 & :AT 9FLU5CE ?OSE CONCEPTIONS HAD ON ! LAT] DEVELOPM5T ( MORALITY4 

,WE KN[ NO?+ AB\T ! LIFE ( ! E>LIE/ PRIMITIVE HUMAN BE+S ( ! ,GLACIAL ,P]IOD & ( ! 5D ( ! ,T]TI>Y ,P]IOD BEYOND ! FACT ?AT !Y LIV$ 9 SMALL GR\PS1 EK+ \T ) DIFFICULTY-MEAG] MEANS ( SUPPORT FROM ! LAKES & ! =E/S1 & MAK+ = ?AT PURPOSE IMPLEM5TS ( BONE & /ONE4 

,?IS 0BR++ UP0 ( PRIMITIVE MAN CONT9U$ = T5S ( ?\S&S ( YE>S &1 9 ?IS MANN]1 ! SOCIAL 9/9CT KEPT ON DEVELOP+ & BECAME 9 ! C\RSE ( TIME /RONG] ?AN ANY SELFI% CONSID]ATION4 ,MAN WAS LE>N+ TO ?9K ( HIS EGO 9 NO O!R WAY ?AN ?R\< ! CONCEPTION ( HIS GR\P4 ,! HI< $UCATIONAL VALUE ( ?IS WAY ( ?9K+ WILL BE %[N FUR!R1 9 \R DISCUSSION4 #a 

,ALREADY 9 ! ANIMAL WORLD WE SEE H[ ! P]SONAL WILL ( 9DIVIDUALS BL5DS ) ! COMMON WILL4 ,! SOCIAL ANIMALS LE>N ?IS AT A V]Y E>LY AGE-9 !IR PLAY1 #b :]E IT IS NECESS>Y TO SUBMIT TO C]TA9 RULES ( ! GAME3 IT IS NOT P]MITT$ TO GORE ) ! HORNS 9 E>NE/1 TO BITE 9 E>NE/1 OR EV5 TO /& 9 ! W4^* ( ANO!R'S TURN4 ,& :5 !Y ATTA9 ADULT AGE ! ABSORB+ ( ! P]SONAL WILL BY ! SOCIAL WILL IS CLE>LY SE5 9 MANY CASES ,! PREP>ATIONS ( ! BIRDS = !IR MIGRATIONS FROM ! ,NOR?^* TO ! ,S\? & BACK2 !IR 0PRACTICE0 FLI<TS 9 ! EV5+S1 DUR+ ! FEW DAYS PREC$+ ! MIGRATIONS2 COORD9ATION ( ACTIONS ALL ! WILD BEA/S & BIRDS ( PREY DUR+ HUNT+2 ! COMMON DEF5SE AGA9/ ! BEA/S ( PREY ( ALL ! ANIMALS ?AT LIVE 9 H]DS2 MIGRATIONS ( ANIMALS1 &1 ALSO1 ! :OLE SOCIAL LIFE ( ! BEES1 WASPS1 ANTS1 T]MITES1 ALMO/ ALL ! WAD+ BIRDS1 P>ROTS1 BEAV]S1 MONKEYS1 ETC41-ALL !SE FACTS >E PROM95T EXAMPLES ( SU* SUBORD9ATION ( ! P]SONAL WILL4 ,!Y CLE>LY %[ ! COORD9ATION ( ! 9DIVIDUAL WILL  ) ! WILL & ! PURPOSE1 ( ! :OLE1 & ?US COORD9ATION HAS ALREADY BECOME AN H]$IT>Y HABIT1 I4 E41 AN 9/9CT4 #c 

,AS E>LY AS #afbe ,HUGO ,GROTIUS CLE>LY UND]/OOD ?AT SU* AN 9/9CT CONTA9S ! RUDIM5TS ( LAW4 ,BUT !RE IS NO D\BT ?AT ! M5 ( ! ,QUAT]N>Y ,P]IOD /OOD AT LEA/ ON ! SAME /EP ( SOCIAL DEVELOPM5T1 &' MO/ LIKELY1 EV5 ON A CONSID]ABLY HI<] LEVEL4 ,ONCE CO-HABITATION IS E/ABLI%$1 IT UNAVOIDABLY LEADS TO C]TA9 =MS ( LIFE1 C]TA9 CU/OMS & TRADITIONS1 :I*1 BE+ ACKN[L$G$ USEFUL & BECOM+ HABITUAL WAYS ( ?9K+1 EVOLVE FIR/ 9TO 9/9CTIVE HABITS & !N 9TO RULES ( LIFE4 ,?US EA* GR\P EVOLVES ITS [N MORALITY1 ITS [N E?ICS1 :I* ! ELD]S - ! PRES]V]S ( ! TRIBAL CU/OMS-PLACE UND] ! PROTECTION ( SUP]/ITIONS & RELIGION1 I4 E41 9 SUB/ANCE1 UND] ! PROTECTION ( ! DEAD ANCE/ORS4 #d 

,SOME PROM95T NATURALI/S REC5TLY MADE V>I\S OBS]VATIONS & EXP]IM5TS = ! PURPOSE ( DET]M9+ :E!R DOGS1 HORSES1 & O!R ANIMALS LIV+ 9 CLOSE PROXIMITY TO MAN1 HAVE CONSCI\S MORAL CONCEPTIONS4 ,! RESULTS GAVE A FAIRLY DEF9ITE AFFIRMATIVE ANSW]4 ,?US1 = EXAMPLE1 ! FACTS RELAT$ BY ,SP5C] 9 ! APP5DIX TO ! SECOND VOLUME ( HIS 0,PR9CIPLES ( ,E?ICS0 >E P>TICUL>LY CONV9C+ & LEAD TO CONCLUSIONS ?AT >E BY NO MEANS UNIMPORTANT4 ,SIMIL>LY1 !RE >E SEV]AL QUITE CONV9C+ FACTS 9 ! ABOVE-M5TION$ WORK BY ,ROMANES4 ,WE WILL NOT DWELL ON !SE FACTS1 H[EV]4 ,IT IS SUFFICI5T TO E/ABLI% ?AT ALREADY 9 ANIMAL SOCIETIES1 & SO MU* MORE 9 HUMAN SOCIETIES [+ TO ! SOCIAL HABIT ITSELF1 CONCEPTIONS >E UNAVOIDABLY DEVELOP$ :I* ID5TIFY ! P]SONAL 0,I0 ) ! SOCIAL 0,WE10 & AS !SE CONCEPTIONS EVOLVE 9TO H]$IT>Y 9/9CT1 ! P]SONAL 0#a0 EV5 SUBMITS TO ! SOCIAL ',WE40 #e 

,BUT ONCE WE HAVE E/ABLI%$ ?AT SU* ID5TIFICATION ( ! 9DIVIDUAL ) SOCIETY WAS PRES5T EV5 TO A SLI<T DEGREE AMONG M51 IT FOLL[S ?AT IF ?IS ATTITUDE W]E USEFUL TO HUMANITY IT W\LD UNAVOIDABLY T5D TO BECOME /RONG] & TO DEVELOP1 ESPECIALLY S9CE ,MAN HAD ! GIFT ( SPEE*1 :I* LEADS TO ! E/ABLI%M5T ( TRADITION4 ,& F9ALLY1 ?IS ATTITUDE W\LD LEAD TO ! CREATION ( P]MAN5T MORAL 9/9CT4 

,?IS ASS]TION1 H[EV]1 WILL PROBABLY GIVE RISE TO SOME D\BTS1 & MANY WILL PROBABLY ASK3 0,IS IT POSSIBLE ?AT1 )\T ! 9T]F]5CE ( ANY SUP]NATURAL P[]1 A SEMI-ANIMAL SOCIALITY C\LD EVOLVE 9TO- SU* HI< MORAL TEA*+S AS ?OSE ( ,SOCRATES1 ,PLATO1 ,CONFUCIUS1 ,BUDDHA1 & ,*RI/80 ,E?ICS MU/ ANSW] ?IS QUE/ION4 ,IT W\LD NOT SUFFICE SIMPLY TO PO9T TO BIOLOGY1 :I* %[S H[ MICROSCOPICAL UNICELLUL> ORGANISMS EVOLVE 9 ! C\RSE ( T5S ( ?\S&S ( YE>S 9TO MORE HI<LY DEVELOP$ ORGANISMS1 UP TO HI<] MAMMALS & ,MAN4 ,E?ICS1 !RE=E1 WILL HAVE TO P]=M A TASK SIMIL> TO ?AT ACCOMPLI%$ BY ,AUGU/E ,COMTE & ,SP5C] 9 ,BIOLOGY1 & BY MANY RESE>* WORK]S 9 ! ,HI/ORY ( ,LAW4 ,E?ICS MU/ DEMON/RATE H[ MORAL CONCEPTIONS W]E ABLE TO DEVELOP FROM ! SOCIALITY 9H]5T 9 HI<] ANIMALS & PRIMITIVE SAVAGES1 TO HI<LY IDEALI/IC MORAL TEA*+S4 

