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,! ,MORAL ,PR9CIPLE 9 ,NATURE 

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,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,PET] ,KROPOTK9 

,TEXT 3 

  

,PHOTO BY ,JEANNE ,M5J\LET1,C,C ,B,Y ,LIC5SE ,E?ICS3 ,ORIG9 & ,DEVELOPM5T 

,BY ,PET] ,KROPOTK9 

,*,A,P,T,] ,I,I,I 

,! ,M,O,R,A,L ,P,R,9,C,I,P,L,E ,9 ,N,A,T,U,R,E 

,! WORK ( ,D>W9 WAS NOT LIMIT$ TO BIOLOGY ONLY4 ,ALREADY 9 #a#h#c#g1 :5 HE HAD JU/ WRITT5 A R\< \TL9E ( HIS !ORY ( ! ORIG9 ( SPECIES1 HE 5T]$ 9 HIS NOTEBOOK ?IS SIGNIFICANT REM>K3 0,MY !ORY WILL LEAD TO A NEW PHILOSOPHY40 ,& SO IT DID 9 REALITY4 ,BY 9TRODUC+ ! IDEA ( EVOLUTION 9TO ! /UDY ( ORGANIC LIFE HE OP5$ A NEW ]A 9 PHILOSOPHY1#a & HIS LAT] SKET* ( ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! MORAL S5SE1 TURN$ A NEW PAGE 9 E?ICS4 ,9 ?IS SKET* ,D>W9 PRES5T$ 9 A NEW LI<T ! TRUE ORIG9 ( ! MORAL S5SE1 & PLAC$ ! :OLE SUBJECT ON SU* A FIRM SCI5TIFIC BASIS1 ?AT AL?\< HIS LEAD+ IDEAS MAY BE CONSID]$ AS A FUR!R DEVELOPM5T ( ?OSE ( ,%AFTESBURY & ,HUT*ESON1 HE MU/ BE1 NEV]!LESS1 CR$IT$ ) OP5+ A NEW PA? = SCI5CE 9 ! DIRECTION FA9TLY 9DICAT$ BY ,BACON4 ,HE ?US BECAME ONE ( ! F\ND]S ( ! E?ICAL S*OOLS1 TOGE!R ) SU* M5 AS ,HUME1 ,HOBBES1 OR ,KANT4 

,! LEAD+ IDEAS ( ,D>W9'S E?ICS MAY EASILY BE SUMM$ UP4 ,9 ! V]Y FIR/ S5T5CE ( HIS ESSAY HE /ATES HIS OBJECT 9 QUITE DEF9ITE T]MS4 ,HE BEG9S ) A PRAISE ( ! S5SE ( DUTY1 :I* HE *>ACT]IZES 9 ! WELL-KN[N POETICAL WORDS1--0,DUTY6 ,WONDR\S ?\<T ?AT WORKE/ NEI!R BY FOND 9S9UATION1 FLATT]Y1 NOR BY ANY ?REAT 4 4 40 ETC4 ,& HE UND]TAKES TO EXPLA9 ?IS S5SE ( DUTY1 OR MORAL CONSCI5CE1 0EXCLUSIVELY FROM ! VIEWPO9T ( NATURAL HI/ORY0--AN EXPLANATION1 HE ADDS1 :I* NO ,5GLI% WRIT] HAD HI!RTO ATTEMPT$ TO GIVE4 #b 

,?AT ! MORAL S5SE %\LD BE ACQUIR$ BY EA* 9DIVIDUAL SEP>ATELY1 DUR+ HIS LIFETIME1 HE NATURALLY CONSID]S 0AT LEA/ EXTREMELY IMPROBABLE 9 ! LI<T ( ! G5]AL !ORY ( EVOLUTION20 & HE D]IVES ?IS S5SE FROM ! SOCIAL FEEL+ :I* IS 9/9CTIVE OR 9NATE 9 ! L[] ANIMALS1 & PROBABLY 9 MAN AS WELL 7PP4 #a#e-#a#e#a74 ,! TRUE F\NDATION ( ALL MORAL FEEL+S ,D>W9 SEES 09 ! SOCIAL 9/9CTS :I* LEAD ! ANIMAL TO TAKE PLEASURE 9 ! SOCIETY ( ITS FELL[S1 TO FEEL A C]TA9 AM\NT ( SYMPA?Y ) !M1 & TO P]=M V>I\S S]VICES = !M02 SYMPA?Y BE+ UND]/OOD H]E 9 ITS EXACT S5SE--NOT AS A FEEL+ ( COMMIS]ATION OR 0LOVE10 BUT AS A 0FEEL+ ( COMRADE%IP0 OR 0MUTUAL S5SIBILITY10 9 ! MEAN+ ( CAPABILITY TO BE 9FLU5C$ BY ANO!R'S FEEL+S4 

,?IS BE+ ,D>W9'S FIR/ PROPOSITION1 HIS SECOND IS ?AT AS SOON AS ! M5TAL FACULTIES ( A SPECIES BECOME HI<LY DEVELOP$1 AS !Y >E 9 MAN1 ! SOCIAL 9/9CT WILL ALSO NECESS>ILY BE DEVELOP$4 ,TO LEAVE ?IS 9/9CT UNGRATIFI$ WILL ASSUR$LY BR+ ! 9DIVIDUAL TO A S5SE ( DISSATISFACTION1 OR EV5 MIS]Y1 :5EV] ! 9DIVIDUAL1 REASON+ AB\T HIS PA/ ACTIONS1 SEES ?AT 9 SOME ( !M 0! 5DUR+ & ALWAYS PRES5T SOCIAL 9/9CT HAD YIELD$ TO SOME O!R 9/9CT1 AT ! TIME /RONG]1 BUT NEI!R 5DUR+ NOR LEAV+ BEH9D IT A V]Y VIVID IMPRESSION40 

,= ,D>W9 ! MORAL S5SE IS ?US NOT ! MY/]I\S GIFT ( UNKN[N ORIG9 :I* IT WAS = ,KANT4 0,ANY ANIMAL :ATEV]10 HE SAYS1 05D[$ ) WELL-M>K$ SOCIAL 9/9CTS1 ! P>5TAL & FILIAL AFFECTIONS BE+ H]E 9CLUD$1 W\LD 9EVITABLY ACQUIRE A MORAL S5SE1 OR CONSCI5CE 7,KANT'S 'KN[L$GE ( DUTY'71 AS SOON AS ITS 9TELLECTUAL P[]S HAD BECOME AS WELL1 OR NE>LY AS WELL1 DEVELOP$ AS 9 MAN0 7*4 IV4 PP4 #a#d#i-#a#e74 

,TO !SE TWO FUNDAM5TAL PROPOSITIONS ,D>W9 ADDS TWO SECOND>Y ONES4 ,AFT] ! SPOK5 LANGUAGE HAD BE5 ACQUIR$1 SO ?AT ! WI%ES ( ! COMMUNITY C\LD BE EXPRESS$1 0! COMMON OP9ION H[ EA* MEMB] \<T TO ACT = ! PUBLIC GOOD W\LD NATURALLY BECOME1 9 A P>AM\NT DEGREE1 ! GUIDE ( ACTION40 ,H[EV]1 ! EFFECT ( PUBLIC APPROBATION & DISAPPROBATION DEP5DS 5TIRELY UPON ! DEVELOPM5T ( MUTUAL SYMPA?Y4 ,IT IS BECAUSE WE FEEL 9 SYMPA?Y ) O!RS ?AT WE APPRECIATE !IR OP9IONS2 & PUBLIC OP9ION ACTS 9 A MORAL DIRECTION ONLY :]E ! SOCIAL 9/9CT IS SUFFICI5TLY /RONGLY DEVELOP$4 ,! TRU? ( ?IS REM>K IS OBVI\S4 ,IT REFUTES ?OSE !ORIES ( ,M&EVILLE 7! AU?OR ( 0,! ,FABLE ( ! ,BEES07 & HIS MORE OR LESS \TSPOK5 EI<TE5?-C5TURY FOLL[]S1 :I* ATTEMPT$ TO REPRES5T MORALITY AS NO?+ BUT A SET ( CONV5TIONAL CU/OMS4 ,F9ALLY1 ,D>W9 M5TIONS ALSO HABIT AS A POT5T FACTOR = FRAM+ \R ATTITUDE T[>D O!RS4 ,IT /R5G!NS ! SOCIAL 9/9CT & MUTUAL SYMPA?Y1 AS WELL AS OB$I5CE TO ! JUDGM5T ( ! COMMUNITY4 

,HAV+ ?US /AT$ ! SUB/ANCE ( HIS VIEWS 9 !SE F\R PROPOSITIONS1 ,D>W9 DEVELOPS !M FUR!R4 ,HE EXAM9ES1 FIR/1 SOCIALITY 9 ANIMALS1 !IR LOVE ( SOCIETY1 & ! MIS]Y :I* EV]Y ONE ( !M FEELS IF IT IS LEFT ALONE2 !IR CONT9UAL SOCIAL 9T]C\RSE2 !IR MUTUAL W>N+S1 & ! S]VICES !Y R5D] EA* O!R 9 HUNT+ & = SELF-DEF5SE4 0,IT IS C]TA910 HE SAYS1 0?AT ASSOCIAT$ ANIMALS HAVE A FEEL+ ( LOVE = EA* O!R :I* IS NOT FELT BY NONSOCIAL ADULT ANIMALS40 ,!Y MAY NOT SYMPA?IZE MU* ) ONE ANO!R'S PLEASURES2 BUT CASES ( SYMPA?Y ) ONE ANO!R'S DI/RESS OR DANG] >E QUITE COMMON1 & ,D>W9 QUOTES A FEW ( ! MO/ /RIK+ 9/ANCES4 ,SOME ( !M1 SU* AS ,/ANSBURY'S BL9D PELICAN #c OR ! BL9D RAT1 BO? ( :I* W]E F$ BY !IR CONG5]S1 HAVE BECOME CLASSICAL BY ?IS TIME4 0,MOREOV]1 BESIDES LOVE & SYMPA?Y10 ,D>W9 CONT9UES1 0ANIMALS EXHIBIT O!R QUALITIES CONNECT$ ) SOCIAL 9/9CTS :I* 9 US W\LD BE CALL$ MORAL10 & HE GIVES A FEW EXAMPLES ( ! MORAL S5SE 9 DOGS & ELEPHANTS #d 

,G5]ALLY SPEAK+1 IT IS EVID5T ?AT EV]Y ACTION 9 COMMON--7& ) C]TA9 ANIMALS SU* ACTIONS >E QUITE COMMON3 ALL !IR LIFE CONSI/S ( SU* ACTIONS7--REQUIRES RE/RA9T ( SOME SORT4 ,H[EV]1 IT MU/ BE SAID ?AT ,D>W9 DID NOT ANALYZE ! SUBJECT ( SOCIALITY 9 ANIMALS & !IR 9CIPI5T MORAL FEEL+S TO ! EXT5T :I* IT DES]V$ 9 VIEW ( ! C5TRAL POSITION :I* IT OCCUPIES 9 HIS !ORY ( MORALITY4 

,CONSID]+ NEXT HUMAN MORALITY1 ,D>W9 REM>KS ?AT AL?\< MAN1 SU* AS HE N[ EXI/S1 HAS BUT FEW SOCIAL 9/9CTS1 HE NEV]!LESS IS A SOCIABLE BE+ :O MU/ HAVE RETA9$ FROM AN EXTREMELY REMOTE P]IOD SOME DEGREE ( 9/9CTIVE LOVE & SYMPA?Y = HIS FELL[S4 ,!SE FEEL+S ACT AS AN IMPULSIVE 9/9CT1 :I* IS ASSI/$ BY REASON1 EXP]I5CE1 & ! DESIRE ( APPROBATION4 0,?US10 HE CONCLUD$1 0! SOCIAL 9/9CTS1 :I* MU/ HAVE BE5 ACQUIR$ BY MAN 9 A V]Y RUDE /ATE1 & PROBABLY EV5 BY HIS APE-LIKE PROG5ITORS1 /ILL GIVE ! IMPULSE = SOME ( HIS BE/ ACTIONS40 ,! REMA9D] IS ! RESULT ( A /EADILY GR[+ 9TELLIG5CE & COLLECTIVE $UCATION4 

