,*APT] #a 
,! ,PRES5T ,NE$ ( ,DET]M9+ ! ,BASES ( ,MORALITY 

#aibdaibd 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,PET] ,KROPOTK9 

,TEXT 3 

  

,PHOTO BY C>LFBAGGE1,C,C ,B,Y ,LIC5SE ,:5 WE CA/ A GLANCE UPON ! IMM5SE PROGRESS REALIZ$ BY ! NATURAL 
SCI5CES 9 ! C\RSE ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 & :5 WE P]CEIVE ! 
PROMISES !Y CONTA9 = ! FUTURE1 WE CAN NOT BUT FEEL DEEPLY IMPRESS$ BY 
! IDEA ?AT MANK9D IS 5T]+ UPON A NEW ]A ( PROGRESS ,IT HAS1 AT ANY 
RATE1 BE=E IT ALL ! ELEM5TS = PREP>+ SU* A NEW ]A4 ,9 ! C\RSE ( 
! LA/ ONE HUNDR$ YE>S1 NEW BRAN*ES ( KN[L$GE1 OP5+ 5TIRELY NEW 
VI/AS UPON ! LAWS ( ! DEVELOPM5T ( HUMAN SOCIETY1 HAVE GR[N UP UND] 
! NAMES ( AN?ROPOLOGY PREHI/ORIC E?NOLOGY 7SCI5CE ( ! PRIMITIVE 
SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS71 ! HI/ORY ( RELIGIONS1 & SO ON4 ,NEW CONCEPTIONS 
AB\T ! :OLE LIFE ( ! UNIV]SE W]E DEVELOP$ BY PURSU+ SU* L9ES ( 
RESE>* AS MOLECUL> PHYSICS1 ! *EMICAL /RUCTURE ( MATT]1 & ! 
*EMICAL COMPOSITION ( DI/ANT WORLDS4 ,& ! TRADITIONAL VIEWS AB\T ! 
POSITION ( MAN 9 ! UNIV]SE1 ! ORIG9 ( LIFE1 & ! NATURE ( REASON 
W]E 5TIRELY UPSET BY ! RAPID DEVELOPM5T ( BIOLOGY1 ! APPE>ANCE ( ! 
!ORY ( EVOLUTION1 & ! PROGRESS MADE 9 ! /UDY ( HUMAN & ANIMAL 
PSY*OLOGY4 

,M]ELY TO SAY ?AT ! PROGRESS ( SCI5CE 9 EA* ( ITS BRAN*ES1 EXCEPT+ 
P]HAPS A/RONOMY1 HAS BE5 GREAT] DUR+ ! LA/ C5TURY ?AN DUR+ ANY 
?REE OR F\R C5TURIES ( ! AGES PREC$+1 W\LD NOT BE 5\<4 ,WE MU/ 
TURN BACK #b YE>S1 TO ! GLORI\S TIMES ( ! PHILOSOPHICAL REVIVAL 9 
,ANCI5T ,GREECE1 9 ORD] TO F9D ANO!R SU* P]IOD ( ! AWAK5+ ( ! 
HUMAN 9TELLECT4 ,& YET1 EV5 ?IS COMP>ISON W\LD NOT BE CORRECT1 BECAUSE AT 
?AT E>LY P]IOD ( HUMAN HI/ORY1 MAN DID NOT 5T] 9TO POSSESSION ( ALL 
?OSE WOND]S ( 9DU/RIAL TE*NIQUE :I* HAVE BE5 LATELY >RAY$ 9 \R 
S]VICE4 ,! DEVELOPM5T ( ?IS TE*NIQUE AT LA/ GIVES MAN ! OPPORTUNITY TO 
FREE HIMSELF FROM SLAVI% TOIL4 

,AT ! SAME TIME MOD]N HUMANITY DEVELOP$ A Y\?FUL1 D>+ SPIRIT ( 
9V5TION1 /IMULAT$ BY ! REC5T DISCOV]IES ( SCI5CE2 & ! 
9V5TIONS ?AT FOLL[$ 9 RAPID SUCCESSION HAVE TO SU* AN EXT5T 
9CREAS$ ! PRODUCTIVE CAPACITY ( HUMAN LABOR AS TO MAKE AT LA/ 
POSSIBLE = MOD]N CIVILIZ$ PEOPLES SU* A G5]AL WELL-BE+ AS C\LD 
NOT BE DREAM$ ( 9 ANTIQUITY1 OR 9 ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 OR EV5 9 ! 
E>LI] PORTION ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY4 ,= ! FIR/ TIME 9 ! 
HI/ORY ( CIVILIZATION1 MANK9D HAS REA*$ A PO9T :]E ! MEANS ( 
SATISFY+ ITS NE$S >E 9 EXCESS ( ! NE$S !MSELVES4 ,TO IMPOSE 
!RE=E1 AS HAS HI!RTO BE5 DONE1 ! CURSE ( MIS]Y & 
DEGRADATION UPON VA/ DIVISIONS ( MANK9D1 9 ORD] TO SECURE WELL 
BE+ & FUR!R M5TAL DEVELOPM5T = ! FEW IS NE$$ NO MORE3 WELL 
BE+ CAN BE SECUR$ = ALL4 )\T PLAC+ ON ANYONE ! BURD5 ( 
OPPRESSIVE1 DEGRAD+ TOIL1 & HUMANITY CAN AT LA/ REBUILD ITS 
5TIRE SOCIAL LIFE ON ! BASES ( JU/ICE4 ,:E!R ! MOD]N CIVILIZ$ 
NATIONS WILL F9D 9 !IR MID/ ! SOCIAL CON/RUCTIVE CAPACITIES1 ! 
CREATIVE P[]S & ! D>+ REQUIR$ = UTILIZ+ ! CONQUE/S ( 
! HUMAN 9TELLECT 9 ! 9T]E/ ( ALL1-IT IS DIFFICULT TO SAY 
BE=EH&4 

,:E!R \R PRES5T CIVILIZATION IS VIGOR\S & Y\?FUL 5\< TO UND]TAKE 
SO GREAT A TASK1 & TO BR+ IT TO ! DESIR$ 5D1 WE CANNOT =ETELL4 ,BUT 
?IS IS C]TA93-?AT ! REC5T REVIVAL ( SCI5CE HAS CREAT$ ! 
9TELLECTUAL ATMOSPH]E REQUIR$ = CALL+ SU* =CES 9TO EXI/5CE1 & IT 
HAS ALREADY GIV5 US ! KN[L$GE NECESS>Y = ! REALIZATION ( ?IS GREAT 
TASK4 

,REV]T+ TO ! S\ND PHILOSOPHY ( ,NATURE :I* REMA9$ 9 NEGLECT FROM ! 
TIME ( ,ANCI5T ,GREECE UNTIL ,BACON WOKE SCI5TIFIC RESE>* FROM ITS LONG 
SLUMB]1 MOD]N SCI5CE HAS N[ WORK$ \T ! ELEM5TS ( A PHILOSOPHY ( ! 
UNIV]SE1 FREE ( SUP]NATURAL HYPO!SES & ! METAPHYSICAL 0MY?OLOGY ( 
IDEAS10 & AT ! SAME TIME SO GR&1 SO POETICAL & 9SPIR+1 & SO 
EXPRESSIVE ( FRE$OM1 ?AT IT C]TA9LY IS CAPABLE ( CALL+ 9TO EXI/5CE 
! NEW =CES4 ,MAN NO LONG] NE$S TO CLO! HIS IDEALS ( MORE BEAUTY1 & ( 
A SOCIETY BAS$ ON JU/ICE1 ) ! G>B ( SUP]/ITION3 HE DOES NOT HAVE TO 
WAIT = ! ,SUPREME ,WISDOM TO REMODEL SOCIETY4 ,HE CAN D]IVE HIS IDEALS FROM 
,NATURE & HE CAN DRAW ! NECESS>Y /R5G? FROM ! /UDY ( ITS LIFE4 

,ONE ( ! GREATE/ A*IEVEM5TS ( MOD]N SCI5CE WAS1 ?AT IT PROV$ 
! 9DE/RUCTIBILITY ( 5]GY  ?R\< ALL ! CEASELESS 
TRANS=MATIONS :I* IT UND]GOES 9 ! UNIV]SE4 ,= ! PHYSICI/ 
& ! MA!MATICIAN ?IS IDEA BECAME A MO/ FRUITFUL S\RCE ( 
DISCOV]Y4 ,IT 9SPIRES 9 FACT ALL MOD]N RESE>*4 ,BUT ITS 
PHILOSOPHICAL IMPORT IS EQUALLY GREAT4 ,IT ACCU/OMS MAN TO CONCEIVE ! 
LIFE ( ! UNIV]SE AS A NEV]-5D+ S]IES ( TRANS=MATIONS ( 
5]GY3 ME*ANICAL 5]GY MAY BECOME CONV]T$ 9TO S\ND1 LI<T 
ELECTRICITY & CONV]SELY1 EA* ( !SE =MS ( 5]GY MAY BE 
CONV]T$ 9TO O!RS4 ,& AMONG ALL !SE TRANS=MATIONS ! BIR? ( 
\R PLANET1 ITS EVOLUTION1 & ITS F9AL UNAVOIDABLE DE/RUCTION & 
REABSORPTION 9 ! GREAT ,COSMOS >E BUT AN 9F9ITESIMALLY SMALL 
EPISODE- A M]E MOM5T 9 ! LIFE ( ! /ELL> WORLDS4 