,! RULES GOV]N+ ONE MODE ( LIFE ( ! V>I\S SAVAGE TRIBES ( \R TIME >E DIFF]5T4 ,9 DIFF]5T CLIMATES1 AMONG TRIBES SURR\ND$ BY DIFF]5T NEI<BORS1 V>Y+ CU/OMS & TRADITIONS W]E DEVELOP$4 ,BESIDES1 ! V]Y DESCRIPTIONS ( !SE CU/OMS & TRADITIONS BY V>I\S TRAVEL]S DIFF] MAT]IALLY FROM ONE ANO!R1 DEP5D+ ON ! NATURE ( ! HI/ORIAN & ON HIS G5]AL ATTITUDE T[>D HIS 0L[] BRE?R540 ,IT IS WRONG1 !RE=E1 TO COMB9E 9TO A UNIT ! DESCRIPTIONS ( ALL K9DS ( PRIMITIVE TRIBES1 )\T GIV+ CONSID]ATION TO ! LEVEL ( DEVELOPM5T ( EA* P>TICUL> TRIBE1 & )\T WEI<+ CRITICALLY ! AU?ORS ( !SE DESCRIPTIONS4 ,?IS ]ROR WAS MADE BY SOME BEG9N]S 9 AN?ROPOLOGY1 & EV5 ,SP5C] DID NOT ESCAPE ?IS FALLACY 9 HIS POND]\S COMPILATION ( AN?ROPOLOGICAL DATA1 #f 
OR EV5 9 HIS LAT] WORK1 0,E?ICS40 ,ON ! O!R H&1 ,WAITZ1 9 HIS 0,AN?ROPOLOGY ( ,PRIMITIVE ,PEOPLES10 & A :OLE S]IES ( AN?ROPOLOGI/S SU* AS ,MORGAN1- ,MA9E1 ,M4 ,KOVALEVSKY1 ,PO/1 & MANY O!RS1 DID NOT FALL 9TO ?IS ]ROR4 ,9 G5]AL1 AMONG ! V>I\S ACC\NTS ( SAVAGE LIFE1 ONLY ?OSE CAN BE UTILIZ$ :I* W]E WRITT5 BY TRAVEL]S & MISSION>IES :O SP5T A FAIRLY LONG TIME AMONG ! SAVAGES !Y DESCRIBE2 ! L5G? ( SOJ\RN IS 9 ITSELF1 TO A C]TA9 EXT5T1 AN 9DICATION ( MUTUAL UND]/&+4 ,& !N1 IF WE WI% TO LE>N SOME?+ AB\T ! FIR/ BEG9N+S ( MORAL CONCEPTIONS1 WE MU/ /UDY ?OSE SAVAGES :O W]E ABLE TO PRES]VE BETT] ?AN O!RS SOME FEATURES ( ! TRIBAL MODE ( LIFE1 FROM ! TIME ( ! E>LIE/ ,PO/-GLACIAL P]IOD4 

,!RE >E1 ( C\RSE1 NO TRIBES :O HAVE PRES]V$ COMPLETELY ! MODE ( LIFE ( ?AT P]IOD4 ,IT IS1 H[EV]1 BE/ PRES]V$ BY ! SAVAGES ( ! EXTREME ,NOR?-! ,ALEUTS1 ! ,*UK*I1 & ! ,ESKIMOS1 :O >E TO ?IS DAY LIV+ 9 ! SAME PHYSICAL 5VIRONM5T 9 :I* !Y LIV$ AT ! V]Y BEG9N+ ( ! MELT+ ( ! HUGE ICE %EET1 #g 
& ALSO BY SOME TRIBES ( ! EXTREME ,S\?1 I4 E41 ( ,PATAGONIA & ,NEW ,GU9EA1 & BY SMALL REMNANTS ( TRIBES ?AT SURVIV$ 9 SOME M\NTA9 REGIONS1 ESPECIALLY 9 ! ,HIMALAYAS4 

,WE HAVE RELIABLE 9=MATION AB\T !SE V]Y TRIBES ( ! F> ,NOR? FROM M5 :O LIV$ AMONG !M2 P>TICUL>LY1 AB\T ! ,ALEUTS ( ,NOR? ,ALASKA FROM A REM>KABLE SOCIAL HI/ORIAN1 ! MISSION>Y ,V5YAM9OV3 & AB\T ! ,ESKIMOS FROM V>I\S EXP$ITIONS ?AT SP5T ! W9T] 9 ,GRE5L&4 ,! DESCRIPTION ( ! ,ALEUTS BY ,V5YAM9OV IS P>TICUL>LY 9/RUCTIVE4 

,FIR/ ( ALL1 IT MU/ BE NOT$ ?AT !RE >E TWO DIVISIONS 9 ,ALEUTIAN E?ICS1 AS WELL AS 9 ! E?ICS ( O!R PRIMITIVE PEOPLES4 ,OBS]VANCE ( ONE K9D ( CU/OM1 & CONSEQU5TLY ( ! E?ICAL REGULATIONS1 IS ABSOLUTELY OBLIGATORY2 OBS]VANCE ( ! O!R K9D IS M]ELY RECOMM5D$ AS DESIRABLE1 & ! TRANSGRESSORS >E SUBJECT$ ONLY TO RIDICULE OR TO A REM9D]4 ,! ,ALEUTS1 = EXAMPLE1 SAY ?AT IT IS 0%AMEFUL0 TO DO C]TA9 ?+S4 #h 

0,?US1 = EXAMPLE10 WROTE ,V5YAM9OV1 0IT IS '%AMEFUL' TO FE> UNAVOIDABLE DEA?2 IT IS %AMEFUL TO BEG AN 5EMY = M]CY2 IT IS %AMEFUL TO BE DETECT$ 9 !FT2 ALSO TO HAVE ONE'S BOAT CAPSIZ$ 9 ! H>BOR4 -,IT IS %AMEFUL TO BE AFRAID TO PUT TO SEA DUR+ A /ORM2 TO BE ! FIR/ TO WEAK5 9 A LONG VOYAGE1 OR TO %[ GRE$ @99' DIVID+ ! SPOILS 79 SU* A CASE ALL ! RE/ GIVE ! GRE$Y ONE !IR %>E2 SO-AS TO %AME HIM72 IT IS %AMEFUL TO BABBLE TO ONE'S WIFE AB\T ! SECRETS ( ! TRIBE2 IT IS %AMEFUL1 :ILE HUNT+ ) ANO!R1 NOT TO (F] ! BE/ P>T ( ! GAME TO ONE'S COMPANION2 IT IS %AMEFUL TO BRAG ( ONE'S DE$S1 ESPECIALLY ! IMAG9>Y ONES1 OR TO CALL ANO!R D]OGATORY NAMES4 ,IT IS ALSO %AMEFUL TO BEG ALMS2 TO C>ESS ONE'S WIFE 9 ! PRES5CE ( O!RS1 OR TO DANCE ) H]2 OR TO B>GA9 P]SONALLY ) A PUR*AS]1 S9CE ! PRICE = GOODS (F]$ IS TO BE FIX$ BY A ?IRD P>TY4 ,= A WOMAN1 IT IS %AMEFUL TO BE UNABLE TO SEW OR TO DANCE1 OR1 9 G5]AL1 NOT TO KN[ H[ TO DO ?+S )9 ! SCOPE ( A WOMAN'S DUTIES3 %AMEFUL TO C>ESS H] HUSB& OR EV5 TO CONV]SE ) HIM 9 ! PRES5CE ( O!RS40 #i 

,V5YAM9OV GIVES NO 9=MATION AS TO H[ !SE FEATURES ( ! ,ALEUTIAN E?ICS >E MA9TA9$4 ,BUT ONE ( ! EXP$ITIONS :I* SP5T A W9T] 9 ,GRE5L& GIVES A DESCRIPTION ( H[ ! ,ESKIMOS LIVE1-SEV]AL FAMILIES 9 ONE DWELL+4 ,EA* FAMILY IS DECID$ FROM ! O!RS BY A CURTA9 MADE ( HIDES4 ,!SE CORRIDOR-LIKE DWELL+S >E SOMETIMES MADE 9 ! %APE ( A CROSS 9 ! C5T] ( :I* IS LOCAT$ ! HE>?4 ,ON LONG W9T] NI<TS ! WOM5 S+ SONGS 9 :I* !Y NOT 9FREQU5TLY RIDICULE ?OSE :O >E 9 SOME WAY GUILTY ( TRANSGRESS+ ! CU/OMS ( GOOD BEHAVIOR1 ,BUT !RE >E ALSO REGULATIONS ?AT >E ABSOLUTELY OBLIGATORY3 9 ! FIR/ PLACE /&S1 ( C\RSE1 ! ABSOLUTE 9SUFF]ANCE ( FRATRICIDE1 I4E41 ( A MURD] )9 ! TRIBE4 ,IT IS EQUALLY 9SUFF]ABLE ?AT A MURD]1 OR A W\ND 9FLICT$ BY A MEMB] ( SOME O!R TRIBE1 %\LD PASS )\T CLAN V5GEANCE4 

,!N !RE IS A :OLE S]IES ( ACTIONS ?AT >E SO /RICTLY OBLIGATORY ?AT FAILURE TO OBS]VE !M BR+S UPON ! (F5D] ! CONTEMPT ( ! :OLE TRIBE1 & HE RUNS ! RISK ( BECOM+ AN \TCA/ & ( BE+ BANI%$ FROM HIS CLAN4 ,O!RWISE1 ! (F5D] AGA9/ !SE RULES MI<T BR+ UPON ! :OLE TRIBE ! DISPLEASURE ( ! WRONG$ ANIMALS1 SU*1 = EXAMPLE1 AS ! CROCODILES1 ! BE>S1 OR ( ! 9VISIBLE SPIRITS ( ! ANCE/ORS :O PROTECT ! TRIBE4 