,IT IS EVID5T ?AT !SE VIEWS >E CORRECT ONLY IF WE >E READY TO RECOGNIZE ?AT ! 9TELLECTUAL FACULTIES ( ANIMALS DIFF] FROM ?OSE ( MAN 9 DEGREE1 BUT NOT 9 !IR ESS5CE4 ,BUT ?IS IS ADMITT$ N[ BY MO/ /UD5TS ( COMP>ATIVE PSY*OLOGY2 & ! ATTEMPTS :I* HAVE BE5 MADE LATELY TO E/ABLI% 0A GULF0 BETWE5 ! 9/9CTS & ! 9TELLECTUAL FACULTIES ( MAN & ?OSE ( ANIMALS HAVE NOT ATTA9$ !IR 5D4 #e ,H[EV]1 IT DOES NOT FOLL[ FROM ?IS RESEMBLANCE ?AT ! MORAL 9/9CTS DEVELOP$ 9 DIFF]5T SPECIES1 & SO MU* MORE 9 SPECIES BELONG+ TO TWO DIFF]5T CLASSES ( ANIMALS1 %\LD BE ID5TICAL4 ,IF WE COMP>E 9SECTS ) MAMMALS WE MU/ NEV] =GET ?AT ! L9ES ( !IR DEVELOPM5T HAVE DIV]G$ AT A V]Y E>LY P]IOD ( ANIMAL EVOLUTION4 ,! CONSEQU5CE WAS ?AT A DEEP PHYSIOLOGICAL DIFF]5TIATION BETWE5 SEP>ATE DIVISIONS ( ! SAME SPECIES 7WORK]S1 DRONES1 QUE5S7 TOOK PLACE ) ! ANTS1 ! BEES1 ! WASPS1 ETC41 CORRESPOND+ TO A P]MAN5T PHYSIOLOGICAL DIVISION ( LABOR 9 !IR SOCIETIES1 7OR MORE ACCURATELY1 DIVISION ( LABOR & A PHYSIOLOGICAL DIVISION 9 /RUCTURE74 ,!RE IS NO SU* DIVISION AMONG MAMMALS4 ,!RE=E IT IS H>DLY POSSIBLE = M5 TO JUDGE ! 0MORALITY0 ( ! WORK]-BEES :5 !Y KILL ! DRONES 9 !IR HIVE2 & ?IS IS :Y ! ILLU/RATION ( ,D>W9 TO ?IS EFFECT MET ) SO MU* HO/ILE CRITICISM FROM ! RELIGI\S CAMP4 ,SOCIETIES ( BEES1 WASPS1 & ANTS1 & ! SOCIETIES ( MAMMALS HAVE SO LONG AGO 5T]$ UPON !IR 9DEP5D5T PA?S ( DEVELOPM5T1 ?AT !Y HAVE LO/ MUTUAL UND]/&+ 9 MANY RESPECTS4 ,A SIMIL>1 ?\< NOT SO PRON\NC$ LACK ( MUTUAL UND]/&+ IS OBS]V$ ALSO BETWE5 HUMAN SOCIETIES 9 DIFF]5T /AGES ( DEVELOPM5T4 ,& YET ! MORAL CONCEPTIONS ( MAN & ! ACTIONS ( SOCIAL 9SECTS HAVE SO MU* 9 COMMON ?AT ! GREATE/ E?ICAL TEA*]S ( MANK9D DID NOT HESITATE TO RECOMM5D C]TA9 FEATURES ( ! LIFE ( ! ANTS & ! BEES = IMITATION BY MAN4 ,!IR DEVOTION TO ! GR\P IS C]TA9LY NOT SURPASS$ BY \RS2 &1 ON ! O!R H&1--TO SAY NO?+ ( \R W>S1 OR ( ! OCCASIONAL EXT]M9ATIONS ( RELIGI\S DISS5T]S & POLITICAL ADV]S>IES--! HUMAN CODE ( MORALITY HAS BE5 SUBJECT$ 9 ! C\RSE ( TIME TO DEEPE/ V>IATIONS & P]V]SIONS4 ,IT IS SUFFICI5T TO M5TION HUMAN SACRIFICES TO DEITY1 ! 0W\ND-=-W\ND & LIFE-=-LIFE0 PR9CIPLE ( ! ,DECALOGUE1 ! TORTURES & EXECUTIONS1--& TO COMP>E ?IS 0MORALITY0 ) ! PR(\ND RESPECT = EV]Y?+ ?AT LIVES PREA*$ BY ! ,BODHISATTVAS1 & ! =GIV5ESS ( ALL 9JURIES TAU<T BY ! E>LY ,*RI/IANS1 9 ORD] TO REALIZE ?AT MORAL PR9CIPLES1 LIKE EV]Y?+ ELSE1 >E SUBJECT TO 0DEVELOPM5T0 & AT TIMES TO P]V]SION4 ,WE >E ?US B\ND TO CONCLUDE ?AT :ILE ! DIFF]5CES BETWE5 ! MORALITY ( ! BEE & ?AT ( MAN >E DUE TO A DEEP PHYSIOLOGICAL DIV]G5CE1 ! /RIK+ SIMIL>ITIES BETWE5 ! TWO 9 O!R ESS5TIAL FEATURES PO9T TO A COMMUNITY ( ORIG94 

,?US ,D>W9 CAME TO ! CONCLUSION ?AT ! SOCIAL 9/9CT IS ! COMMON S\RCE \T ( :I* ALL MORALITY ORIG9ATES2 & HE ATTEMPTS TO GIVE A SCI5TIFIC DEF9ITION ( 9/9CT4 ,UN=TUNATELY1 SCI5TIFIC ANIMAL PSY*OLOGY IS /ILL 9 ITS 9FANCY1 & !RE=E IT IS EXTREMELY DIFFICULT TO DIS5TANGLE ! COMPLEX RELATIONS :I* EXI/ BETWE5 ! SOCIAL 9/9CT PROP]1 & ! P>5TAL1 FILIAL1 BRO!RLY 9/9CTS1 AS WELL AS SEV]AL O!R 9/9CTS & FACULTIES1 SU* AS MUTUAL SYMPA?Y1 ON ONE SIDE1 & REASON1 EXP]I5CE1 & A T5D5CY TO IMITATION ON ! O!R4 ,D>W9 F9ALLY REALIZ$ ?IS DIFFICULTY1 & !RE=E HE EXPRESS$ HIMSELF V]Y GU>D$LY4 ,! P>5TAL & FILIAL 9/9CTS1 HE SUGGE/$1 0APP>5TLY LIE AT ! BASE ( ! SOCIAL 9/9CTS02 & 9 ANO!R PLACE HE WROTE3--0,! FEEL+ ( PLEASURE 9 SOCIETY IS PROBABLY AN EXT5SION ( ! P>5TAL OR FILIAL AFFECTIONS1 S9CE ! SOCIAL 9/9CT SEEMS TO BE DEVELOP$ BY ! Y\NG REMA9+ = A LONG TIME ) !IR P>5TS40 

,?IS CAUTION WAS FULLY JU/IFI$1 BECAUSE 9 O!R PLACES ,D>W9 PO9T$ \T ?AT ! SOCIAL 9/9CT IS A SEP>ATE 9/9CT1 DIFF]5T FROM ! O!RS--AN 9/9CT :I* HAS BE5 DEVELOP$ BY NATURAL SELECTION = ITS [N SAKE1 AS IT WAS USEFUL = ! WELL-BE+ & ! PRES]VATION ( ! SPECIES4 ,IT IS SO FUNDAM5TAL ?AT :5 IT RUNS C\NT] TO ANO!R 9/9CT1 EV5 ONE SO /RONG AS ! ATTA*M5T ( ! P>5TS TO !IR (FSPR+1 IT (T5 TAKES ! UPP] H&4 ,BIRDS1 = EXAMPLE1 :5 ! TIME HAS COME = !IR AUTUMN MIGRATION1 WILL LEAVE BEH9D !IR T5D] Y\NG 7FROM ! SECOND HAT*+7 :I* >E NOT YET /RONG 5\< = A PROLONG$ FLI<T1 & WILL FOLL[ !IR COMRADES4 

,TO ?IS V]Y IMPORTANT FACT ,I MAY ALSO ADD ?AT ! SOCIAL 9/9CT IS /RONGLY DEVELOP$ ALSO 9 MANY L[] ANIMALS1 SU* AS ! L&CRABS1 & 9 C]TA9 FI%ES ) :OM IT C\LD H>DLY BE CONSID]$ AS AN EXT5SION ( ! FILIAL OR P>5TAL FEEL+S4 ,9 !SE CASES IT APPE>S RA!R AS AN EXT5SION ( ! BRO!RLY OR SI/]LY RELATIONS1 OR FEEL+S ( COMRADE%IP1 :I* PROBABLY DEVELOP EA* TIME ?AT A CONSID]ABLE NUMB] ( Y\NG CREATURES1 HAV+ BE5 HAT*$ AT A GIV5 PLACE & AT A GIV5 MOM5T1 79SECTS1 OR EV5 BIRDS ( DIFF]5T SPECIES7 CONT9UE TO LIVE TOGE!R-:E!R !Y >E ) !IR P>5TS OR NOT4 ,IT W\LD SEEM1 !RE=E1 MORE CORRECT TO CONSID] ! SOCIAL1 ! P>5TAL1 & ! COMRADELY 9/9CT AS CLOSELY CONNECT$ 9/9CTS1 ( :I* ! SOCIAL IS P]HAPS ! E>LI]1 & !RE=E ! /RONG]1 BUT !Y HAVE ALL BE5 DEVELOP+ TOGE!R 9 ! EVOLUTION ( ! ANIMAL WORLD4 ,!IR GR[? WAS1 ( C\RSE1 AID$ BY NATURAL SELECTION1 :I*1 AS SOON AS !Y COME 9TO CONFLICT1 KEEPS ! BALANCE BETWE5 !M = ! ULTIMATE GOOD ( ! SPECIES4 #f 

,! MO/ IMPORTANT PO9T 9 ! E?ICAL !ORY ( ,D>W9 IS1 ( C\RSE1 HIS EXPLANATION ( ! MORAL CONSCI5CE ( MAN & HIS S5SE ( DUTY & REMORSE ( CONSCI5CE4 ,?IS PO9T HAS ALWAYS BE5 ! /UMBL+ BLOCK ( ALL E?ICAL !ORIES4 ,KANT1 AS IS KN[N1 UTT]LY FAIL$1 9 HIS O!RWISE EXCELL5T WORK ON MORALITY1 TO EXPLA9 :Y HIS 0CATEGORICAL IMP]ATIVE0 %\LD BE OBEY$ AT ALL1 UNLESS SU* BE ! WILL ( A SUPREME P[]4 ,WE MAY ADMIT ?AT ,KANT'S 0MORAL LAW10 IF WE SLI<TLY ALT] ITS =MULA :ILE MA9TA9+ ITS SPIRIT1 IS A NECESS>Y CONCLUSION ( ! HUMAN REASON4 ,WE C]TA9LY OBJECT TO ! METAPHYSICAL =M :I* ,KANT GAVE IT2 BUT1 AFT] ALL1 ITS SUB/ANCE1 :I* ,KANT1 UN=TUNATELY1 DID NOT EXPRESS1 IS EQUITY1 JU/ICE4 ,&1 IF WE TRANSLATE ! METAPHYSICAL LANGUAGE ( ,KANT 9TO ! LANGUAGE ( 9DUCTIVE SCI5CE1 WE MAY F9D PO9TS ( CONTACT BETWE5 HIS CONCEPTION ( ! ORIG9 ( ! MORAL LAW & ! NATURALI/'S VIEW CONC]N+ ! ORIG9 ( ! MORAL S5SE4 ,BUT ?IS IS ONLY ONE-HALF ( ! PROBLEM4 ,SUPPOS+1 = ! SAKE ( >GUM5T1 ?AT ,KANTIAN 0PURE REASON10 9DEP5D5T ( ALL OBS]VATION1 ALL FEEL+1 & ALL 9/9CT1 BUT BY VIRTUE ( ITS 9H]5T PROP]TIES1--MU/ 9EVITABLY COME TO =MULATE A LAW ( JU/ICE SIMIL> TO ,KANT'S 0IMP]ATIVE10 & EV5 GRANT+ ?AT NO REASON+ BE+ C\LD EV] COME TO ANY O!R CONCLUSION1 BECAUSE SU* >E ! 9H]5T PROP]TIES ( REASON--GRANT+ ALL ?IS1 & FULLY RECOGNIZ+ ! ELEVAT+ *>ACT] ( ,KANT'S MORAL PHILOSOPHY1 ! GREAT QUE/ION ( ALL E?ICS REMA9S1 NEV]!LESS1 9 FULL3 0,:Y %\LD MAN OBEY ! MORAL LAW1 OR PR9CIPLE1 =MULAT$ BY HIS REASON80 ,OR1 AT LEA/1 0,:5CE COMES ?AT FEEL+ ( OBLIGATION ( :I* M5 >E CONSCI\S80 

,SEV]AL CRITICS ( ,KANT'S E?ICAL PHILOSOPHY HAVE ALREADY PO9T$ \T ?AT IT LEFT ?IS GREAT FUNDAM5TAL QUE/ION UNSOLV$4 ,BUT !Y MI<T HAVE ADD$ ALSO ?AT ,KANT HIMSELF RECOGNIZ$ HIS 9ABILITY TO SOLVE IT4 ,AFT] HAV+ ?\<T 9T5SELY UPON ?IS SUBJECT1 & WRITT5 AB\T IT = F\R YE>S1 HE ACKN[L$G$ 9 HIS BOOK1--= SOME REASON G5]ALLY NEGLECT$--0,PHILOSOPHICAL ,!ORY ( ,RELIGION0 7,P>T #a41 0,( ! ,RADICAL ,EVIL ( ,HUMAN ,NATURE10 PUBLI%$ 9 #a#g#i#b7 ?AT HE WAS UNABLE TO F9D ! EXPLANATION ( ! ORIG9 ( ! MORAL LAW4 ,9 FACT1 HE GAVE UP ! :OLE PROBLEM BY RECOGNIZ+ 0! 9COMPREH5SIBILITY ( ?IS CAPACITY1 A CAPACITY :I* PO9TS TO A DIV9E ORIG940 ,?IS V]Y 9COMPREH5SIBILITY1 HE WROTE1 MU/ R\SE MAN'S SPIRIT TO 5?USIASM & GIVE HIM /R5G? = ANY SACRIFICES :I* REG>D = HIS DUTY MAY IMPOSE UPON HIM4#g ,SU* A DECISION1 AFT] F\R YE>S ( M$ITATION1 IS EQUIVAL5T TO A COMPLETE AB&ON+ ( ?IS PROBLEM BY PHILOSOPHY1 & ! DELIV]+ ( IT 9TO ! H&S ( RELIGION4 