,! SAME ) ! RESE>*ES LIFE CONC]N+ ORGANIC LIFE ,! REC5T /UDIES 
9 ! WIDE BORD]L& DIVID+ ! 9ORGANIC ,W WORLD ,I FROM ! ORGANIC4 
:]E ! SIMPLE/ LIFE-PROCESSES 9 ! L[E/ FUNGI >E H>DLY DI/+UI%ABLE- 
IF DI/+UI%ABLE AT ALL FROM ! *EMICAL4 R$I/RIBUTION ( ATOMS :I* IS 
ALWAYS GO+ ON 9 ! MORE COMPLEX MOLECULES ( MATT]1 HAVE DIVE/$ LIFE ( 
ITS MY/ICAL *>ACT] T5 ,AT ! SAME TIME1 \R CONCEPTION ( LIFE HAS BE5 SO 
WID5$ ?AT WE GR[ ACCU/OM$ N[ TO CONCEIVE ALL ! AGGLOM]ATIONS MATT] 
9 ! UNIV]SE- SOLID1 LIQUID1 & GASE\S 7SU* >E SON NEBULAE ( ! A/RAL 
WORLD7- AS SOME?+ LIV+  & GO+ ?R\< ! SAME CYCLES ( EVOLUTION & 
DECAY AS DO LIV+ BE+S4 ,! REV]T+ TO IDEAS :I* W]E BUDD+ ONCE 9 
,ANCI5T ,GREECE1 MOD]N SCI5CE HAS RETRAC$ /EP BY /EP ?AT M>VEL\S 
EVOLUTION ( LIV+ MATT]1 :I*1 AFT] HAV+ />T$ ) ! SIMPLE/ 
=MS1 H>DLY DES]V+ ! NAME ( ORGANISM1 HAS GRADUALLY PRODUC$ ! 
9F9ITE V>IETY ( BE+S :I* N[ PEOPLE & 5LIV5 \R PLANET4 ,&1 BY 
MAK+ US FAMILI> ) ! ?\<T ?AT EV]Y ORGANISM IS TO AN IMM5SE EXT5T 
! PRODUCT ( ITS [N 5VIRONM5T1 BIOLOGY HAS SOLV$ ONE ( ! GREATE/ 
RIDDLES ( ,NATURE-IT EXPLA9$ ! ADAPTATIONS TO ! CONDITIONS ( LIFE :I* 
WE MEET AT EV]Y /EP4 

,EV5 9 ! MO/ PUZZL+ ( ALL MANIFE/ATIONS ( LIFE1-! DOMA9 ( FEEL+ 
& ?\<T1 9 :I* HUMAN 9TELLIG5CE HAS TO CAT* ! V]Y PROCESSES BY 
MEANS ( :I* IT SUCCE$S 9 RETA9+ & COORD9AT+ ! IMPRESSIONS 
RECEIV$ FROM )\T-EV5 9 ?IS DOMA91 ! D>KE/ ( ALL1 MAN HAS ALREADY 
SUCCE$$ 9 CAT*+ A GLIMPSE ( TILE ME*ANISM ( ?\<T BY FOLL[+ ! 
L9ES ( RESE>* 9DICAT$ BY PHYSIOLOGY4 ,& F9ALLY1 9 ! VA/ FIELD ( 
HUMAN 9/ITUTIONS1 HABITS & LAWS SUP]/ITIONS1 BELIEFS1 & IDEALS1 SU* A 
FLOOD ( LI<T HAS BE5 ?R['1 BY ! AN?ROPOLOGICAL S*OOLS ( HI/ORY LAW 
& ECONOMICS ?AT WE CAT' ALREADY MA9TA9 POSITIVELY ?AT 0! GREATE/  
HAPP9ESS ( ! GREATE/ NUMB]0 IS NO LONG] A DREAM A M]E ,UTOPIA4 ,IT IS 
POSSIBLE 1 & IT IS ALSO CLE>1 ?AT ! PROSP]ITY & HAPP9ESS ( NO NATION OR 
CLASS C\LD EV] HE BAS$ EV5 TEMPOR>ILY UPON ! DEGRADATION ( EI!R 
CLASSES1 NATIONS1 OR RACES4 

,MOD]N SCI5CE HAS ?US A*IEV$ A D\BLE AIM4 ,ON ! ONE SIDE IT HAS GIV5 TO 
MAN A V]Y VALUABLE LESSON ( MODE/Y4 ,IT HAS TAU<T HIM TO CONSID] HIMSELF AS 
BUT AN 9F9ITESIMALLY SMALL P>TICLE ( ! UNIV]SE4 ,IT HAS DRIV5 HIM \T ( 
HIS N>R[1 EGOTI/ICAL SECLUSION1 & HAS DISSIPAT$ ! SELF-CONCEIT 
UND] :I* HE CONSID]$ HIMSELF ! C5T] ( ! UNIV]SE & ! OBJECT ( 
! SPECIAL ATT5TION ( ! ,CREATOR4 ,IT HAS TAU<T HIM ?AT )\T ! :OLE 
! 0EGO0 IS NO?+2 ?AT \R 0,I0 CANNOT EV5 COME TO A SELF-DEF9ITION 
)\T ! 0?\40 ,BUT AT ! SAME TIME SCI5CE HAS TAU<T MAN H[ P[]FUL 
MANK9D IS 9 ITS PROGRESSIVE M>*1 IF IT SKILLFULLY UTILIZES ! UNLIMIT$ 
5]GIES ( ,NATURE4 

,?US SCI5CE & PHILOSOPHY HAVE GIV5 US BO? ! MAT]IAL /R5G? & 
! FRE$OM ( ?\<T :I* >E REQUIR$ = CALL+ 9TO LIFE ! 
CON/RUCTIVE =CES ?AT MAY LEAD MANK9D TO A NEW ( PROGRESS4 ,!RE 
IS1 H[EV]1 ONE BRAN* ( KN[L$GE :I* BEH9D4 ,IT IS E?ICS1 ! 
TEA*+ ( ! FUNDAM5TAL PR9CIPLE MORALITY4 ,A SY/EM ( E?ICS 
WOR?Y ( ! PRES5T SCI5TIFIC REVIVAL1 :I* W\LD TAKE ADVANTAGE ( 
ALL ! REC5T ACQUISITION RECON/ITUT+ ! V]Y F\NDATIONS ( 
MORALITY ON A WID] PHILOSOPHICAL BASIS1 & :I* W\LD GIVE TO ! 
CIVILIZ$ NATIONS ! 9SPIRATION REQUIR$ = ! GREAT TASK ?AT LIES 
BE=E !M-SU* A SY/EM HAS NOT YET BE5 PRODUC$4 ,BUT ! NE$ ( IT 
IS FELT EV]Y :]E4 ,A NEW1 REALI/IC MORAL SCI5CE IS ! NE$ ( ! 
DAY A SCI5CE AS FREE FROM SUP]/ITION1 RELIGI\S DOGMATISM1 & 
METAPHYSICAL MY?OLOGY AS MOD]N COSMOGONY & PHILOSOPHY ALREADY & 
P]MEAT$ AT ! SAME TIME ) !SE HI<] FEEL+S BRI<T] HOPES 
:I* >E 9SPIR$ BY ! MOD]N KN[L$GE ( & HIS HI/ORY ?IS IS 
:AT HUMANITY IS P]SI/5TLY DEM&+4 