,?US1 = 9/ANCE1 ,V5YAM9OV TELLS ( ! FOLL[+ CASE4 ,ONCE :5 HE WAS EMB>K+ = A VOYAGE1 ! NATIVES ASSI/+ HIM =GOT TO TAKE A MESS ( DRI$ FI% :I* HAD BE5 GIV5 TO HIM AS A PRES5T4 ,HALF A-YE> LAT]1 :5 HE RETURN$ TO ?IS PLACE1 HE LE>N$ ?AT 9 HIS ABS5CE ! TRIBE HAD LIV$ ?R\< A P]IOD ( UTT] FAM9E4 ,BUT ! FI% PRES5T$ TO HIM W]E1 ( C\RSE1 LEFT UNT\*$1 & W]E BR\<T TO HIM 9TACT4 ,TO HAVE ACT$ DIFF]5TLY W\LD HAVE MEANT TO PRECIPITATE V>I\S TR\BLES UPON ! TRIBE4 ,SIMIL>LY1 ,MIDD5DORF WROTE ?AT 9 ! SWAMPY PLA9S ( ,NOR!RN ,SIB]IA NO ONE WILL REMOVE ANY?+ FROM A SLEI< LEFT BY O!RS 9 ! M>%ES1 EV5 IF IT CONTA9S PROVISIONS4 ,IT IS' WELL KN[N ?AT ! 9HABITANTS ( ! F> ,NOR? >E FREQU5TLY ON ! V]GE ( />VATION1 BUT TO USE ANY ( ! SUPPLIES LEFT -BEH9D W\LD BE :AT WE CALL A CRIME1 & SU* A CRIME MI<T BR+ ALL SORTS ( EVIL UPON ! TRIBE4 ,! 9DIVIDUAL IS 9 ?IS CASE ID5TIFI$ ) ! TRIBE4 

,FUR!RMORE1 ! ,ALEUTS1 LIKE ALL O!R PRIMITIVE SAVAGES1 HAVE ALSO A GR\P ( REGULATIONS ?AT >E ABSOLUTELY OBLIGATORY1 ONE MAY SAY1 SACR$4 ,!Y 9CLUDE ALL ?AT- P]TA9S TO ! CONS]VATION ( ! TRIBAL MODE ( LIFE3 ! DIVISION 9TO CLASSES1 ! M>RIAGE REGULATIONS1 ! CONCEPTIONS ( ! TRIBAL & ! FAMILY PROP]TY1 ! REGULATIONS TO BE OBS]V$ 9 HUNT+ OR FI%+ 7JO9TLY OR S+LY71 ! MIGRATIONS1 ETC42 & F9ALLY1 !RE-IS A S]IES ( TRIBAL RITES ( A' PURELY RELIGI\S *>ACT]4 ,H]E WE HAVE A /RICT LAW ! VIOLATION ( :I* W\LD BR+ MIS=TUNE UPON ! :OLE CLAN1 OR EV5 UPON ! :OLE TRIBE1 & !RE=E NONCOMPLIANCE ) SU* A LAW IS UN?9KABLE OR EV5 IMPOSSIBLE4 ,& IF ONCE 9 A GREAT :ILE A VIOLATION ( SU* A LAW DOES OCCUR1 IT IS PUNI%$ LIKE TREASON1 BY BANI%M5T FROM ! TRIBE1 OR EV5 BY DEA?4 ,IT MU/ BE SAID1 H[EV]1 ?AT ! VIOLATION ( SU* LAWS IS SO R>E ?AT IT IS EV5 CONSID]$ UN?9KABLE1 JU/ AS ! ,ROMAN ,LAW CONSID]$ P>RICIDE UN?9KABLE &1 ACCORD+LY1 HAD NO LAW PROVID+ PUNI%M5T =? ?IS CRIME4 

,G5]ALLY SPEAK+1 ALL ! PRIMITIVE PEOPLES KN[N TO US HAVE DEVELOP$ A V]Y COMPLICAT$ 
MODE ( TRIBAL LIFE4 ,!Y HAVE CONSEQU5TLY1 !IR [N MORALITY1 !IR [N E?ICS4 ,& 9 ALL !SE UNWRITT5 0/ATUTES0 PROTECT$ TRADITION1 ?REE MA9 CATEGORIES ( TRIBAL REGULATIONS >E TO BE F\ND4 

,SOME ( !M PRES]V$ ! USAGES E/ABLI%$ = PROCUR+ MEANS ( 
LIVELIHOOD = EA* 9DIVIDUAL & = ! :OLE TRIBE4 ,!SE 
REGULATIONS SET D[N ! PR9CIPLES ( US+ :AT BELONGS TO ! :OLE 
TRIBE3 ! WAT] EXPANSES1 ! =E/S1 SOMETIMES ! FRUIT TREES WILD 
OR CULTIVAT$1 ! HUNT+ REGIONS1 & ALSO ! BOATS4 ,!RE >E ALSO 
/RICT RULES = HUNT+1 = MIGRATIONS1 = PRES]VATION ( FIRE1 ETC4 

#a 

,!N ! 9DIVIDUAL RI<TS & RELATIONS >E DET]M9$ ! SUBDIVISION ( ! TRIBE 9TO CLANS1 & ! SY/EM ( P]MISSIBLE M>ITAL RELATIONS1-ANO!R V]Y COMPLICAT$ DIVISION1 :]E ! 9/ITUTIONS BECOME ALMO/ RELIGI\S4 ,TO ! SAME CATEGORY BELONG ! RULES = BR++ UP ! Y\?1 SOMETIMES 9 ! SPECIAL 0LONG HUTS10 AS IS DONE BY ! SAVAGES ( ! ,PACIFIC ,ISL&S2 ! RELATIONS TO ! OLD PEOPLE & TO ! NEWLY BORN2 -&1 F9ALLY ! WAYS ( PREV5T+ ACUTE P]SONAL COLLISIONS1 I4E41 :AT IS TO BE DONE :5 ! MULTIPLICATION ( SEP>ATE FAMILIES MAKES VIOL5CE POSSIBLE )9 ! TRIBE1 & ALSO 9 CASE ( AN 9DIVIDUAL'S DISPUTE ) A NEI<BOR+ TRIBE1 ESPECIALLY IF ! DISPUTE MI<T LEAD TO W>4 ,AN >RAY ( RULES IS H]E E/ABLI%$ :I*1 AS WAS %[N BY ! ,BELGIAN PR(ESSOR1 ,]NE/ ,NYS1 LAT] DEVELOP$ 9TO ! BEG9N+S ( 9T]NATIONAL LAW4 ,&1 F9ALLY1 !RE IS ! ?IRD CATEGORY ( REGULATIONS1 :I* >E HELD SACR$ & P]TA9 TO RELIGI\S SUP]/ITIONS1 & ! RI<TS CONNECT$ ) ! SEASON ( ! YE>1 HUNT+1 MIGRATIONS1 ETC4 

,ALL !SE QUE/IONS CAN BE DEF9ITELY ANSW]$ BY ! OLD M5 ( EA* TRIBE4 ,( C\RSE1 !SE ANSW]S >E NOT ! SAME = DIFF]5T CLANS & TRIBES1 JU/ AS ! RITES >E DIFF]5T4 ,:AT IS IMPORTANT H]E1 H[EV]1 IS ! FACT ?AT EV]Y CLAN OR TRIBE1 NO MATT] H[ L[ ITS /AGE ( DEVELOPM5T1 ALREADY HAS ITS [N V]Y COMPLICAT$ E?ICS1 ITS [N SY/EM ( ! MORAL & ! IMMORAL4 

,! ORIG9 ( ?IS MORALITY LIES1 AS WE HAVE SE51 9 ! FEEL+ ( SOCIALITY1 9 ! H]D 9/9CT1 & 9 ! NE$ ( MUTUAL AID1 :I* BECAME DEVELOP$ AMONG ALL SOCIAL ANIMALS & :I* WAS /ILL FUR!R DEVELOP$ BY PRIMITIVE HUMAN SOCIETIES4 ,IT IS NATURAL ?AT ,MAN1 [+ TO ! GIFT ( SPEE* :I* HELPS ! DEVELOPM5T ( MEMORY & CREATES TRADITION1 WORK$ \T MU* MORE COMPLICAT$ CAS$ RULES ( LIFE ?AN ! ANIMALS4 ,MOREOV]1 ) ! APPE>ANCE ( RELIGION1 EV5 9 ITS CRUDE/ =M1 HUMAN E?ICS WAS 5RI*$ BY A NEW ELEM5T1 :I* GAVE TO ?AT E?ICS A C]TA9 /ABILITY1 & LAT] CONTRIBUT$ TO IT 9SPIRATION & A MEASURE ( IDEALISM4 

,!N1 ) FUR!R DEVELOPM5T ( SOCIAL LIFE1 ! CONCEPTION ( JU/ICE 9 MUTUAL RELATIONS HAD TO BECOME MORE & MORE PROM95T4 ,! FIR/ SIGNS ( JU/ICE 9 ! S5SE ( EQUITY1 CAN BE OBS]V$ AMONG ANIMALS1 ESPECIALLY ! MAMMALS1 9 CASES :]E ! MO!R FE$S A FEW SUCKL+S1 OR 9 ! PLAY ( MANY ANIMALS1 :]E !RE IS ALWAYS DESIRE OR ADH]5CE TO C]TA9 RULES ( PLAY4 ,BUT ! UNAVOIDABLE TRANSITION FROM ! SOCIAL 9/9CT1 I4 E41 FROM ! SIMPLE NE$ TO LIVE AMONG SIMIL> CREATURES1 TO ! CONCLUSION ?AT JU/ICE IS NECESS>Y 9 MUTUAL RELATIONS1 HAD TO BE MADE BY ,MAN = ! -SAKE ( ! PRES]VATION ( SOCIAL LIFE ITSELF4 ,& TRULY1 9 ANY SOCIETY ! DESIRES & ! PASSIONS ( 9DIVIDUALS 9EVITABLY COLLIDE )-! DESIRES ( ! O!R MEMB]S ( ! SAME SOCIETY4 ,SU* COLLISIONS W\LD 9EVITABLY LEAD TO 5DLESS FEUDS & TO DIS9TEGRATION ( ! SOCIETY1 IF IT W]E NOT ?AT- HUMAN BE+S DEVELOP1 AT ! SAME TIME1-7JU/ AS IT IS ALREADY DEVELOP+ 9 SOME GREG>I\S ANIMALS-A CONCEPTION ( ! EQUALITY ( RI<T ( ALL ! MEMB]S ( ! SOCIETY4 ,! SAME CONCEPTION HAD TO EVOLVE GRADUALLY 9TO ! CONCEPTION ( JU/ICE1 AS IS SUGGE/$ BY ! V]Y ORIG9 ( ! WORD-,A,EQUITAS1 ,EQUITE1 :I* D5OTES ! CONCEPTION ( JU/ICE1 EQUALITY4 ,IT IS = ?IS REASON ?AT ! ANCI5TS REPRES5T$ JU/ICE AS A BL9DFOLD WOMAN HOLD+ A PAIR ( SCALES4 