,9TUITIVE PHILOSOPHY HAV+ ?US ACKN[L$G$ ITS 9CAPACITY TO SOLVE ! PROBLEM1 LET US SEE H[ ,D>W9 SOLV$ IT FROM ! PO9T ( VIEW ( ! NATURALI/4 ,H]E IS1 HE SAID1 A MAN :O HAS YIELD$ TO ! S5SE ( SELF-PRES]VATION1 & HAS NOT RISK$ HIS LIFE TO SAVE ?AT ( A FELL[-CREATURE2 OR1 HE HAS /OL5 FOOD FROM HUNG]4 ,9 BO? CASES HE HAS OBEY$ A QUITE NATURAL 9/9CT1 & ! QUE/ION IS -,:Y DOES HE FEEL ILL AT EASE8 ,:Y DOES HE N[ ?9K ?AT HE \<T TO HAVE OBEY$ SOME O!R 9/9CT1 & ACT$ DIFF]5TLY8 ,BECAUSE1 ,D>W9 REPLIES1 9 HUMAN NATURE 0! MORE 5DUR+ SOCIAL 9/9CTS CONQU] ! LESS P]SI/5T 9/9CTS40 ,MORAL CONSCI5CE1 CONT9UES ,D>W91 HAS ALWAYS A RETROSPECTIVE *>ACT]2 IT SPEAKS 9 US :5 WE ?9K ( \R PA/ ACTIONS2 & IT IS ! RESULT ( A /RUGGLE 9 :I* ! LESS P]SI/5T1 ! LESS P]MAN5T 9DIVIDUAL 9/9CT YIELDS BE=E ! MORE 5DUR+ SOCIAL 9/9CT4 ,) ?OSE ANIMALS :I* ALWAYS LIVE 9 SOCIETIES 0! SOCIAL 9/9CTS >E EV] PRES5T & P]SI/5T40 ,SU* ANIMALS >E ALWAYS READY TO JO9 9 ! DEF5SE ( ! GR\P & TO AID EA* O!R 9 DIFF]5T WAYS4 ,!Y FEEL MIS]ABLE IF !Y >E SEP>AT$ FROM ! O!RS4 ,& IT IS ! SAME ) MAN4 0,A MAN :O POSSESS$ NO TRACE ( SU* 9/9CTS W\LD BE A MON/]40 

,ON ! O!R H&1 ! MAN'S DESIRE TO SATISFY HIS HUNG] OR LET LOOSE HIS ANG]1 OR TO ESCAPE DANG]1 OR TO APPROPRIATE SOMEBODY'S POSSESSIONS1 IS 9 ITS V]Y NATURE TEMPOR>Y4 ,ITS SATISFACTION IS ALWAYS WEAK] ?AN ! DESIRE "9SELF4 ,& :5 WE ?9K ( IT 9 ! PA/1 WE CANNOT REVIVE IT ) ! SAME 9T5SITY ?AT IT HAD BE=E ITS SATISFACTION4 ,CONSEQU5TLY1 IF A MAN1 ) A VIEW ( SATISFY+ SU* A DESIRE1 HAS ACT$ CONTR>Y TO HIS SOCIAL 9/9CT1 & AFT]W>DS REFLECTS UPON HIS ACTION-:I* WE DO CONT9UALLY-HE WILL BE DRIV5 0TO MAKE A COMP>ISON BETWE5 ! IMPRESSIONS ( PA/ HUNG]1 V5GEANCE SATISFI$1 OR DANG] %UNN$ AT O!R M5'S CO/1 ) ! ALMO/ EV]-PRES5T 9/9CT ( SYMPA?Y1 & ) HIS E>LY KN[L$GE ( :AT O!RS CONSID] AS PRAISEWOR?Y OR BLAMABLE40 ,& ONCE HE HAS MADE ?IS COMP>ISON HE WILL FEEL 0AS IF HE HAD BE5 BALK$ 9 FOLL[+ A PRES5T 9/9CT OR HABIT1 & ?IS ) ALL ANIMALS CAUSES DISSATISFACTION1 & 9 ! CASE ( MAN1 EV5 MIS]Y40 

,& !N ,D>W9 %[S H[ ! PROMPT+S ( SU* A CONSCI5CE1 :I* ALWAYS 0LOOKS BACKW>DS1 & S]VES AS A GUIDE = ! FUTURE10 MAY 9 ! CASE ( MAN TAKE ! ASPECT ( %AME1 REGRET1 REP5TANCE1 OR EV5 VIOL5T REMORSE1 IF ! FEEL+ BE /R5G!N$ BY REFLECTION AB\T JUDGM5T ( ?OSE ) :OM MAN FEELS 9 SYMPA?Y4 ,GRADUALLY1 HABIT WILL 9EVITABLY 9CREASE ! P[] ( ?IS CONSCI5CE UPON MAN'S ACTIONS1 :ILE AT ! SAME TIME IT WILL T5D TO H>MONIZE MORE & MORE ! DESIRES & PASSIONS ( ! 9DIVIDUAL ) HIS SOCIAL SYMPA?IES & 9/9CTS4 #h ,! PR9CIPAL DIFFICULTY1 COMMON TO ALL SY/EMS ( E?ICAL PHILOSOPHY1 IS TO 9T]PRET ! FIR/ G]MS ( ! S5SE ( DUTY1 & TO EXPLA9 :Y ! HUMAN M9D MU/ 9EVITABLY COME TO ! CONCEPTION ( DUTY4 ,) ?IS EXPLA9$1 ! ACCUMULAT$ EXP]I5CE ( ! COMMUNITY & ITS COLLECTIVE 9TELLIG5CE1 ACC\NT = ! RE/4 

,WE HAVE ?US1 9 ,D>W9 = ! FIR/ TIME1 AN EXPLANATION ( ! S5SE ( DUTY ON A NATURALI/IC BASIS4 ,TRUE ?AT IT RUNS C\NT] TO ! IDEAS ?AT >E CURR5T AB\T ANIMAL & HUMAN NATURE2 BUT IT IS CORRECT4 ,NE>LY ALL E?ICAL WRIT]S HAVE HI!RTO />T$ ) ! UNPROV$ PO/ULATE ?AT ! /RONGE/ ( ALL ! 9/9CTS ( MAN1 & MORE SO ( ANIMALS1 IS ! SELF-PRES]VATION 9/9CT1 :I*1 [+ TO A C]TA9 LOOS5ESS ( !IR T]M9OLOGY1 !Y HAVE ID5TIFI$ ) SELF-ASS]TION1 OR EGOISM PROP]LY SPEAK+4 ,!Y CONCEIV$ ?IS 9/9CT AS 9CLUD+1 ON ! ONE H&1 SU* PRIM>Y IMPULSES AS SELF-DEF5SE1 SELF-PRES]VATION1 & ! V]Y ACT ( SATISFY+ HUNG]1 &1 ON ! O!R H&1 SU* D]IVATIVE FEEL+S AS ! PASSION = DOM9ATION1 GRE$1 HATR$1 ! DESIRE = REV5GE1 & SO ON4 ,?IS MIXTURE1 ?IS HODGE-PODGE ( 9/9CTS & FEEL+S AMONG ANIMALS & MOD]N CIVILIZ$ M51 !Y REPRES5T$ AS AN ALL-P]VAD+ & ALL-P[]FUL =CE1 :I* F9DS NO OPPOSITION 9 ANIMAL & HUMAN NATURE1 EXCEPT+ 9 A C]TA9 FEEL+ ( B5EVOL5CE OR PITY4 ,BUT ONCE ! NATURE ( ALL ANIMALS & ( MAN WAS RECOGNIZ$ AS SU*1 ! ONLY OBVI\S C\RSE WAS TO LAY A SPECIAL /RESS UPON ! S(T5+ 9FLU5CE ( ?OSE MORAL TEA*]S :O APPEAL$ TO M]CY1 & :O BORR[$ ! SPIRIT ( !IR TEA*+S FROM A WORLD ?AT LIES \TSIDE NATURE-\TSIDE & ABOVE ! WORLD :I* IS ACCESSIBLE TO \R S5SES4 ,& !Y 5DEAVOR$ TO /R5G!N ! 9FLU5CES ( !IR TEA*+S BY ! SUPPORT ( A SUP]NATURAL P[]4 ,IF ONE REFUS$ TO ACCEPT ?IS VIEW1 AS DID ,HOBBES1 = EXAMPLE1 ! ONLY ALT]NATIVE WAS TO ATTRIBUTE A SPECIAL IMPORTANCE TO ! CO]CIVE ACTION ( ! ,/ATE1 9SPIR$ BY LAWGIV]S ( EXTRAORD9>Y G5IUS- :I* MEANT1 ( C\RSE1 M]ELY TO CR$IT ) ! POSSESSION ( ! 0TRU?0 NOT ! RELIGI\S PREA*] BUT ! LAWMAK]4 

,BEG9N+ ) ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 ! F\ND]S ( E?ICAL S*OOLS1 = ! MO/ P>T IGNORANT ( ,NATURE-TO ! /UDY ( :I* !Y PREF]R$ METAPHYSICS1-HAD REPRES5T$ ! SELF-ASS]TIVE 9/9CTS ( ! 9DIVIDUAL AS ! PRIM>Y CONDITION ( ! EXI/5CE ( ANIMALS1 AS WELL AS ( MAN4 ,TO OBEY ! PROMPT+S ( !SE 9/9CTS WAS CONSID]$ AS ! FUNDAM5TAL LAW ( NATURE2 TO DISOBEY-W\LD LEAD TO SURE DEFEAT & TO ! ULTIMATE DISAPPE>ANCE ( ! SPECIES4 ,!RE=E1 TO COMBAT !SE EGOTI/IC PROMPT+S WAS POSSIBLE ONLY IF MAN CALL$ TO HIS AID ! SUP]NATURAL =CES4 ,! TRIUMPH ( MORAL PR9CIPLES WAS ?US REPRES5T$ AS A TRIUMPH ( MAN OV] NATURE1 :I* HE MAY HOPE TO A*IEVE ONLY ) AN AID FROM )\T1 COM+ AS A REW>D = HIS GOOD 9T5TIONS4 

,WE W]E TOLD1 = 9/ANCE1 ?AT !RE IS NO GREAT] VIRTUE1 NO GREAT] TRIUMPH ( ! SPIRITUAL OV] ! PHYSICAL ?AN SELF-SACRIFICE = ! WELF>E ( \R FELL[-M54 ,BUT ! FACT IS ?AT SELF-SACRIFICE 9 ! 9T]E/ ( AN ANTS' NE/1 OR = ! SAFETY ( A GR\P ( BIRDS1 A H]D ( ANTELOPES1 OR A B& ( MONKEYS1 IS A ZOOLOGICAL FACT ( EV]YDAY OCCURR5CE 9 ,NATURE-A FACT = :I* HUNDR$S UPON HUNDR$S ( ANIMAL SPECIES REQUIRE NO?+ ELSE BUT NATURALLY EVOLV$ SYMPA?Y ) !IR FELL[-CREATURES1 ! CON/ANT PRACTICE ( MUTUAL AID & ! CONSCI\SNESS ( VITAL 5]GY4 ,D>W91 :O KNEW NATURE1 HAD ! C\RAGE BOLDLY TO ASS]T ?AT ( ! TWO 9/9CTS-! SOCIAL & ! 9DIVIDUAL-IT IS ! SOCIAL 9/9CT :I* IS ! /RONG]1 ! MORE P]SI/5T1 & ! MORE P]MAN5TLY PRES5T4 ,& HE WAS UNQUE/IONABLY RI<T4 ,ALL NATURALI/S :O HAVE /UDI$ ANIMAL LIFE 9 NATURE1 ESPECIALLY ON ! /ILL SP>SELY POPULAT$ CONT95TS1 W\LD RANGE !MSELVES UNCONDITIONALLY ON ,D>W9'S SIDE4 ,! 9/9CT ( MUTUAL AID P]VADES ! ANIMAL WORLD1 BECAUSE NATURAL SELECTION WORKS = MA9TA9+ & FUR!R DEVELOP+ IT1 & PITILESSLY DE/ROYS ?OSE SPECIES 9 :I* IT BECOMES = SOME REASON WEAK5$4 ,9 ! GREAT /RUGGLE = LIFE :I* EV]Y ANIMAL SPECIES C>RIES ON AGA9/ ! HO/ILE AG5CIES ( CLIMATE1 SURR\ND+S1 & NATURAL 5EMIES1 BIG & SMALL1 ?OSE SPECIES :I* MO/ CONSI/5TLY C>RY \T ! PR9CIPLE ( MUTUAL SUPPORT HAVE ! BE/ *ANCE TO SURVIVE1 :ILE ! O!RS DIE \T4 ,& ! SAME PR9CIPLE IS CONFIRM$ BY ! HI/ORY ( MANK9D4 

,IT IS MO/ REM>KABLE ?AT 9 REPRES5T+ ! SOCIAL 9/9CT UND] ?IS ASPECT WE RETURN1 9 FACT1 TO :AT ,BACON1 ! GREAT F\ND] ( 9DUCTIVE SCI5CE1 HAD ALREADY P]CEIV$4 ,9 HIS GREAT WORK1 '^*LN/AURATIO ,MAGNA0 7,! ,GREAT ,REVIVAL ( ! ,SCI5CES71 HE WROTE- 

,ALL ?+S >E 5DU$ ) AN APPETITE = TWO K9DS (GOOD - ! ONE AS A ?+ IS A :OLE 9 ITSELF1 ! O!R AS IT IS A P>T ( SOME GREAT] :OLE2 & ?IS LATT] IS MORE WOR?Y & MORE P[]FUL ?AN ! O!R1 AS IT T5DS TO ! CONS]VATION ( A MORE AMPLE =M4 ,! FIR/ MAY BE CALL$9DIVIDUAL1 OR SELF-GOOD1 & ! LATT]1 GOOD ( COMMUNION4444 ,& ?US IT G5]ALLY HAPP5S ?AT ! CONS]VATION ( ! MORE G5]AL =M REGULATES ! APPETITES40 #i 