,?AT SU* A SCI5CE IS POSSIBLE LIES BEYOND ANY REASONABLE D\BT4 ,IF ! 
/UDY ( ,NATURE HAS YIELD$ ! ELEM5TS ( A PHILOSOPHY :I* EMBRACES 
! LIFE ( ! ,COSMOS ! EVOLUTION ( LIV+ BE+S ! LAWS ( 
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY & ! DEVELOPM5T ( SOCIETY IT MU/ ALSO BE ABLE 
TO GIVE US ! RATIONAL ORIG9 & TILE S\RCES ( MORAL FEEL+S4 ,& 
IT MU/ BE ABLE TO %[ US :]E LIE ! =CES ?AT >E ABLE TO ELEVATE 
! MORAL FEEL+ TO AN ALWAYS GREAT] HEI<T & PURITY4 ,IF ! 
CONTEMPLATION ( ! ,UNIV]SE & A CLOSE ACQUA9TANCE ) ,NATURE W]E 
ABLE TO 9FUSE L(TY 9SPIRATION 9TO ! M9DS ( ! GREAT NATURALI/S 
& POETS ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1-IF A LOOK 9TO ,NATURE'S BREA/ 
QUICK5$ ! PULSE ( LIFE = ,GOE!1 ,%ELLEY1 ,BYRON1 ,L]MONTOV1 9 
! FACE ( ! RAG+ /ORM1 ! CALM M\NTA9S1 ! D>K =E/ & 
ITS 9HABITANTS1-:Y %\LD NOT A DEEP] P5ETRATION 9TO ! LIFE ( 
MAN & DE/9IES  BE ABLE TO 9SPIRE ! POET 9 ! SAME WAY8 ,& :5 
! POET HAS F\ND ! PROP] EXPRESSION = HIS S5SE ( COMMUNION ) 
! ,COSMOS & HIS UNITY ) HIS FELL[-M51 HE BECOMES CAPABLE ( 
9SPIR+ MILLIONS ( M5 ) HIS HI< 5?USIASM4 ,HE MAKES !M FEEL 
:AT IS BE/ 9 !M & AWAK5S !IR DESIRE TO BECOME BETT] /ILL4 ,HE 
PRODUCES 9 !M ?OSE V]Y EC/ASIES :I* W]E =M]LY CONSID]$ AS 
BELONG+ EXCLUSIVELY TO ! PROV9CE ( RELIGION4 :AT >E1 9DE$1 ! 
,PSALMS1 :I* >E (T5 DESCRIB$ AS ! HI<E/ EXPRESSION ( RELIGI\S 
FEEL+1 OR ! MORE POETICAL PORTIONS ( ! SACR$ BOOKS ( ! ,EA/1 
BUT ATTEMPTS TO EXPRESS MAN'S EC/ASY AT ! CONTEMPLATION ( ! 
UNIV]SE-! FIR/ AWAK5+ ( HIS S5SE ( ! POETRY ( NATURE8 

,! NE$ ( REALI/IC E?ICS WAS FELT FROM ! V]Y DAWN ( ! 
SCI5TIFIC REVIVAL1 :5 ,BACON1 AT ! SAME TIME ?AT HE LAID ! 
F\NDATIONS ( ! PRES5T ADVANCEM5T ( SCI5CES1 9DICAT$ ALSO ! 
MA9 \TL9ES ( EMPIRICAL E?ICS1 P]HAPS ) LESS ?OR\<NESS ?AN 
?IS WAS DONE BY HIS FOLL[]S1 BUT ) A WID? ( CONCEPTION :I* FEW 
HAVE BE5 ABLE TO ATTA9 S9CE1 & BEYOND :I* WE HAVE NOT ADVANC$ 
MU* FUR!R 9 \R DAY4 

,! BE/ ?9K]S ( ! SEV5TE5? & ,EI<TE5? C5TURIES 
CONT9U$ ON ! SAME L9ES1 ,5DEAVOR+ TO WOR? \T SY/EMS ( 
E?ICS 9DEP5D5T ( ! IMP]ATIVES ( RELIGION4 ,9 ,5GL& ,HOBBES1 
,CUDWOR?1 ,LOCKE1 ,%AFTESBURY1 ,PALEY1 ,HUT*ESON1 ,HUME1 & ,ADAM ,SMI? 
BOLDLY ATTA*$ ! PROBLEM ON ALL SIDES4 ,!Y 9DICAT$ ! NATURAL 
S\RCES ( ! MORAL S5SE1 & 9 !IR DET]M9ATIONS ,( ! MORAL 
,5DS !Y 7EXCEPT ,PALEY7 MO/LY /OOD ON ! SAME EMPIRICAL GR\ND4 ,!Y 
5DEAVOR$ TO COMB9E 9 V>I$ WAYS ! 09TELLECTUALISM0 & 
UTILIT>IANISM ( ,LOCKE ) ! 0MORAL S5SE0 & S5SE ( BEAUTY ( 
,HUT*ESON1 ! 0!ORY ( ASSOCIATION0 ( ,H>TLEY1 & ! E?ICS ( 
FEEL+ ( ,%AFTESBURY4 ,SPEAK+ ( ! 5DS ( E?ICS1 SOME ( !M 
ALREADY M5TION$ ! 0H>MONY0 BETWE5 SELF-LOVE & REG>D = 
FELL[M51 :I* ACQUIR$ SU* AN IMPORTANCE 9 ! MORAL !ORIES ( 
! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 & CONSID]$ IT 9 CONNECTION ) ,HUT*ESON'S 
0EMOTION ( APPROBATION10 OR ! 0SYMPA?Y0 ( ,HUME & ,ADAM ,SMI?4 ,& 
F9ALLY1 IF !Y F\ND A DIFFICULTY 9 EXPLA9+ ! S5SE ,( DUTY ON A 
RATIONAL BASIS1 !Y RESORT$ TO ! E>LY 9FLU5CES ( RELIGION OR TO 
SOME 09BORN S5SE10 OR TO SOME V>IETY ( ,HOBBE'S !ORY1 :I* REG>DS 
LAW AS ! PR9CIPAL CAUSE ( ! =MATION ( SOCIETY1 :ILE 
CONSID]+ ! PRIMITIVE SAVAGE AS AN UNSOCIAL ANIMAL4 

,! ,FR5* ,5CYCLOP$I/S & MAT]IALI/S DISCUSS$ ! PROBLEM ON ! 
SAME ,L9ES1 ONLY 9SI/+ MORE ON SELF-LOVE & TRY+ TO F9D ! 
SYN!SIS ( ! OPPOS$ T5D5CIES ( HUMAN NATURE3 ! N>R[-EGOI/IC 
& ! SOCIAL4 ,SOCIAL LIFE !Y MA9TA9$ 9V>IABLY FAVORS ! 
DEVELOPM5T ( ! BETT] SIDES ( HUMAN NATURE4 ,R\SSEAU4 ) HIS 
RATIONAL RELIGION1 /OOD AS A L9K BETWE5 ! MAT]IALI/S & ! 
9TUITIONI/S1 & BY BOLDLY ATTACK+ ! SOCIAL PROBLEMS ( ! DAY HE 
WON A WID] HE>+ ?AN ANY ONE ( !M4 ,ON ! O!R SIDE EV5 ! 
UTMO/ IDEALI/S1 LIKE ,DESC>TES & HIS PAN!I/ FOLL[] ,SP9OZA1 & 
AT ONE TIME EV5 ! 0TRANSC5D5TALI/- IDEALI/0 ,KANT1 DID NOT TRU/ 
5TIRELY TO ! REVEAL$ ORIG9 ,( ! MORAL IDEALISM & TRI$ TO GIVE 
TO E?ICS A BROAD] F\NDATION1 EV5 ?\< !Y W\LD NOT ,P>T 5TIRELY 
) AN EXTRA-HUMAN ORIG9 ( ! MORAL LAW4 

,! SAME 5DEAVOR T[>DS F9D+ A REALI/IC BASIS = E?ICS BECAME 
EV5 MORE PRON\NC$ 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY1 :5 QUITE A NUMB] ( 
IMPORTANT E?ICAL SY/EMS W]E WORK$ \T ON ! DIFF]5T BASES ( 
RATIONAL SELF-LOVE1 LOVE ( HUMANITY 7,AUGU/E ,COMTE1 ,LITTRE & A GREAT 
NUMB] ( M9OR FOLL[]S71 SYMPA?Y & 9TELLECTUAL ID5TIFICATION ( 
ONE'S P]SONALITY ) MANK9D 7,S*OP5HAU]71 UTILIT>IANISM 
7,B5?AM & ,MILL71 & EVOLUTION 7,D>W91 ,SP5C]1 ,GUYAU71 TO SAY 
NO?+ ( ! SY/EMS REFLECT+ MORALITY1 ORIG9AT+ 9 ,LA 
,RO*EF\CAU,ID & ,M&EVILLE & DEVELOP$ 9 ! N9ETE5? C5T5>Y 
BY ,NIETZS*E & SEV]AL O!RS1 :O TRI$ TO E/ABLI% A HI<] MORAL 
/&>D BY !IR BOLD ATTACKS AGA9/ ! CURR5T HALF-HE>T$ MORAL 
CONCEPTIONS1 & BY A VIGOR\S ASS]TION ( ! SUPREME RI<TS ( ! 
9DIVIDUAL4 