,LET US TAKE A CASE FROM ACTUAL LIFE4 ,!RE >E1 = EXAMPLE1 TWO M5 :O HAVE QU>REL$4 ,WORD FOLL[S WORD1 & ONE ( !M ACCUSES ! O!R ( HAV+ 9SULT$ HIM4 ,! O!R TRIES TO PROVE ?AT HE WAS RI<T1 ?AT HE WAS JU/IFI$ 9 SAY+ :AT HE SAID4 ,IT IS TRUE HE HAD !REBY 9SULT$ ! O!R1 BUT HIS 9SULT WAS BUT A RETALIATION = ! 9SULT (F]$ HIM1 & IT WAS EQUAL1 EQUIVAL5T TO ! LATT]1 & BY NO MEANS GREAT]4 

,IF SU* A DISPUTE LEADS TO A QU>REL & F9ALLY RESULTS 9 A FI<T1 BO? WILL TRY TO PROVE ?AT ! FIR/ BL[ WAS A RETALIATION = A GRAVE 9SULT1 & ?AT EA* SUBSEQU5T BL[ WAS A RETALIATION = ! EXACTLY EQUIVAL5T BL[ ( ! ADV]S>Y4 ,!N1 IF ! CASE GOES AS F> AS 9JURY & A TRIAL1 ! JUDGES WILL CONSID] ! EXT5T ( ! 9JURIES1 & HE :O HAS 9FLICT$ ! GREAT] 9JURY WILL HAVE TO PAY ! F9E1 TO REE/ABLI% ! EQUALITY-( 9JURIES4 ,?IS HAD BE5 ! PRACTICE = MANY C5TURIES1 :5EV] ! CASE WAS LAID BE=E ! COMMUNAL JUDGM5T4 

,IT IS CLE>LY SE5 FROM ?IS EXAMPLE1 :I* IS NOT IMAG9>Y BUT IS TAK5 FROM ACTUAL LIFE1 :AT ! MO/ PRIMITIVE SAVAGES UND]/OOD BY 0JU/ICE1'8 & :AT ! MORE 5LI<T5$ PEOPLES UND]/& TO ?IS DAY BY ! WORDS FAIRNESS1 JU/ICE1 ,A,EQUITAS1 ,EQUITE1 ,RE*TIGKEIT1 ETC4 ,!Y SEE 9 !SE CONCEPTIONS ! REE/ABLI%M5T ( ! DI/URB$ EQUALITY4 ,NO ONE IS TO DI/URB ! EQUALITY ( TWO MEMB]S ( SOCIETY2 & ONCE IT IS DI/URB$ IT HAS TO BE REE/ABLI%$ BY ! 9T]F]5CE ( SOCIETY4 ,?US PROCLAIM$ ! ,MOSAIC ,P5TATEU*1 SAY+3 0,EYE = EYE1 TOO? = TOO?1 W\ND = W\ND10 BUT NO MORE4 ,?US ACT$ ,ROMAN JU/ICE1 ?US ACT TO ?IS DAY ALL ! SAVAGES1-& MANY ( !SE NOTIONS >E /ILL @9- PRES]V$ 9 MOD]N JURISPRUD5CE4 

,( C\RSE1 9 ANY SOCIETY1 REG>DLESS ( ITS /AGE ( DEVELOPM5T1 !RE WILL ALWAYS BE 9DIVIDUALS AIM+ TO TAKE ADVANTAGE ( !IR /R5G?1 ADROITNESS1 CLEV]NESS1 D>+1 9 ORD] TO SUBROGATE ! WILL ( O!RS TO !IR [N WILL1 & SOME ( !SE 9DIVIDUALS ATTA9 !IR AIM4 ,SU* 9DIVIDUALS W]E F\ND1 ( C\RSE1 ALSO AMONG ! MO/ PRIMITIVE PEOPLES1 & WE MEET !M AMONG ALL TRIBES & PEOPLES 9 ALL /AGES ( SOCIAL DEVELOPM5T4 ,BUT TO C\NT]BALANCE SU* T5D5CIES CU/OMS W]E EVOLV$1 AMONG PEOPLES 9 ALL /AGES ( DEVELOPM5T1 :I* T5D$ TO RESI/ ! AGGR&IZEM5T ( AN 9DIVIDUAL- AT ! EXP5SE ( ! :OLE SOCIETY4 ,ALL ! 9/ITUTIONS DEVELOP$ AT V>I\S TIMES BY ! HUMAN RACE-! TRIBAL CODE ( LIFE1 ! VILLAGE COMMUNE1 ! CITY1 ! REPUBLICS ) !IR COMMON C\NCILS1 SELF-GOV]NM5T ( ! P>I%ES & DI/RICTS1 REPRES5TATIVE GOV]NM5T1 ETC4-ALL !SE W]E REALLY MEANT TO PROTECT SOCIETIES FROM ! >BITR>Y ACTS ( SU* 9DIVIDUALS & FROM !IR RIS+ P[]4 

,EV5 ! MO/ PRIMITIVE SAVAGES1 AS WE HAVE JU/ SE51 HAVE GR\PS ( CU/OMS ?AT >E EVOLV$ = ?IS PURPOSE4 ,ON ! ONE SIDE1 CU/OM E/ABLI%ES ! EQUALITY ( RI<TS4 ,?US1 = EXAMPLE1 ,D>W91 :ILE OBS]V+ ! ,PATAGONIAN SAVAGES1 WAS A/ONI%$ TO NOTE ?AT :5EV] ANY ( ! :ITES GAVE TO A SAVAGE A BIT ( FOOD1 ! SAVAGE IMM$IATELY %>$ ! MORSEL EQUALLY AMONG ALL ?OSE PRES5T4 ,! SAME CIRCUM/ANCE IS M5TION$ BY MANY OBS]V]S 9 CONNECTION ) V>I\S PRIMITIVE TRIBES1 & #a1 TOO1 HAD OCCASION TO OBS]VE ! SAME ?+ EV5 AMONG PEOPLE 9 A MORE ADVANC$ /AGE ( DEVELOPM5T-AMONG ! ,B\RIATS1 :O LIVE 9 REMOTE P>TS ( ,SIB]IA4 #aa 

,!RE IS A GREAT NUMB] ( SU* FACTS 9 ALL ! S]I\S DESCRIPTIONS ( PRIMITIVE PEOPLES4 #ab ,:]EV] !Y >E /UDI$1 ! OBS]V]S ALWAYS F9D ! SAME SOCIABLE T5D5CIES1 ! SAME SOCIAL SPIRIT1 ! SAME READ9ESS TO CURB WILLFULNESS = ! SAKE ( SUPPORT+ ! SOCIAL LIFE4 ,& :5 WE ATTEMPT TO P5ETRATE 9TO ! LIFE ( ,MAN AT ! MO/ PRIMITIVE /AGES ( HIS DEVELOPM5T1 WE F9D ! SAME TRIBAL LIFE1 ! SAME ALLIANCES ( M5 = MUTUAL AID4 ,& WE >E =C$ TO ACKN[L$GE ?AT ! SOCIAL QUALITIES ( ,MAN CON/ITUTE ! PR9CIPAL- FACTOR 9 HIS PA/ DEVELOPM5T & 9 HIS FUTURE PROGRESS4 

,9 ! EI<TE5? C5TURY1 UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( ! FIR/ ACQUA9TANCE ) ! SAVAGES ( ! ,PACIFIC ,OCEAN1 A T5D5CY DEVELOP$ TO IDEALIZE ! SAVAGES1 :O LIV$ 09 A NATURAL /ATE10- P]HAPS TO C\NT]BALANCE ! PHILOSOPHY ( ,HOBBES & HIS FOLL[]S1 :O PICTUR$ PRIMITIVE M5 AS A CR[D ( WILD BEA/S READY TO DEV\R ONE ANO!R4 ,BO? !SE CONCEPTIONS1 H[EV]1 PROV$ ]RONE\S1 AS WE N[ KN[ FROM MANY CONSCI5TI\S OBS]V]S4 ,! PRIMITIVE MAN IS NOT AT ALL A P>AGON ( VIRTUE1 & NOT AT ALL A -TIG]-LIKE BEA/4 ,BUT HE ALWAYS LIV$ & /ILL LIVES 9 SOCIETIES1 LIKE ?\S&S ( O!R CREATURES4 ,9 ?OSE SOCIETIES HE HAS DEVELOP$ NOT ONLY ?OSE SOCIAL QUALITIES ?AT >E 9H]5T TO ALL SOCIAL ANIMALS1 BUT1 [+ TO ! GIFT ( SPEE* &1 CONSEQU5TLY1 TO A MORE DEVELOP$ 9TELLIG5CE1 HE HAS /ILL FUR!R DEVELOP$ HIS SOCIALITY1 & ) IT HE HAS EVOLV$ ! RULES ( SOCIAL LIFE1 :I* WE CALL MORALITY4 