,9 ANO!R PLACE HE RETURNS TO ! SAME IDEA4 ,HE SPEAKS ( 0,TWO APPETITES 79/9CTS7 ( ! CREATURES03 7#a7 ?AT ( SELF-PRES]VATION & DEF5SE1 & 7#b7 ?AT ( MULTIPLY+ & PROPAGAT+1 & HE ADDS3 0,! LATT]1 :I* IS ACTIVE1 & SEEMS /RONG] & MORE WOR?Y ?AN ! =M]1 :I* IS PASSIVE40 ,IT MAY BE ASK$1 ( C\RSE1 :E!R SU* A CONCEPTION IS CONSI/5T ) ! !ORY ( NATURAL SELECTION1 ACCORD+ TO :I* /RUGGLE = LIFE1 )9 ! SPECIES1 WAS CONSID]$ A NECESS>Y CONDITION = ! APPE>ANCE ( NEW SPECIES1 & = EVOLUTION 9 G5]AL4 

,HAV+ ALREADY DISCUSS$ ?IS QUE/ION 9 DETAIL 9 MY 0,MUTUAL ,AID10 ,I WILL NOT 5T] 9TO ! MATT] H]E1 & WILL ONLY ADD ! FOLL[+ REM>K4 ,! FIR/ FEW YE>S AFT] ! APPE>ANCE ( ,D>W9'S 0,ORIG9 ( ,SPECIES01 WE W]E ALL 9CL9$ TO BELIEVE ?AT AN ACUTE /RUGGLE = ! MEANS ( EXI/5CE BETWE5 ! MEMB]S ( ! SAME SPECIES WAS NECESS>Y = ACC5TUAT+ ! V>IATIONS1 & = ! BR++ 9TO EXI/5CE ( ! NEW SUB-SPECIES & SPECIES4 ,MY OBS]VATIONS ( NATURE 9 ,SIB]IA1 H[EV]1 FIR/ 5G5D]$ 9 ME A D\BT AS TO ! EXI/5CE ( SU* A KE5 /RUGGLE )9 ! SPECIES2 !Y %[$1 ON ! CONTR>Y1 ! TREM5D\S IMPORTANCE ( MUTUAL AID 9 TIMES ( MIGRATIONS ( ANIMALS & = ! PRES]VATION ( ! SPECIES 9 G5]AL4 ,BUT AS ,BIOLOGY W5T DEEP] & DEEP] 9TO ! SPECIES ( LIV+ NATURE1 & GREW ACQUA9T$ ) ! PH5OM5ON ( ! DIRECT 9FLU5CE ( ! SURR\ND+S = PRODUC+ V>IATION 9 A DEF9ITE DIRECTION1 ESPECIALLY 9 CASES :5 PORTIONS ( ! SPECIES BECOME SEP>AT$ FROM ! MA9 BODY 9 CONSEQU5CE ( !IR MIGRATIONS1 IT WAS POSSIBLE TO UND]/& 0/RUGGLE = LIFE0 9 A MU* WID] & DEEP] S5SE4 ,BIOLOGI/S HAD TO ACKN[L$GE ?AT GR\PS ( ANIMALS FREQU5TLY ACT AS A :OLE1 C>RY+ ON ! /RUGGLE AGA9/ ADV]SE CONDITIONS1 OR AGA9/ SOME SU* 5EMY AS A K9DR$ SPECIES1 BY MEANS ( MUTUAL SUPPORT )9 ! GR\P4 ,9 ?IS MANN] HABITS >E ACQUIR$ :I* R$UCE ! /RUGGLE )9 ! SPECIES :ILE !Y LEAD AT ! SAME TIME TO A HI<] DEVELOPM5T ( 9TELLIG5CE AMONG ?OSE :O PRACTICE MUTUAL AID4 ,NATURE AB\NDS 9 SU* EXAMPLES1 & 9 EA* CLASS ( ANIMALS ! SPECIES ON ! HI<E/ /AGE ( DEVELOPM5T >E ?OSE ?AT >E MO/ SOCIAL4 ,MUTUAL ,AID )9 ! SPECIES ?US REPRES5TS 7AS WAS ALREADY BRIEFLY 9DICAT$ BY ,KESSL]7 #a ! PR9CIPAL FACTOR1 ! PR9CIPAL ACTIVE AG5CY 9 ?AT :I* WE MAY CALL EVOLUTION4 

,NATURE HAS ?US TO BE RECOGNIZ$ AS ! FIR/ E?ICAL TEA*] ( MAN4 ,! SOCIAL 9/9CT1 9NATE 9 M5 AS WELL AS 9 ALL ! SOCIAL ANIMALS1-?IS IS ! ORIG9 ( ALL E?ICAL CONCEPTIONS & ALL ! SUBSEQU5T DEVELOPM5T ( MORALITY4 

,! />T+ PO9T= A /UDY ( E?ICS WAS SET BY ,D>W91 ?REE HUNDR$ YE>S AFT] ! FIR/ATTEMPTS 9 ?IS DIRECTION W]E MADE BY ,BACON1 & P>TLY BY ,SP9OZA & ,GOE!4 #aa ,) ! SOCIAL 9/9CT AS A BASIS = ! FUR!R DEVELOPM5T ( MORAL FEEL+S1 IT BECAME POSSIBLE1 AFT] HAV+ FUR!R /R5G!N$ ?AT BASIS ) FACTS1 TO BUILD UPON IT ! :OLE /RUCTURE ( E?ICS4 ,SU* A WORK1 H[EV]1 HAS NOT YET BE5 C>RI$ \T4 ,?OSE EVOLUTIONI/S :O T\*$ UPON ! QUE/ION ( MORALITY MO/LY FOLL[$1 = ONE REASON OR ANO!R1 ! L9ES ( PRE-,D>W9IAN & PRE-,LAM>CKIAN E?ICAL ?\<T1 BUT NOT ?OSE :I* W]E 9DICAT$ P]HAPS TOO BRIEFLY-9 0,! ,DESC5T ( ,MAN40 

,?IS APPLIES ALSO TO ,H]B]T ,SP5C]4 ,)\T GO+ 9TO A DISCUSSION ( HIS E?ICS1 7?IS WILL BE DONE ELSE:]E71 ,I %ALL SIMPLY REM>K ?AT ! E?ICAL PHILOSOPHY ( ,SP5C] WAS CON/RUCT$ ON A DIFF]5T PLAN4 ,! E?ICAL & SOCIOLOGICAL PORTIONS (4 H@9 0,SYN!TIC ,PHILOSOPHY0 W]E WRITT5 LONG BE=E ,D>W9'S ESSAY ON ! MORAL S5SE1 UND] ! 9FLU5CE1 P>TLY ( ,AUGU/E ,COMTE1 & P>TLY ( ,B5?AM'S UTILIT>IANISM & ! EI<TE5?-C5TURY S5SUALI/S4 #ab 

,IT IS ONLY 9 ! FIR/ *APT]S ( 0,JU/ICE10 7PUBLI%$ 9 ! 0,N9ETE5? ,C5TURY0 9 ,M>* & ,APRIL #a#h#i71 ?AT WE F9D 9 ,SP5C]'S WORK A REF]5CE TO 0,ANIMAL ,E?ICS0 & 0SUB-HUMAN JU/ICE10 TO :I* ,D>W9 HAS ATTRIBUT$ SU* IMPORTANCE = ! DEVELOPM5T ( ! MORAL S5SE 9 MAN4 ,IT IS 9T]E/+ TO NOTE ?AT ?IS REF]5CE HAS NO CONNECTION ) ! RE/ ( ,SP5C]'S E?ICS1 BECAUSE HE DOES NOT CONSID] PRIMITIVE M5 AS SOCIAL BE+S :OSE SOCIETIES >E A CONT9UATION ( ! ANIMAL CLANS & TRIBES4 ,REMA9+ TRUE TO ,HOBBES1 HE CONSID]S !M LOOSE AGGREGATIONS ( 9DIVIDUALS :O >E /RANG]S TO ONE ANO!R1 CONT9UALLY FI<T+ & QU>REL+1 & EM]G+ FROM ?IS *AOTIC /ATE ONLY AFT] SOME SUP]IOR MAN1 TAK+ P[] 9TO HIS H&S1 ORGANIZES SOCIAL LIFE4 

,! *APT] ON ANIMAL E?ICS1 ADD$ LAT] BY ,SP5C]1 IS ?US A SUP]/RUCTURE ON HIS G5]AL E?ICAL SY/EM1 & HE DID NOT EXPLA9 :Y HE DEEM$ IT NECESS>Y TO MODIFY HIS =M] VIEWS ON ?IS PO9T4 ,AT ANY RATE1 HE DOES NOT REPRES5T ! MORAL S5SE ( MAN AS A FUR!R DEVELOPM5T ( ! FEEL+S ( SOCIALITY :I* EXI/$ AMONG HIS REMOTE/ PRE-HUMAN ANCE/ORS4 ,ACCORD+ TO ,SP5C]1 IT MADE ITS APPE>ANCE AT A MU* LAT] EPO*1 ORIG9AT+ FROM ?OSE RE/RA9TS :I* W]E IMPOS$ UPON M5 BY !IR POLITICAL1 SOCIAL1 & RELIGI\S AU?ORITIES 70,DATA ( ,E?ICS10 SS #d#e74 ,! S5SE ( DUTY1 AS ,BA9 HAD SUGGE/$ AFT] ,HOBBES1 IS A PRODUCT1 OR RA!R 0A REM9ISC5CE10 ( ! CO]CION :I* WAS EX]CIS$ AT ! E>LY /AGES ( MANK9D BY ! FIR/1 TEMPOR>Y *IEFS4 

,?IS SUPPOSITION-:I*1 BY ! WAY1 IT W\LD BE DIFFICULT TO SUPPORT BY MOD]N 9VE/IGATION-PUTS ITS /AMP UPON ALL ! FUR!R DEVELOPM5TS ( ,SP5C]'S E?ICS4 ,HE DIVIDES ! HI/ORY ( MANK9D 9TO TWO /AGES3 ! 0MILITANT10 :I* IS /ILL PREVAL5T1 & ! 09DU/RIAL10 :I* IS BE+ SL[LY U%]$ 9 AT ! PRES5T TIME1 & EA* ( !M REQUIRES ITS [N SPECIAL MORALITY4 ,9 ! MILITANT /AGE1 CO]CION WAS MORE ?AN NECESS>Y3 IT WAS ! V]Y CONDITION ( PROGRESS4 ,IT WAS ALSO NECESS>Y DUR+ ?IS /AGE ?AT ! 9DIVIDUAL %\LD BE SACRIFIC$ TO ! COMMUNITY1 & ?AT A CORRESPOND+ MORAL CODE %\LD BE ELABORAT$4 ,& ?IS NECESSITY ( CO]CION & SACRIFICE ( ! 9DIVIDUAL MU/ CONT9UE TO EXI/ SO LONG AS ! 9DU/RIAL ,/ATE HAS NOT 5TIRELY TAK5 ! PLACE ( ! MILITANT ,/ATE4 ,TWO DIFF]5T K9DS ( E?ICS1 ADAPT$ TO !SE TWO DIFF]5T ,/ATES1 >E ?US ADMITT$ 70,DATA10 SS #d@9#e71 & SU* AN ADMISSION LEADS ,SP5C] TO V>I\S O!R CONCLUSIONS C2 :I* /& OR FALL ) ! ORIG9AL PREMISE4 

,MORAL SCI5CE APPE>S1 !RE=E1 AS ! SE>* = A COMPROMISE BETWE5 A CODE ( 5MITY & A CODE ( AMITY-BETWE5 EQUALITY & 9EQUALITY 7SS #h#e74 ,& AS !RE IS NO WAY \T ( ?AT CONFLICT-BECAUSE ! COM+ ( ! 9DU/RIAL /ATE WILL ONLY BE POSSIBLE AFT] ! CESSATION ( ITS CONFLICT ) ! MILITANT /ATE1-NO?+ CAN BE DONE = ! TIME BE+ SAVE TO 9TRODUCE 9TO HUMAN RELATIONS A C]TA9 AM\NT ( 0B5EVOL5CE0 :I* CAN ALLEVIATE SOME:AT ! MOD]N SY/EM BAS$ ON 9DIVIDUALI/IC PR9CIPLES4 ,!RE=E ALL HIS ATTEMPTS TO E/ABLI% SCI5TIFICALLY ! FUNDAM5TAL PR9CIPLES ( MORALITY FAIL1 & HE F9ALLY COMES TO ! UNEXPECT$ CONCLUSION ?AT ALL ! MORAL SY/EMS1 PHILOSOPHICAL & RELIGI\S1 COMPLETE EA* O!R4 ,BUT ,D>W9'S IDEA WAS QUITE ! CONTR>Y3 HE MA9TA9$ ?AT ! COMMON /OCK \T ( :I* ALL SY/EMS & TEA*+S ( MORALITY1 9CLUD+ ! E?ICAL PORTIONS ( ! DIFF]5T RELIGIONS1 HAVE ORIG9AT$1 WAS ! SOCIALITY1 ! P[] ( ! SOCIAL 9/9CT1 ?AT MANIFE/S ITSELF EV5 9 ! ANIMAL WORLD & MU* MORE C]TA9LY AMONG ! MO/ PRIMITIVE SAVAGES4 ,SP5C]1 LIKE ,HUXLEY1 VACILLATES BETWE5 ! !ORIES ( CO]CION1 UTILIT>IANISM1 & RELIGION1 UNABLE TO F9D \TSIDE ( !M ! S\RCE ( MORALITY4 

