,DEBUNK+ ,DEMOCRACY 

#baa 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,BOB ,BLACK 

,TEXT 3 

,= ! FIR/ TIME 9 HI/ORY1 0NE>LY EV]YONE TODAY PR(ESSES TO BE A DEMOCRAT40 .<#a.> ,PR(ESSORS PR(ESS DEMOCRACY PR(USELY1 AL?\< !Y KEEP IT (F CAMPUS4 ,DEMOCRACY--TRULY1 0?AT WORD CAN MEAN ANY?+40 .<#b.> ,EV5 ,NOR? ,KOREA CALLS ITSELF A ,DEMOCRATIC ,PEOPLE'S ,REPUBLIC4 ,DEMOCRACY GOES ) EV]Y?+4 ,= *AMPIONS ( CAPITALISM1 DEMOCRACY IS 9SEP>ABLE FROM CAPITALISM4 ,= *AMPIONS ( SOCIALISM1 DEMOCRACY IS 9SEP>ABLE FROM SOCIALISM4 ,DEMOCRACY IS EV5 SAID TO BE 9SEP>ABLE FROM AN>*ISM4 .<#c.> ,IT IS ID5TIFI$ ) ! GOOD1 ! TRUE1 & ! BEAUTIFUL4 .<#d.> ,!RE'S A FLAVOR ( DEMOCRACY = EV]Y TA/E3 CON/ITUTIONAL DEMOCRACY1 LIB]AL DEMOCRACY1 SOCIAL DEMOCRACY1 ,*RI/IAN DEMOCRACY1 EV5 9DU/RIAL DEMOCRACY4 ,POETS 7ADMITT$LY NOT MANY7 HAVE HYMN$ ITS GLORY4 ,& YET ! SUSPICION LURKS ?AT1 AS IT SEEM$ TO ANO!R POET1 ,OSC> ,WILDE1 0DEMOCRACY MEANS SIMPLY ! BLUDGEON+ ( ! PEOPLE1 BY ! PEOPLE1 & = ! PEOPLE4 ,IT HAS BE5 F\ND \T40 .<#e.> ,F\ND \T1 & F\ND TO BE UNF\ND$4 

,UNTIL ! #b? C5TURY1 !RE W]E FEW DEMOCRACIES4 ,UNTIL ! #a#i? C5TURY1 ! WISDOM ( ! AGES WAS UNANIM\S 9 CONDEMNATION ( DEMOCRACY4 ,ALL ! SAGES ( ANCI5T ,GREECE D5\NC$ IT1 ESPECIALLY ! SAGES ( DEMOCRATIC ,A!NS4 .<#f.> ,AS ,HEGEL WROTE3 0,?OSE ANCI5TS :O AS MEMB]S ( DEMOCRACIES S9CE !IR Y\?1 HAD ACCUMULAT$ LONG EXP]I5CE & REFLECT$ PR(\NDLY AB\T IT1 HELD DIFF]5T VIEWS ON POPUL> OP9ION FROM ?OSE MORE A PRIORI VIEWS PREVAL5T TODAY40 "9"9 .<#g.> ,! ,FRAM]S ( ! ,U4,S4 ,CON/ITUTION REJECT$ DEMOCRACY4 .<#h.> ,SO DID !IR OPPON5TS1 ! ,ANTI-,F$]ALI/S4 .<#i.> ,! DEMOCRACY :I* WAS !N UNIV]SALLY DESPIS$ IS :AT IS N[ CALL$ DIRECT DEMOCRACY1 GOV]NM5T BY ! PEOPLE OV] ! PEOPLE4 0,PEOPLE0 9 0BY ! PEOPLE0 MEANT ! CITIZ5S3 A M9ORITY CONSI/+ ( SOME ( ! ADULT MALES4 0,PEOPLE0 9 0OV] ! PEOPLE0 MEANT EV]YBODY4 ,! CITIZ5RY ASSEMBL$ AT 9T]VALS TO WIELD /ATE P[] BY MAJORITY VOTE4 ,?IS SY/EM NO LONG] EXI/S ANY:]E1 & ?AT MAKES IT EASI] TO BELIEVE 9 IT1 AS ,HEGEL OBS]V$4 

,DEMOCRACY ONLY BECAME RESPECTABLE1 9 ! #a#i? C5TURY1 :5 ITS MEAN+ *ANG$4 ,N[ IT MEANT REPRES5TATIVE DEMOCRACY1 9 :I* ! CITIZ5RY--N[ AN ELECTORATE1 BUT /ILL A M9ORITY--FROM TIME TO TIME *OOSE SOME ( ITS RUL]S BY MAJORITY VOTE 7OR RA!R1 BY ! MAJORITY ( ?OSE ACTUALLY VOT+--:I* IS NOT ! SAME ?+74 ,! ELECT$ RUL]S APPO9T ! RE/ ( ! RUL]S4 ,AS ALWAYS1 SOME RULE1 & ALL >E RUL$4 ,9 ! #a#i? C5TURY1 :5 ?IS SY/EM PREVAIL$ 9 ONLY A FEW NATIONS1 IT ACQUIR$ A FEW 9TELLECTUALLY ABLE PROPON5TS1 SU* AS ,JOHN ,/U>T ,MILL1 BUT IT ALSO EVOK$ SOME 9TELLECTUALLY ABLE OPPON5TS1 SU* AS ,H]B]T,SP5C]1 ,PI]RE-,JOSEPH ,PR\DHON1 & ,FRI$RI* ,NIETZS*E4 ,DEMOCRACY1 AS ONE ( ! ASC5DANT POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES ( ! AGE1 ACCOMMODAT$ ITSELF TO ! O!RS3 TO LIB]ALISM1 NATIONALISM1 SOCIALISM1 & EV5 ,*RI/IANITY4 ,!Y 9 TURN ACCOMMODAT$ IT1 USUALLY4 ,IMPROBABLY1 ! DOCTR9ES LEGITIMAT$ ONE ANO!R1 USUALLY4 

,! ANN\NC$ POPUL>ITY ( DEMOCRACY IS SURELY EXAGG]AT$4 ,IT'S A MILE WIDE & AN 9* DEEP4 ,AV]SION TO AU?ORIT>IAN REGIMES IS NOT NECESS>ILY 5?USIASM = DEMOCRACY4 ,9 SOME ( ! PO/-,COMMUNI/ DEMOCRACIES1 DEMOCRACY HAS ALREADY LO/ ITS *>M4 .<#a.> ,9 O!RS1 SU* AS ,RUSSIA1 DEMOCRACY ITSELF IS ALREADY LO/4 ,OLD] DEMOCRACIES P]SI/ MORE FROM APA?Y & =CE ( HABIT ?AN FROM G5U9E CONVICTION4 ,JOHN ,Z]ZAN REASONABLY ASKS3 0,HAS !RE EV] BE5 SO MU* 9CESSANT YAMM] AB\T DEMOCRACY1 & LESS REAL 9T]E/ 9 IT80 .<#a#a.> ,WELL1 HAS !RE8 

,! IDEA ( DEMOCRACY HAS NEV] BE5 JU/IFI$1 M]ELY GLORIFI$4 ,NONE ( ! OLD] CRITICISMS ( DEMOCRACY HAS BE5 REFUT$1 & NEI!R HAS ANY ( ! NEW] ONES4 ,!Y COME FROM LEFT1 RI<T1 & C5T]4 ,SOME ( !SE CRITICISMS FOLL[4 ,!Y E/ABLI% ?AT DEMOCRACY IS IRRATIONAL1 9EFFICI5T1 UNJU/1 & ANTI!TICAL TO ! V]Y VALUES CLAIM$ = IT3 LIB]TY1 EQUALITY1 & FRAT]NITY4 ,IT DOES NOT EV51 = 9/ANCE1 IMPLY LIB]TY4 .<#a#b.> ,RA!R1 ! 9/9CTIVE T5D5CY ( DEMOCRACY IS 0TO DESPISE 9DIVIDUAL RI<TS & TAKE LITTLE ACC\NT ( !M40 .<#a#c.> ,DEMOCRACY NOT ONLY SUBV]TS COMMUNITY1 IT 9SULTS DIGNITY1 & IT AFFRONTS COMMON S5SE4 ,NOT ALL ( !SE VIOLAT$ VALUES >E IMPORTANT TO EV]YONE1 BUT SOME ( !M >E IMPORTANT TO ANYONE1 EXCEPT TO SOMEONE TO :OM NO?+ IS IMPORTANT4 ,?AT IS :Y PO/-MOD]NI/S >E DEMOCRATS4 

,9 REC5T YE>S1 SOME 9TELLECTUALS 7ACADEMICS & =M] RADICALS7 HAVE TRI$ TO REVIVE DIRECT DEMOCRACY AS AN IDEAL1 & SET IT UP AS A VIABLE ALT]NATIVE TO REPRES5TATIVE DEMOCRACY4 ,!IR /R5U\S EX]TIONS 9T]E/ ONLY !MSELVES4 ,!IR EF=TS FAIL1 = AT LEA/ TWO REASONS4 

,! FIR/ REASON IS ?AT1 AS A MATT] ( FACT1 0!RE IS NO REASON TO BELIEVE ?AT !RE HAS EV] BE5 AN URBAN1 PURELY DIRECT DEMOCRACY OR EV5 A REASONABLE APPROXIMATION ( ONE4 ,EV]Y KN[N 9/ANCE HAS 9VOLV$ A CONSID]ABLE ADMIXTURE ( REPRES5TATIVE DEMOCRACY :I* HAS SOON] OR LAT] USUALLY SUBORD9AT$ .<DIRECT.> DEMOCRACY :]E IT DIDN'T ELIM9ATE IT ALTOGE!R40 .<#a#d.> ,!RE IS NO SPACE TO PROVE IT H]E1 BUT ! EVID5CE IS AMPLE4 .<#a#e.> ,DIRECT DEMOCRACY IS M]ELY AN AB/RACT IDEAL1 A FANTASY REALLY1 ) NO BASIS 9 HI/ORICAL EXP]I5CE4 ,ACCORD+ TO ,JEAN-,JACQUES ,R\SSEAU1 :O IS FALSELY CLAIM$ TO BE AN ADVOCATE ( DIRECT DEMOCRACY1 0H[EV] SMALL ANY ,/ATE MAY BE1 CIVIL SOCIETIES >E ALWAYS TOO POPUL\S TO BE UND] ! IMM$IATE GOV]NM5T ( ALL !IR MEMB]S40 .<#a#f.> 

,! SECOND REASON IS ?AT ! MAJOR OBJECTIONS TO REPRES5TATIVE DEMOCRACY ALSO APPLY TO DIRECT DEMOCRACY1 EV5 IF ! LATT] IS REG>D$ AS AN IDEAL =M ( PURE MAJORIT>IAN DEMOCRACY4 ,SOME OBJECTIONS APPLY TO ONE V]SION1 SOME TO ! O!R1 BUT MO/ APPLY TO BO?4 ,!RE >E MORE ?AN 5\< REASONS TO REJECT EV]Y V]SION ( DEMOCRACY4 ,LET US1 !N1 CONSID] SOME ( !SE OBJECTIONS4 