,TWO ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY E?ICAL SY/EMS-,COMTE'S POSITIVISM & 
,B5?AM'S UTILIT>IANISM- EX]CIS$1 AS IS KN[N1 A DEEP 9FLU5CE UPON 
! C5TURY'S ?\<T1 & ! =M] IMPRESS$ ) ITS [N /AMP ALL 
! SCI5TIFIC RESE>*ES :I* MAKE ! GLORY ( MOD]N SCI5CE4 ,!Y 
ALSO GAVE ORIG9 TO A V>IETY ( SUB-SY/EMS1 SO ?AT MO/ MOD]N 
WRIT]S ( M>K 9 PSY*OLOGY1 EVOLUTION1 OR AN?ROPOLOGY HAVE 5RI*$ 
E?ICAL LIT]ATURE ) SOME MORE OR LESS ORIG9AL RESE>*ES1 ( A HI< 
/&>D1 AS IS ! CASE ) ,FEU]BA*1 ,BA91 ,LESLIE ,/EPH51 ,PR\DHON1 
,WUNDT1 ,SIDGWICK1 ,GUYAU1 ,JODL1 & SEV]AL O!RS4 ,NUMB]S ( E?ICAL 
SOCIETIES W]E ALSO />T$ = A WID] PROPAG&A ( EMPIRICAL E?ICS 
7I4 E41 NOT BAS$ ON RELIGION74 ,AT ! SAME TIME1 AN IMM5SE MOVEM5T1 
*IEFLY ECONOMICAL 9 ITS ORIG9S1 BUT DEEPLY E?ICAL 9 ITS SUB/ANCE1 
WAS BORN 9 ! FIR/ HALF ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY UND] ! NAMES ( 
,F\RI]ISM1 ,SA9T-,SIMONISM1 & ,[5ISM1 & LAT] ON ( 9T]NATIONAL 
SOCIALISM & AN>*ISM4 ,?IS MOVEM5T1 :I* IS SPREAD+ MORE & 
MORE1 AIMS1 ) ! SUPPORT ( ! WORK+ M5 ( ALL NATIONS1 NOT ONLY 
TO REVISE ! V]Y F\NDATIONS ( ! CURR5T E?ICAL CONCEPTIONS4 HUT 
ALSO TO REMODEL LIFE 9 SU* A WAY ?AT A NEW PAGE 9 ! E?ICAL LIFE 
( MANK9D MAY BE OP5$4 

,IT W\LD SEEM1 !RE=E1 ?AT S9CE SU* A NUMB] ( RATIONALI/ E?ICAL 
SY/EMS HAVE GR[N UP 9 ! C\RSE ( ! LA/ TWO C5TURIES1 IT IS IMPOSSIBLE 
TO APPROA* ! SUBJECT ONCE MORE )\T FALL+ 9TO A M]E REPETITION OR A 
M]E RECOMB9ATION ( FRAGM5TS ( ALREADY ADVOCAT$ S*EMES4 ,H[EV]1 ! V]Y 
FACT ?AT EA* ( ! MA9 SY/EMS PRODUC$ 9 ! N9ETE5? C5TURY-! 
POSITIVISM ( ,COMTE1 ! UTILIT>IANISM ( ,B5?AM & ,MILL1 & ! ALTRUI/IC 
EVOLUTIONISM1 I4 E41 ! !ORY ( ! SOCIAL DEVELOPM5T ( MORALITY1 ( 
,D>W91 ,SP5C]1 & ,GUYAU-HAS ADD$ SOME?+ IMPORTANT TO ! CONCEPTIONS 
WORK$ \T BY ITS PR$ECESSORS1-PROVES ?AT ! MATT] IS F> FROM BE+ 
EXHAU/$4 

,EV5 IF WE TAKE ! LA/ ?REE SY/EMS ONLY1 WE CANNOT BUT SEE ?AT ,SP5C] 
FAIL$ TO TAKE ADVANTAGE ( SOME ( ! H9TS :I* >E F\ND 9 ! REM>KABLE 
SKET* ( E?ICS GIV5 BY ,D>W9 9 0,! ,DESC5T ( ,MAN20 :ILE ,GUYAU 
9TRODUC$ 9TO MORALS SU* AN IMPORTANT ELEM5T AS ?AT ( AN OV]FL[ ( 
5]GY 9 FEEL+1 ?\<T1 OR WILL1 :I* HAD NOT BE5 TAK5 9TO ACC\NT BY 
HIS PR$ECESSORS4 ,IF EV]Y NEW SY/EM ?US CONTRIBUTES SOME NEW & VALUABLE 
ELEM5T1 ?IS V]Y FACT PROVES ?AT E?ICAL SCI5CE IS NOT YET CON/ITUT$ ,9 
FACT1 IT NEV] WILL BE1 BECAUSE NEW FACTORS & NEW T5D5CIES ALWAYS HAVE TO 
BE TAK5 9TO ACC\NT 9 PROPORTION AS MANK9D ADVANCES 9 ITS EVOLUTION4 

,?AT1 AT ! SAME TIME1 NONE ( ! E?ICAL SY/EMS :I* W BR\<T 
=W>D 9 ! C\RSE ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY HAS SATISFI$ BE IT ONLY 
! $UCAT$ FRACTION ( ! CIVILIZ$ NATIONS1 H>DLY NE$ BE 9SI/$ 
UPON4 ,TO SAY NO?+ ( ! NUM]\S PHILOSOPHICAL WORKS 9 :I* 
DISSATISFACTION ) MOD]N E?ICS HAS BE5 EXPRESS$1#a ! BE/ PRO( ( 
IT IS ! DECID$ RETURN TO IDEALISM :I* WE SEE AT ! 5D ( ! 
N9ETE5? C5TURY4 ,! ABS5CE ( POETICAL 9SPIRATION 9 ! 
POSITIVISM ( ,LITTRE & ,H]B]T ,SP5C] & !IR 9CAPACITY TO COPE 
) ! GREAT PROBLEMS ( \R PRES5T CIVILIZATION2 ! N>R[NESS 
:I* *>ACT]IZES ! *IEF PHILOSOPH] ( EVOLUTION1 ,SP5C]1 9 
SOME1 ( HIS VIEWS2 NAY1 ! REPUDIATION BY ! LATT]-DAY POSITIVI/S 
( ! HUMANIT>IAN !ORIES :I* DI/+UI%$ ! EI<TE5?-C5TURY 
,5CYCLOP$I/S ALL !SE HAVE HELP$ TO CREATE A /RONG REACTION 9 
FAVOR ( A SORT ( MY/ICO-RELIGI\S IDEALISM4 ,AS ,F\ILLEE V]Y JU/LY 
REM>KS1 A ONE-SID$ 9T]PRETATION ( ,D>W9ISM1 :I* WAS GIV5 TO IT 
BY ! M PROM95T REPRES5TATIVES ( ! EVOLUTIONI/ S*OOL1 7)\T 
A WORD ( PROTE/ COM+ FROM ,D>W9 HIMSELF = ! FIR/ TWELVE YE>S 
AFT] ! APPE>ANCE ( HIS 0,ORIG9 ( ,SPECIES071 GAVE /ILL MORE =CE 
TO OPPON5TS ( ! NATURAL 9T]PRETATION ( ! MORAL NATURE ( 
MAN1-SO-CALL$ 0NATURISM40 

,BEG9N+ AS A PROTE/ AGA9/ SOME MI/AKES ( ! NATURALI/ PHILOSOPHY1 ! 
CRITIQUE SOON BECAME A CAMPAIGN AGA9/ PROTE/ KN[L$GE ALTOGE!R4 ,! 
0FAILURE ( SCI5CE0 WAS TRIUMPHANT ANN\NC$4 ,H[EV]1 ! SCI5TI/S KN[ 
?AT EV]Y EXACT SCI5CE MOVES FROM ONE APPROXIMATION TO ANO!R1 I4 E41 FROM A 
FIR/ APPROXIMATE EXPLANATION ( A :OLE S]IES ( PH5OM5A TO ! NEXT MORE 
ACCURATE APPROXIMATION4 ,BUT ?IS SIMPLE TRU? IS COMPLETELY IGNOR$ BY ! 
0BELIEV]S10 & 9 G5]AL BY LOV]S ( MY/ICISM4 ,HAV+ LE>N$ ?AT 
9ACCURACIES HAVE BE5 DISCOV]$ 9 ! FIR/ APPROXIMATION1 !Y HA/5 TO 
PROCLAIM ! 0BANKRUPTCY ( SCI5CE0 9 G5]AL4 ,:]EAS1 ! SCI5TI/S KN[ 
?AT ! MO/ EXACT SCI5CES1 SU* AS1 = EXAMPLE1 A/RONOMY1 FOLL[ JU/ ?IS 
ROAD ( SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATIONS4 ,IT WAS A GREAT DISCOV]Y TO F9D \T ?AT 
ALL ! PLANETS MOVE >\ND ! SUN1 & IT WAS ! FIR/ 0APPROXIMATION0 TO 
SUPPOSE ?AT !Y FOLL[ CIRCUL> PA?S4 ,!N IT WAS DISCOV]$ ?AT !Y MOVE 
ALONG SOME:AT OBLONG CIRCLES1 I4 E41 ELLIPSES1 & ?IS WAS ! SECOND 
0APPROXIMATION40 ,?IS WAS FOLL[$ BY ! ?IRD APPROXIMATION :5 WE LE>N$ 
?AT ! PLANETS FOLL[ A WAVY C\RSE1 ALWAYS DEVIAT+ TO ONE OR ! O!R 
SIDE ( ! ELLIPSE1 & NEV] RETRAC+ EXACTLY ! SAME PA?2 & N[1 AT 
LA/1 :5 WE KN[ ?AT ! SUN IS NOT MOTIONLESS1 BUT IS ITSELF FLY+ ?R\< 
SPACE1 ! A/RONOM]S >E 5DEAVOR+ TO DET]M9E ! NATURE & ! POSITION 
( ! SPIRALS ALONG :I* ! PLANETS >E TRAVEL+ 9 DESCRIB+ SLI<TLY 
WAVY ELLIPSES >\ND ! SUN4 