,IT MAY BE ADD$1 9 CONCLUSION1 ?AT AL?\< ,SP5C]'S CONCEPTION ( ! /RUGGLE BETWE5 EGOISM & ALTRUISM BE>S A GREAT RESEMBLANCE TO ,COMTE'S TREATM5T ( ?IS SUBJECT1 ! VIEWS ( ! ,POSITIVI/ PHILOSOPH] CONC]N+ ! SOCIAL 9/9CT-NOT)/&+ ALL HIS OPPOSITION TO ! TRANSMUTATION ( ! SPECIES-W]E NE>] TO ! VIEWS ( ,D>W9 ?AN TO ?OSE ( ,SP5C]4 ,DISCUSS+ ! RELATIVE IMPORTANCE ( ! TWO SETS ( 9/9CTS1 SOCIAL & 9DIVIDUAL1 ,COMTE DID NOT HESITATE TO RECOGNIZE ! PREPOND]ANCE ( ! =M]4 ,HE EV5 SAW 9 ! RECOGNITION ( ?IS PREPOND]ANCE ( ! SOCIAL 9/9CT ! DI/9CTIVE FEATURE ( A MORAL PHILOSOPHY :I* HAD BROK5 ) !OLOGY & METAPHYSICS1 BUT HE DID NOT C>RY ?IS ASS]TION TO ITS LOGICAL CONCLUSION4 #ac 

,AS ALREADY SAID1 NONE ( ! IMM$IATE FOLL[]S ( ,D>W9 ATTEMPT$ TO DEVELOP FUR!R HIS E?ICAL PHILOSOPHY4 ,GEORGE ,ROMANES PROBABLY W\LD HAVE MADE AN EXCEPTION1 BECAUSE HE PROPOS$1 AFT] HE HAD /UDI$ ANIMAL 9TELLIG5CE1 TO DISCUSS ANIMAL E?ICS & ! PROBABLE G5ESIS ( ! MORAL S5SE2 = :I* PURPOSE HE COLLECT$ MU* MAT]IAL4 #ad ,UN=TUNATELY1 WE LO/ HIM BE=E HE HAD SUFFICI5TLY ADVANC$ 9 HIS WORK4 

,AS TO ! O!R EVOLUTIONI/S1 !Y EI!R ADOPT$ VIEWS 9 E?ICS V]Y DIFF]5T FROM ?OSE ( ,D>W9--AS DID ,HUXLEY 9 HIS LECTURE1 0,EVOLUTION & ,E?ICS10--OR !Y WORK$ ON QUITE 9DEP5D5T L9ES1 AFT] HAV+ TAK5 ! C5TRAL IDEA ( EVOLUTION AS A BASIS4 ,SU* IS ! MORAL PHILOSOPHY ( ,GUYAU1 #ae :I* DEALS MA9LY ) ! HI<] ASPECTS ( MORALITY )\T DISCUSS+ ! E?ICS ( ANIMALS4 #af ,?IS IS :Y ,I ?\<T IT NECESS>Y TO DISCUSS ! SUBJECT ANEW 9 A WORK1 0,MUTUAL ,AID3 A ,FACTOR ( ,EVOLUTION10 9 :I* ! EFFECT ( ! 9/9CTS & HABITS ( MUTUAL AID WAS ANALYZ$ AS ONE ( ! FACTORS ( PROGRESSIVE EVOLUTION4 ,N[ ! SAME SOCIAL HABITS HAVE TO BE ANALYZ$ FROM ! TWO-FOLD PO9T ( VIEW3 ( ! 9H]IT$ E?ICAL T5D5CIES1 & ! E?ICAL LESSONS :I* \R PRIMITIVE ANCE/ORS GA9$ FROM ! OBS]VATION ( NATURE2 ,I MU/1 !RE=E1 ASK ! READ]'S 9DULG5CE IF ,I BRIEFLY ALLUDE H]E TO SOME FACTS ALREADY M5TION$ 9 MY PREVI\S WORK1 0,MUTUAL ,AID10 ) ! OBJECT ( %[+ !IR E?ICAL SIGNIFICANCE4 ,HAV+ DISCUSS$ MUTUAL AID AS ! WEAPON :I* ! SPECIES USES 9 ITS /RUGGLE = EXI/5CE1 I4E41 09 ! ASPECT :I* IS ( SPECIAL 9T]E/ TO ! NATURALI/10 ,I %ALL N[ BRIEFLY CONSID] IT AS A PRIM>Y S\RCE ( ! MORAL S5SE 9 MAN1 I4E41 9 ! ASPECT :I* IS ( SPECIAL 9T]E/ TO E?ICAL PHILOSOPHY4 

,PRIMITIVE MAN LIV$ 9 CLOSE 9TIMACY ) ! ANIMALS4 ,) SOME ( !M HE PROBABLY %>$ HIS %ELT] UND] ! OV]HANG+ ROCKS1 9 CREVICES1 & OCCASIONALLY 9 ! CAVES2 V]Y (T5 HE %>$ ) !M FOOD ALSO4 ,NOT MORE ?AN AB\T ONE HUNDR$ & 'FIFTY YE>S' EGO ! NATIVES ( ,SIB]IA & ,AM]ICA A/ONI%$ \R NATURALI/S BY' !IR ?OR\< KN[L$GE ( ! HABITS ( ! MO/ RETIR+ BEA/S & BIRDS2 BUT PRIMITIVE MAN /OOD 9 /ILL CLOS] RELATIONS TO ! ANIMALS1 & KNEW !M /ILL BETT]4 ,! :OLESALE EXT]M9ATION ( LIFE BY MEANS ( =E/ & PRAIRIE FIRES1 POISON$ >R[S1 & ! LIKE1 HAD NOT YET BEGUN2 & FROM ! BEWILD]+ ABUNDANCE ( ANIMAL LIFE :I* WAS F\ND BY ! :ITE SETTL]S :5 !Y FIR/ TOOK POSSESSION ( ! ,AM]ICAN CONT95T' & :I* WAS SO WELL' DESCRIB$ BY ! MO/ PROM95T NATURALI/S1 SU* AS ,AUDUBON1 ,AZ>A1 ,WI$1 & O!RS1 WE MAY JUDGE ( ! D5SITY ( ! ANIMAL POPULATION DUR+ ! PO/-GLACIAL P]IOD4 

,PALAEOLI?IC & NEOLI?IC MAN LIV$ CLOSELY SURR\ND$ BY HIS DUMB BRO!RS-JU/ AS ,BEHR+ & HIS %IPWRECK$ CREW1 =C$ TO SP5D ! W9T] ON AN ISL& NE> ,ALASKA1 LIV$ AMID ! MULTITUDES ( POL> FOXES ?AT PR[L$ AMONG ! CAMP]S1 DEV\R+ !IR FOOD & GNAW+ AT NI<T AT ! V]Y FURS UPON :I* ! M5 W]E SLEEP+4 ,\R PRIMITIVE ANCE/ORS LIV$ ) ! ANIMALS1 9 ! MID/ ( !M4 ,& AS SOON AS !Y BEGAN TO BR+ SOME ORD] 9TO !IR OBS]VATIONS ( NATURE1 & TO TRANSMIT !M TO PO/]ITY1 ! ANIMALS & !IR LIFE SUPPLI$ !M ) ! *IEF MAT]IALS = !IR UNWRITT5 5CYCLOP$IA ( KN[L$GE1 AS WELL AS = !IR WISDOM1 :I* !Y EXPRESS$ 9 PROV]BS & SAY+S4 ,ANIMAL PSY*OLOGY WAS ! FIR/ PSY*OLOGY /UDI$ BY MAN-IT IS /ILL A FAVORITE SUBJECT ( TALK AT ! CAMP FIRES2 & ANIMAL LIFE1 CLOSELY 9T]WOV5 ) ?AT ( MAN1 WAS ! SUBJECT ( ! V]Y FIR/ RUDIM5TS ( >T1 9SPIR+ ! FIR/ 5GRAV]S & SCULPTORS1 & 5T]+ 9TO ! COMPOSITION ( ! MO/ ANCI5T & EPICAL LEG5DS & COSMOGONIC MY?S4 

,! FIR/ ?+ \R *ILDR5 LE>N 9 ZOOLOGY IS SOME?+ B\T ! BEA/S ( PREY-! LIONS & ! TIG]S4 ,BUT! FIR/ ?+ :I* PRIMITIVE SAVAGES MU/ HAVE LE>N$ AB\T NATURE WAS ?AT IT REPRES5TS A VA/ AGGLOM]ATION ( ANIMAL CLANS & TRIBES3 ! APE TRIBE1 SO NE>LY RELAT$ TO MAN1 ! EV]-PR[L+ WOLF TRIBE1 ! KN[+1 *ATT]+ BIRD TRIBE1 ! EV]-BUSY ANT TRIBE1 & SO ON4 #ag ,= !M ! ANIMALS W]E AN EXT5SION ( !IR [N K9- ONLY SO MU* WIS] ?AN !MSELVES4 ,& ! FIR/ VAGUE G5]ALIZATION :I* M5 MU/ HAVE MADE AB\T NATURE-SO VAGUE AS TO BE ALMO/ A M]E IMPRESSION-WAS ?AT ! LIV+ BE+ & ITS CLAN OR TRIBE >E 9SEP>ABLE4 ,WE CAN SEP>ATE !M-!Y C\LD NOT2 & IT SEEMS V]Y D\BTFUL :E!R !Y C\LD ?9K ( LIFE O!RWISE ?AN )9 A CLAN OR A TRIBE4 

,AT ?AT TIME1 SU* AN IMPRESSION ( NATURE WAS 9EVITABLE4 ,AMONG HIS NE>E/ CONG5]S-! MONKEYS & ! APES-MAN SAW HUNDR$S ( SPECIES #ah LIV+ 9 L>GE SOCIETIES1 UNIT$ TOGE!R )9 EA* GR\P BY ! CLOSE/ BONDS4 ,HE SAW H[ !Y SUPPORT$ ONE ANO!R DUR+ !IR =AG+ EXP$ITIONS2 H[ C>EFULLY !Y MOV$ FROM PLACE TO PLACE1 H[ !Y COMB9$ AGA9/ !IR COMMON 5EMIES1 & R5D]$ ONE ANO!R ALL SORTS ( SMALL S]VICES1 SU* AS PICK+ ?ORNS FROM ONE ANO!R'S FUR1 NE/L+ TOGE!R 9 COLD WEA!R1 & SO ON4 ,( C\RSE1 !Y (T5 QU>REL$2 BUT !N1 AS N[1 !RE WAS MORE NOISE 9 !SE QU>RELS ?AN S]I\S H>M1 & AT TIMES1 9 CASE ( DANG]1 !Y DISPLAY$ ! MO/ /RIK+ MUTUAL ATTA*M5T2 TO SAY NO?+ ( ! /RONG DEVOTION ( ! MO!RS TO !IR Y\NG ONES1 & ( ! OLD MALES TO !IR GR\P4 ,SOCIALITY WAS ?US ! RULE ) ! MONKEY TRIBE2 & IF !RE >E N[ TWO SPECIES ( BIG APES1 ! GORILLA & ! ORANGUTAN1 :I* >E NOT SOCIABLE & KEEP 9 SMALL FAMILIES ONLY1 ! V]Y LIMIT$ EXT5T ( ! >EAS !Y 9HABIT IS A PRO( ( !IR BE+ N[ A DECAY+ SPECIES-DECAY+1 P]HAPS1 ON ACC\NT ( ! M]CILESS W> :I* M5 HAVE WAG$ AGA9/ !M 9 CONSEQU5CE ( ! V]Y RESEMBLANCE BETWE5 ! TWO SPECIES4 

,PRIMITIVE MAN SAW1 NEXT1 ?AT EV5 AMONG ! C>NIVOR\S BEA/S !RE IS ONE G5]AL RULE3 !Y NEV] KILL ONE ANO!R4 ,SOME ( !M >E V]Y SOCIABLE-SU* >E ALL ! DOG TRIBE3 ! JACKALS1 ! DHOLES OR KHOLSUN DOGS ( ,9DIA1 ! HY5AS4 ,SOME O!RS LIVE 9 SMALL FAMILIES2 BUT EV5 AMONG !SE LA/ ! MORE 9TELLIG5T ONES-SU* AS ! LIONS & ! LEOP>DS-JO9 TOGE!R = HUNT+1 LIKE ! DOG TRIBE4 ,& AS TO ?OSE FEW :I* LEAD-N[ADAYS1 AT LEA/-A QUITE SOLIT>Y LIFE1 LIKE ! TIG]S1 OR KEEP 9 SMALL FAMILIES1 !Y ADH]E TO ! SAME G5]AL RULE3 !Y DO NOT KILL ONE ANO!R4 ,EV5 N[1 :5 ! C\NTLESS H]DS ( RUM9ANTS :I* =M]LY PEOPL$ ! PRAIRIES HAVE BE5 EXT]M9AT$1 & ! TIG]S SUBSI/ MA9LY ON DOME/ICAT$ H]DS1 & >E COMPELL$1 !RE=E1 TO KEEP CLOSE TO ! VILLAGES1 EV5 N[ ! NATIVES ( ,9DIA WILL TELL US ?AT SOMEH[ ! TIG]S MANAGE TO KEEP TO !IR SEP>ATE DOMA9S )\T FI<T+ BLOODY 9T]NEC9E W>S TO SECURE !M4 ,BESIDES1 IT APPE>S EXTREMELY PROBABLE ?AT EV5 ?OSE FEW ANIMALS ?AT N[ LEAD A SOLIT>Y EXI/5CE-SU* AS ! TIG]S1 ! SMALL] SPECIES ( ! CAT TRIBE 7NE>LY ALL NOCTURNAL71 ! BE>S1 ! M>T5S1 ! FOXES1 ! H$GEHOGS1 & A FEW O!RS-W]E NOT ALWAYS SOLIT>Y CREATURES4 ,= SOME ( !M 7FOXES1 BE>S7 ,I F\ND POSITIVE EVID5CE ?AT !Y REMA9$ SOCIAL UNTIL !IR EXT]M9ATION BY MAN BEGAN1 & O!RS EV5 N[ LEAD A SOCIAL LIFE 9 UNPOPULAT$ REGIONS1 SO ?AT WE HAVE REASON TO BELIEVE ?AT NE>LY ALL ONCE LIV$ 9 SOCIETIES4 #ai ,BUT EV5 IF !RE ALWAYS EXI/$ A FEW UNSOCIABLE SPECIES1 WE CAN POSITIVELY ASS]T ?AT !Y W]E ! EXCEPTION TO ! G5]AL RULE4 