,9 ! TRIBAL /AGE ,MAN FIR/ ( ALL LE>N$ ! FUNDAM5TAL RULE ( ALL SOCIAL LIFE3 DO NOT UNTO O!RS :AT Y\ DO NOT WI% TO HAVE DONE UNTO Y\2 HE LE>N$ TO RE/RA9 9 V5\S WAYS ?OSE :O DID NOT DESIRE TO SUBMIT TO ?IS RULE4 ,& !N HE DEVELOP$ ! ABILITY TO ID5TIFY HIS P]SONAL LIFE ) ! LIFE ( HIS TRIBE4 ,9 /UDY+ PRIMITIVE M51 BEG9N+ ) ?OSE :O /ILL PRES]VE ! MODE ( LIFE ( ! ,GLACIAL & ( ! E>LY ,PO/-GLACIAL P]IOD1 & 5D+ ) ?OSE-:O >E 9 ! LATE/ /AGES ( DEVELOPM5T ( ! TRIBAL SY/EM-WE >E MO/ IMPRESS$ BY ?IS FEATURE3 ! ID5TIFICATION  ( ! 9DIVIDUAL MAN ) HIS TRIBE4 ,?IS PR9CIPLE CAN BE TRAC$ ?R\<\T ! E>LY HI/ORY ( ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! HUMAN RACE1 & IT IS P>TICUL>LY WELL PRES]V$ BY ?OSE :O /ILL RETA9 ! PRIMITIVE =MS ( ! TRIBAL SY/EM & ! MO/ PRIMITIVE DEVICES = FI<T+ ! /EPMO!R1 ,NATURE4 ,SU* >E ! ,ESKIMOS1 ! ,ALEUTS1 ! 9HABITANTS ( ,T]RA DEL ,FUEGO1 & SOME M\NTA9 TRIBES4 ,& ! MORE WE /UDY PRIMITIVE MAN1 ! MORE WE >E CONV9C$ ?AT1 EV5 9 HIS 9SIGNIFICANT ACTS1 HE ID5TIFI$ & /ILL ID5TIFIES HIS LIFE ) ! LIFE ( HIS TRIBE4 

,! CONCEPTIONS ( GOOD & EVIL W]E ?US EVOLV+ NOT ON ! BASIS ( :AT REPRES5T$ GOOD OR EVIL = A SEP>ATE 9DIVIDUAL1 BUT ON :AT REPRES5T$ GOOD & EVIL = ! :OLE TRIBE4 ,!SE CONCEPTIONS1 ( C\RSE1 V>I$ ) TIME & LOCALITY1 & SOME ( ! RULES1 SU*1 = EXAMPLE1 AS HUMAN SACRIFICES = ! PURPOSE ( PLACAT+ ! =MIDABLE =CES ( NATURE-VOLCANOES1 SEAS1 E>?QUAKES1-W]E SIMPLY PREPO/]\S4 ,BUT ONCE ?IS OR ?AT RULE WAS E/ABLI%$ BY ! TRIBE1 ! 9DIVIDUAL SUBMITT$ TO IT1 NO MATT] H[ H>D IT WAS TO ABIDE BY IT4 

,G5]ALLY SPEAK+1 ! PRIMITIVE SAVAGE ID5TIFI$ HIMSELF ) HIS TRIBE4 ,HE BECAME TRULY UNHAPPY IF HE COMMITT$ AN ACT ?AT MI<T BR+ UPON HIS TRIBE ! CURSE ( ! WRONG$ ONE1 OR ! V5GEANCE ( ! 0GREAT MULTITUDE0 ( ANCE/ORS1 OR ( SOME ANIMAL TRIBE3 CROCODILES1 BE>S1 TIG]S1 ETC4 ,! 0CODE ( CU/OM0 MEANS MORE TO A SAVAGE MAN ?AN RELIGION TO ! MOD]N MAN-IT =MS ! F\NDATION ( HIS LIFE1 & !RE=E1 SELF-RE/RA9T 9 ! 9T]E/S ( ! TRIBE1-& 9 SEP>ATE 9DIVIDUALS1 SELF-SACRIFICE = ! SAME REASON1-IS A MO/ COMMON OCCURR5CE4 #ac 

,9 %ORT1 ! NE>] ! PRIMITIVE SOCIETY IS TO ITS MO/ ANCI5T =MS1 ! MORE /RICTLY IS ! RULE1 0EV]YONE = ALL10 OBS]V$4 ,& IT IS ONLY DUE TO !IR TOTAL LACK ( KN[L$GE ( ! ACTUAL LIFE ( PRIMITIVE MAN1 ?AT SU* ?9K]S AS ,HOBBES & ,R\SSEAU & !IR FOLL[]S1 ASS]T$ ?AT MORALITY ORIG9AT$ FROM AN IMAG9>Y 0MORAL COV5ANT10 & O!RS EXPLA9$ ITS APPE>ANCE ( ! 09SPIRATION FROM A ABOVE01 COM+ TO A MY?ICAL LAWGIV]4 ,9 REALITY1 ! S\RCE ( MORALITY LIES 9 A SOCIALITY 9H]5T 9 ALL ! HI<] ANIMALS1 & SO MU* MORE 9 ,MAN4 

,UN=TUNATELY1 9 ! TRIBAL SY/EM1 ! RULE 0EV]YONE = ALL0 DOES NOT EXT5D FUR!R ?AN ! 9DIVIDUAL'S [N TRIBE4 ,A TRIBE IS NOT OBLIG$ TO %>E ITS FOOD ) O!R TRIBES4 ,MOREOV]1 ! T]RITORY IS DIVID$ AMONG V>I\S TRIBES1 AS IT IS 9 ! CASES ( SOME MAMMALS & SOME BIRDS1 & EA* TRIBE HAS ITS [N DI/RICT = HUNT+ OR FI%+4 ,?US FROM ! MO/ ANCI5T TIMES ,MAN WAS DEVELOP+ TWO K9DS ( RELATIONS3 )9 HIS [N TRIBE1 & ) ! O!R TRIBES :]E AN ATMOSPH]E WAS CREAT$ = DISPUTES & W>S4 ,IT IS TRUE ?AT ALREADY 9 ! TRIBAL /AGE ATTEMPTS W]E MADE1 & >E /ILL BE+ MADE1 TO IMPROVE ! MUTUAL RELATIONS ( NEI<BOR+ TRIBES4 ,:5 A MAN 5T]S A DWELL+ ALL WEAPONS >E TO BE LEFT \TSIDE1 AT ! 5TRANCE2 & EV5 9 CASE ( W> BETWE5 TWO TRIBES !RE >E C]TA9 RULES TO BE OBS]V$1 RELAT+ TO ! WELLS & ! PA?S :I* WOM5 USE = DRAW+ & C>RY+ WAT]4 ,BUT1 G5]ALLY SPEAK+1 9T]-TRIBAL RELATIONS 7UNLESS A F$]ATION BETWE5 NEI<BOR+ TRIBES WAS >RANG$7 >E 5TIRELY DIFF]5T FROM RELATIONS )9 ! TRIBE4 ,& 9 ! SUBSEQU5T DEVELOPM5T ( ! HUMAN RACE NO RELIGION C\LD ]ADICATE ! CONCEPTION ( A 0/RANG]40 ,ACTUALLY1 RELIGIONS MO/ FREQU5TLY B@9 CAME A S\RCE ( F]OCI\S 5MITY1 :I* GREW /ILL MORE ACUTE-) ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! ,/ATE4 ,& AS A RESULT A D\BLE /&>D ( E?ICS WAS BE+ DEVELOP$1 :I* /ILL EXI/S 9 \R [N TIME & LEADS TO SU* HORRORS AS ! REC5T W>4 

,9 ! BEG9N+ ! :OLE TRIBE WAS MADE UP ( ONE FAMILY1 &1 AS IT HAS BE5 PROV$ 9 MOD]N TIMES1 SEP>ATE FAMILIES )9 ! TRIBE BEGAN TO APPE> ONLY GRADUALLY1 :ILE ! WIVES 9 !SE FAMILIES HAD TO BE TAK5 FROM SOME O!R TRIBE4 

,IT IS TO BE NOT$ ?AT ! SY/EM ( SEP>ATE FAMILIES L$ TO -! DIS9TEGRATION ( ! COMMUNI/IC SY/EM1 = IT GAVE OPPORTUNITIES = AMASS+ FAMILY WEAL?4 ,NEV]!LESS1 ! NE$ = SOCIALITY1 :I* HAD BE5 DEVELOP$ DUR+ ! PREVI\S SY/EM1 BEGAN TO ASSUME NEW =MS4 ,9 ! VILLAGES1 ! VILLAGE COMMUNE WAS EVOLV$1 & 9 ! CITIES-! GUILDS ( ! CRAFTSM5 & ! M]*ANTS1 FROM :I* SPRANG ! M$IEVAL FREE CITIES4 ,) ! HELP ( !SE 9/ITUTIONS ! MASSES W]E CREAT+ A NEW SY/EM ( LIFE1 :]E A NEW TYPE ( UNITY WAS BE+ BORN1 TO TAKE ! PLACE ( ! TRIBAL UNITY4 

,ON ! O!R H&1 ! GREAT TRANSMIGRATION ( PEOPLES & ! CONT9UAL RAIDS BY NEI<BOR+ TRIBES & RACES L$ UNAVOIDABLY TO ! =MATION ( ! MILIT>Y CLASS1 :I* KEPT ON GA9+ 9 P[] 9 PROPORTION AS ! PEACEABLE RURAL & URBAN POPULATION CAME TO =GET MORE & MORE ! MILIT>Y >T4 ,SIMULTANE\SLY1 ! ELD]S1 ! KEEP]S ( ! TRIBAL TRADITIONS AS WELL AS ! OBS]V]S ( ,NATURE :O W]E ACCUMULAT+ ! RUDIM5TS ( KN[L$GE1 & ! P]=M]S ( ! RELIGI\S RITUALS1 W]E BEG9N+ TO =M SECRET SOCIETIES = ! PURPOSE ( /R5G!N+ !IR P[] -AMONG ! PEASANT COMMUNITIES & 9 ! FREE CITIES4 ,LAT]1 ) ! E/ABLI%M5T ( ! ,/ATE1 ! MILIT>Y & ! ECCLESIA/ICAL P[]S =M$ AN ALLIANCE1 [+ TO !IR COMMON SUBJECTION TO ! P[] ( ! K+4 