,SIMIL> APPROXIMATIONS FROM ONE NE> SOLUTION ( ! PROBLEM TO ! 
NEXT1 MORE ACCURATE ONE1 >E PRACTIC$ 9 ALL SCI5CES4 ,?US1 = 
EXAMPLE1 ! NATURAL SCI5CES >E N[ REVIS+ ! 0FIR/ 
APPROXIMATIONS0 CONC]N+ LIFE1 PHYSICAL ACTIVITY1 EVOLUTION ( PLANT 
& ANIMAL =MS1 ! /RUCTURE ( MATT]1 & SO ON1 :I* W]E >RIV$ 
AT 9 ! YE>S #a#h#e#f-#f#b1 & :I* MU/ BE REVIS$ N[ 9 ORD] TO REA* 
! NEXT1 DEEP] G5]ALIZATIONS4 ,& SO ?IS REVISION WAS TAK5 
ADVANTAGE ( BY SOME PEOPLE :O KN[ LITTLE1 TO CONV9CE O!RS :O KN[ 
/ILL LESS1 ?AT SCI5CE1 9 G5]AL1 HAS FAIL$ 9 ITS ATTEMPT$ 
SOLUTIONS ( ALL ! GREAT PROBLEMS4 

,AT PRES5T A GREAT MANY 5DEAVOR TO SUB/ITUTE = SCI5CE 09TUITION10 
I4 E41 SIMPLY GUESS WORK & BL9D FAI?4 ,GO+ BACK FIR/ TO ,KANT1 !N 
TO ,S*ELL+1 & EV5 TO ,LOTZE1 NUMB]S ( WRIT]S HAVE ( LATE BE5 
PREA*+ 0SPIRITUALISM10 09DET]M9ISM10 0APRIORISM10 0P]SONAL 
IDEALISM10 09TUITION10 & SO ON-PROV+ ?AT FAI?1 & NOT SCI5CE1 
IS ! S\RCE ( ALL TRUE KN[L$GE4 ,RELIGI\S FAI? ITSELF IS F\ND 
9SUFFICI5T4 ,IT IS ! MY/ICISM ( ,/4 ,B]N>D OR ( ! ,NEO-,PLATONI/ 
:I* IS N[ 9 DEM&4 0,SYMBOLISM10 0! SUBTLE10 0! 
9COMPREH5SIBLE0 >E S\<T =4 ,EV5 ! BELIEF 9 ! M$IEVAL ,SATAN 
WAS RESUSCITAT$4#b 

,IT IS TRUE ?AT NONE ( !SE CURR5TS ( ?\<T OBTA9$ A WIDESPREAD HOLD 
UPON ! M9DS ( \R CONTEMPOR>IES2 BUT WE C]TA9LY SEE PUBLIC OP9ION 
FLOAT+ BETWE5 ! TWO EXTREMES-BETWE5 A DESP]ATE EF=T1 ON ! ONE SIDE1 
TO =CE ONESELF TO RETURN TO ! OBSCURE CRE$S ( ! ,MIDDLE ,AGES1 ) !IR 
FULL ACCOMPANIM5T ( SUP]/ITION1 IDOLATRY1 & EV5 MAGIC2 &1 ON ! 
OPPOSITE EXTREME4 A GLORIFICATION ( 0A-MORALISM0 
& A REVIVAL ( ?AT WOR%IP ( 0SUP]IOR NATURES10 N[ 9VE/$ ) ! 
NAMES ( 0SUP]M50 OR 0SUP]IOR 9DIVIDUALIZATIONS10 :I* ,EUROPE HAD LIV$ 
?R\< 9 ! TIMES ( ,BYRONISM & E>LY ,ROMANTICISM4 

,IT APPE>S1 !RE=E1 MORE NECESS>Y ?AN EV] TO SEE IF ! PRES5T 
SKEPTICISM AS TO ! AU?ORITY ( SCI5CE 9 E?ICAL QUE/IONS IS WELL F\ND$1 
& :E!R SCI5CE DOES NOT CONTA9 ALREADY ! ELEM5TS ( A SY/EM ( E?ICS 
:I*1 IF IT W]E PROP]LY =MULAT$1 W\LD RESPOND TO ! NE$S ( ! 
PRES5T DAY4 

,! LIMIT$ SUCCESS ( ! V>I\S E?ICAL SY/EMS :I* W]E BORN 9 
! C\RSE ( ! LA/ HUNDR$ YE>S %[S ?AT MAN CANNOT BE SATISFI$ 
) A M]E NATURALI/IC EXPLANATION ( ! ORIG9S ( ! MORAL 
9/9CT4 ,HE MEANS TO HAVE A JU/IFICATION  ( IT4 ,SIMPLY TO TRACE ! 
ORIG9 ( \R MORAL FEEL+S1 AS WE TRACE ! P$IGREE ( SOME 
/RUCTURAL FEATURE 9 A FL[]1 & TO SAY ?AT SU*-&- SU* CAUSES 
HAVE CONTRIBUT$ TO ! GR[? & REF9EM5T ( ! MORAL S5SE11 IS 
NOT 5\<4 ,MAN WANTS TO HAVE A CRIT]ION = JUDG+ ! MORAL 9/9CT 
ITSELF4 ,:]ETO DOES IT LEAD US8 ,IS IT T[>DS A DESIRABLE 5D1 OR 
T[>DS SOME?+ :I*1 AS SOME CRITICS SAY1 W\LD ONLY RESULT 9 ! 
WEAK5+ ( ! RACE & ITS ULTIMATE DECAY8 

,IF /RUGGLE = LIFE & ! EXT]M9ATION ( ! PHYSICALLY WEAK WEAKE/ IS 
! LAW ( ,NATURE1 & REPRES5TS A CONDITION ( PROGRESS1 IS NOT !N ! 
CESSATION ( ! /RUGGLE1 & ! 09DU/RIAL /ATE0 :I* ,COMTE & ,SP5C] 
PROMISE US1 ! V]Y BEG9N+ ( ! DECAY ( ! HUMAN RACE-AS ,NIETZS*E HAS 
SO =CIBLY CONCLUD$8 ,& IF SU* AN 5D IS UNDESIRABLE1 MU/ WE NOT PROCE$1 
9DE$1 TO A REVALUATION ( ALL ?OSE MORAL 0VALUES0 :I* T5D TO R$UCE ! 
/RUGGLE1 OR TO R5D] IT LESS PA9FUL8 

,! MA9 PROBLEM ( MOD]N REALI/IC E?ICS IS ?US1 AS HAS BE5 REM>K$ BY 
,WUNDT 9 HIS 0,E?ICS10 TO DET]M9E1 FIR/ ( ALL1 ! MORAL 5D  9 VIEW4 ,BUT 
?IS 5D OR 5DS1 H[EV] IDEAL !Y MAY BE1 & H[EV] REMOTE !IR FULL 
REALIZATION1 MU/ BELONG TO ! WORLD ( REALITIES4 

,! 5D ( MORALS CANNOT BE 0TRANSC5D5TAL10 AS ! IDEALI/S DESIRE IT 
TO BE3 IT MU/ BE REAL4 ,WE MU/ F9D MORAL SATISFACTION 9 
LIFE  & NOT 9 SOME =M ( EXTRA-VITAL CONDITION4 