,! LESSON ( NATURE WAS1 ?US1 ?AT EV5 ! /RONGE/ BEA/S >E B\ND TO COMB9E4 ,& ! MAN :O HAS WITNESS$1 ONCE 9 HIS LIFE1 AN ATTACK ( WILD DOGS1 OR DHOLES1 UPON ! L>GE/ BEA/S ( PREY1 C]TA9LY REALIZ$1 ONCE & = EV]1 ! IRRESI/IBLE =CE ( ! TRIBAL UNIONS1 & ! CONFID5CE & C\RAGE ) :I* !Y 9SPIRE EA* 9DIVIDUAL4 

,9 ! PRAIRIES & ! WOODS \R E>LIE/ ANCE/ORS SAW MYRIADS ( ANIMALS1 ALL LIV+ 9 L>GE SOCIETIES-CLANS & TRIBES4 ,C\NTLESS H]DS ( ROE-DE]1 RE9DE]1 ANTELOPES1 ?\S&S ( DROVES ( BUFFALOES1 & LEGIONS ( WILD HORSES1 WILD DONKEYS1 QUAGGAS1 ZEBRAS1 & SO ON1 W]E MOV+ OV] ! B\NDLESS PLA9S1 PEACEFULLY GRAZ+ TOGE!R4 ,ONLY REC5TLY ?IS WAS WITNESS$ BY TRAVEL]S ?R\< ,C5TRAL ,AFRICA1 :]E GIRAFFES1 GAZELLES & ANTELOPES W]E SE5 GRAZ+ SIDE BY SIDE4 ,EV5 ! DRY PLATEAUS ( ,ASIA & ,AM]ICA HAD !IR H]DS ( LLAMAS1 ( WILD CAMELS1 & :OLE TRIBES ( BLACK BE>S LIV$ TOGE!R 9 ! M\NTA9S ( ,?IBET4 ,& AS MAN BECAME MORE FAMILI> ) ! LIFE ( !SE ANIMALS1 HE SOON REALIZ$ H[ CLOSELY UNIT$ W]E ALL !SE BE+S4 ,EV5 :5 !Y SEEM$ FULLY ABSORB$ 9 GRAZ+1 & APP>5TLY TOOK NO NOTICE ( ! O!RS1 !Y CLOSELY WAT*$ ONE ANO!R'S MOVEM5TS1 ALWAYS READY TO JO9 9 SOME COMMON ACTION4 ,MAN SAW ?AT ALL ! DE] & ! GOAT TRIBE1 :E!R !Y GRAZE OR M]ELY GAMBOL1 ALWAYS PO/ S5TRIES1 :I* NEV] CEASE !IR WAT*FULNESS & >E NEV] LATE 9 SIGNAL+ ! APPROA* ( A BEA/ ( PREY2 HE KNEW H[1 9 CASE ( A SUDD5 ATTACK1 ! MALES & ! FEMALES W\LD 5CIRCLE !IR Y\NG ONES & FACE ! 5EMY1 EXPOS+ !IR LIVES = ! SAFETY ( ! FEEBLE ONES4 ,HE ALSO KNEW ?AT ANIMAL H]DS FOLL[ SIMIL> TACTICS 9 RETREAT4 

,PRIMITIVE MAN KNEW ALL !SE ?+S1 :I* WE IGNORE OR EASILY =GET1 & HE REPEAT$ !SE EXPLOITS ( ANIMALS 9 HIS TALES1 EMBELLI%+ ! ACTS ( C\RAGE & SELF-SACRIFICE ) HIS PRIMITIVE POETRY1 & MIMICK+ !M 9 HIS RELIGI\S RITES1 N[ IMPROP]LY CALL$ DANCES4 ,/ILL LESS C\LD ! PRIMITIVE SAVAGE IGNORE ! GREAT MIGRATIONS ( ANIMALS1 = HE EV5 FOLL[$ !M AT TIMES-JU/ AS ! ,*UK*I /ILL FOLL[S ! H]DS ( ! WILD RE9DE]1 :5 ! CL\DS ( MOSQUITOES DRIVE !M FROM ONE PLACE ( ! ,*UK*I P59SULA TO ANO!R1 OR AS ! ,LAPP FOLL[S ! H]DS ( HIS HALF DOME/ICAT$ RE9DE] 9 !IR W&]+S1 OV] :I* HE HAS NO CONTROL4 ,& IF WE1 ) ALL \R BOOK-LE>N+1 & \R IGNORANCE ( NATURE1 FEEL UNABLE TO UND]/& H[ ANIMALS SCATT]$ OV] A WIDE T]RITORY MANAGE TO GA!R 9 ?\S&S AT A GIV5 SPOT TO CROSS A RIV] 7AS ,I WITNESS$ ON ! RIV] ,AMUR71 OR TO BEG9 !IR M>* NOR?1 S\?1 OR WE/1 \R ANCE/ORS1 :O CONSID]$ ! ANIMALS WIS] ?AN !MSELVES1 W]E NOT 9 ! LEA/ A/ONI%$ BY SU* CONC]T$ ACTIONS1 JU/ AS ! SAVAGES ( \R [N TIME >E NOT A/ONI%$ BY !SE ?+S4 ,= !M1 ALL ! ANIMALS- BEA/S1 BIRDS1 & FI%ES ALIKE-W]E 9 CONT9UAL COMMUNICATION1 W>N+ EA* O!R BY MEANS ( H>DLY P]CEPTIBLE SIGNS OR S\NDS1 9=M+ ONE ANO!R AB\T ALL SORTS ( EV5TS1 & ?US CON/ITUT+ ONE VA/ COMMUNITY1 :I* HAD ITS [N RULES ( PROPRIETY & GOOD NEI<BORLY RELATIONS4 ,EV5 TO-DAY DEEP TRACES ( ?AT CONCEPTION ( NATURE SURVIVE 9 ! FOLKLORE ( ALL NATIONS4 

,FROM ! POPUL\S1 ANIMAT$ & GAY VILLAGES ( ! M>MOTS1 ! PRAIRIE DOGS1 ! J]BOAS1 & SO ON1 & FROM ! COLONIES ( BEAV]S ) :I* ! ,PO/-GLACIAL RIV]S W]E ?ICKLY /UDD$1 PRIMITIVE MAN1 :O HIMSELF WAS /ILL 9 ! NOMADIC /AGE1 C\LD LE>N ! ADVANTAGES ( SETTL$ LIFE1 P]MAN5T DWELL+1 & COMMON WORK4 ,EV5 N[ WE SEE 7AS ,I SAW HALF A C5TURY AGO AT ,TRANSBAIKALIA7 ?AT ! NOMAD CATTLE-BRE$]S ( ,MONGOLIA1 :OSE IMPROVID5CE IS PH5OM5AL1 LE>N FROM ! /RIP$ ROD5T 7,TAMIAS /RIATUS7 ! ADVANTAGES ( AGRICULTURE & =ESI<T1 = EV]Y AUTUMN !Y PLUND] ! UND]GR\ND /ORE-ROOMS ( ?IS ROD5T1 & SEIZE ITS PROVISIONS ( EATABLE BULBS4 ,D>W9 TELLS US ?AT DUR+ A FAM9E-YE>1 ! SAVAGES LE>N$ FROM ! BABOON-MONKEYS :AT FRUITS & B]RIES C\LD S]VE = FOOD4 ,!RE IS NO D\BT ?AT ! GRAN>IES ( SMALL ROD5TS1 FULL ( ALL SORTS ( EATABLE SE$S1 MU/ HAVE GIV5 MAN ! FIR/ SUGGE/IONS AS TO ! CULTURE ( C]EALS4 ,9 FACT1 ! SACR$ BOOKS ( ! ,EA/ CONTA9 MANY AN ALLUSION TO ! =ESI<T & 9DU/RY ( ANIMALS1 :I* >E SET UP AS AN EXAMPLE TO MAN4 

,! BIRDS1 9 !IR TURN ALMO/ EV]Y ONE ( !IR SPECIES GAVE \R ANCE/ORS A LESSON 9 ! MO/ 9TIMATE SOCIABILITY1 ( ! JOYS ( SOCIAL LIFE1 & ITS 5ORM\S ADVANTAGES4 ,! NE/+ ASSOCIATIONS ( AQUATIC BIRDS &4 ,!IR UNANIMITY 9 DEF5D+ !IR Y\NG BROODS & EGGS1 W]E WELL KN[N TO MAN4 ,& 9 ! AUTUMN1 M5 :O !MSELVES LIV$ 9 ! WOODS & BY ! SIDE ( ! =E/ BROOKS1 HAD EV]Y OPPORTUNITY TO OBS]VE ! LIFE ( ! FL$GL+S :O GA!R 9 GREAT FLOCKS1 & HAV+ SP5T A SMALL P>T ( ! DAY = COMMON FE$+1 GIVE ! RE/ ( ! TIME TO M]RY *IRP+ & PLAY+ AB\T4 #b ,:O KN[S IF ! V]Y IDEA ( GREAT AUTUMN GA!R+S ( 5TIRE TRIBES = JO9T TRIBAL HUNTS 7,ABA ) ! ,MONGOLS1 ,KADA ) ! ,TUNGUSES71 WAS NOT SUGGE/$ BY SU* AUTUMN GA!R+S ( ! BIRDS8 ,!SE TRIBAL GA!R+S LA/ A MON? OR TWO1 & >E A FE/IVE SEASON = ! :OLE TRIBE1 /R5G!N+1 AT ! SAME TIME1 TRIBAL K9%IP & F$]AT$ UNIONS AMONG DIFF]5T TRIBES4 

,MAN OBS]V$ ALSO ! PLAY ( ANIMALS1 9 :I* SOME SPECIES TAKE SU* DELI<T1 !IR SPORTS1 CONC]TS1 & DANCES 7SEE 0,MUTUAL ,AID10 APP5DIX71 & ! GR\P-FLI<TS ( SOME BIRDS 9 ! EV5+S4 ,HE WAS FAMILI> ) ! NOISY MEET+S ( ! SWALL[S & O!R MIGRAT+ BIRDS1 :I* >E HELD 9 ! FALL1 ON ! SAME SPOT1 = YE>S 9 SUCCESSION1 BE=E !Y />T ON !IR LONG J\RNEYS S\?4 ,& H[ (T5 MAN MU/ HAVE /OOD 9 BEWILD]M5T AS HE SAW ! IMM5SE MIGRAT+ COLUMNS ( BIRDS PASS+ OV] HIS HEAD = MANY H\RS 9 SUCCESSION1 OR ! C\NTLESS ?\S&S ( BUFFALOES1 OR DE]1 OR M>MOTS1 ?AT BLOCK$ HIS WAY & SOMETIMES DETA9$ HIM = A FEW DAYS BY !IR TI<TLY CLOS$ RANKS1 HURRY+ NOR?W>D OR S\?W>D4 ,! 0BRUTE SAVAGE0 KNEW ALL !SE BEAUTIES ( NATURE1 :I* WE HAVE =GOTT5 9 \R T[NS & UNIV]SITIES1 & :I* WE DO NOT EV5 F9D 9 \R DEAD TEXT BOOKS ON 0NATURAL HI/ORY02 :ILE ! N>RATIVES ( ! GREAT EXPLOR]S-SU* AS ,HUMBOLDT1 ,AUDUBON1 ,AZ>A1 ,BREHM1 ,SYEV]TSEV #ba & SO MANY O!RS1 >E MOLD]+ 9 \R LIBR>IES4 