,OBJECTIONS TO ,DEMOCRACY 

#a4 ,! MAJORITY ISN'T ALWAYS RI<T4 

,AS 7AMONG MANY O!RS7 ,PI]RE-,JOSEPH ,PR\DHON1 ,H5RY ,DAVID ,?OREAU1 ,MIKHAIL ,BAKUN91 ,B5JAM9 ,TUCK]1 ,]RICO ,MALATE/A1 & ,EMMA ,GOLDMAN SAID--& DOES ANYBODY DISAGREE8--DEMOCRACY DOES NOT ASSURE CORRECT DECISIONS4 0,! ONLY ?+ SPECIAL AB\T MAJORITIES IS ?AT !Y >E NOT M9ORITIES40 .<#a#g.> ,!RE IS NO /R5G? 9 NUMB]S1 OR RA!R1 !RE IS NO?+ BUT /R5G? 9 NUMB]S4 ,P>TIES1 FAMILIES1 CORPORATIONS1 UNIONS1 NE>LY ALL VOLUNT>Y ASSOCIATIONS >E1 BY *OICE1 OLIG>*IC4 .<#a#h.> ,9DE$1 9 ASSEMBLIES :E!R DIRECT OR REPRES5TATIVE1 9 ELECTORATES AS 9 LEGISLATURES1 ! :OLE IS LESS--EV5 LESS--?AN ! SUM ( ITS P>TS4 ,IT IS EV5 MA!MATICALLY DEMON/RABLE 7BUT NOT BY ME7 ?AT MAJORITY DECISION-MAK+ G5]ATES 9EFFICI5T1 SOCIALLY WA/EFUL1 MORE OR LESS SELF-DEFEAT+ DECISIONS4 .<#a#i.> 

,BESIDES1 AFT] ALL1 :Y %\LD Y\1 :Y %\LD ANYONE1 ACCEPT A DECISION ?AT Y\ KN[ IS WRONG8 ,SURELY ! QUALITY ( ITS DECISIONS HAS SOME?+ TO DO ) ! QUALITY ( ! DECISION-MAK+ PROCESS4 

#b4 ,DEMOCRACY DOES NOT AS IS PROMIS$1 GIVE EV]YONE ! RI<T TO 9FLU5CE ! DECISIONS AFFECT+ H]1 BECAUSE A P]SON :O VOT$ ON ! LOS+ SIDE HAD NO 9FLU5CE ON ?AT DECISION4 

,AS ,H5RY ,DAVID ,?OREAU WROTE1 0A M9ORITY IS P[]LESS :ILE IT CON=MS TO ! MAJORITY2 IT IS NOT EV5 A M9ORITY !N40 .<#b.> ,IT IS1 9 FACT1 P[]LESS1 IT IS NO?+4 ,?OMAS ,HOBBES ANTICIPAT$ ,?OREAU3 0,& IF ! ,REPRES5TATIVE CONSI/ ( MANY M51 ! VOYCE ( ! GREAT] NUMB]1 MU/ BE CONSID]$ AS ! VOYCE ( !M ALL4 ,= IF ! LESS] NUMB] PRON\NCE 7= EXAMPLE7 9 ! ,AFFIRMATIVE1 & ! GREAT] 9 ! ,NEGATIVE1 !RE WILL BE ,NEGATIVES MORE ?AN 5\< TO DE/ROY ! ,AFFIRMATIVES2 & !REBY ! EXCESSE ( ,NEGATIVES1 /&+ UNCONTRADICT$1 >E ! ONELY VOYCE ! ,REPRES5TATIVE HA?40 .<#b#a.> 0,! NUM]ICAL MAJORITY10 WROTE ,JOHN ,C4 ,CALH\N1 0IS AS TRULY A S+LE P[]--& EXCLUDES ! NEGATIVE AS COMPLETELY AS ! ABSOLUTE GOV]NM5T ( ONE OR A FEW40 .<#b#b.> 

#c4 ,DEMOCRACY ESPECIALLY 9 SMALL CON/ITU5CIES1 L5DS ITSELF TO ! DISEMP[]M5T ( P]MAN5T M9ORITIES1 :O OCCUPY ! SAME POSITION 9 ! DEMOCRACY AS !Y W\LD 9 A DESPOTISM4 

,IT ISN'T ALWAYS ! SAME MOM5T>Y MAJORITY ?AT RULES1 BUT (T5 IT IS1 & %IFT+ MAJORITIES ONLY MAKE IT LESS LIKELY1 NOT UNLIKELY1 = SOME GR\P TO BE ALWAYS OPPOS$ TO ! W9N+ GANG4 .<#b#c.> ,UND] ,AM]ICAN DEMOCRACY1 IT HAS LONG BE5 WELL-KN[N1 EV5 TO ! ,U4,S4 ,SUPREME ,C\RT 9 #a#i#c#h1 ?AT 0DISCRETE & 9SUL> M9ORITIES0 >E AT A POLITICAL DISADVANTAGE BEYOND ! M]E FACT 7:I* IS DISADVANTAGE 5\<7 ?AT !Y >E M9ORITIES4 .<#b#d.> ,& ! SMALL] ! CON/ITU5CY1 ! MORE LIKELY IT IS ?AT MANY 9T]E/S MAY BE REPRES5T$ 0BY NUMB]S SO SMALL AS TO BE LESS ?AN ! M9IMUM NECESS>Y = DEF5SE ( ?OSE 9T]E/S 9 ANY SETT+40 .<#b#e.> 

#d4 ,MAJORITY RULE IGNORES ! URG5CY ( PREF]5CES4 

,PREF]5CE V>IES 9 9T5SITY1 BUT CONS5T DOES NOT4 ,PREF]5CE IS MORE OR LESS1 CONS5T IS YES OR NO4 ,! VOTE ( A P]SON :O HAS ONLY A SLI<T PREF]5CE = A C&IDATE OR MEASURE C\NTS ! SAME AS ! VOTE ( SOMEONE PASSIONATELY OPPOS$1 & SO3 0,A MAJORITY ) SLI<T PREF]5CES ONE WAY MAY \TVOTE ALMO/ AS MANY /RONG PREF]5CES ! O!R WAY40 ,!RE C\LD EV5 BE1 AS JU/ NOT$1 A P]MAN5TLY FRU/RAT$ M9ORITY1 :I* IS A S\RCE ( 9/ABILITY1 OR EV5 OPPRESSION4 ,TO PUT IT ANO!R WAY1 ! OPPORTUNITY TO 9FLU5CE A DECISION IS NOT PROPORTIONATE TO ONE'S LEGITIMATE 9T]E/ 9 ! \TCOME4 .<#b#f.> 

,DEMOCRATIC !ORI/S USUALLY IGNORE ! ISSUE OR1 LIKE ,JOHN ,RAWLS1 WAVE IT AWAY BY DOGMATIZ+ ?AT 0?IS CRITICISM RE/S UPON ! MI/AK5 VIEW ?AT ! 9T5SITY ( DESIRE IS A RELEVANT CONSID]ATION 9 5ACT+ LEGISLATION40 .<#b#g.> ,BUT1 H[EV] EMB>RASS+ TO DEMOCRATS1 0! 9T5SITY QUE/ION IS ABSOLUTELY VITAL TO ! /ABILITY ( DEMOCRATIC SY/EMS0--& IT'S A QUE/ION TO :I* PURE MAJORIT>IAN DEMOCRACY HAS NO ANSW]4 .<#b#h.> ,R\SSEAU AT LEA/ RECOGNIZ$ ! PROBLEM1 AL?\< HIS SOLUTION IS IMPRACTICAL4 ,HE ?\<T ?AT 0! MORE GRAVE & IMPORTANT ! QUE/IONS DISCUSS$1 ! NE>] %\LD ! OP9ION ?AT IS TO PREVAIL APPROA* UNANIMITY40 .<#b#i.> ,BUT !RE IS NO WAY 9 :I* TO DECIDE A PRIORI ! IMPORTANCE ( A QUE/ION4 ,FIR/ Y\ HAVE TO DECIDE H[ IMPORTANT ! QUE/ION IS1 & ! MAJORITY MAY WELL RULE A QUE/ION TO BE UNIMPORTANT TO MAKE SURE ?AT ! QUE/ION WILL BE ANSW]$ AS ?AT MAJORITY WI%ES4 

#e4 ,!RE >E NO SELF-EVID5T DEMOCRATIC VOT+ RULES4 

,MAJORITY OR PLURALITY8 ,PROXY VOT+8 ,QUORUMS8 ,>E SUP]MAJORITIES 7?REE-FIF?S8 TWO-?IRDS87 REQUIR$ = ALL1 SOME1 OR NONE ( ! DECISIONS8 ,:O SETS ! AG5DA8 ,>E MOTIONS FROM ! FLOOR 5T]TA9$8 ,:O DECIDES :O GETS TO SPEAK1 & = H[ LONG1 & :O GETS ! FIR/ OR LA/ WORD8 ,:O S*$ULES ! MEET+8 ,:O ADJ\RNS IT8 ,& :O DECIDES1 & BY :AT RULES1 ! ANSW]S TO ALL !SE QUE/IONS8 0,IF ! P>TICIPANTS DISAGREE ON ! VOT+ RULES1 !Y MAY FIR/ HAVE TO VOTE ON !SE RULES4 ,BUT !Y MAY DISAGREE ON H[ TO VOTE ON ! VOT+ RULES1 :I* MAY MAKE VOT+ IMPOSSIBLE AS ! DECISION ON H[ TO VOTE IS PU%$ FUR!R & FUR!R BACK40 .<#c.> 

#f4 ,COLLECTIVE1 ALL-OR-NO?+ BALLOT+ IS IRRATIONAL ,A DECISION MADE ON A MOM5T\S MATT] BY A S+LE VOTE IS AS VALID AS A UNANIM\S VOTE ON A TRIFLE4 ,?AT EXTREME R>ITY1 ! ONE TIME ONE VOTE1 ONE P]SON'S WILL1 MAKES A DIFF]5CE1 IS ! V]Y SAME SITUATION--MON>*Y1 DICTATOR%IP1 ONE-MAN RULE--?AT DEMOCRACY IS SUPPOS$ TO BE AN IMPROVEM5T ON6 

,AT ALL O!R TIMES1 ( ALL ! VOTES = ! W9N+ SIDE1 ONLY ONE IS DECISIVE1 SO ! VOTES ( ALL BUT ONE ( ! W9N]S1 LIKE ! VOTES ( ALL ( ! LOS]S1 MI<T AS WELL NOT HAVE BE5 CA/4 

#g4 ,MAJORITY RULE IS NOT EV5 :AT IT PURPORTS TO BE3 IT R>ELY MEANS LIT]ALLY ! MAJORITY ( ! PEOPLE4 .<#c#a.> 

,MANY PEOPLE 7SU* AS *ILDR51 =EIGN]S1 LUNATICS1 TRANSI5TS1 & FELONS7 >E EV]Y:]E D5I$ ! RI<T TO VOTE4 ,! DIS5FRAN*IZ$ >E NEV] MU* %ORT ( BE+ ! MAJORITY1 & SOMETIMES !Y >E ! MAJORITY4 ,& S9CE IT R>ELY HAPP5S ?AT EV]Y ONE ( ! ELIGIBLE VOT]S VOTES EV]Y TIME1 USUALLY ! RESULT+ MAJORITY ( A MAJORITY MEANS PLURALITY RULE1 .<#c#b.> 9 O!R WORDS1 ! RULE ( ! MOM5T>ILY L>GE/ M9ORITY1 :I* MI<T BE RA!R SMALL4 ,! MAJORITY ( A MAJORITY IS (T51 & ! MAJORITY ( A M9ORITY IS ALWAYS1 A M9ORITY4 ,9 ORD] TO COBBLE TOGE!R MAJORITIES \T ( 9COH]5T ASSEMBLIES1 LEAD]S USUALLY WIELD LIT]ALLY DECISIVE P[]4 .<#c#c.> ,UND] ANY POSSIBLE GOV]NM5T1 A M9ORITY GOV]NS4 

#h4 ,:E!R VOT+ BY ELECTORAL DI/RICTS OR 9 POPUL> ASSEMBLIES1 DECISIONS >E >BITR>Y BECAUSE ! B\ND>IES ( ! DI/RICTS DET]M9E ! COMPOSITION ( !IR ELECTORATES1 :I* DET]M9ES ! DECISIONS4 