,:5 ,D>W9 ?REW 9TO CIRCULATION ! IDEA ( 0/RUGGLE = EXI/5CE10 
& REPRES5T$ ?IS /RUGGLE AS ! MA9SPR+ ( PROGRESSIVE 
EVOLUTION1 HE AGITAT$ ONCE MORE ! GREAT OLD QUE/ION AS TO ! MORAL 
OR IMMORAL ASPECTS ( ,NATURE4 ,! ORIG9 ( ! CONCEPTIONS ( GOOD & 
EVIL1 :I* HAD EX]CIS$ ! BE/ M9DS S9CE ! TIMES ( ! 
,Z5D-,AVE/A1 WAS BR\<T ONCE SNORE UND] DISCUSSION ) A R5EW$ 
VIGOR1 & ) A GREAT] DEP? ( CONCEPTION ?AN EV]4 ,NATURE WAS 
REPRES5T$ BY ! ,D>W9I/S AS AN IMM5SE BATTLEFIELD UPON :I* ONE 
SEES NO?+ BUT AN 9CESSANT /RUGGLE = LIFE & AN EXT]M9ATION ( 
! WEAK ONES BY ! /RONGE/1 ! SWIFTE/1 & ! CUNN+E/3 EVIL 
WAS ! ONLY LESSON :I* MAN C\LD GET FROM ,NATURE4 

,!SE IDEAS1 AS IS KN[N1 BECAME V]Y WIDELY SPREAD4 ,BUT IF !Y >E TRUE1 ! 
EVOLUTIONI/ PHILOSOPH] HAS TO SOLVE A DEEP CONTRADICTION :I* HE HIMSELF HAS 
9TRODUC$ 9TO HIS PHILOSOPHY4 ,HE CANNOT D5Y ?AT MAN IS POSSESS$ ( A 
HI<] CONCEPTION ( 0GOOD10 & ?AT A FAI? 9 ! GRADUAL TRIUMPH ( ! 
GOOD PR9CIPLE IS DEEPLY SEAT$ 9 HUMAN NATURE1 & HE HAS TO EXPLA9 :5CE 
ORIG9ATES ?IS CONCEPTION ( GOOD & ?IS FAI? 9 PROGRESS4 ,I ,HE CANNOT BE 
LULL$ 9TO 9DIFF]5CE BY ! ,EPICUREAN HOPE1 EXPRESS$ BY 
,T5NYSON--?AT 0SOMEH[ GOOD WILL BE ! F9AL GOAL ( ILL40 ,NOR CAN HE 
REPRES5T TO HIMSELF ,NATURE1 0R$ 9 TOO? & CLAW10--AS WROTE ! SAME 
,T5NYSON & ! ,D>W9IAN ,HUXLEY1--AT /RIFE EV]Y:]E ) ! GOOD 
PR9CIPLE--! V]Y NEGATION ( IT 9 EV]Y LIV+ BE+--& /ILL 
MA9TA9 ?AT ! GOOD PR9CIPLE WILL BE TRIUMPHANT 09 ! LONG RUN40 ,HE MU/ 
EXPLA9 ?IS CONTRADICTION4 

,BUT IF A SCI5TI/ MA9TA9S ?AT 0! ONLY LESSON :I* ,NATURE GIVES TO 
MAN IS ONE ( EVIL10 !N HE NECESS>ILY HAS TO ADMIT ! EXI/5CE ( 
SOME O!R1 EXTRA-NATURAL1 OR SUP]-NATURAL 9FLU5CE :I* 9SPIRES MAN 
) CONCEPTIONS ( 0SUPREME GOOD10 & GUIDES HUMAN DEVELOPM5T T[>DS 
A HI<] GOAL4 ,& 9 ?IS WAY HE NULLIFIES HIS [N ATTEMPT AT 
EXPLA9+ EVOLUTION BY ! ACTION ( NATURAL =CES ONLY4#c 

,9 REALITY1 H[EV]1 ?+S DO NOT /& SO BADLY AS ?AT1 = ! 
!ORY ( EVOLUTION DOES NOT AT ALL LEAD TO ! CONTRADICTIONS SU* AS 
?OSE TO :I* ,HUXLEY WAS DRIV51 BECAUSE ! /UDY ( NATURE DOES NOT 
9 ! LEA/ CONFIRM ! ABOVE-M5TION$ PESSIMI/IC VIEW ( ITS C\RSE1 
AS ,D>W9 HIMSELF 9DICAT$ 9 HIS SECOND WORK1 0,! ,DESC5T ( ,MAN40 
,! CONCEPTIONS ( ,T5NYSON & ,HUXLEY >E 9COMPLETE1 ONE-SID$1 & 
CONSEQU5TLY WRONG4 ,! VIEW IS1 MOREOV]1 UNSCI5TIFIC1 = ,D>W9 
HIMSELF PO9T$ \T ! O!R ASPECT ( ,NATURE 9 A SPECIAL *APT] ( 
0,! ,DESC5T ( ,MAN40 ,!RE IS1 HE %[$1 9 ,NATURE ITSELF1 ANO!R SET 
( FACTS1 P>ALLEL TO ?OSE ( MUTUAL /RUGGLE1 BUT HAV+ A QUITE 
DIFF]5T MEAN+3 ! FACTS ( MUTUAL SUPPORT )9 ! SPECIES1 :I* 
>E EV5 MORE IMPORTANT ?AN ! =M]1 ON ACC\NT ( !IR 
SIGNIFICANCE = ! WELF>E ( ! SPECIES & ITS MA9T5ANCE4 ,?IS 
EXTREMELY IMPORTANT IDEA1-TO :I*1 H[EV]1 MO/ ,D>W9I/S REFUSE TO 
PAY ATT5TION1 & :I* ,ALFR$ ,RUSSEL ,WALLACE EV5 D5IES1-,I ATTEMPT$ 
TO DEVELOP FUR!R1 & TO SUB/ANTIATE ) A GREAT NUMB] ( FACTS 9 
A S]IES ( ESSAYS 9 :I* ,I 5DEAVOR$ TO BR+ 9TO EVID5CE ! 
IMM5SE IMPORTANCE ( ,MUTUAL ,AID = ! PRES]VATION ( BO? ! ANIMAL 
SPECIES & ! HUMAN RACE1 & /ILL MORE SO = !IR PROGRESSIVE 
EVOLUTION4#d 

,)\T TRY+ TO M9IMIZE ! FACT ?AT AN IMM5SE NUMB] ( ANIMALS LIVE 
EI!R UPON SPECIES BELONG+ TO SOME L[] DIVISION ( ! ANIMAL K+DOM1 OR 
UPON SOME SMALL] SPECIES ( ! SAME CLASS AS !MSELVES1 ,I 9DICAT$ ?AT 
W>F>E 9 ,NATURE IS *IEFLY LIMIT$ TO /RUGGLE BETWE5 DIFF]5T SPECIES1 BUT 
?AT )9 EA* SPECIES1 & )9 ! GR\PS ( DIFF]5T SPECIES :I* WE 
F9D LIV+ TOGE!R1 ! PRACTICE ( MUTUAL AID IS ! RULE1 & !RE=E 
?IS LA/ ASPECT ( ANIMAL LIFE PLAYS A F> GREAT] P>T %ALL DOES W>F>E 9 
! ECONOMY ( ,NATURE4 ,IT IS ALSO MORE G5]AL1 NOT ONLY ON ACC\NT ( ! 
IMM5SE NUMB]S ( SOCIABLE SPECIES1 SU* AS ! RUM9ANTS1 MO/ ROD5TS1 MANY 
BIRDS1 ! ANTS1 ! TREES1 & SO ON1 :I* DO NOT PREY AT ALL UPON !IR 
ANIMALS1 & ! OV]:ELM+ NUMB]S ( 9DIVIDUALS :I* ALL SOCIABLE SPECIES 
CONTA91 BUT ALSO BECAUSE NE>LY ALL C>NIVOR\S & RAPACI\S SPECIES1 & 
ESPECIALLY ?OSE ( !M :I* >E NOT 9 DECAY [+ TO A RAPID EXT]M9ATION 
BY MAN OR TO SOME O!R CAUSE1 ALSO PRACTICE IT TO SOME EXT5T4 ,MUTUAL AID IS 
! PR$OM9ANT FACT ( NATURE4 