,9 ?OSE TIMES ! WIDE WORLD ( ! RUNN+ WAT]S & LAKES WAS NOT A SEAL$ BOOK = MAN4 ,HE WAS QUITE FAMILI> ) ITS 9HABITANTS4 ,EV5 N[1 = EXAMPLE1 MANY SEMI-SAVAGE NATIVES ( ,AFRICA PR(ESS A DEEP REV]5CE = ! CROCODILE4 ,!Y CONSID] HIM A NE> RELATIVE TO MAN-A SORT ( ANCE/OR4 ,!Y EV5 AVOID NAM+ HIM 9 !IR CONV]SATIONS1 & IF !Y MU/ M5TION HIM !Y WILL SAY 0! OLD GR&FA!R10 OR USE SOME O!R WORD EXPRESS+ K9%IP & V5]ATION4 ,! CROCODILE1 !Y MA9TA91 ACTS EXACTLY AS !Y DO4 ,HE WILL NEV] SWALL[ HIS PREY )\T HAV+ 9VIT$ HIS RELATIVES & FRI5DS TO %>E ! FOOD2 & IF ONE ( HIS TRIBE HAS BE5 KILL$ BY MAN1 O!RWISE ?AN 9 DUE & JU/ BLOOD REV5GE HE WILL TAKE V5GEANCE UPON SOME ONE ( ! MURD]]'S SK94 ,!RE=E1 IF A NEGRO HAS BE5 EAT5 BY A CROCODILE1 HIS TRIBE WILL TAKE ! GREATE/ C>E TO KILL ! V]Y SAME CROCODILE :O HAD EAT5 !IR K9SMAN1 BECAUSE !Y FE> ?AT BY KILL+ AN 9NOC5T CROCODILE !Y WILL BR+ UPON !MSELVES ! V5GEANCE ( ! K9 ( ! SLAU<T]$ ANIMAL1 SU* V5GEANCE BE+ REQUIR$- BY ! LAW ( ! CLAN V5DETTA44 ,?IS IS :Y ! NEGROES1 HAV+ KILL$ ! PRESUMABLY1 GUILTY CROCODILE1 WILL C>EFULLY EXAM9E HIS 9TE/9ES 9 ORD] TO F9D ! REMNANTS ( !IR K9SMAN1 & TO MAKE SURE !REBY ?AT NO MI/AKE HAS BE5 MADE & ?AT IT IS ?IS P>TICUL> CROCODILE ?AT DES]V$ DEA?4 ,BUT IF NO PRO( ( ! BEA/'S GUILT IS =?COM+1 !Y WILL MAKE ALL SORTS ( EXPIATORY AM5DS TO ! CROCODILE TRIBE 9 ORD] TO APPEASE ! RELATIVES ( ! 9NOC5TLY SLAU<T]$ ANIMAL2 & !Y CONT9UE TO SE>* = ! REAL CULPRIT4 ,! SAME BELIEF EXI/S AMONG ! ,R$ ,9DIANS CONC]N+ ! RATTLESNAKE & ! WOLF1 & AMONG ! ,O/IAKS AB\T ! BE>1 ETC4 ,! CONNECTION ( SU* BELIEFS ) ! SUBSEQU5T DEVELOPM5T ( ! IDEA ( JU/ICE1 IS SELF EVID5T4 #bb 

,! %OALS ( FI%ES1 & !IR MOVEM5TS 9 ! TRANSP>5T WAT]S1 ! RECONNOIT]+ BY !IR SC\TS BE=E ! :OLE H]D MOVES 9 A GIV5 DIRECTION1 MU/ HAVE DEEPLY IMPRESS$ MAN AT A V]Y E>LY P]IOD4 ,TRACES ( ?IS IMPRESSION >E F\ND 9 ! FOLKLORE ( SAVAGES 9 MANY P>TS ( ! GLOBE4 ,?US1 = 9/ANCE1 ,DEKANAWIDEH1 ! LEG5D>Y LAWGIV] ( ! ,R$ ,9DIANS1 :O IS SUPPOS$ TO HAVE GIV5 !M ! CLAN ORGANIZATION1 IS REPRES5T$ AS HAV+ RETIR$ FROM ! PEOPLE TO M$ITATE 9 CONTACT ) NATURE4 ,HE 0REA*$ ! SIDE ( A SMOO?1 CLE>1 RUNN+ /REAM1 TRANSP>5T & FULL ( FI%ES4 ,HE SAT D[N1 RECL9+ ON ! SLOP+ BANK1 GAZ+ 9T5T 9TO ! WAT]S1 WAT*+ ! FI%ES PLAY+ AB\T 9 COMPLETE H>MONY44440 ,!REUPON HE CONCEIV$ ! S*EME ( DIVID+ HIS PEOPLE 9TO G5TES & CLASSES1 OR TOTEMS4 #bc ,9 O!R LEG5DS ! WISE MAN ( ! TRIBE LE>NS WISDOM FROM ! BEAV]1 OR ! SQUIRREL1 OR SOME BIRD4 

,G5]ALLY SPEAK+1 = ! PRIMITIVE SAVAGE1 ANIMALS >E MY/]I\S1 5IGMATIC BE+S1 POSSESS$ ( A WIDE KN[L$GE ( ! ?+S ( NATURE4 ,!Y KN[ MU* MORE ?AN !Y >E READY TO TELL US4 ,9 ONE WAY OR ANO!R1 BY ! AID ( S5SES MU* MORE REF9$ ?AN \RS1 & BY TELL+ ONE ANO!R ALL ?AT !Y NOTICE 9 !IR RAMBLES & FLI<TS1 !Y KN[ EV]Y?+1 = MILES >\ND4 ,& IF MAN HAS BE5 0JU/0 T[>DS !M1 !Y WILL W>N HIM ( A COM+ DANG] AS !Y W>N ONE ANO!R2 BUT !Y WILL TAKE NO HE$ ( HIM IF HE HAS NOT BE5 /RAI<T=W>D 9 HIS ACTIONS4 ,SNAKES & BIRDS 7! [L IS CONSID]$ ! LEAD] ( ! SNAKES71 MAMMALS & 9SECTS1 LIZ>DS & FI%ES-ALL UND]/& ONE ANO!R1 & CONT9UALLY COMMUNICATE !IR OBS]VATIONS AMONG !MSELVES4 ,!Y ALL BELONG TO ONE BRO!RHOOD1 9TO :I* !Y MAY1 9 SOME CASES1 ADMIT MAN4 

,9SIDE ?IS VA/ BRO!RHOOD !RE >E1 ( C\RSE1 ! /ILL CLOS] BRO!RHOODS ( BE+ 0( ONE BLOOD40 ,! MONKEYS1 ! BE>S1 ! WOLVES1 ! ELEPHANTS & ! RH9OC]OSES1 MO/ RUM9ANTS1 ! H>ES & MO/ ( ! ROD5TS1 ! CROCODILES1 & SO ON1 KN[ P]FECTLY !IR [N K91 & !Y WILL NOT ABIDE ! SLAU<T] BY MAN ( ONE ( !IR RELATIVES )\T TAK+1 9 ONE WAY OR ANO!R1 0HONE/0 REV5GE4 ,?IS CONCEPTION MU/ HAVE HAD AN EXTREMELY REMOT ORIG94 ,IT MU/ HAVE GR[N AT A TIME :5 MAN HAD NOT YET BECOME OMNIVOR\S & HAD NOT YET BEGUN TO HUNT BIRDS & ANIMALS = FOOD4 ,MAN BECAME OMNIVOR\S1 -MO/ PROBABLY1 DUR+ ! ,GLACIAL P]IOD1 :5 VEGETATION WAS P]I%+ 9 ! PA? ( ! ADVANC+ COLD4 ,H[EV]1 ! SAME CONCEPTION HAS BE5 RETA9$ D[N TO ! PRES5T TIME4 ,EV5 N[1 :5 A SAVAGE IS HUNT+1 HE IS B\ND TO RESPECT C]TA9 RULES ( PROPRIETY T[>DS ! ANIMALS1 & HE MU/ P]=M C]TA9 EXPIATORY C]EMONIES AFT] HIS HUNT4 ,SOME ( !SE C]EMONIES >E RIGOR\SLY 5ACT$1 EV5 TO-DAY1 9 ! SAVAGE CLANS1-ESPECIALLY 9 CONNECTION ) ?OSE ANIMALS :I* >E CONSID]$ ! ALLIES ( MAN1 SU* AS ! BE>1 = EXAMPLE 7AMONG ! ,ORO*ONS ON ! ,AMUR ,RIV]74 

,IT IS A KN[N CU/OM ?AT TWO M5 BELONG+ TO TWO DIFF]5T CLANS CAN FRAT]NIZE BY MIX+ ! BLOOD ( ! TWO1 OBTA9$ FROM SMALL 9CISIONS MADE = ?AT PURPOSE4 ,TO 5T] 9TO SU* A UNION WAS QUITE COMMON 9 OLD5 TIMES1 & WE LE>N FROM ! FOLKLORE ( ALL NATIONS1 & ESPECIALLY FROM ! ,SC&9AVIAN SAGAS1 H[ RELIGI\SLY SU* A BRO!RHOOD WAS MA9TA9$4 ,BUT IT WAS ALSO CU/OM>Y = MAN TO 5T] 9TO BRO!RHOOD ) SOME ANIMAL4 ,! TALES FREQU5TLY M5TION ?IS4 ,AN ANIMAL ASKS A HUNT] TO SP>E IT1 & IF ! HUNT] ACC$ES TO ! DEM& ! TWO BECOME BRO!RS4 ,& !N ! MONKEY1 ! BE>1 ! DOE1 ! BIRD1 ! CROCODILE1 OR EV5 ! BEE-7ANYONE ( ! SOCIAL ANIMALS7- WILL TAKE ALL POSSIBLE C>E ( ! MAN-BRO!R 9 ! CRITICAL CIRCUM/ANCES ( HIS LIFE1 S5D+ !IR ANIMAL BRO!RS FROM !IR [N OR FROM A DIFF]5T TRIBE1 TO W>N HIM OR HELP HIM4 ,& IF ! W>N+ COMES TOO LATE1 OR IS MISUND]/OOD1 & HE LOSES HIS LIFE1 ALL !SE ANIMALS WILL TRY TO BR+ HIM BACK TO LIFE1 & IF !Y FAIL1 !Y WILL TAKE DUE REV5GE1 JU/ AS IF ! MAN W]E ONE ( !IR [N K94 

,:5 ,I J\RNEY$ 9 ,SIB]IA ,I (T5 NOTIC$ ! C>E ) :I* MY ,TUNGUS OR ,MONGOL GUIDE W\LD TAKE NOT TO KILL ANY ANIMAL USELESSLY4 ,! FACT IS ?AT EV]Y LIFE IS RESPECT$ BY A SAVAGE1 OR RA!R WAS1 BE=E HE CAME 9 CONTACT ) ,EUROPEANS4 ,IF HE KILLS AN ANIMAL IT IS = FOOD OR CLO?+1 BUT HE DOES NOT DE/ROY LIFE = M]E AMUSEM5T OR \T ( A PASSION = DE/RUCTION4 ,TRUE1 ! ,R$ ,9DIANS HAVE DONE ?AT V]Y ?+ ) ! BUFFALOES2 BUT IT WAS ONLY AFT] !Y HAD BE5 = A LONG TIME 9 CONTACT ) ! :ITES1 & HAD GOT FROM !M ! RIFLE & ! QUICK-FIR+ REVOLV]4 ,( C\RSE1 !RE >E ALSO SOME ANIMALS ?AT >E CONSID]$ 5EMIES ( MAN-! HY5A1 = 9/ANCE1 OR ! TIG]2 BUT1 9 G5]AL1 ! SAVAGE TREATS ) RESPECT ! GREAT ANIMAL WORLD AS A :OLE1 & TRA9S HIS *ILDR5 9 ! SAME SPIRIT4 

,! IDEA ( 'JU/ICE10 CONCEIV$ AT ITS ORIG9 AS REV5GE1 IS ?US CONNECT$ ) OBS]VATIONS MADE ON ANIMALS4 ,BUT IT APPE>S EXTREMELY PROBABLE ?AT ! IDEA ( RETURN = 0JU/0 & 0UNJU/0 TREATM5T MU/ ALSO HAVE ORIG9AT$1 ) PRIMITIVE MANK9D1 9 ! IDEA ?AT ANIMALS TAKE REV5GE IF !Y HAVE NOT BE5 PROP]LY TREAT$ BY MAN4 ,?IS IDEA IS SO DEEPLY ROOT$ 9 ! M9DS ( ! SAVAGES ALL OV] ! WORLD ?AT IT MAY BE CONSID]$ AS ONE ( ! FUNDAM5TAL CONCEPTIONS ( MANK9D4 ,GRADUALLY IT GREW TO EMBODIM5TS ( ! SAME CONCEPTION4 ,LAT] ?IS CONCEPTION WAS EXT5D$ OV] ! REGION ( ! SKY4 ,! CL\DS1 ACCORD+ TO ! MO/ ANCI5T BOOKS ( ,9DIA1 ! ,V$AS1 W]E CONSID]$ AS LIV+ BE+S SIMIL> TO ANIMALS4 

,?IS IS :AT PRIMITIVE MAN SAW 9 NATURE & LE>N$ FROM IT4 ,) \R S*OLA/IC $UCATION1 :I* HAS CONSI/5TLY IGNOR$ NATURE & HAS TRI$ TO EXPLA9 ITS MO/ COMMON FACTS BY SUP]/ITIONS OR BY METAPHYSICAL SUBTLETIES1 WE BEGAN TO =GET ?AT GREAT LESSON4 ,BUT = \R ,/ONE-,AGE ANCE/ORS SOCIALITY & MUTUAL AID )9 ! TRIBE MU/ HAVE BE5 A FACT SO G5]AL 9 NATURE1 SO HABITUAL1 ?AT !Y C]TA9LY C\LD NOT IMAG9E LIFE UND] ANO!R ASPECT4 