,IT MU/ BE ADD$1 H[EV]1 ?AT 9 SPITE ( ALL ! DEVELOPM5TS DESCRIB$ ABOVE1 !RE WAS NEV] A P]IOD 9 ! LIFE ( ! HUMAN RACE :5 W>S CON/ITUT$ A NORMAL CONDITION ( LIFE4 ,:ILE ! COMBATANTS W]E EXT]M9AT+ EA* O!R1 & ! PRIE/S W]E GLORIFY+ ! MUTUAL MASSACRES1 ! GREAT MASSES 9 VILLAGES & 9 T[NS CONT9U$ TO LIVE !IR ORD9>Y LIFE4 ,!Y KEPT ON ) !IR HABITUAL WORK1 & AT ! SAME TIME 5DEAVOR$ TO /R5G!N ! ORGANIZATIONS BAS$ ON MUTUAL AID & MUTUAL SUPPORT1 I4 E41 ON !IR CODE D]IV+ FROM CU/OM4 ,?IS PROCESS CONT9U$ EV5 LAT]1 AFT] ! PEOPLE FELL UND] ! P[] ( ! CL]GY & ( ! K+S4 

,AFT] ALL1 ! :OLE HI/ORY ( ! HUMAN RACE MAY BE REG>D$ AS A /RIV+1 ON ! ONE SIDE1 = SEIZURE ( P[] BY SEP>ATE 9DIVIDUALS OR GR\PS1 = ! PURPOSE ( SUBJUGAT+ ! L>GE/ POSSIBLE MASSES1 & ON ! O!R H&1 ! /RIV+1 AT LEA/ BY ! MALES1 TO PRES]VE ! EQUALITY ( RI<TS & TO RESI/ ! SEIZURE ( P[]1 OR AT LEA/ TO LIMIT IT4 ,9 O!R WORDS3 ! /RIV+ TO PRES]VE JU/ICE )9 ! TRIBES OR ! F$]ATION ( TRIBES4 

,! SAME /RIV+ /RONGLY MANIFE/$ ITSELF 9 ! M$IEVAL FREE CITIES1 ESPECIALLY DUR+ ! FEW C5TURIES IMM$IATELY FOLL[+ ! LIB]ATION ( !SE CITIES FROM !IR FEUDAL LORDS4 ,9 FACT1 ! FREE CITIES W]E ! DEF5SIVE ALLIANCES ( ! 5FRAN*IS$ BUR<]S AGA9/ ! SURR\ND+ FEUDAL LORDS4 

,BUT LITTLE BY LITTLE DIVISION ( ! POPULATION 9TO CLASSES BEGAN TO MANIFE/ ITSELF 9 ! FREE CITIES AS WELL4 ,AT ! BEG9N+ TRAD+ WAS CONDUCT$ BY ! 5TIRE CITY4 ,! PRODUCTS ( CITY MANUFACTURE OR ! GOODS PUR*AS$ 9 ! VILLAGES W]E EXPORT$ BY ! CITY AS A :OLE1 ?R\< ITS TRU/$ M51 & ! PR(ITS BELONG$ TO ! 5TIRE CITY COMMUNITY4 ,BUT BY SL[ /EPS TRAD+ BEGAN TO BE TRANS=M$ FROM COMMUNAL TO PRIVATE1 & BEGAN TO 5RI* NOT ONLY ! CITIES !MSELVES BUT ALSO PRIVATE 9DIVIDUALS1 -& 9DEP5D5T M]*ANTS-0M]CATORI LIBRI0 ESPECIALLY FROM ! TIME ( ! CRUSADES1 :I* BR\<T AB\T LIVELY TRAD+ ) ! ,LEVANT4 ,A CLASS ( BANK]S BEGAN TO BE =M$4 ,9 TIME ( NE$ !SE BANK]S W]E APPEAL$ TO = LOANS1 AT FIR/ BY ! NOBLEM5-KNI<TS1 & LAT] BY ! CITIES AS WELL4 

,?US1 9 EA* ( !SE ONCE FREE CITIES !RE-BEGAN-TO DEVELOP A M]*ANT >I/OCRACY1 :I* HELD ! CITIES 9 ! HOLL[ ( !IR H&S1 SUPPORT+ ALT]NATELY ! ,POPE & ! ,EMP]OR :5 !Y W]E /RIV+ = POSSESSION ( A C]TA9 CITY1 OR L5D+ AID TO A K+ OR PR9CE :O WAS AB\T TO SEIZE ONE ( ! CITIES1 SOMETIMES ) ! SUPPORT ( ! RI* M]*ANTS1 & SOMETIMES ( ! POOR T[NSFOLK4 ,?US ! GR\ND WAS PREP>$ = ! MOD]N C5TRALIZ$ ,/ATE4 ,! WORK ( C5TRALIZATION WAS COMPLET$ :5 ,EUROPE HAD TO DEF5D ITSELF AGA9/ ! 9VASIONS ( ! ,MOORS 9TO ,SPA9 9 ! N9?1 T5?1 & ELEV5? C5TURIES1 ( ! ,MONGOLIANS 9TO ,RUSSIA 9 ! ?IRTE5? C5TURY1 & ( ! ,TURKS 9 ! FIFTE5?4 ,! CITIES & ! SMALL PR9CIPALITIES1 :I* HAD BE5 CONT9UALLY QU>REL+ AMONG !MSELVES1 PROV$ P[]LESS AGA9/ SU* MASS 9VASIONS1 & SO ! PROCESS ( ! SUBJUGATION ( ! SMALL UNITS BY ! L>G] ONES1 & ALSO ! PROCESS ( ! C5TRALIZATION ( P[]1 CULM9AT$ 9 ! =MATION ( L>GE POLITICAL /ATES4 

,NE$LESS TO SAY1 SU* FUNDAM5TAL *ANGES 9 SOCIAL LIFE1 AS ALSO ! RELIGI\S UPRIS+S & W>S1 PUT !IR /AMP ON ! 5TIRE /RUCTURE ( ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS 9 ! V>I\S C\NTRIES AT DIFF]5T TIMES4 ,AT SOME FUTURE DAY AN EXT5SIVE RESE>* WILL PROBABLY BE UND]TAK5 9 :I* ! EVOLUTION ( MORALITY WILL BE /UDI$ 9 CONNECTION' ) ! *ANGES 9 ! MODE ( SOCIAL LIFE4 ,WE >E H]E 5T]+ A FIELD :]E ! SCI5CE ( ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS 5D 'TEA*+S1 I4E41 ,E?ICS1 FREQU5TLY CO9CIDES ) ANO!R SCI5CE-,SOCIOLOGY1 I4 E41 ! SCI5CE ( ! LIFE & ! DEVELOPM5T ( SOCIETIES4 ,!RE=E1 TO AVOID *ANG+ FROM ONE FIELD O ! O!R1 IT WILL BE BETT] TO PO9T \T BE=EH& TO :AT OBJECTS ! REALM ( ,E?ICS IS TO BE RE/RICT$4 

,WE HAVE SE5 ?AT 9 ALL HUMAN BE+S1 EV5 AT ! L[E/ /AGES1 ( DEVELOPM5T1 & ALSO 9 SOME GREG>I\S ANIMALS1 !RE >E C]TA9 M>K$ FEATURES :I* WE CALL MORAL4 ,9 ALL /AGES ( HUMAN DEVELOPM5T ' WE F9D SOCIALITY & ! H]D 9/9CT1 & SEP>ATE 9DIVIDUALS MANIFE/ ALSO ! -READ9ESS TO HELP O!RS1 SOMETIMES EV5 AT ! RISK ( !IR [N LIVES4 ,& S9CE SU* FEATURES ASSI/ 9 MA9TA9+ & DEVELOP+ SOCIAL LIFE1 :I*-9 TURN-9SURES ! LIFE & WELL-BE+ ( ALL1 SU* QUALITIES1 ACCORD+LY1 W]E CONSID]$ BY HUMAN SOCIETIES FROM ! MO/ ANCI5T TIMES NOT ONLY AS DESIRABLE1 BUT EV5 AS OBLIGATORY4 ,! ELD]S1 ! WIZ>DS1 ! SORC]]S ( ! PRIMITIVE TRIBES1 & LAT] ! PRIE/S & ! CL]GY1 CLAIM$ !SE QUALITIES ( HUMAN NATURE AS COMM&M5TS FROM ABOVE1 ISSU+ FROM ! MY/]I\S =CES ( NATURE1 I4 E41 FROM ! GODS1 OR FROM ONE ,CREATOR ( ! UNIV]SE4 ,BUT EV5 9 ! V]Y DI/ANT PA/1 & ESPECIALLY FROM ! TIME ( ! REVIVAL ( ! SCI5CES1-:I* BEGAN 9 ,ANCI5T ,GREECE MORE ?AN #be YE>S AGO1-! ?9K]S BEGAN TO CONSID] ! QUE/ION ( ! NATURAL ORIG9 ( ! MORAL FEEL+S & CONCEPTIONS1 -?OSE FEEL+S :I* RE/RA9 M5 FROM EVIL ACTS AGA9/ !IR K9SM5 &1 9 G5]AL1 FROM ACTS T5D+ TO WEAK5 ! SOCIAL FABRIC4 ,9 O!R WORDS1 !Y 5DEAVOR$ TO F9D A NATURAL EXPLANATION = ?AT ELEM5T 9 HUMAN NATURE :I* IT IS CU/OM>Y TO CALL MORAL1 & :I* IS CONSID]$ UNQUE/IONABLY DESIRABLE 9 ANY SOCIETY4 