,IF MUTUAL SUPPORT IS SO G5]AL 9 ,NATURE1 IT IS BECAUSE IT (F]S SU* 
IMM5SE ADVANTAGES TO ALL ?OSE ANIMALS :I* PRACTICE IT1 ?AT IT 
5TIRELY UPSETS ! BALANCE ( P[] TO ! DISADVANTAGE ( ! 
PR$ATORY  CREATURES4 ,IT REPRES5TS ! BE/ WEAPON 9 ! GREAT /RUGGLE 
= LIFE :I* CONT9UALLY HAS TO BE C>RI$ ON 9 ,NATURE AGA9/ 
CLIMATE1 9UNDATIONS1 /ORMS1 FRO/1 & ! LIKE1 & CONT9UALLY 
REQUIRES NEW ADAPTATIONS TO ! EV]-*ANG+ CONDITIONS ( EXI/5CE4 
,!RE=E1 TAK5 AS A :OLE1 ,NATURE IS BY NO MEANS AN ILLU/RATION ( 
! TRIUMPH ( PHYSICAL =CE1 SWIFTNESS1 CUNN+1 OR ANY O!R FEATURE 
USEFUL 9 W>F>E4 ,IT SEEMS1 ON ! CONTR>Y1 ?AT SPECIES DECID$LY 
WEAK1 SU* AS ! ANT1 ! BEE1 ! PIGEON1 ! CLUCK1 ! M>MOT & 
O!R ROD5TS1 ! GAZELLE1 ! DE]1 ETC41 HAV+ NO PROTECTIVE >MOR1 
NO /RONG BEAK OR FANG = SELF-DEF5SE1-& NOT AT ALL 
W>LIKE-NEV]!LESS1 SUCCE$ BE/ 9 ! /RUGGLE = LIFE2 & [+ 
TO !IR SOCIALITY & MUTUAL PROTECTION1 !Y EV5 DISPLACE MU* MORE 
P[]FULLY-BUILT COMPETITORS & 5EMIES4 ,&1 F9ALLY1 WE CAN TAKE IT 
AS PROV$ ?AT :ILE /RUGGLE = LIFE LEADS 9DIFF]5TLY TO BO? 
PROGRESSIVE & REGRESSIVE EVOLUTION1 ! PRACTICE ( MUTUAL AID IS ! 
AG5CY :I* ALWAYS LEADS TO PROGRESSIVE DEVELOPM5T4 ,IT IS ! MA9 
FACTOR 9 ! PROGRESSIVE EVOLUTION ( ! ANIMAL K+DOM1 9 ! 
DEVELOPM5T ( LONGEVITY1 9TELLIG5CE1 & ( ?AT :I* WE CALL ! 
HI<] TYPE 9 ! *A9 ( LIV+ CREATURES4 ,NO BIOLOGI/ HAS SO F> 
REFUT$ ?IS CONT5TION ( M9E4#e 

,BE+ ?US NECESS>Y = ! PRES]VATION  ! 
WELF>E1 & ! PROGRESSIVE DEVELOPM5T ( EV]Y SPECIES1 ! 
MUTUAL-AID 9/9CT HAS BECOME :AT ,D>W9 DESCRIB$ AS 0A P]MAN5T 
9/9CT10 :I* IS ALWAYS AT WORK  9 ALL SOCIAL ANIMALS1 & ESPECIALLY 
9 MAN4 ,HAV+ ITS ORIG9 AT ! V]Y BEG9N+S ( ! EVOLUTION ( ! 
ANIMAL WORLD1 IT IS C]TA9LY AN 9/9CT AS DEEPLY SEAT$ 9 ANIMALS1 
L[ & HI<1 AS ! 9/9CT ( MAT]NAL LOVE2 P]HAPS EV5 DEEP]1 
BECAUSE IT IS PRES5T 9 SU* ANIMALS AS ! MOLLUSKS1 SOME 9SECTS1 & 
MO/ FI%ES1 :I* H>DLY POSSESS ! MAT]NAL 9/9CT AT ALL4 ,D>W9 
WAS !RE=E QUITE RI<T 9 CONSID]+ ?AT ! 9/9CT ( 0MUTUAL 
SYMPA?Y0 IS MORE P]MAN5TLY  AT WORK 9 ! SOCIAL ANIMALS ?AN EV5 
! PURELY EGOTI/IC 9/9CT ( DIRECT SELF-PRES]VATION4 ,HE SAW 9 IT1 
AS IS KN[N1 ! RUDIM5TS ( ! MORAL CONSCI5CE1 :I* CONSID]ATION 
IS1 UN=TUNATELY1 TOO (T5 =GOTT5 BY ! ,D>W9I/S4 

,BUT ?IS IS NOT ALL4 ,9 ! SAME 9/9CT WE HAVE ! ORIG9 ( ?OSE 
FEEL+S ( B5EVOL5CE & ( ?AT P>TIAL ID5TIFICATION ( ! 
9DIVIDUAL ) ! GR\P :I* >E ! />T+-PO9T ( ALL ! HI<] 
E?ICAL FEEL+S4 ,IT IS UPON ?IS F\NDATION ?AT ! HI<] S5SE ( 
JU/ICE1 OR EQUITY1 IS DEVELOP$1 AS WELL AS ?AT :I* IT IS CU/OM>Y 
TO CALL SELF-SACRIFICE4 ,:5 WE SEE ?AT SCORES ( ?\S&S ( 
DIFF]5T AQUATIC BIRDS COME 9 BIG FLOCKS FROM ! F> ,S\? = 
NE/+ ON ! L$GES ( ! 0BIRD M\NTA9S0 ON ! %ORES ( ! 
,>CTIC ,OCEAN1 & LIVE H]E )\T FI<T+ = ! BE/ POSITIONS2 
?AT SEV]AL FLOCKS ( PELICANS WILL LIVE BY ! SIDE ( ONE ANO!R ON 
! SEA-%ORE1 :ILE EA* FLOCK KEEPS TO ITS ASSIGN$ FI%+ GR\ND2 
& ?AT ?\S&S ( SPECIES ( BIRDS & MAMMALS COME 9 SOME WAY 
)\T FI<T+ TO A C]TA9 >RANGEM5T CONC]N+ !IR FE$+ 
>EAS1 !IR NE/+ PLACE0' !IR NI<T QU>T]S1 & !IR HUNT+ 
GR\NDS2 OR :5 WE SEE ?AT A Y\NG BIRD :I* HAS /OL5 SOME /RAW 
FROM ANO!R BIRD'S NE/ IS ATTACK$ BY ALL ! BIRDS ( ! SAME 
COLONY1 WE CAT* ON ! SPOT ! V]Y ORIG9 & GR[? ( ! S5SE ( 
EQUITY & JU/ICE 9 ANIMAL SOCIETIES4 ,& F9ALLY1 9 PROPORTION AS WE 
ADVANCE 9 EV]Y CLASS ( ANIMALS T[>DS ! HI<] REPRES5TATIVES ( 
?AT CLASS 7! ANTS1 ! WASPS1 & ! BEES AMONG ! 9SECTS1 ! 
CRANES & ! P>ROTS AMONG ! BIRDS1 ! HI<] RUM9ANTS1 ! 
APES1 & !N MAN AMONG ! MAMMALS71 WE F9D ?AT ! ID5TIFICATION 
( ! 9DIVIDUAL ) ! 9T]E/S ( HIS GR\P1 & EV5TUALLY EV5 
SELF-SACRIFICE = IT1 GR[ 9 PROPORTION4 ,9 ?IS CIRCUM/ANCE WE 
CANNOT BUT SEE ! 9DICATION ( ! NATURAL ORIG9 NOT ONLY ( ! 
RUDIM5TS ( E?ICS1 BUT ALSO ( ! HI<] E?ICAL FEEL+S4 

,IT ?US APPE>S ?AT NOT ONLY DOES ,NATURE FAIL TO GIVE US A LESSON ( 
A-MORALISM1 I4 E41 ( ! 9DIFF]5T ATTITUDE TO MORALITY :I* NE$S 
TO BE COMBAT$ BY SOME EXTRA-NATURAL 9FLU5CE1 BUT WE >E B\ND TO 
RECOGNIZE ?AT ! V]Y IDEAS ( BAD & GOOD1 & MAN'S AB/RACTIONS 
CONC]N+ 0! SUPREME GOOD0 HAVE BE5 BORR[$ FROM ,NATURE4 ,!Y >E 
REFLECTIONS 9 ! M9D ( MAN ( :AT HE SAW 9 ANIMAL LIFE & 9 ! 
C\RSE ( HIS SOCIAL LIFE1 & DUE TO IT !SE IMPRESSIONS W]E 
DEVELOP$ 9TO G5]AL CONCEPTIONS ( RI<T & WRONG4 ,& IT %\LD BE 
NOT$ ?AT WE DO NOT MEAN H]E ! P]SONAL JUDGM5TS ( EXCEPTIONAL 
9DIVIDUALS1 BUT ! JUDGM5T ( ! MAJORITY4 ,!Y CONTA9 ! 
FUNDAM5TAL PR9CIPLES ( EQUITY & MUTUAL SYMPA?Y1 :I* APPLY TO ALL 
S5TI5T BE+S1 JU/ AS PR9CIPLES ( ME*ANICS D]IV$ FROM 
OBS]VATION ON ! SURFACE ( ! E>? APPLY TO MATT] 9 ! /ELL> 
SPACES4 