,! CONCEPTION ( ,MAN AS AN ISOLAT$ BE+ IS A LAT] PRODUCT ( CIVILIZATION-! PRODUCT ( ,EA/]N LEG5DS AB\T M5 :O )DREW FROM SOCIETY4 ,TO A PRIMITIVE MAN ISOLAT$ LIFE SEEMS SO /RANGE1 SO MU* \T ( ! USUAL C\RSE ( NATURE1 ?AT :5 HE SEES A TIG]1 A BADG]1 A %REW-M\SE LEAD+ A SOLIT>Y EXI/5CE1 OR EV5 :5 HE NOTICES A TREE ?AT /&S ALONE1 F> FROM ! =E/1 HE CREATES A LEG5D TO EXPLA9 ?IS /RANGE OCCURR5CE4 ,HE MAKES NO LEG5DS TO EXPLA9 LIFE 9 SOCIETIES1 BUT HE HAS ONE = EV]Y CASE ( SOLITUDE4 ,! H]MIT1 IF HE IS NOT A SAGE :O HAS TEMPOR>ILY )DRAWN FROM ! WORLD TO POND] OV] ITS DE/9IES1 OR A WIZ>D1 IS 9 MO/ CASES AN \TCA/ BANI%$ = SOME GRAVE TRANSGRESSION AGA9/ ! CODE ( SOCIAL LIFE4 ,HE HAS DONE SOME?+ SO CONTR>Y TO ! ORD9>Y RUN ( LIFE ?AT !Y HAVE ?R[N HIM \T ( SOCIETY4 ,V]Y (T5 HE IS A SORC]]1 :O HAS ! COMM& ( ALL SORTS ( EVIL P[]S1 & HAS SOME?+ TO DO ) ! PE/IL5TIAL CORPSES :I* SPREAD CONTAGION 9 ! WORLD4 ,?IS IS :Y HE PR[LS AB\T AT NI<T1 PURSU+ HIS WICK$ DESIGNS UND] ! COV] ( D>KNESS4 ,ALL O!R BE+S LIVE 9 SOCIETIES1 & HUMAN ?\<T RUNS 9 ?IS *ANNEL4 ,SOCIAL LIFE-?AT IS1 WE1 NOT ,I-IS ! NORMAL =M ( LIFE4 ,IT IS LIFE ITSELF4 ,!RE=E1 0,WE0 MU/ HAVE BE5 ! HABITUAL TR5D ( ?\<T ) ! PRIMITIVE MAN1 A 0CATEGORY0 ( HIS M9D1 AS ,KANT MI<T HAVE SAID4 

,H]E1 9 ?AT ID5TIFICATION1 OR1 WE MI<T EV5 SAY1 9 ?IS ABSORPTION ( ! 0,I0 BY ! CLAN OR TRIBE1 LIES ! ROOT ( ALL E?ICAL ?\<T4 ,! SELF-ASS]TION ( 0P]SONALITY0 CAME MU* LAT] ON4 ,EV5 N[1 ! PSY*OLOGY ( ! L[] SAVAGES SC>CELY KN[S ANY 09DIVIDUAL0 OR 0P]SONALITY40 ,! DOM9ANT CONCEPTION 9 !IR M9DS IS ! TRIBE1 ) ITS H>D-&-FA/ RULES1 SUP]/ITIONS1 TABOOS1 HABITS1 & 9T]E/S4 ,9 ?AT CON/ANT1 EV] PRES5T ID5TIFICATION ( ! ONE LIES ! :OLE1 LIES ! ORIG9 ( ALL E?ICS1 ! G]M \T ( :I* SUBSEQU5T CONCEPTIONS ( JU/ICE1 & ! /ILL HI<] CONCEPTIONS ( MORALITY1 EVOLV$4 

,!SE CONSECUTIVE /EPS 9 ! EVOLUTION ( E?ICS WILL BE CONSID]$ 9 ! FOLL[+ *APT]S4 

,FOOTNOTES 

  

 #a ,9 HIS ,HI/ORY ( ,MOD]N ,PHILOSOPHY1 ! ,DANI% PR(ESSOR1 ,H>ALD ,H(FD+1 GIVES AN ADMIRABLE SKET* ( ! PHILOSOPHICAL IMPORTANCE ( ,D>W9'S WORK4 ,GES*I*TE D] NEU]5 ,PHILOSOPHIE1 ,G]MAN TRANSLATION BY ,F4 ,B5DIX5 7,LEIPZIG1 #a#h#i71 VOL4 #a#a1 PP4 #dhg SQ4 .<,5G4 TR41 ,LONDON1 #a#i1 BY ,B4 ,E4 ,MEY]1 #b VOLS4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#b,! ,DCSC5T ( ,MAN1 *AP4 IV4 PP4 #adh SQ4 ,ALL QUOTATIONS >E FROM ! LA/ 7*EAP7 $ITION ( ,MR4 ,MURRAY1 #a#i#a4 .<,FIR/ $ITION1 #a#h#g#a1 ,LONDON @& ,N4 ,Y43 #bND1 ,N4 ,Y41 #a#i#a#g.>4-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

 #c.<,! REF]5CE IS TO ,CAPTA9 ,/ANSBURY1 :O1 ON A TRIP TO ,UTAH1 SAW A BL9D PELICAN BE+ F$ BY O!R PELICANS1-ON FI% BR\<T A DI/ANCE ( ?IRTY MILES4 ,KROPOTK9 QUOTES ?IS FROM ,D>W9'S ,DESC5T ( ,MAN1 ,*APT] IV4 ,SEE ALSO1 ,L ,H4 ,MORGAN'S ,! ,AM]ICAN ,BEAV]1 #a#h#f#h1 P4 #b#g#b1 TO :I* ,KROPOTK9 REF]S 9 HIS ,MUTUAL ,AID1 PAGE #e#a4 ,H[>D ,/ANSBURY1 ,EXPLORATION & ,SURVEY ( ! ,VALLEY ( ! ,GREAT ,SALT ,LAKE1 ,PHIL41 #a#h#e#b1 #a#h#e#e4 ,! CASE ( ! BL9D RAT IS TAK5 FROM ,M4 ,P]TY'S ,UEB] DAS ,SEEL5LEB5 D] ,?I]E1 PP4 #fd FF41 ,LEIPZIG1 #a#h#g#f4.>-,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

 #d,NOT LONG AFT]1 ,H]B]T ,SP5C]1 :O AT FIR/ TOOK A NEGATIVE ATTITUDE T[>D MORALITY 9 ANIMALS1 CIT$ A FEW SIMIL> FACTS 9 ,JAMES ,KN[LES' MAGAZ9E1 ,N9ETE5? ,C5TURY4 ,!SE FACTS >E REPRODUC$ 9 HIS ,PR9CIPLES ( ,E?ICS1 VOL4 #a#a1 ,APP5DIX #a4 .<VOL4 ,X ( ! ,SYN!TIC ,PHILOSOPHY4.> 

 #e,! 9CAPACITY ( AN ANT1 A DOG1 OR A CAT TO MAKE A DISCOV]Y1 OR TO HIT UPON ! CORRECT SOLUTION ( A DIFFICULTY1 :I* IS SO (T5 PO9T$ \T BY SOME WRIT]S ON ?IS SUBJECT1 IS NOT A PRO( ( AN ESS5TIAL DIFF]5CE BETWE5 ! 9TELLIG5CE ( MAN & ?AT ( !SE ANIMALS1 BECAUSE ! SAME WANT ( 9V5TIV5ESS IS CONT9UALLY MET ) 9 M5 AS WELL4 ,LIKE ! ANT 9 ONE ( ,JOHN ,LUBBOCK'S EXP]IM5TS1 ?\S&S ( M5 9 AN UNFAMILI> REGION1 SIMIL>LY ATTEMPT TO =D A RIV] & P]I% 9 ! ATTEMPT1 BE=E TRY+ TO SPAN ! RIV] ) SOME PRIMITIVE BRIDGE-A TRUNK ( A FALL5 TREE1 = EXAMPLE4 ,&1 ON ! O!R H&1 WE F9D 9 ANIMALS ! COLLECTIVE 9TELLIG5CE ( AN ANT'S NE/ OR A BEEHIVE4 ,& IF ONE ANT OR ONE BEE 9 A ?\S& HAPP5S TO HIT UPON ! CORRECT SOLUTION1 ! O!RS IMITATE IT4 ,& ?US !Y SOLVE PROBLEMS MU* MORE DIFFICULT ?AN ?OSE 9 :I* ! 9DIVIDUAL ANT1 OR BEE1 OR CAT HAS SO LUDICR\SLY FAIL$ 9 ! EXP]IM5TS ( SOME NATURALI/S1 &1 ,I V5TURE TO ADD1 AS ! NATURALI/S !MSELVES FAIL 9 ! >RANGEM5T ( !IR EXP]IM5TS & 9 !IR CONCLUSIONS4 ,! BEES AT ! ,P>IS ,EXHIBITION1 & !IR DEVICES TO PREV5T BE+ CONT9UALLY DI/URB$ 9 !IR WORK-!Y PLA/]$ ! PEEP-W9D[ ) WAX 7SEE ,MUTUAL ,AID1 ,*4 #a7--OR ANY ONE ( ! WELL-KN[N FACTS ( 9V5TIV5ESS AMONG ! BEES1 ! ANT ! WOLVES HUNT+ TOGE!R1 >E 9/ANCES 9 PO9T4 

 #f,9 AN EXCELL5T ANALYSIS ( ! SOCIAL 9/9CT 7,ANIMAL ,BEHAVIOR1 ,LONDON #a#i1 PP4 #b#c#a-#b#c#b7 ,PR(ESSOR ,LLOYD ,MORGAN SAYS3 0,& ?IS QUE/ION ,PR9CE ,KROPOTK91 9 COMMON ) ,D>W9 & ,ESP9AS1 W\LD PROBABLY ANSW] )\T HESITATION ?AT ! PRIMEVAL G]M ( ! SOCIAL COMMUNITY LAY 9 ! PROLONG$ COH]5CE ( ! GR\P ( P>5TS & (FSPR+401 ,P]FECTLY TRUE1 ,I %\LD ONLY ADD ! WORDS3 0OR ( ! (FSPR+ )\T ! P>5TS10 BECAUSE ?IS ADDITION W\LD BETT] AGREE ) ! FACTS /AT$ ABOVE1 :ILE IT ALSO R5D]S MORE CORRECTLY ,D>W9'S IDEA4 

 #g,H>T5/E9'S $ITION ( ,KANT'S WORKS1 VOL4 ,VL4 PP4 #a#d#c-#a#d#d .<,LEIPZIG1 #a#h#f#g-#h#g.>4 ,5GLI% TRANSLATION BY ,?4 ,K4 ,ABBOTT3 ,KANT'S ,CRITIQUE ( ,PRACTICAL ,REASON & ,O!R ,WORKS1 ,LONDON1 #a#h#g#i1 PP4 #d#b#e-#d,Z#g4 ,LONDON1 #a#h#h#i.>4 

 #h,9 A FOOTNOTE1 ,D>W91 ) HIS USUAL DEEP 9SI<T1 MAKES1 H[EV]1 ONE EXCEPTION4 0,5MITY1 OR HATR$10 HE REM>KS1 0SEEMS ALSO TO BE A HI<LY P]SI/5T FEEL+ P]HAPS MORE SO ?AN ANY O!R ?AT CAN BE NAM$4444 ,?IS FEEL+ W\LD ?US SEEM TO BE 9NATE1 & IS C]TA9LY A MO/ P]SI/5T ONE4 ,IT SEEMS TO BE ! COMPLEM5T & CONV]SE ( ! TRUE SOCIAL 9/9CT40 7,FOOTNOTE #b#g7 .<( *AP4 IV1 P4 #a#a#d1 #bND $4 ,N ,Y41 #a#i#a#g.>4 ,?IS FEEL+1 SO DEEPLY SEAT$ 9 ANIMAL NATURE1 EVID5TLY EXPLA9S ! BITT] W>S ?AT >E F\<T BETWE5 DIFF]5T TRIBES1 OR GR\PS1 9 SEV]AL ANIMAL SPECIES & AMONG M54 ,IT EXPLA9S ALSO ! SIMULTANE\S EXI/5CE ( TWO DIFF]5T CODES ( MORALITY AMONG CIVILIZ$ NATIONS4 ,BUT ?IS IMPORTANT & YET NEGLECT$ SUBJECT CAN BETT] BE TREAT$ 9 CONNECTION ) ! DISCUSSION ( ! IDEA ( JU/ICE 

 #i,ON ! ,DIGNITY & ,ADVANCEM5T ( ,LE>N+1 ,BOOK ,VLL1 *AP4 I4 7P4 #bg ( ,J4 ,DEVEY'S $ITION 9 ,BOHN'S ,LIBR>Y74 ,BACON'S >GUM5TS 9 FAVOR ( ?IS IDEA >E ( C\RSE 9SUFFICI5T2 BUT IT MU/ BE BORNE 9 M9D ?AT HE WAS ONLY E/ABLI%+ ! \TL9ES ( A SCI5CE :I* HAD TO BE WORK$ \T BY HIS FOLL[]S4 ,! SAME IDEA WAS LAT] EXPRESS$ BY ,HUGO ,GROTIUS1 & BY SOME O!R ?9K]S4 

 #a.<,PR(ESSOR ,KESSL]1 ONE TIME ,DEAN ( ! ,UNIV]SITY ( ,/4 ,PET]SBURG1 DELIV]$ A LECTURE ON 0,! ,LAW ( ,MUTUAL ,AID0 BE=E A MEET+ ( ! ,RUSSIAN ,CONGRESS ( ,NATURALI/S1 ,JAN4 #a#h#h4 ,IT APPE>S 9 ! ,TRUDI 7,MEMOIRS7 O 

,FROM 3 ,AN>*Y ,>*IVES4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,NOVEMB] #c1 #aibc 3 ,*APT] #c -- ,PUBLICATION4 
,JANU>Y #a#d1 #bag 3 ,*APT] #c -- ,ADD$4 

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