,SU* ATTEMPTS HAD BE5 MADE1 IT W\LD APPE>1 EV5 9 REMOTE ANTIQUITY1 = TRACES (- !M >E SE5 9 ,*9A & 9 ,9DIA4 ,BUT 9 A SCI5TIFIC =M !Y REA*$ US ONLY FROM ,ANCI5T ,GREECE4 ,H]E A SUCCESSION ( ?9K]S1 9 ! C\RSE ( F\R C5TURIES1- ,SOCRATES1 ,PLATO1 ,>I/OTLE1 ,EPICURUS1 & LAT] ! ,/OICS1 GAVE ?\<TFUL & PHILOSOPHICAL CONSID]ATION TO ! FOLL[+ QUE/IONS3 

0,:5CE ORIG9ATE 9 A HUMAN BE+ ! MORAL PR9CIPLES1 :I* CONTRADICT HIS PASSIONS & :I* FREQU5TLY S]VE TO *ECK !M8 

0,:5CE ORIG9ATES ! FEEL+ ( ! OBLIGATORY NATURE ( ! MORAL PR9CIPLES1 :I* MANIFE/S ITSELF EV5 9 M5 :O D5Y ! MORAL PR9CIPLES ( LIFE8 

0,IS IT M]ELY ! \TCOME ( \R UP-BR++1-AN \TCOME ?AT WE D>E NOT R5\NCE1-AS IS N[ MA9TA9$ BY SOME WRIT]S1 & --AS1 9 ! PA/1 WAS PROCLAIM$ FROM TIME TO TIME BY C]TA9 NEGATORS (-MORALITY8 

0,OR IS ! MORAL CONSCI5CE ( ,MAN ! \TCOME ( HIS V]Y NATURE8 ,9 SU* A CASE1 MI<T IT NOT BE ! QUALITY ?AT DEVELOP$ FROM ! V]Y FACT ( HIS SOCIAL LIFE 9 ! C\RSE ( MANY ?\S&S ( YE>S8 

0,F9ALLY1 IF ! SURMISE BE TRUE1 %\LD ?AT MORAL CONSCI5CE BE 5C\RAG$ & DEVELOP$1 OR W\LD IT BE BETT] TO ]ADICATE IT & TO 5C\RAGE ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! OPPOSITE S5TIM5T ( SELF-LOVE 7EGOISM71 :I* CONSID]S AS DESIRABLE ! NEGATION ( ALL MORALITY8 ,& W\LD IT BE WELL TO HOLD ?IS NEGATION AS ! IDEAL ( ! DEVELOP$ HUMAN BE+80 

,!SE >E ! PROBLEMS OV] ! SOLUTION ( :I* ! ?9K]S ( ! HUMAN RACE HAVE BE5 WORK+ = MORE ?AN TWO ?\S& YE>S1 ALT]NATELY SUPPLY+ ANSW]S LEAN+ N[ T[>D ONE1 N[-T[>D ! O!R DECISION4 ,!SE 9VE/IGATIONS L$ TO ! =MATION ( A SPECIAL SCI5CE ,E?ICS1 :I* IS CLOSELY ALLI$ ON ONE SIDE TO ,SOCIOLOGY1 & ON ! O!R SIDE TO ,PSY*OLOGY1 I4 E41 ! SCI5CE ( ! EMOTIONAL & ! 9TELLECTUAL QUALITIES ( ,MAN4 

,AFT] ALL1 9 ,E?ICS1 ALL ! A=EM5TION$ QUE/IONS R$UCE !MSELVES TO TWO FUNDAM5TAL PROBLEMS4 ,E?ICS AIMS3 #a7 ,TO E/ABLI% ! ORIG9 ( ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS & S5TIM5TS2 #b7 ,TO DET]M9E ! FUNDAM5TAL PR9CIPLES ( MORALITY & TO WORK \T 9 ?IS MANN] A PROP] 7I4 E41 ONE ?AT ANSW]S ITS PURPOSE7 MORAL IDEAL4 

,! ?9K]S ( ALL NATIONS WORK$ & >E /ILL WORK+ OV] ?IS PROBLEM4 ,!RE=E1 PRIOR TO EXP\ND+ MY [N CONCLUSIONS ON !SE QUE/IONS1 ,I %ALL 5DEAVOR TO MAKE A SURVEY ( ! CONCLUSIONS AT :I* ! ?9K]S ( V>I\S S*OOLS HAVE >RIV$4 

,WE WILL N[ TAKE UP ?AT TASK1 & ,I WILL GIVE SPECIAL ATT5TION TO ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! CONCEPTIONS ( JU/ICE1 :I*1 IF ,I AM NOT MI/AK5 LIES AT ! ROOT ( ALL MORALITY & CON/ITUTES ! />T+ PO9T 9 ALL ! CONCLUSIONS ( MORAL PHILOSOPHY1 - AL?\< ?IS CIRCUM/ANCE IS F> FROM BE+ ACKN[L$G$ BY ! MAJORITY ( ?9K]S :O HAVE WRITT5 ON ,E?ICS4 

,FOOTNOTES 

 #a 
,A,I,I ?9K+1 AS ,F\ILLEE JU/LY REM>K$1 HAS A T5D5CY TO BECOME MORE 
& MORE OBJECTIVE1 I4 E41 TO R5\NCE P]SONAL CONSID]ATIONS & TO 
PASS GRADUALLY TO G5]AL CONSID]ATIONS4 7,F\ILLEE1 ,CRITIQUE DES 
SY/EMES DE MORALE CONTEMPORA9E1 ,P>IS1 #a#h#h#c1 P4 #a#h74 ,9 ?IS MANN] 
! SOCIAL IDEAL IS GRADUALLY =M$1 I4E41 A CONCEPTION ( A POSSIBLY 
BETT] SY/EM4 

 #b 
,SEE ON ?IS SUBJECT1 ,PLAY ( ,ANIMALS1 BY ,K>L ,GROOS4 0,5GLI% TRANS4 BY 
,ELIZABE? ,L4 ,BALDW91 ,N4 ,Y4 #a#h#i4#h4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4  

 #c 
,! READ] WILL F9D MANY FACTS 9 CONNECTION ) ! RUDIM5TS ( 
E?ICS AMONG ! SOCIAL ANIMALS1 9 ! EXCELL5T WORKS ( ,ESP9AS1 :O 
ANALYZ$ V>I\S /AGES ( SOCIALITY AMONG ANIMALS 9 HIS BOOK1 ,DES 
SOCIELTES ANZMALES  7,P>IS1 #a#h#g#g74 ,SEE ALSO1 ,ANIMAL ,9TELLIG5CE1 BY 
,ROMANES2 ,HUB]'S & ,=EL'S BOOKS ON ANTS1 & ,BU*N]'S ,LIEBE UND 
,LIEBESLEB5 9 D] ,?I]WELT  7#a#h#g#i2 5L>G$ $ITION1 #a#h#h#f74 .<,ALFR$ 
,VICTOR ,ESP9AS1 #bD 5L>G$ $41 #a#h#g#h4 ,GEO4 ,JOHN ,ROMANES1 ,N4 ,Y41 #a#h#h#c2 
LATE/ EAD41 #a#i#a#b4 ,PI]RE ,HUB]1 ,RE*]*ES SUR LES MCEURS DES F\RMIS 
9DIG5ES1 ,G5EVE1 ,P>IS1 #aha & #a#h#f#a2 ,5GLI% TRANS41 ,! ,NATURAL 
,HI/ORY ( ! ,ANTS1 ,LONDON1 #a#h#b1 BY ,J4 ,R4 ,JOHNSON4 ,AUGU/E ,=EL1 ,ANTS 
& SOME O!R ,9SECTS1 TRANSLAT$ FROM ! ,G]MAN BY ,W4 ,M4 ,:AL]1 
,*IC41 #a#i#d2 ! ,G]MAN WORK IS ,DIE ,PSY*IS*5 FAHI<EIT5 D] ,AMEIS51 
ETC41 ,MUN*51 #a#i#a4 ,=EL IS ! AU?OR ( A VA/ WORK1 ,LE MONDE SOCIAL 
DES F\RMIS DU GLOBE1 COMP>E A CELUI DE L'HOMME1 ,G5EVE1 #a#i#b#a-#b#c1 #e 
VOLS4 ,KROPOTK9 HAD 9 M9D1 MO/ LIKELY1 ,=EL'S ,RE*]*ES SUR LES 
F\RMIS DE LA ,SUISSE1 ,ZURI*1 #a#h#g#d1 :I* HE QUOTES 9 HIS ,MUTUAL ,AID4 
,! LA/ AU?OR NAM$ IS ,LUDWIG ,BU*N]4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

 #d 
,ELIE ,RECLUS 7BRO!R ( ! GEOGRAPH] ,ELISEE ,RECLUS71 WROTE BRILLIANTLY 
ON ! SIGNIFICANCE ( ! 0GREAT MULTITUDE0 ( DEAD ANCE/ORS 9 HIS 
,LES ,PRIMITIFS -A BOOK ( FEW PAGES1 BUT RI* 9 IDEAS & FACTS4 .<,P>IS1 
#a#h#h#e4 ,! ,5GLI% TRANS41 ,PRIMITIVE ,FOLK1 APPE>$ 9 ! ,CONTEMPOR>Y 
,SCI5TIFIC ,S]IES1 ,LONDON1 #a#h#i#f4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

 #e 
,SP5C] ANALYZES !SE FACTS 9 DETAIL 9 HIS ,PR9CIPLES ( ,E?ICS4 
.<,VOLS4,I,X4 ,X ( ,A ,SY/EM ( ,SYN!TIC ,PHILOSOPHY1 ,N4 ,Y41 #a#h#i#h4.>-,TRANS4 
,NOTE4 

 #f 
,DESCRIPTIVE ,SOCIOLOGY1 CLASSIFI$ & >RANG$ BY ,H]B]T ,SP5C]1 
COMPIL$ & AB/RACT$ BY ,DAVIS ,DUNCAN1 ,RI*>D ,S*APPIG1 & ,JAMES 
,COLLI]1 #h VOLUMES 9 FOLIO4 T.<,AM]4 $41 #i VOLS41 ,N4 ,Y41 
#a#h#g#c-#a#i#a4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