,A SIMIL> CONCEPTION MU/ ALSO APPLY TO ! EVOLUTION ( HUMAN *>ACT] & 
HUMAN 9/ITUTIONS4 ,! DEVELOPM5T ( MAN CAME AB\T 9 ! SAME NATURAL 
5VIRONM5T1 & WAS GUID$ BY IT 9 ! SAME DIRECTION1 :ILE ! V]Y 
9/ITUTIONS = MUTUAL AID & SUPPORT1 =M$4 9 HUMAN SOCIETIES1 MORE & 
MORE CLE>LY DEMON/RAT$ TO MAN TO :AT AN EXT5T HE WAS 9DEBT$ TO !SE 
9/ITUTIONS = HIS /R5G?4 ,9 SU* A SOCIAL 5VIRONM5T ! MORAL ASPECT ( 
MAN WAS MORE & MORE DEVELOP$4 ,ON ! BASIS ( NEW 9VE/IGATIONS 9 ! 
FIELD ( HI/ORY IT IS ALREADY POSSIBLE TO CONCEIVE ! HI/ORY ( MANK9D AS 
! EVOLUTION ( AN E?ICAL FACTOR1 AS ! EVOLUTION ( AN 9H]5T T5D5CY ( 
MAN TO ORGANIZE HIS LIFE ON ! BASIS ( MUTUAL AID1 FIR/ )9 ! TRIBE1 
!N 9 ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY1 & 9 ! REPUBLICS ( ! FREE CITIES1-!SE 
=MS ( SOCIAL ORGANIZATION BECOM+ 9 TURN ! BASES ( FUR!R PROGRESS1 
P]IODS ( RETROGRESSION NOT)/&+4 ,WE C]TA9LY MU/ AB&ON ! IDEA ( 
REPRES5T+ HUMAN HI/ORY AS AN UN9T]RUPT$ *A9 ( DEVELOPM5T FROM ! 
PREHI/ORIC ,/ONE ,AGE TO ! PRES5T TIME4 ,! DEVELOPM5T ( HUMAN SOCIETIES 
WAS NOT CONT9U\S4 ,IT WAS />T$ SEV]AL TIMES ANEW-9 ,9DIA1 ,EGYPT1 
,MESOPOTAMIA1 ,GREECE1 ,ROME1 ,SC&9AVIA1 & 9 ,WE/]N ,EUROPE1 BEG9N+ EA* 
TIME ) ! PRIMITIVE TRIBE & !N ! VILLAGE COMMUNITY4 ,BUT IF WE 
CONSID] EA* ( !SE L9ES SEP>ATELY1 WE C]TA9LY F9D 9 EA* ( !M1 & 
ESPECIALLY 9 ! DEVELOPM5T ( ,EUROPE S9CE ! FALL ( ! ,ROMAN ,EMPIRE1 A 
CONT9UAL WID5+ ( ! CONCEPTION ( MUTUAL SUPPORT & MUTUAL PROTECTION1 
FROM ! CLAN TO ! TRIBE1 ! NATION1 & F9ALLY TO ! 9T]NATIONAL UNION 
( NATIONS4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 NOT)/&+ ! TEMPOR>Y REGRESSIVE 
MOVEM5TS :I* OCCASIONALLY TAKE PLACE1 EV5 9 ! MO/ CIVILIZ$ NATIONS1 
!RE IS-AT LEA/ AMONG ! REPRES5TATIVES ( ADVANC$ ?\<T 9 ! 
CIVILIZ$ WORLD & 9 ! PROGRESSIVE POPUL> MOVEM5TS-! T5D5CY ( ALWAYS 
WID5+ ! CURR5T CONCEPTION ( HUMAN SOLID>ITY & JU/ICE1 & ( 
CON/ANTLY IMPROV+ ! *>ACT] ( \R MUTUAL RELATIONS4 ,WE ALSO M>K ! 
APPE>ANCE1 9 ! =M ( AN IDEAL1 ( ! CONCEPTIONS ( :AT IS DESIRABLE 9 
FUR!R DEVELOPM5T4 

,! V]Y FACT ?AT ! BACKW>D MOVEM5TS :I* TAKE PLACE FROM TIME TO TIME 
>E CONSID]$ BY ! 5LI<T5$ PORTION ( ! POPULATION AS M]E TEMPOR>Y 
ILLNESSES ( ! SOCIAL ORGANISM1 ! RETURN ( :I* MU/ BE PREV5T$ 9 ! 
FUTURE1 PROVES ?AT ! AV]AGE E?ICAL /&>D IS N[ HI<] ?AN IT WAS 9 
! PA/4 ,& 9 PROPORTION AS ! MEANS ( SATISFY+ ! NE$S ( ALL ! 
MEMB]S ( ! CIVILIZ$ COMMUNITIES >E IMPROV$1 & ! WAY IS PREP>$ = 
A /ILL HI<] CONCEPTION ( JU/ICE = ALL1 ! E?ICAL /&>D IS B\ND TO 
BECOME MORE & MORE REF9$4 ,TAK+ ?IS VIEWPO9T ( SCI5TIFIC E?ICS1 MAN 
IS 9 A POSITION NOT ONLY TO REAFFIRM HIS FAI? 9 MORAL PROGRESS1 ALL 
PESSIMI/IC LESSONS TO ! CONTR>Y NOT)/&+1 BUT HE CAN ALSO PUT IT ON 
A SCI5TIFIC BASIS4 ,HE SEES ?AT ?IS BELIEF1 AL?\< IT ORIG9AT$ ONLY 9 
ONE ( ?OSE 9TUITIONS :I* ALWAYS PREC$E SCI5CE1 WAS QUITE CORRECT1 & IS 
N[ CONFIRM$ BY POSITIVE KN[L$GE4 

,FOOTNOTES 

#a,SUFFICI5T TO NAME H]E ! CRITICAL & HI/ORICAL WORKS ( ,PAULS51 ,WUNDT1 ,LESLIE ,/EPH51 ,LI%T5B]G]1 ,F\ILLEE1 ,DE ,ROB]TY1 & SO MANY O!RS4 

#b ,SEE ,A4 ,F\ILLEE1 ,LE 
,M\VEM5T ,IDEALI/E ET LA ,REACTION CONTRE LA ,SCI5CE 
POSITIVE1 #bND $ITION .<,P>IS1 #a#h#i#f.>4 ,PAUL ,DESJ>D9S1 ,LE ,DEVOIR PRES5T1 :I* HAS GONE ?R\< FIVE $ITIONS 9 A %ORT TIME2 .<#f? $41 ,P>IS1 #a#h#i#f.>2 & MANY O!RS4 

#c,?US IT ACTUALLY HAPP5$ ) ,HUXLEY 
9 ! C\RSE ( HIS LECTURE ON ,EV\LTION & ,E?ICS1 :]E HE AT 
FIR/ D5I$ ! PRES5CE ( ANY MORAL PR9CIPLE 9 ! LIFE ( ,NATURE1 
& BY ?AT V]Y ASS]TION WAS COMPELL$ TO ACKN[L$GE ! EXI/5CE ( 
! E?ICAL PR9CIPLE \TSIDE ( NATURE4 ,!N HE RETRACT$ ALSO ?IS 
PO9T ( VIEW 9 A LAT] REM>K1 9 :I* HE RECOGNIZ$  ! 
PRES5CE ( ! E?ICAL PR9CIPLE 9 ! SOCIAL LIFE ( ANIMALS4 .<,VOLUME 
#i ( ,COLLECT$ ,ESSAYS1 ,N4,Y41 CONTA9S ! ESSAY ON ,EVOLUTION 
& ,E?ICS1 WRITT5 9 #a#h#i#c4.>--,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#d,N9ETE5? ,C5TURY1 #a#h#i1 #a#h#i#a1 #a#h#i#b1 #a#h#i#d1 & #a#h#i#f2 & 9 ! BOOK1 ,MUTUAL ,AID3 ,A ,FACTOR ( ,EVOLUTION1 ,LONDON 7,HE9EMANN71 #bND $ITION1 #a#i#d4 .<,MANY LAT] $ITIONS1 ,LONDON & ,N4,Y4.> --,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

#e,SEE REM>KS 9 ?IS CONNECTION BY ,LLOYD ,MORGAN & MY REPLY TO !M4 .<,CONWY ,L4 ,MORGAN1 ,ANIMAL ,BEHAVIOR1 ,LONDON #a#i1 PP4 #bbg FF4 ,! REPLY IS F\ND 9 ONE ( ! NOTES TO ,MUTUAL ,AID4.>--,TRANS4 ,NOTE4 

,FROM 3 ,AN>*Y ,>*IVES4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,NOVEMB] #c1 #aibc 3 ,*APT] #a -- ,PUBLICATION4 
,JANU>Y #a#d1 #bag 3 ,*APT] #a -- ,ADD$4 

 FILE G5]AT$ FROM 3  
HTTP3_/_/REVOLTLIB4COM_/