,9 A DEMOCRACY1 0! DEF9ITION ( ! CON/ITU5CY )9 :I* ! C\NT IS TAK5 IS A MATT] ( PRIM>Y IMPORTANCE10 BUT DEMOCRATIC !ORY IS UNABLE TO SAY :O %\LD BE 9CLUD$ 9 AN ELECTORATE4 .<#c#d.> ,R$RAW ! B\ND>IES & ! MAJORITY BECOMES A M9ORITY OR VISE V]SA1 AL?\< NO ONE HAS *ANG$ HIS M9D4 ,! POLITICIANS :O DRAW & R$RAW ! B\ND>IES UND]/& ?IS V]Y WELL4 

#i4 ,!N !RE IS ! ,VOT]'S ,P>ADOX1 A TE*NICAL BUT V]Y REAL CONTRADICTION 9 DEMOCRACY DISCOV]$ BY ,CONDORCET BE=E ! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION4 

,9 EV]Y SITUATION :]E TWO OR MORE VOT]S *OOSE FROM ?REE OR MORE ALT]NATIVES1 IF ! VOT]S *OOSE CONSI/5TLY1 ! MAJORITY PREF]5CE MAY BE DET]M9$ SOLELY BY ! ORD] 9 :I* ! ALT]NATIVES >E VOT$ ON4 ,IT CAN HAPP5 ?AT ,A IS PREF]R$ TO ,B1 ,B IS PREF]R$ TO ,C1 YET ,C IS BY ! MAJORITY PREF]R$ TO,A6 .<#c#e.> ,?IS IS NO M]E !ORETICAL POSSIBILITY3 IT HAS HAPP5$ 9 REAL VOTES4 ,!RE >E1 9 FACT1 A NUMB] ( !SE VOT+ P>ADOXES4 ,UND] IDEAL CONDITIONS1 MAJORITY RULE ALMO/ ALWAYS PRODUCES !SE CYCLICAL PREF]5CE ORD]S4 ,= ?IS & O!R REASONS1 0! V>I\S EQUILIBRIUM CONDITIONS = MAJORITY RULE >E 9COMPATIBLE ) EV5 A V]Y MODE/ DEGREE ( HET]OG5EITY ( TA/ES1 & = MO/ PURPOSES >E NOT SIGNIFICANTLY LESS RE/RICTIVE ?AN ! EXTREME CONDITION ( COMPLETE UNANIMITY ( 9DIVIDUAL PREF]5CES40 .<#c#f.> 

,:AT ?AT MEANS IS ?AT :OEV] CONTROLS ! AG5DA CONTROLS ! VOTE1 OR1 AT LEA/1 0?AT MAK+ AG5DAS SEEMS JU/ AB\T AS SIGNIFICANT AS ACTUALLY PASS+ LEGISLATION40 .<#c#g.> ,IT IS FITT+ ?AT A #a#i? C5TURY MA!MATICIAN :O WROTE ON ?IS PH5OM5ON 7:I* HE CALL$ 0CYCLICAL MAJORITIES07 IS BETT] KN[N UND] HIS P5 NAME1 ,LEWIS ,C>ROLL4 .<#c#h.> ,HE CAME BY HIS S5SE ( ! ABSURD HONE/LY4 

#a4 ,ANO!R WELL-KN[N ME?OD = ?W>T+ MAJORITY RULE ) VOT+ IS LOGROLL+4 

,LOGROLL+ IS AN EX*ANGE ( VOTES BETWE5 FACTIONS4 ,EA* GR\P VOTES = ! O!R GR\P'S MEASURE1 A MEASURE :I* W\LD O!RWISE BE DEFEAT$ BECAUSE EA* GR\P IS 9 ! M9ORITY4 7,NOTE ?AT ?IS IS NOT A COMPROMISE BECAUSE ! MEASURES >E UNRELAT$4 .<#c#i.> ,! FACTIONS >5'T SPLITT+ ! DIFF]5CE47 ,9 A S5SE1 LOGROLL+ FACILITATES SOME ACCOMMODATION ( ! URG5CY ( PREF]5CES1 S9CE A FACTION ONLY TRADES ITS VOTES = VOTES IT VALUES MORE HI<LY--BUT IT DOES SO BY BRIB]Y & TO ! DETRIM5T ( DELIB]ATIVE DEMOCRACY4 ,NO MAJORITY REALLY APPROVES ( EI!R MEASURE 5ACT$ BY LOGROLL+1 S9CE IF IT DID1 !RE W\LD BE NO NE$ = LOGROLL+4 ,& ?OSE :OSE VOTES >E UNNECESS>Y CAN BE EXCLUD$ FROM ! LOGROLL+ PROCESS4 .<#d.> ,! PRACTICE IS COMMON TO REPRES5TATIVE & DIRECT DEMOCRACIES4 .<#d#a.> 

#a#a4 ,9 ! UNLIKELY EV5T A LEGISLATIVE BODY ES*EWS LOGROLL+1 IT MAY SUCCUMB TO GRIDLOCK4 

,CONSID] A TYPICAL POLITICAL ISSUE1 ! BUILD+ ( A HI<WAY4 7,A P[] PLANT OR A G>BAGE DUMP MI<T BE AN EV5 BETT] EXAMPLE47 ,EV]YONE WANTS A ROAD1 BUT NO ONE WANTS IT 9 HIS BACK Y>D4 ,IF ?REE GR\PS WANT A ROAD--BUT NOT 9 !IR BACK Y>DS1 ?ANK Y\--!Y WILL GANG UP TO SCOT* ! PROJECT4 .<#d#b.> ,! ROAD ?AT EV]YONE WANTS SOME:]E WILL NOT BE BUILT ANY:]E4 ,?AT IS AN EV5 WORSE \TCOME ?AN ) LOGROLL+1 :]E AT LEA/ ! ROAD GETS BUILT SOME:]E1 & MI<T BE ( SOME USE TO SOMEBODY4 ,IT ISN'T EASY TO SAY :I* IS WORSE1 A DEMOCRACY ?AT DOESN'T GOV]N1 OR A DEMOCRACY ?AT DOES4 

#a#b4 ,DEMOCRACY1 ESPECIALLY DIRECT DEMOCRACY1 PROMOTES DI%>MONI\S1 ANTISOCIAL FEEL+S4 

,! PSY*OLOGY ( ! EKKLESIA 7ASSEMBLY7 IS ! PSY*OLOGY ( ! AGORA 7M>KETPLACE73 0,VOT]S & CU/OM]S >E ESS5TIALLY ! SAME PEOPLE4 ,MR4 ,SMI? BUYS & VOTES2 HE IS ! SAME MAN 9 ! SUP]M>KET & ! VOT+ BOO?40 .<#d#c.> ,CAPITALISM & DEMOCRACY ROSE TO DOM9ANCE TOGE!R AS ! GOALS ( ! SAME CLASS1 ! B\RGEOISIE4 ,TOGE!R !Y MADE A COMMON WORLD ( SELFI% 9DIVIDUALISM--AN >5A ( COMPETITION1 NOT A FIELD ( COOP]ATION4 ,DEMOCRACY1 LIKE LITIGATION1 IS AN ADV]S>IAL DECISION ME?OD3 0,MAJORITY RULE BELONGS TO A COMBAT !ORY ( POLITICS4 ,IT IS A CONTE/ BETWE5 OPPOS+ =CES1 & ! \TCOME IS VICTORY = ONE SIDE & DEFEAT = ! O!R40 ,9DE$1 AS ,GEORG ,SIMMEL NOTIC$1 MAJORITY RULE IS REALLY ! SUB/ITUT$ EQUIVAL5T ( =CE4 .<#d#d.> 0,WE AGREE TO TRY /R5G? BY C\NT+ HEADS 9/EAD ( BREAK+ HEADS4 ,! M9ORITY GIVES WAY NOT BECAUSE IT IS CONV9C$ ?AT IT IS WRONG1 BUT BECAUSE IT IS CONV9C$ ?AT IT IS A M9ORITY40 .<#d#e.> ,LIT]ALLY HAV+ TO FACE AN OPPON5T PUBLICLY MAY PROVOKE AGGRESSION1 ANG]1 & COMPETITIVE FEEL+S .<#d#f.> 

,9 A W9N]-TAKE-ALL SY/EM !RE IS NO 9C5TIVE TO COMP5SATE OR CONCILIATE DEFEAT$ M9ORITIES1 :O HAVE BE5 TOLD1 9 EFFECT1 ?AT NOT ONLY >E !Y NOT TO GET !IR WAY1 !Y >E ALSO /IGMATIZ$ AS WRONG4 ,! UNACC\NTABLE MAJORITY IS >ROGANT2 ! DEFEAT$ M9ORITY IS RES5TFUL4 .<#d#g.> ,CO]CIVE VOT+ PROMOTES POL>IZATION & H>D5S POSITIONS4 ,DELIB]ATION 0CAN BR+ DIFF]5CES TO ! SURFACE1 WID5+ RA!R ?AN N>R[+ !M40 .<#d#h.> ,!SE CONSEQU5CES1 MUT$ 9 SY/EMS ( L>GE-SCALE1 SECRET VOT+ 9 NOT-TOO-FREQU5T ELECTIONS1 >E ACC5TUAT$ 9 ! IMAG9$ COMMUNAL COMB9ATION ( V]Y SMALL ELECTORATES1 EXTREMELY FREQU5T ELECTIONS1 & PUBLIC VOT+4 ,CITIZ5S WILL TAKE !IR ANIMOSITIES & ULC]S HOME ) !M & ACT !M \T 9 EV]YDAY LIFE4 ,ELECTIONS >E UNDESIRABLE EV]Y:]E1 BUT NO:]E W\LD !Y BE MORE DE/RUCTIVE ( COMMUNITY ?AN 9 FACE-TO-FACE ASSEMBLIES & NEI<BORHOODS4 

#a#c4 ,ANO!R S\RCE ( MAJORITY IRRESPONSIBILITY & M9ORITY 9DIGNITY IS ! FELT FRIVOLITY ( VOT+ ITS ELEM5T ( *ANCE & >BITR>9ESS4 

,AS ,?OREAU 7QUOT$ BY ,EMMA ,GOLDMAN7 PUT IT1 ',ALL VOT+ IS A SORT ( GAM+1 LIKE *ECQU]S OR BACKGAMMON1 ) A SLI<T MORAL T+E TO IT1 A PLAY+ ) RI<T & WRONG1 ) MORAL QUE/IONS2 & BETT+ NATURALLY ACCOMPANIES IT40 .<#d#i.> ,MAJORITY RULE IS MAJORITY R\LETTE4 ,! POPUL>ITY ( /UD5T GOV]NM5T & ,MODEL ,U,N CONFIRMS ?AT !RE IS A LUDIC1 PLAY+->\ND ELEM5T TO DELIB]ATIVE DECISION MAK+ :I* IS 9DEP5D5T ( ITS CONSEQU5CES4 ,H]E IS AN 9T]E/ ! DELEGATES %>E ) EA* O!R1 BUT NOT ) !IR CON/ITU5TS4 ,VOT+ IS A CONTE/1 (FICIALLY UMPIR$ BY ! MAJORITY1 ) SOMETIMES HI< /AKES4 ,TO ! EXT5T ?AT ! ASSEMBL$ CITIZ5S >E PLAY+ GAMES ) EA* O!R1 OR ?AT W9N+ = ITS [N SAKE 7OR = H[ Y\ PLAY ! GAME1 = ?AT MATT]7 PLAYS ANY P>T 9 !IR MOTIVATION1 ! QUALITY ( DECISION MAK+ IS R$UC$ /ILL FUR!R & ! HUMILIATION ( SUBMISSION TO MAJORITY RULE IS ?AT MU* DEEP5$4 

#a#d4 ,UND] REPRES5TATIVE DEMOCRACY ) ELECTORAL DI/RICTS1 MALAPPORTIONM5T--! CREATION ( DI/RICTS ) UNEQUAL POPULATIONS--IS POSSIBLE &1 EV5 IF !Y >E EQUAL1 G]RYM&]+ IS ALMO/ 9EVITABLE4 