 #g 
,IT IS V]Y LIKELY ?AT ) ! GRADUAL MELT+ ( ! ICE %EET1 :I* 
AT ! TIME ( ITS GREATE/ DEVELOPM5T 9 ! ,NOR!RN HEMISPH]E 
EXT5D$ APPROXIMATELY TO #eO ,NOR? ,LATITUDE1 !SE TRIBES W]E 
CONT9UALLY MOV+ NOR?W>D UND] PRESSURE ( ! 9CREAS+ POPULATION 
( ! MORE S\!RN P>TS ( ! ,E>? 7,9DIA1 ,NOR? ,AFRICA1 ETC471  
UNREA*$ BY ! GLACIAL LAY]4 

 #h 
,MEMOIRS FROM ! ,UNALA%K9SKY ,DI/RICT1 ,PETROGRAD1 #a#h#d2 .<#c VOLS41 9 
,RUSSIAN.>4 ,EXC]PTS FROM ?IS WORK >E GIV5 9 ,DALL'S ,ALASKA4 ,V]Y 
SIMIL> REM>KS AB\T ! ,ESKIMO TRIBES ( ,GRE5L&1 & ALSO AB\T ! 
,AU/RALIAN SAVAGES ( ,NEW ,GU9EA1 >E F\ND 9 ! WORKS ( 
,MIKHLU*O-,MAKLAY1 & SOME O!RS4 .<LVAN ,YEVSEYEVI* ,V5YAM9OV 
7#a#g#i#g-#a#h#g#i71 :O LAT] BECAME ,9NOK5TI1 ,METROPOLITAN ( ,MOSC[4 ,= 
,MIKHLU*O-,MAKLAY SEE NOTE1 PAGE ,HEALEY ,DALL1 ,ALASKA & ITS ,RES\RCES4 
,BO/ON1 #a#h#g4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

 #i 
,9 5UM]AT+ ! PR9CIPLES ( ,ALEUTIAN E?ICS1 ,V5YAM9OV 9CLUDES 
ALSO3 0,IT IS %AMEFUL TO DIE )\T HAV+ KILL$ A S+LE 5EMY40 ,I 
TOOK ! LIB]TY ( OMITT+ ?IS /ATEM5T1 BECAUSE ,I ?9K ?AT IT IS 
BAS$ ON A MISUND]/&+4 ,BY 5EMY CANNOT BE MEANT A MAN ( ONE'S [N 
TRIBE1 = ,V5YAM9OV HIMSELF /ATES ?AT \T ( ! POPULATION ( 
#f1 !RE OCCURR$ ONLY ONE MURD] 9 ! C\RSE ( =TY YE>S1 & 
IT HAD UNAVOIDABLY TO BE FOLL[$ BY V5DETTA1 OR BY RECONCILIATION 
AFT] ! PAYM5T ( COMP5SATION4 ,!RE=E1 AN 5EMY :OM IT WAS 
ABSOLUTELY NECESS>Y TO KILL C\LD BE ONLY A MAN FROM SOME O!R TRIBE4 
,BUT ,V5YAM9OV DOES NOT SPEAK ( ANY CONT9UAL FEUDS AMONG ! CLANS OR 
TRIBES4 ,HE PROBABLY MEANT TO SAY 0IT IS %AMEFUL TO DIE )\T HAV+ 
KILL$ ! 5EMY :O \<T TO BE KILL$1 AS A REQUIREM5T ( 
CLAN-V5DETTA40 ,?IS VIEWPO9T IS1 UN=TUNATELY1 /ILL HELD EV5 AMONG 
! SO-CALL$ 0CIVILIZ$0 SOCIETIES1 BY ! ADVOCATES ( CAPITAL 
PUNI%M5T4  

 #a 
,PRES]VATION ( FIRE IS A V]Y IMPORTANT ?+ ,MIKHLU*O-,MAKLAY WRITES 
?AT ! 9HABITANTS ( ,NEW ,GU9EA1 AMONG :OM HE LIV$1 /ILL RETA9 A 
LEG5D DESCRIB+ H[ !IR ANCE/ORS ONCE SUFF]$ FROM SCURVY BECAUSE 
!Y LET ! FIRE GO \T1 & REMA9$ )\T FIRE = A CONSID]ABLE 
TIME1 UNTIL !Y W]E ABLE TO GET SOME FROM ! NEI<BOR+ ISL&S4 
0,NIKOLAI ,N4 ,MIKHLU*O-,MAKLAY1 A ,RUSSIAN TRAVEL] & NATURALI/ 7#a#h#d#f 
#h#h74 ,HIS NOTES ON ,NEW ,GU9EA W]E CONTRIBUT$ TO ,PET]MANN'S 
,MITTEILUNG51 #a#h#g#d1 #a#h#g#h4 ,A P>T ( ,NEW ,GU9EA BE>S ! NAME ( ,MACLAY 
,COA/4 ,SEE ! >TICLE ON ,M-,M4 BY ,F9S* 9 ,DEUTS*E ,GEOGRAPHIS*E 
,BLATT]N1 VOL4 XI1 PTS4 #c-#d1 ,BREM51 #a#h#h#h4 ,EXC]PTS FROM HIS NOTE-BOOKS 
APPE>1 9 ,RUSSIAN1 9 ! LZVE/IA  ( ! ,RUSSIAN ,GEOGRAPHICAL ,SOCIETY1 
#a#h#h1 PP4 #afa FF4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

 #aa 
,ACCORD+ TO ! CU/OMS ( ! ,B\RIATS1 :O LIVE 9 ,SAYANY1 NE> ! 
,OK9SKI ,\TPO/1 :5 A RAM IS KILL$1 ! :OLE VILLAGE COMES TO ! 
FIRE :]E ! FEA/ IS BE+ PREP>$1 & ALL TAKE P>T 9 ! MEAL4 
,! SAME CU/OM EXI/$ ALSO AMONG ! ,B\RIATS ( ! ,V]KHOL5SKY 
DI/RICT4 

 #ab 
,?OSE :O DESIRE FUR!R 9=MATION ON ?IS SUBJECT >E REF]R$ TO 
SU* MONUM5TAL WORKS AS ,WAITZ1 ,AN?ROPOLOGIE D] ,NATURVOLK]2 ,PO/1 
,AFRIKAIS*E ,JURISPRUD5Z1 & ,DIE ,GES*LE*TSG5OSS5S*AFT D] ,UZEIT2 
,M4 ,KOVALEVSKY1 ,PRIMITIVE ,LAW4 ,TABLEAU DES ORIG9ES DE LA4 PROPRIETE2 
,MORGAN1 ,ANCI5T ,SOCIETY2 ,DR4 ,H4 ,R9K1 ,! ,ESKIMO ,TRIBES1 & MANY 
SCATT]$ RESE>*ES M5TION$ 9 ! ABOVE WORKS1 & ALSO 9 MY 
TREATISE ON ,MUTUAL ,AID4 .<,!ODOR ,WAITZ1 ,LEIPZIG1 #a#h#e#i-#a#h#g#b1 #f VOLS4 
,ALB]T ,H]MANN ,PO/1 ,AFRIK4 ,JURIS41 ,OLD5BURG1 #a#h#h#g1 #b VOLS4 9 #a2 
SECOND WORK1 ,OLD5BURG1 #a#h#g#e4 ,MAXIM ,M4 ,KOVALEVSKY1 ,PRIMITIVE ,LAW 9 
,RUSSIAN71 #a#h#g#f2 ,TABLEAU4 ETC41 ,/OCKHOLM1 #a#h#i4 ,LEWIS ,H5RY ,MORGAN1 ,N4 
,Y41 #a#h#g#h4 ,H9RI* ,J4 ,R9K1 ,COP5HAG51 #a#h#h#g-#i#a1 #b VOLS4 9 #a4 ,PET] ,A4 
,KROPOTK91 ,MUTUAL ,AID1 ,LONDON & ,N4 ,Y41 #a#i#a#i4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4  

 #ac 
,BA/IAN1 ,D] ,M5S* 9 D] ,GES*I*TE1 VOL4 #c2 ,GRAY1 ,J\RNALS ( TWO 
EXP$ITIONS1 #a#h#d#a2 & ALL RELIABLE ACC\NTS ( ! LIFE ( SAVAGES4 ,ON 
! P>T PLAY$ BY 9 9TIMIDATION ?R\< ! 0CURSE10 SEE1 
! FAM\S WORK BY ,PR(ESSOR ,WE/]M>CK .<,M>RIAGE ,C]EMONIES 9 
,MOROCCO1 ,LONDON1 #a#i#a#d2 & SEE HIS ,L'>3 ! TRANSF]5CE ( CONDITIONAL 
OA?S 9 ,MOROCCO4 7,9 ,AN?ROPOLOGICAL ESSAYS PRES5T$ TO ,$W>D ,BURNETT 
,TYLOR4 ,OX=D1 #a#i#g4 PP4 #c#f#a-#c#g#d47 ,ADOLF ,BA/IAN1 ,LEIPZIG1 #c VOLS4 9 #a1 
#a#h#f4 ,SIR ,GEO4 ,GRAY1 ,J\RNALS TWO EXP$ITIONS ( DISCOV]Y 9 ,NOR?-WE/ 
& WE/]N ,AU/RALIA4 ,LONDON #a#h#d#a1 #b VOLS4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

,FROM 3 ,AN>*Y ,>*IVES4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,NOVEMB] #c1 #aibc 3 ,*APT] #d -- ,PUBLICATION4 
,JANU>Y #a#d1 #bag 3 ,*APT] #d -- ,ADD$4 

 FILE G5]AT$ FROM 3  
HTTP3_/_/REVOLTLIB4COM_/