,MOD]N DEMOCRATS AGREE ) ,H4,L4 ,M5CK5 ?AT 0IT MU/ BE PLA9 ?AT A COMMUNITY :OSE VOTES1 MAN = MAN1 C\NT = ONLY HALF AS MU* AS ! VOTES ( ANO!R COMMUNITY IS ONE 9 :I* HALF ( ! CITIZ5S >E1 TO EV]Y PRACTICAL 9T5T1 UNABLE TO VOTE AT ALL40 .<#e.> ,EV5 IF AS CURR5TLY 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES1 DI/RICTS >E REQUIR$ TO BE NE>LY EQUAL 9 POPULATION1 G]RYM&]+--! DRAW+ ( !IR B\ND>IES SO AS TO FAVOR SOME C&IDATE OR P>TY IS A /&+ TEMPTATION4 ,ESPECIALLY S9CE ! 9CUMB5TS DO ! DRAW+4 ,US+ ! LATE/ LIB]ATORY TE*NOLOGY-- ! COMPUT]--IT'S EASY TO DEVISE G]RYM&]$ BUT MA!MATICALLY EQUAL DI/RICTS4 

#a#e4 ,DIRECT DEMOCRACY TRY+ TO AV]T ?IS EVIL1 EMBRACES F$]ALISM1 :I* 9CREASES 9EQUALITY 

,IF ! NEI<BORHOOD OR FACE-TO-FACE BASIC UNITS W]E AUT>*IC--SELF-GOV]N+ & SELF-SUFFICI5T--IT W\LD BE NOBODY'S BUS9ESS BUT !IRS :I* PEOPLE !Y 9CLUD$ & H[ MANY4 ,!Y C\LD GO TO HELL 9 !IR [N WAY4 ,BUT S*EMES = DIRECT DEMOCRACY TYPICALLY CALL = A F$]AL SY/EM ) LAY]S ( 0M&AT$ & REVOCABLE DELEGATES1 RESPONSIBLE TO ! BASE0 BY :I* ! DECISIONS ( ASSEMBLIES >E RECONCIL$4 ,SOME DELEGATES TO ! HI<] LEVELS WILL POT5TIALLY SPEAK = A DIFF]5T NUMB] ( CITIZ5S ?AN O!R DELEGATES BUT CA/ EQUAL VOTES4 ,9 A F$]AL SY/EM ( UNITS ( UNEQUAL POPULATION1 VOT+ EQUALITY = ! UNITS MEANS VOT+ 9EQUALITY = 9DIVIDUALS4 ,! F$]ALI/--BUT S+LE-MEMB]--SIMPLE-PLURALITY SY/EM EVID5TLY CONTEMPLAT$ BY MO/ DIRECT DEMOCRATS1 9CLUD+ ! SYNDICALI/S1 IS ! LEA/ PROPORTIONATE ( ALL VOT+ SY/EMS4 .<#e#a.> 

,! 9EQUALITY WILL BE COMP\ND$ AT EV]Y HI<] LEVEL4 ,! MAJORITY2 ! MAJORITY ( ! MAJORITY2 ! MAJORITY ( ! MAJORITY ( ! MAJORITY--! HI<] UP Y\ GO1 ! GREAT] ! 9EQUALITY4 ,! MORE (T5 Y\ MULTIPLY BY A FRACTION1 ! SMALL] ! NUMB] Y\ >RIVE AT4 0,IT IS NOT POSSIBLE10 IT IS SAID1 0TO F9D A G5]AL ANSW] TO ! QUE/ION ( TO :AT EXT5T F$]ALISM MAY LEGITIMATELY BE ALL[$ TO \TWEI< DEMOCRACY40 .<#e#b.> ,ACTUALLY1 !RE IS A G5]AL ANSW] TO ! QUE/ION4 ,! ANSW] IS NO4 ,A DIRECT DEMOCRAT :O CLAIMS ?AT AN OV]>*+ CONF$]AL SY/EM PRODUCES MAJORITY DECISIONS1 .<#e#c.> AFFIRMS ! IMPOSSIBLE AS AN ACT ( FAI?4 

#a#f4 ,DIRECT DEMOCRACY1 TO AN EV5 GREAT] DEGREE ?AN REPRES5TATIVE DEMOCRACY1 5C\RAGES EMOTIONAL1 IRRATIONAL DECISION MAK+4 .<#e#d.> 

,! FACE-TO-FACE CONTEXT ( ASSEMBLY POLITICS 5G5D]S /RONG 9T]P]SONAL PSY*OLOGICAL 9FLU5CES :I* >E1 AT BE/1 EXTRANE\S TO DECISION MAK+ ON ! M]ITS4 ,! CR[D IS SUSCEPTIBLE TO ORATORS & />S1 & 9TOL]ANT ( CONTRADICTION4 .<#e#e.> ,! SPEAK]S1 9 ! LIMIT$ TIME ALLOTT$ TO !M1 T5D TO SACRIFICE REASON+ TO P]SUASION :5EV] !Y HAVE TO *OOSE1 IF !Y WANT TO W94 ,AS ,HOBBES WROTE1 ! SPEAK]S BEG9 NOT FROM TRUE PR9CIPLES BUT FROM 0COMMONLY ACCEPT$ OP9IONS1 :I* >E = ! MO/ P>T USUALLY FALSE1 & !Y DO NOT TRY TO MAKE !IR DISC\RSE CORRESPOND TO ! NATURE ( ?+S BUT TO ! PASSIONS ( M5'S HE>TS4 ,! RESULT IS ?AT VOTES >E CA/ NOT ON ! BASIS ( CORRECT REASON+ BUT ON EMOTIONAL IMPULSE40 .<#e#f.> 0,PURE DEMOCRACY1 LIKE PURE RUM1 EASILY PRODUCES 9TOXICATION1 & ) IT A ?\S& MAD PRANKS & FOOLI%NESS40 .<#e#g.> ,DISS5T]S FEEL 9TIMIDAT$1 AS !Y W]E1 = 9/ANCE1 :5 ! ,A!NIAN ASSEMBLY VOT$ = ! DISA/R\S ,SICILIAN EXP$ITION3 0,! RESULT ( ?IS EXCESSIVE 5?USIASM ( ! MAJORITY WAS ?AT ! FEW :O W]E ACTUALLY OPPOS$ TO ! EXP$ITION W]E AFRAID ( BE+ ?\<T UNPATRIOTIC IF !Y VOT$ AGA9/ IT1 & !RE=E KEPT QUIET40 .<#e#h.> 

#a#g4 ,A SPECIFIC1 EXP]IM5TALLY VALIDAT$ EMOTIONAL 9FLU5CE VITIAT+ DEMOCRACY IS GR\P PRESSURE TO CON=M4 

,?IS WAS /RIK+LY DEMON/RAT$ 9 A FAM\S EXP]IM5T BY SOCIAL PSY*OLOGI/ ,SOLOMON ,AS*4 ,EA* ( SEV5 TO N9E EXP]IM5TAL SUBJECTS WAS ASK$ TO COMP>E A S]IES ( L9ES1 & 9 EA* CASE ID5TIFY ! TWO L9ES ?AT W]E EQUAL 9 L5G?4 ,= EA* COMP>ISON IT WAS OBVI\S1 9DE$ EXTREMELY OBVI\S1 :I* L9ES MAT*$-- BUT TIME AFT] TIME1 EV]Y MEMB] ( ! GR\P GAVE ! SAME WRONG ANSW]--EXCEPT ! ONLY SUBJECT :O WAS UNAW>E ( ! REAL PURPOSE ( ! EXP]IM5T4 ,9 !SE CIRCUM/ANCES1 FIFTY-EI<T P]C5T ( ! TE/ SUBJECTS *ANG$ !IR ANSW] TO AGREE ) ! UNANIM\S MAJORITY4 ,EV5 :5 SUBJECTS W]E EA* GIV5 ONE ALLY1 ?IRTE5 P]C5T ( ! SUBJECTS AGRE$ ) ! GR\P 9/EAD ( ! EVID5CE ( !IR S5SES4 .<#e#i.> ,SOME ( ! CON=MI/S ACTUALLY *ANG$ !IR P]CEPTIONS1 BUT MO/ ( !M SIMPLY DECID$ ?AT ! GR\P MU/ BE RI<T1 NO MATT] H[ /RONG WAS ! EVID5CE TO ! CONTR>Y4 

#a#h4 ,ANO!R 9H]5T FLAW 9 DIRECT DEMOCRACY P>TLY 7NOT 5TIRELY7 A CONSEQU5CE ( ! PREVI\S ONE1 IS ! 9CON/ANCY (POLICY4 

,?IS REALLY COV]S TWO RELAT$ >GUM5TS AGA9/ DEMOCRACY4 ,:AT ! ASSEMBLY DOES AT ONE MEET+ IT MAY UNDO AT ! NEXT1 :E!R BECAUSE CITIZ5S HAVE HAD SOB] SECOND ?\<TS 7A GOOD REASON7 OR BECAUSE A DIFF]5T MIX ( PEOPLE %[S UP 7A BAD REASON74 ,?IS (T5 HAPP5$ 9 CLASSICAL ,A!NS1 ! ONLY POLITY :I* HAS EV] S]I\SLY TRI$ TO MAKE DIRECT DEMOCRACY WORK4 ,= EXAMPLE1 ! ASSEMBLY VOT$ TO GIVE ! ,MYTIL5IANS1 :OSE REVOLT HAD BE5 CRU%$1 ! ,MELIAN TREATM5T3 DEA? = ALL ! M51 SLAV]Y = ! WOM5 & *ILDR54 ,! JUDGM5T WAS REV]S$ ! NEXT DAY1 ! SECOND %IP DISPAT*$ TO ,MYTIL5E HAPPILY >RIV$ FIR/1 & SO ONLY ! ,MYTIL5IANS HELD MA9LY RESPONSIBLE--OV] #a1 ( !M--W]E EXECUT$4 .<#f.> ,BETT]1 ( C\RSE1 TO REV]SE A BAD DECISION ?AN /ICK TO IT2 BUT PEOPLE >E RELUCTANT TO PUBLICLY ADMIT !Y W]E WRONG4 

,IT IS BAD 5\< IF ! COMPOSITION ( ! ASSEMBLY FLUCTUATES R&OMLY OR BECAUSE ( POLITICALLY EXTRANE\S FACTORS1 AS ! WEA!R1 = 9/ANCE1 9FLU5CES ,AM]ICAN ELECTION \TCOMES BY 9FLU5C+ VOT] TURN\T .<#f#a.> 7HI<] PROPORTIONS ( ,DEMOCRATS TURN \T 9 GOOD WEA!R74 ,BUT IT MI<T WELL TURN ON DELIB]ATE MOBILIZATION BY A FACTION4 ,?IS1 TOO1 HAPP5$ 9 ,A!NS4 ,! G5]AL ,NICIAS1 ADDRESS+ ! ASSEMBLY 9 OPPOSITION TO ! PROPOS$ ,SICILIAN EXP$ITION1 /AT$3 0,IT IS ) REAL AL>M ?AT ,I SEE ?IS Y\NG MAN'S .<,ALCIBIADES'.> P>TY SITT+ AT HIS SIDE 9 ?IS ASSEMBLY ALL CALL$ 9 TO SUPPORT HIM1 & ,I1 ON MY SIDE1 CALL = ! SUPPORT ( ! OLD] M5 AMONG Y\40 ,A L9E BY ! SATIRIC PLAYWRI<T ,>I/OPHANES ALSO ATTE/S TO BLOC VOT+ 9 ! ASSEMBLY4 .<#f#b.> 

,HOBBES OBS]V$ ?AT 0:5 ! VOTES >E SUFFICI5TLY CLOSE = ! DEFEAT$ TO HAVE HOPES ( W9N+ A MAJORITY AT A SUBSEQU5T MEET+ IF A FEW M5 SW+ R\ND TO !IR WAY ( ?9K+1 !IR LEAD]S GET !M ALL TOGE!R1 & !Y HOLD A PRIVATE DISCUSSION ON H[ TO REVOKE ! MEASURE ?AT HAS JU/ BE5 PASS$4 ,!Y RESOLVE AMONG !MSELVES TO ATT5D ! NEXT MEET+ 9 L>GE NUMB]S & TO BE !RE FIR/2 !Y >RANGE :AT EA* %\LD SAY & 9 :AT ORD]1 SO ?AT ! QUE/ION MAY BE BR\<T UP AGA91 & ! DECISION ?AT WAS MADE :5 !IR OPPON5TS W]E !RE 9 /R5G? MAY BE REV]S$ :5 !Y FAIL TO %[40 .<#f#c.> 

,HOBBES EXACTLY DESCRIBES H[ ,SAMUEL ,ADAMS MANIPULAT$ ANO!R ASSEMBLY1 ! ,BO/ON T[N MEET+1 AT PRIOR PRIVATE MEET+S ( HIS FACTION AT ! ,CAUCUS ,CLUB3 0,CAUCUS+ 9VOLV$ ! WIDE/ PREVISION ( PROBLEMS ?AT MI<T >ISE & ! N>R[E/ *OICE ( RESPONSE TO EA* POSSIBILITY2 :O W\LD SPEAK TO ANY ISSUE1 & :AT HE W\LD SAY2 ) ! CLUBM5'S G5]AL CONS5T GU>ANTE$1 AHEAD ( TIME1 TO BO? *OICE ( SPEAK] & :AT ! SPEAK]'S MESSAGE W\LD BE40 ,HIS C\S9 ,JOHN ,ADAMS WAS A/ONI%$1 AFT] MANY YE>S ( ATT5D+ T[N MEET+S1 TO LE>N ( ?IS3 0,!RE !Y DR9K FLIP .<A RUM DR9K.>1 ,I SUPPOSE1 & !RE !Y *OOSE A MOD]ATOR :O PUTS QUE/IONS TO ! VOTE REGUL>LY1 & SELECTM51 ASSESSORS1 W>D5S1 FIRE W>DS1 & REPRES5TATIVES >E REGUL>LY *OS5 BE=E !Y >E *OS5 BY ! T[N40 .<#f#d.> ,EXACTLY ! SAME ME?ODS ( MANIPULATION W]E PRACTIC$ 9 ! ,A!NIAN ASSEMBLY4 .<#f#e.> 

,DIRECT DEMOCRACY IS WELL SUIT$ TO MA*9E POLITICS3 0,! P[]FUL T[N MEET+ .<9 ,BO/ON.> NAM$ ! MANY MUNICIPAL (FICIALS1 DET]M9$ TAXES & ASSESSM5TS1 & ADOPT$ PUBLIC S]VICE PROJECTS ?AT W]E A RI* S\RCE ( JOBS & ECONOMIC L>GESSE4 ,= YE>S ! ORIG9AL ,CAUCUS & ITS ALLIES 9 ! ,M]*ANTS ,CLUB HAD ACT$ AS ! UN(FICIAL DIRECT+ BODY ( ! T[N MEET+ 9 :I* ,CAUCUS /ALW>T ,SAM ,ADAMS PLAY$ A KEY ROLE40 .<#f#f.> ,?IS IS DEMOCRACY 9 ACTION4 

,:AT ,HOBBES IS TALK+ AB\T1 AS HE PROCE$S TO SAY1 IS FACTION1 :I* HE DEF9ES AS 0A SORT ( EF=T & H>D WORK1 :I* !Y USE TO FA%ION PEOPLE40 .<#f#g.> ,JAMES ,MADISON FAM\SLY >GU$ ?AT DIRECT DEMOCRACY PROMOTES FACTIONALISM4 .<#f#h.> ,BUT AN ORGANIZATION ( ORGANIZ]S ( VOTES S]VES A PURPOSE 7ITS [N7 9 ANY ASSEMBLY OR LEGISLATURE4 ,P>TIES 7! EUPHEMISM = 0FACTIONS07 C\LD PLAY C5TRAL ROLES 9 A DIRECT DEMOCRACY1 MAYBE GREAT] ROLES ?AN 9 REPRES5TATIVE DEMOCRACY48 

,ONLY REGUL> HI< TURN\TS W\LD M9IMIZE 7NOT ELIM9ATE7 !SE CAPRICI\S OR MANIPULAT$ REV]SALS1 S9CE1 IF MO/ CITIZ5S ATT5D EV]Y MEET+1 MO/ ( !M :O ATT5D ONE MEET+ WILL ATT5D ANO!R4 ,! POL> POSSIBILITIES >E ?AT ALL ! SAME PEOPLE1 OR ALL DIFF]5T PEOPLE1 ATT5D ! NEXT MEET+4 ,IF IT IS ALL ! SAME PEOPLE1 IT IS DE FACTO OLIG>*Y4 ,IF IT IS ALL DIFF]5T PEOPLE1 IT IS *AOS1 ! ONLY K9D ( 0AN>*Y0 CONSI/5T ) DIRECT DEMOCRACY4 ,IT WILL USUALLY TURN \T TO BE CLOS] TO OLIG>*Y4 

,CONCLUSION 

,MAJORITY RULE IS AS >BITR>Y AS R&OM DECISION1 BUT NOT NE>LY AS FAIR4 .<#g.> ,= A VOT]1 ! ONLY DIFF]5CE BETWE5 ! LOTT]Y .<#g#a.> & AN ELECTION IS ?AT HE MI<T W9 ! LOTT]Y4 ,BETT] PURE *ANCE ?AN 0PURE DEMOCRACY1 OR ! IMM$IATE AUTOCRACY ( ! PEOPLE10 AS ,JOEL ,B>L[ DESCRIB$ IT4 .<#g#b.> ,A CELEBRANT ( ,SWISS DIRECT DEMOCRACY AT ITS HEI<T ADMITS3 0,CORRUPTION1 FACTIONALIZATION1 >BITR>9ESS1 VIOL5CE1 DISREG>D = LAW1 & AN OBDURATE CONS]VATISM ?AT OPPOS$ ALL SOCIAL & ECONOMIC PROGRESS W]E PA?OLOGIES TO SOME EXT5T 5DEMIC TO ! PURE DEMOCRATIC LIFE =M40 .<#g#c.> ,DEMOCRACY 9 ANY =M IS IRRATIONAL1 UNJU/1 9EFFICI5T1 CAPRICI\S1 DIVISIVE1 & DEMEAN+4 ,ITS DIRECT & REPRES5TATIVE V]SIONS1 AS WE HAVE SE51 %>E MANY VISES4 ,NEI!R V]SION EXHIBITS ANY CLE> ADVANTAGE OV] ! O!R4 ,EA* ALSO HAS VISES PECULI> TO ITSELF4 ,9DE$ ! SY/EMS DIFF] ONLY 9 DEGREE4 ,EI!R WAY1 ! WOR/ TYRANNY IS ! TYRANNY ( ! MAJORITY1 .<#g#d.> AS MO/ AN>*I/S1 & SOME CONS]VATIVES1 & SOME LIB]ALS1 & EV5 ! MORE HONE/ DEMOCRATS1 HAVE (T5 SAID4 

,IS DEMOCRACY NONE!LESS ! BE/ =M ( GOV]NM5T8 ,EV5 ?AT IS NOT SO OBVI\S1 AFT] TAK+ A H>D LOOK AT JU/ H[ BAD IT IS4 ,ITS !ORY IS R$UCIBLE TO RU9S 9 A FEW PAGES4 ,! BELIEV]S CLAIM ?AT DEMOCRACY PROMOTES DIALOGUE1 BUT :]E IS ! DIALOGUE AB\T DEMOCRACY ITSELF8 ,DEMOCRATS IGNORE !IR CRITICS1 AS IF DEMOCRACY IS SU* A DONE DEAL1 :Y BO!R TO DEF5D IT8 ,!Y JU/ TAKE IT = GRANT$ ?AT SOMEBODY 7,LOCKE8 ,R\SSEAU8 ,L9COLN8 ,*UR*ILL87 HAS LONG S9CE MADE \T A /RONG CASE = DEMOCRACY4 ,NOBODY EV] DID4 ,?AT'S :Y Y\ DIDN'T LE>N IT 9 S*OOL4 ,Y\ W]E JU/ TOLD TO BELIEVE4 ,! >GUM5TS = DEMOCRACY--:I* >5'T (T5 >TICULAT$-->E SO FLAW$ & FLIMSY1 SOME ( !M EV5 SO SILLY1 .<#g#e.> ?AT PI\S DEMOCRATS MI<T BE />TL$4 .<#g#f.> 

,N[1 IT MAYBE ?AT SOME ( !SE CRITICISMS (DEMOCRATIC GOV]NM5T >E REALLY CRITICISMS ( GOV]NM5T ITSELF4 ,?AT DOES NOT DETRACT FROM1 BUT RA!R 5HANCES1 !IR VALIDITY4 ,?AT JU/ MEANS ?AT DEMOCRACY IS NOT SO SPECIAL AFT] ALL1 & ?AT IT HAS BE5 F\ND \T4 

,V,O,T,E ,N,O,B,O,D,Y 

,N,O,B,O,D,Y ,T,E,L,L,S ,! ,T,R,U,?4 

,BOB ,BLACK 
,P,O ,BOX #caab 
,ALBANY ,N,Y #abbc 

.<#a.> ,DAVID ,HELD1 ,MODELS ( ,DEMOCRAT71 7#bND $42 ,/AN=D1 ,C,A3 ,/AN=D ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS1 #a#i#i#f71 #a2 SEE ALSO ,TIBOR ,R4 ,MA*AN1 0,9TRODUCTION3 ,! ,DEMOCRATIC ,IDEAL10 ,LIB]TY & ,DEMOCRACY1 $4 ,TIBOR ,R4 ,MA*AN 7,/AN=D1 ,C,A3 ,HOOV] ,9/ITUTE ,PRESS1 #b#b71 XIII4 

.<#b.> ,JACQUES ,ELLUL1 ,! ,POLETICAL ,ILLUSION1 TR4 ,KONRAD ,KELL5 7,NEW ,YORK3 ,ALFR$ ,A4 ,KNOPF1 #a#i#f#g71 #a#h#a4 

.<#c.> ,DAVID ,GRAEB] 79 ! ,A,K ,PRESS CATALOG #b#h71 QUOT$ 9 ,BOB ,BLACK1 LETT] TO ! $ITORS1 ,AN>*Y3 ,A ,J\RNAL ( ,DESIRE ,>M$1 ,NO4 #fg 7,VOL4 #b#f1 ,NO4 #b7 7,SPR+-,SUMM] #b#i71 #g#e4 

.<#d.> 0,DEMOCRACY IS MADE ID5TICAL ) 9TELLECTUAL FRE$OM1 ) ECONOMIC JU/ICE1 ) SOCIAL WELF>E1 ) TOL]ANCE1 ) PIETY1 MORAL 9TEGRITY1 ! DIGNITY ( MAN1 & G5]AL CIVILIZ$ DEC5CY40 ,ROB]T ,A4 ,NISBET1 ,COMMUNITY & ,P[] 7,LONDON3 ,OX=D ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS1 #a#i#f#b71 #b#d#h4 

.<#e.> 0,! ,S\L ( ,MAN ,UND] ,SOCIALISM40 ,! ,FIR/ ,COLLECT$ ,$ITION ( ! ,WORKS ( ,OSC> ,WILDE1 #a#i#h-#a#i#b#b1 $4 ,ROB]T ,ROSS 7REPR4 $42 ,LONDON3 ,PALL ,MALL1 #a#i#f#i71 #h3 #b#i#d4 ,WILDE WAS A DECAD5T AN>*I/ D&Y4 ,SU* LIFE/YLE AN>*I/S DESPISE DEMOCRACY4 ,SEE1 E4G41 ,OCTAVE ,MIRBEAU1 0,VOT]S ,/RIKE60 9 ,RANTS & ,9C5DI>Y ,TRACTS1 $4 ,BOB ,BLACK @& ,ADAM ,P>FREY 7,NEW ,YORK3 ,AMOK ,PRESS @& ,PORT ,T[NS5D1 ,W,A3 ,LOOMPANICS ,UNLIMIT$1 #a#i#h#i71 #g#d-#g#h4 

.<#f.> ,]NE/ ,B>K]1 ,! ,POLITICAL ,?\<T ( ,PLATO & ,>I/OTLE 7,NEW ,YORK ,DOV]1 #a#i#e#i71 #a#c2 ,M4,I4 ,F9LEY1 ,DEMOCRAT42 ,ANCI5T & ,MOD]N 7#bND $42 ,LONDON3 ,HOG>? ,PRESS1 #a#i#h#e71 #e1 #b#i2 ,DAVID ,HELD1 0,DEMOCRACY3 ,FROM ,CITY-,/ATES TO A ,COSMOPOLITAN ,ORD]10 9 ,CONTEMPOR>Y ,POLITICAL ,PHILOSOPHY3 ,AN ,AN?OLOGY1 $4 ,ROB]T ,E4 ,GOOD9 @& ,PHILIP ,PETTIT 7,MALD51 ,MK ,BLACKWELL ,PUBLI%+1 #b#f71 #h4 

.<#g.> ,G4,W4,F4 ,HEGEL1 0,ON ! ,5GLI% ,RE=M ,BILL10 ,POLITICAL ,WRIT+S1 $4 ,LAUR5CE ,DICKEY @& ,H4,B4 ,NISBET 7,CAMBRIDGE3 ,CAMBRIDGE ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS1 #a#i#i#i71 #b#c#e4 

.<#h.> ,B]N>D ,BAILYN1 ,! ,IDEOLOGICAL ,ORIG9S ( ! ,AM]ICAN ,REVOLUTION 7,CAMBRIDGE"94 ,BELKNAP ,PRESS ( ,H>V>D ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS1 #a#i#f#g71 #b#h#b#b#h#d2 ,GORDON ,S4 ,WOOD1 ,! ,CREATION ( ! ,AM]ICAN ,REPUBLIC1 #aggfa<g 7,NEW ,YORK @& ,LONDON3 ,W4,W4 ,NORTON @& ,COMPANY1 #a#i#g#b71 #b#b#b-#b#b#c1 #d#i-#d#a#c2 SEE1 E4G1 ,! ,F$]ALI/1 $4 ,JACOB ,E4 ,COOKE 7,HANOV]1 ,N,H3 ,WESLEYAN ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS1 #a#i#f#a71 #fa 7,NO4 #a7 7,JAMES ,MADISON72 ,! ,RECORDS ( ! ,F$]AL ,CONV5TION ( #a#g#h#g1 $4 ,MAX ,F>R& 7,NEW ,HAV51 ,C,T3 ,YALE ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS1 #a#i#a#a71 #a3 #bfbg 7,$MUND ,R&OLPH71 #dh 7,ELBRIDGE ,G]RY71 #di 7,GEORGE ,MASON71 #bhh 7,ALEX&] ,HAMILTON74 ,R&OLPH BLAM$ ,AM]ICA'S PROBLEMS ON 0! TURBUL5CE & FOLLIES ( DEMOCRACY30 ,RECORDS1 #a3#e #a4 

.<#i.> ,H]B]T ,J4 ,/OR+1 ,:AT ! ,ANTIFID5ALI/S ,W]E ,= 7,*ICAGO1 ,I,L @& ,LONDON3 ,UNIV]SITY ( ,*ICAGO ,PRESS1 #a#i#h#a71 #b#i4 

.<#a.> ,RALF ,DAHR5DORF1 ,REFLECTIONS ON ! ,REVOLUTION 9 ,EUROPE 7,NEW ,BRUNSWICK1 ,N,J @& ,LONDON3 ,TRANSACTION ,PUBLI%]S1 #b#e71 #a#f#h4 

.<#a#a.> ,JOHN ,Z]ZAN1 0,NO ,WAY ,\T10 ,RUNN+ ON ,EMPT9ESS3 ,! ,PA?OLOGY ( ,CIVILIZATION 7,LOS ,ANGELES1 ,C,A3 ,F]AL ,H\SE #b#b71 #b#d4 

.<#a#b.> ,B]TR& ,RUSSELL1 0,! ,PROSPECTS ( ,DEMOCRACY10 ,MORTALS & ,O!RS3 ,AM]ICAN ,ESSAYS #a#i#b#i-#a#i#c#e1 $4 ,H5RY ,RUJA 7,LONDON @& ,NEW ,YORK3 ,R\TL$GE1 #a#i#i#f71 #b3 #b#d2 ,JAMES ,FITZJAMES ,/EPH51 ,LIB]TY ,EQUALITY ,FRAT]NITY 7,*ICAGO ,I,L @& ,LONDON3 ,UNIV]SITY ( ,*ICAGO ,PRESS1 #a#i#i#a71 #a#f#h4 

.<#a#c.> ,ALEXIS DE ,TOCQUEVILLE1 ,DEMOCRACY 9 ,AM]ICA1 $4 ,J4,P4 ,MAY]1 TR4 ,GEORGE ,LAWR5CE 7,G>D5 ,CITY1 ,NEW ,YORK ,D\BL$AY @& ,COMPANY1 ,AN*OR ,BOOKS1 #a#i#f#i71 #f#i#i4 

.<#a#d.> ,BOB ,BLACK1 ,AN>*Y AFT] ,LEFTISM 7,COLUMBIA1 ,M,O3 ,C4,A4,L4 ,PRESS1 #a#i#i#g71 #g#a4 ,REPRES5TATIVE DEMOCRACY CAN ALSO 9CORPORATE M9OR ELEM5TS ( DIRECT DEMOCRACY1 AS IT DOES1 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES1 ) TRIAL BY JURY4 ,BUT REPRES5TATIVE (FICIALS 7JUDGES7 SEV]ELY CIRCUMSCRIBE ! JURY4 ,ROB]T ,C4 ,BLACK1 0,F,I,J,A3 ,MONKEYWR5*+ ! ,JU/ICE ,SY/EM810 ,U,M,K,C ,LAW ,REVIEW #f#f7#a7 7,FALL #a#i#i#g71 #a#b-#a#c4 

.<#a#e.> ,BOB ,BLACK1 ,NI<TM>ES ( ,REASON 7#b#a71 *S4 #ad @& #a#e1 AVAILABLE ONL9E FROM ,! ,AN>*I/ ,LIBR>Y4 

.<#a#f.> ,JEAN-,JACQUES ,R\SSEAU1 0,DISC\RSE ON ,POLITICAL ,ECONOMY10 ,! ,SOCIAL ,CONTRACT & ,DISC\RSES1 TR4 ,G4,D4,H4 ,COLE 7,NEW ,YORK3 ,E4,P4 ,DUTTON & ,SONS @& ,LONDON3 ,J4,M4 ,D5T & ,SONS1 #a#i#e71 #c#a#c4 

.<#a#g.> ,LOR5 ,E4 ,LOMASKY1 0,DEFAULT & ,DYNAMIC ,DEMOCRACY10 9 ,LIB]TY & ,DEMOCRACY1 #c4 

.<#a#h.> ,CL>K ,K]R1 ,UNIONS & ,UNION ,LEAD]S ( ,!IR ,[N ,*OOS+ 7,NEW ,YORK ,! ,FUND = ! ,REPUBLIC1 #a#i#e#g71 #a#b4 ,SIMIL>LY1 ,SWITZ]L&'S DEMOCRACY IS ! MO/ P>TICIPATORY 9 ! WORLD1 BUT ! ,SWISS >E NOT 0 P>TICUL>LY P>TICIPATIVE 9 ECONOMIC & SOCIAL LIFE40 ,WOLF ,L9D]1 ,SWISS ,DEMOCRACY 7#cRD $41 REV4 @& UPCI42 ,BAS+/OKE1 ,HAMPS41 ,5GL& @& ,NEW ,YORK3 ,PALGRAVE ,MACMILLAN1 #b#a71 #a#b#g4 

.<#a#i.> ,GRANT ,MC,CONNELL1 ,PRIVATE ,P[] & ,AM]ICAN ,DEMOCRACY 7,NEW ,YORK ,V9TAGE ,BOOKS1 #a#i#f#f71 #a#b-#a#b#g2 ,JAMES ,M4 ,BU*ANAN @& ,GORDON ,TULLOCK1 ,! ,CALCULUS ( ,CONS5T3 ,LOGICAL ,F\NDATIONS ( ,CON/ITUTIONAL ,DEMOCRACY 7,ANN ,>BOR1 ,M,I3 ,UNIV]SITY ( ,MI*IGAN ,PRESS1 #a#i#f#b71 #a#f#i2 ,ELA9E ,SPITZ1 ,MAJORITY ,RULE 7,*A?AM1 ,N,J3 ,*A?AM ,H\SE ,PUBLI%]S1 #a#i#h#b72 #a#e#c2 ,MI*AEL ,TAYLOR1 ,COMMUNITY ,AN>*Y & ,LIB]TY 7,CAMBRIDGE3 ,CAMBRIDGE ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS1 #a#i#h#b71 #e#d-#e#e4 

.<#b.> ,H5RY ,DAVID ,?OREAU1 0,CIVIL ,DISOB$I5CE10 9 ,WALD5 & ,CIVIL ,DISOB$I5CE 7,NEW ,YORK3 ,SIGNET ,CLASSICS1 #a#i#f71 #b#c#a4 

.<#b#a.> ,?OMAS ,HOBBES1 ,LEVIA?AN1 $4 ,C4,B4 ,MACPH]SON 7,H>MONDSWOR?1 ,MIDDLESEX1 ,5GL&3 ,PELICAN ,BOOKS1 #a#i#f#h71 #b#b#a4 

.<#b#b.> ,JOHN ,C4 ,CALH\N1 ,DISQUISITIONS ON ,GOV]NM5T & ,SELECTIONS FROM ! ,DISC\RSES 7,9DIANAPOLIS1 ,9 @& ,NEW ,YORK3 ,BOBBS-,M]RILL ,CO41 #a#i#e#c71 #b#i4 

.<#b#c.> ,SPITZ1 ,MAJORITY ,RULE1 #a#h#c2 ,JU]G ,/E9]1 0,DECISION-,MAK+10 9 ,5CYCLOP$IA ( ,DEMOCRATIC ,?\<T1 $4 ,PAUL ,B>RY ,CL>KE @& ,JOE ,F[]ACK] 7,LONDON @& ,NEW ,YORK ,R\TL$GE1 #b#a71 Q_/V 0,DECISION-,MAK+40 

.<#b#d.> ,UNIT$ ,/ATES V4 ,C>OL5E ,PRODUCTS ,CO41 #cd ,U4,S4 #a#d#d1 #a#e#b-#e#c N4 #d 7#a#i#c#h74 

.<#b#e.> ,MAC,CONNELL1 ,PRIVATE ,P[] & ,AM]ICAN ,DEMOCRACY1 #ae 7QUOT$71 #a#i4 

.<#b#f.> ,JOHN ,BURNHEIM1 ,IS ,DEMOCRACY ,POSSIBLE8 ,ALT]NATIVES TO ,ELECTORAL ,POLITICS 7,CAMBRIDGE1 ,5GL&3 ,POLITY ,PRESS1 #a#i#h#e71 #hc 7QUOT$72 ,J]EMY ,WALDRON1 ,! ,DIGNITY (,LEGISLATION 7,CAMBRIDGE @& ,NEW ,YORK3 ,CAMBRIDGE ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS1 #a#i#i#i71 #a#c#b1 #a#d#b-#a#d#c2 ,BU*ANAN @& ,TULLOCK1 ,CALCULUS ( ,CONS5T1 #a#b#e-#a#b#g1 #a#c#b-#a#c#c2 ,ROB]T ,A4 ,DAHL1 ,A ,PREFACE TO ,DEMOCRATIC ,!ORY 7,*ICAGO1 ,I,L3 ,UNIV]SITY ( ,*ICAGO ,PRESS1 #a#i#e#f71 #i#a-#i#i2 ,ROB]T ,A4 ,DAHL1 ,DILEMMAS ( ,PLURALI/ ,DEMOCRACY3 ,AUTONOMY VS4 ,CONTROL 7,NEW ,HAV51 ,C,T @& ,LONDON3 ,YALE ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS1 #a#i#h#b71 #h#h-#h#i4 

.<#b#g.> ,JOHN ,RAWLS1 ,A ,!ORY ( ,JU/ICE 7REV4 $42 ,CAMBRIDGE3 ,H>V>D ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS1 ,BELNAP ,PRESS1 #a#i#i#i71 #b#c4 

.<#b#h.> ,B5JAM9 ,B>B]1 ,! ,CONQUE/ ( ,POLITICS3 ,LIB]AL ,PHILOSOPHY 9 ,DEMOCRATIC ,TIMES 7,PR9CETON1 ,N,J3 ,PR9CETON ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS1 #a#i#h#h71 #gi 7QUOT$72 ,WILLMOORE ,K5DALL @& ,GEORGE ,W4 ,C>EY1 0,! ',9T5SITY' ,PROBLEM & ,DEMOCRATIC ,!ORY10 ,AM]ICAN ,POLITICAL ,SCI5CE ,REVIEW #f#b7#a7 7,M>* #a#i#f#h73 #e-#b#d4 

.<#b#i.> ,R\SSEAU1 0,! ,SOCIAL ,CONTRACT10 #<E ,SOCIAL ,CONTRACT & ,DISC\RSES1 #a#g4 

.<#c.> ,/E9]1 0,DECISION-,MAK+10 #a#c4 

.<#c#a.> ,SPITZ1 ,MAJORITY ,RULE1 #c4 

.<#c#b.> ,JOHN ,/U>T ,MILL1 0,REPRES5TATIVE ,GOV]NM5T10 9 ,UTILIT>IANISM1 ,LIB]TY & ,REPRES5TATIVE ,GOV]NM5T 7,NEW ,YORK3 ,E4,P4 ,DUTTON & ,COMPANY @& ,LONDON3 ,J4,M4 ,D5T & ,SONS1 #a#i#e#a71 #c#d#f-#c#d#g2 ,H>OLD ,B>DAY1 ,PEOPLE ,)\T ,GOV]NM5T ,AN ,AN?ROPOLOGY ( ,AN>*ISM 7,LONDON3 ,KAHN @& ,AV]ILL ) ,CI5FUEGOS ,PRESS1 #a#i#h#b71 #a#a#h2 ,L9D]1 ,SWISS ,DEMOCRACY1 #a#a4 

.<#c#c.> 0,! NECESSITY = !SE LEAD]S IS EVID5T1 S9CE1 UND] ! NAME ( HEADS ( GR\PS1 !Y >E MET ) 9 ! ASSEMBLIES ( EV]Y C\NTRY4 ,!Y >E ! REAL RUL]S ( AN ASSEMBLY40 ,GU/AV ,LE ,BON1 ,! ,CR[D 7,NEW ,YORK3 ,COMPASS ,BOOKS1 #a#i#f71 #a#h#i4 

.<#c#d.> ,PET] ,J4 ,TAYLOR1 ,GRAHAM ,GUDG91 @& ,R4,I4 ,JOHN/ON1 0,! ,GEOGRAPHY ( ,REPRES5TATION3 ,A ,REVIEW ( ,REC5T ,F9D+S10 9 ,ELECTORAL ,LAWS & ,!IR ,POLITICAL ,CONSEQU5CES1 $4 ,B]N>D ,GR(MAN ,>5 ,LIJPH>T 7,NEW ,YORK3 ,AGA?ON ,PRESS1 #a#i#h#f71 #a#h#c-#a#h#d2 ,MC,CONNELL1 ,PRIVATE ,P[] & ,AM]ICAN ,DEMOCRACY1 #ib 7QUOT$72 ,DAHL1 ,DILEMMAS ( ,PLURALI/ ,DEMOCRACY1 #i#g-#i#i2 ,BRUCE ,E4 ,CA91 ,! ,REAPPORTIONM5T ,PUZZLE 7,B]KELEY1 ,C,A3 ,UNIV]SITY ( ,CALI=NIA ,PRESS1 #a#i#h#d71 #c#f-#c#g4 

.<#c#e.> ,K5NE? ,>R[1 ,SOCIAL ,*OICE & ,9DIVIDUAL ,VALUES 7#bD $42 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,JOHN ,WILEY @& ,SONS1 #a#i#f#c71 #b-#c1 #i#d-#i#e2 ,AN ,ESSAY ON ! ,APPLICATION ( ,PROBABILITY ,!ORY TO ,PLURALITY ,DECISION-,MAK+ 7#a#g#h#e710 9 ,CONDORCET3 ,F\NDATIONS ( ,SOCIAL ,*OICE & ,POLITICAL ,!ORY1 TR4 @& $4 LA9 ,MC,LEAN @& ,FIONA ,HEWITT 7,ALD]%OT1 ,HANTS1 ,5GL& @& ,BROOKFIELD1 ,V,T3 ,$W>D ,ELG> ,PUBLI%+1 #a#i#i#d71 #a#b#a#c4 ,A C]TA9 ,REV4 ,DODGSON 9V5T$ ! NOTION ( 0,NONE ( ! ,ABOVE0 AS A BALLOT OPTION4 0,A ,ME?OD ( ,TAK+ ,VOTES ON ,MORE ,?AN ,TWO ,ISSUES10 9 ,! ,POLITICAL ,PAMPHLETS & ,LETT]S ( ,*>LES ,LUTWIDGE ,DODGSON & ,RELAT$ ,PIECES3 ,A ,MA!MATICAL ,APPROA*1 $4 ,FRANC9E ,F4 ,ABELES 7,NEW ,YORK3 ,LEWIS ,C>ROLL ,SOCIETY ( ,NOR? ,AM]ICA1 #b#a71 #i#e4 ,S9CE ,>R['S ,IMPOSSIBILITY ,!OREM1 0! !ORETICAL CASE ?AT ELECTIONS CAN ASSURE DESIRABLE \TCOMES WAS DEALT A BL[ FROM :I* IT IS UNLIKELY EV] TO RECOV] FULLY40 ,WILLIAM ,R4 ,KEE*1 0,?9K+ ,AB\T ! ,L5G? & ,R5EWABILITY ( ,ELECTORAL ,T]MS10 9 ,ELECTORAL ,LAWS & ,!IR ,POLITICAL ,CONSEQU5CES1 #a#d4 

.<#c#f.> ,WILLIAM ,H4 ,RIK] @& ,B>RY ,R4 ,WE+A/1 0,CON/ITUTIONAL ,REGULATION ( ,LEGISLATIVE ,*OICE3 ,! ,POLITICAL ,CONSEQU5CES ( ,JUDICIAL ,DEF]5CE TO ,LEGISLATURES10 ,WORK+ ,PAP]S 9 ,POLITICAL ,SCI5CE ,NO4 ,P-#h#f-#a#a 7,/AN=D1 ,C,A3 ,HOOV] ,9/ITUTION1 #a#i#h#f71 #a#c-#a#h 7REAL-LIFE EXAMPLES ( P]PETUAL CYCLICAL MAJORITIES72 ,HANNO ,NURMI1 ,VOT+ ,P>ADOXES & ,H[ TO ,DEAL ,) ,MEM 7,B]L91 ,G]MANY3 ,SPR+]1 #a#i#i#i72 ,PET] ,C4 ,FI%BURN1 0,P>ADOXES ( ,VOT+10 ,AM]ICAN ,POLITICAL ,SCI5CE ,REVIEW #f#h7#b7 7,JUNE #a#i#g#d73 #e#c#g-#e#d#f 7FIVE MORE P>ADOXES72 ,G]ALD ,H4 ,KRAM]1 0,ON A ,CLASS ( ,EQUILIBRIUM ,CONDITIONS = ,MAJORITY ,RULE10 ,ECONOMETRICA #d#a7#b7 7,M>* #a#i#g#c71 #bhe 7QUOT$74 ,! ONLY REASON CYCLICAL PREF]5CE ORD]S >E NOT MORE COMMON 9 REAL LIFE IS ! 9FLU5CE ( O!R UNDEMOCRATIC PRACTICES SU* AS LOGROLL+ 7SEE BEL[74 

.<#c#g.> ,IAN ,%APIRO1 0,?REE ,FALLACIES ,CONC]N+ ,MAJORITIES1 ,M9ORITIES1 & ,DEMOCRATIC ,POLITICS10 9 ,N,O,M,O,S,X,X,I,I,I4"9 ,MAJORITIES & ,M9ORITIES1 $4 ,JOHN ,W ,*APMAN @& ,ALAN ,W]!IM] 7,NEW ,YORK @& ,LONDON3 ,NEW ,YORK ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS1 #a#i#i71 #i#g2 ,WILLIAM ,H4 ,RIK]1 0,9TRODUCTION10 ,AG5DA ,=MATION1 $4 ,WILLIAM ,H4 ,RIK] 7,ANN ,>BOR1 ,M,I3 ,UNIV]SITY ( ,MI*IGAN ,PRESS1 #a#i#i#c71 #a 7QUOT$74 

.<#c#h.> 0,ME?OD ( ,TAK+ ,VOTES ON ,MORE ,?AN ,TWO ,ISSUES10 #d#f-#e#h2 ,ROB]T ,PAUL ,WOLFF1 ,9 ,DEF5SE ( ,AN>*ISM 7,NEW ,YORK ,H>P] ,TOR*BOOKS1 #a#i#g71 #e#i-#f#c2 ,>R[1 ,SOCIAL ,*OICE & ,9DIVIDUAL ,VALUES1 #i#d4 

.<#c#i.> ,BU*ANAN @& ,TULLOCK1 ,CALCULUS ( ,CONS5T1 #a#c#b-#a#c#c2 ,BURNHEIM1 ,IS ,DEMOCRA71 ,POSSIBLE81 #f2 ,MC,CONNELL1 ,PRIVATE ,P[] & ,AM]ICAN ,DEMOCRACY1 #a#a#a-#a#a#b4 

.<#d.> ,JOHN ,T4 ,NOONAN1 ,JR41 ,BRIB]Y 7,NEW ,YORK3 ,MACMILLAN @& ,LONDON3 ,COLLI] ,MACMILLAN ,PUBLI%]S1 #a#i#h#d71 #e#h2 ,CLAYTON ,P4 ,GILLETTE1 0,EQUALITY & ,V>IETY 9 ! ,DELIV]Y ( ,MUNICIPAL ,S]VICES10 ,H>V>D ,LAW ,REVIEW #a7#a7 7,NOV4 #a#i#h#f71 #i#e#i4 ,9 #a#b? C5TURY ,ITALY1 ,G5OA & ,PI/OIA PROHIBIT$ LOGROLL+ 9 CONSUL> ELECTIONS4 ,LAURO ,M>T9ES1 ,P[] & ,IMAG9ATION3 ,CITY-,/ATES 9 ,R5AISSANCE ,ITALY 7,NEW ,YORK3 ,ALFR$ ,A4 ,KNOPF1 #a#i#g#i71 #b#i4 ,SU* LAWS >E 9 VA93 0,! LAWS AGA9/ LOGROLL+ 7PROBABLY PASS$ 9 P>T ?R\< LOGROLL+7 HAVE SUB/ANTIALLY NO EFFECT ON ! FUNCTION+ ( DEMOCRACY 9 C\NTRIES :I* HAVE ADOPT$ !M40 ,GORDON ,TULLOCK1 ,! ,VOTE ,MOTIVE 7N4P43 ,! ,9/ITUTE ( ,ECONOMIC ,AFFAIRS1 #a#i#g#f71 #d#a4 ,!Y ONLY 9VITE SECRECY & HYPOCRISY4 ,! TWO-?IRDS MAJORITY ( /ATES = ! ADOPTION ( ! ,?IRTE5? ,AM5DM5T TO ! ,U4,S4 ,CON/ITUTION ABOLI%+ SLAV]Y WAS OBTA9$ BY LOGROLL+4 ,NOONAN1 ,BRIB]Y1 #d#e#f-#d#e#h4 

.<#d#a.> ,SEE1 E4G41 ,TULLOCK1 ,! ,VOTE ,MOTIVE1 #d#e-#d#f4 ,REF]5DA1 ANO!R EXPRESSION ( DIRECT DEMOCRACY1 PROVIDE 0! DE>E/ EXAMPLE0 ( LOGROLL+1 PUTT+ TO A S+LE VOTE UNRELAT$ MEASURES GR\P$ TOGE!R TO APPEAL TO A MAJORITY4 ,IBID41 #d#h-#d#i4 ,SOME /ATE CON/ITUTIONS TRY TO PROHIBIT 9DUD+ MORE ?AN ONE SUBJECT 9 EA* BALLOT PROPOSAL4 ,!SE PROVISIONS >E NOTORI\SLY 9EFFECTIVE ,!Y >E ALSO UNDEMOCRATIC !MSELVES1 BECAUSE ! JUDICI>Y IS !N ! F9AL >BIT]4 ,9 A POLITICAL SY/EM )\T *ECKS & BALANCES1 DEMOCRACY IS TYRANNY4 ,BUT A POLITICAL SY/EM ) *ECKS & BALANCES IS NOT A DEMOCRACY4 

.<#d#b.> ,NI*OLAS ,RES*]1 0,RISK+ ,D3 ,PROBLEMS ( ,POLITICAL ,DECISION10 ,PUBLIC ,AFFAIRS ,QU>T]LY #a#c7#d7 7,OCT4 #a#i#i#i71 #b#i#h4 

.<#d#c.> ,TULLOCK1 ,VOTE ,MOTIVE1 #e4 ,MORAL CONSID]ATIONS ASIDE 7:]E !Y BELONG71 MAJORITY RULE ) LOGROLL+ MAY LEAD TO 9EFFICI5T \TCOMES--PEAK EFFICI5CY REQUIRES1 SURPRIS+LY1 SUP]MAJORITIES3 0,MAJORITY RULE IS ?US G5]ALLY NOT OPTIMAL40 ,IBID41 #e#a-#e#e1 #ee 7QUOT$74 

.<#d#d.> 0,! ,PH5OM5ON ( ,\TVOT+10 ,! ,SOCIOLOGY ( ,GEORG ,SIMMEL1 $4 ,KURT ,H4 ,WOLFF 7,NEW ,YORK3 ,! ,FREE ,PRESS @& ,LONDON3 ,COLLI]-,MACMILLAN1 #a#i#e71 #b#d#a-#b#d#b4 

.<#d#e.> ,/EPH51 ,LIB]TY ,EQUALIOC ,FRAT]NITY1 #g4 

.<#d#f.> ,SPITZ1 ,MAJORITY ,RULE1 #aib 7QUOT$72 ,>5D ,LIJPH>T1 ,5CYCLOP$IA ( ,DEMOCRATIC ,?\<T1 Q_/V 0,CONS5SUS ,DEMOCRACY0 7MAJORIT>IAN DEMOCRACY IS 0EXCLUSIVE1 COMPETITIVE & ADV]S>IAL072 ,JANE ,L4 ,MANSBRIDGE1 ,BEYOND ,ADV]S>Y ,DEMOCRACY 7,NEW ,YORK3 ,BASIC ,BOOKS1 #a#i#h71 #b#g#c4 ,MANSBRIDGE ADDS ?AT BECAUSE IT IS DI/RESS+ TO FACE A HO/ILE MAJORITY1 ! MEET+ EX]TS PRESSURE = CON=MITY4 ,HI<LY MOTIVAT$ MILITANTS MAY JU/ WE> D[N & \TLA/ ! O!RS3 0,! ,L[] & ,WEAK] ,FACTION1 IS ! FIRM] 9 ,CONJUNCTION3 ,& IT IS (T5 SC5E1 ?AT A FEW1 ?AT >E ,/IFFE1 DOE TIRE \T1 A GREAT] ,NUMB]1 ?AT >E MORE ,MOD]ATE40 ,FRANCIS ,BACON1 0,( ,FACTION10 ,! ,ESSAYES OR ,C\NSELS1 ,CIVIL6 & ,MORAL1 $4 ,MI*AEL ,KI]NAN 7,CAMBRIDGE ,H>V>D ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS1 #a#i#h#e71 #aee 7ESSAY NO4 ,L,I474 ,NOT ! LEA/ ( ! MANY S]I\S 9EQUALITIES :I* 9H]E 9 ! ASSEMBLY IS ! 9EQUALITY BETWE5 EXTROV]TS & 9TROV]TS4 ,ASSEMBLY GOV]NM5T DISC\RAGES ATT5DANCE BY ! K9D ( P]SON :O DOES NOT LIKE TO BE 9 ! SAME ROOM )1 SAY1 ,MURRAY ,BOOK*9 OR ,PET] ,/AUD5MEI]4 

.<#d#g.> 0,TO SEE ! PROPOSAL ( A MAN :OM WE DESPISE PREF]R$ TO \R [N2 TO SEE \R WISDOM IGNOR$ BE=E \R EYES2 TO 9CUR C]TA9 5MITY 9 AN UNC]TA9 /RUGGLE = EMPTY GLORY2 TO HATE & BE HAT$ BECAUSE ( DIFF]5CES ( OP9ION 7:I* CANNOT BE AVOID$1 :E!R WE W9 OR LOSE72 TO REVEAL \R PLANS & WI%ES :5 !RE IS NO NE$ TO & TO GET NO?+ BY IT2 TO NEGLECT \R PRIVATE AFFAIRS4 ,!SE1 ,I SAY1 >E DISADVANTAGES40 ,?OMAS ,HOBBES1 ,ON ! ,CITIZ51 $4 @& TR4 ,RI*>D ,TUCK @& ,MI*AEL ,SILV]?ORNE 7,CAMBRIDGE3 ,CAMBRIDGE ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS1 #a#i#i#h71 #a#b4 

.<#d#h.> ,IAN ,%APIRO1 0,OPTIMAL ,P>TICIPATION80 J\RNAL ( ,POLITICAL ,PHILOSOPHY #a7#b7 7,JUNE #b#b71 #a#i#h-#a#i#i4 

.<#d#i.> ,?OREAU1 0,CIVIL ,DISOB$I5CE10 #b#b#f1 QUOT$ 9 0,AN>*ISM3 ,:AT ,IT ,REALLY ,/&S ,=10 ,EMMA ,GOLDMAN1 ,R$ ,EMMA ,SPEAKS3 ,SELECT$ ,WRIT+S & ,SPEE*ES1 $4 ,ALIX ,KATES ,%ULMAN 7,NEW ,YORK3 ,V9TAGE ,BOOKS1 #a#i#g#b71 #f2 ,WALDRON1 ,DIGNITY ( ,LEGISLATION1 #a#b#f-#a#b#g4 

.<#e.> ,H4,L4 ,M5CK51 ,NOTES ON ,DEMOCRACY 7,NEW ,YORK3 ,ALFR$ ,A1 ,KNOPF1 #a#i#b#f71 #hi 7QUOT$72 SEE ALSO ,DAHL1 ,DILEMMAS ( ,PLURALI/ ,DEMOCRACY3 ,AUTONOMY1 #h#c-#h#d4 

.<#e#a.> ,SALLY ,BUR*1 ,5CYCLOP$IA ( ,DEMOCRATIC ,?\<T1 Q_/V 0,ELECTORAL ,SY/EMS40 

.<#e#b.> ,L9D]1 ,SWISS ,DEMOCRACY1 #h#d4 ,9 ! ,SWISS SY/EM1 ! VOTE ( ONE CITIZ5 9 ,URI1 A SMALL RURAL CANTON1 \TWEI<S ! VOTES ( #cd CITIZ5S 9 ,ZURI*4 ,IBID41 #h#a4 

.<#e#c.> ,E4G41 ,MURRAY ,BOOK*91 ,AN>*ISM1 ,M>XISM1 & ! ,FUTURE ( ! ,LEFT1 #a#i#i#c-#a#i#i#h 7,$9BUR<1 ,SCOTL& @& ,SAN ,FRANCISCO1 ,C,A3 ,A4,K4 ,PRESS1 #a#i#i#i71 #c#a#d4 

.<#e#d.> 0,! G5]AL *>ACT]I/ICS ( CR[DS >E TO BE MET ) 9 P>LIAM5T>Y ASSEMBLIES3 ,9TELLECTUAL SIMPLICITY1 IRRITABILITY1 SUGGE/IBILITY1 ! EXAGG]ATION ( ! S5TIM5TS & ! PREPOND]AT+ 9FLU5CE ( A FEW LEAD]S40 ,LE ,BON1 ,! ,CR[D1 #a#h#g4 ,AUTOMATIC WORD WRAP 

.<#e#e.> ,ROB]T ,MI*ELS1 ,POLITICAL ,P>TIES3 ,A ,SOCIOLOGICAL ,/UDY ( ! ,OLIG>*ICAL ,T5D5CIES ( ,MOD]N ,DEMOCRACY 7,NEW ,YORK ,! ,FREE ,PRESS @& ,LONDON3 ,COLLI]-,MACMILLAN ,LIMIT$1 #a#i#f#b71 #f#d1 #i#h-#a#b4 ,= ANYONE :O HAS D\BTS AB\T DEMOCRACY1 ?IS IS ! FIR/ BOOK TO READ4 

.<#e#f.> ,HOBBES1 ,! ,CITIZ51 #a#b#c2 SEE ALSO ,SIGMUND ,FREUD1 ,GR\P ,PSY*OLOGY & ! ,ANALYSIS ( ! ,EGO1 TR4 @& $4 ,JAMES ,/RA*EY 7,NEW ,YORK3 ,W4,W4 ,NORTON @& ,COMPANY1 #a#i#e#i71 #i2 ,LE ,BON1 ,! ,CR[D #a#h#g4 

.<#e#g.> ,JOHN ,JAY QUOT$ 9 ,LIFT ( JOHN FAX $4 ,WILLIAM ,JAY 7,NEW ,YORK ,J4 @& ,J4 ,H>P]1 #a#h#c#c71 #b3 #c#a#e4 ,JAY1 COAU?OR ( ,! ,F$]ALI/1 WAS ! FIR/ ,*IEF ,JU/ICE ( ! ,U4,S4 ,SUPREME ,C\RT4 

.<#e#h.> ,?UCYDIDES1 ,HI/ORY ( ! ,PELOPONNESIAN ,W>1 TR4 ,REX ,W>N] 7,LONDON3 ,REAGAN ,BOOKS1 #a#i#e#a71 #d#b#e4 

.<#e#i.> ,SOLOMON ,E4 ,AS*1 ,SOCIAL ,PSY*OLOGY 7,5GLEWOOD ,CLIFFS1 ,N,J3 ,PR5TICE-,HALL1 #a#i#e#b71 #d#e#h1 #d#g#g4 

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.<#f#a.> ,RUSSELL ,H>D91 ,5CYCLOP$IA ( ,DEMOCRATIC ,?\<T1 0,P>TICIPATION40 

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