,*APT] #e 
,RADICAL ,CULTURE & ,CULTURAL ,REVOLUTION3 ,AN>*ISM 9 ! ,MAY ,F\R? ,MOVEM5T 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,>IF ,DIRLIK 

,TEXT 3 

,*APT] ,FIVE  

 ,RADICAL ,CULTURE & ,CULTURAL ,REVOLUTION3  

,AN>*ISM 9 ! ,MAY ,F\R? ,MOVEM5T 

  

,9 ! E>LY AFT]NOON ( ,MAY #d1 #a#i#a#i1 ?REE ?\S& /UD5TS FROM ?REE ,BEIJ+ UNIV]SITIES GA!R$ AT ,BEIJ+'S ,TIANANM5 ,SQU>E TO DEMON/RATE AGA9/ ! ,V]SAILLES ,PEACE ,CONF]5CE DECISION 9 FAVOR ( ,JAPAN ON ! ,%&ONG ,QUE/ION4 ,! /UD5TS HAD ORIG9ALLY 9T5D$ TO CONT9UE !IR DEMON/RATION 9 ! =EIGN LEGATION QU>T]S 9 ,BEIJ+1 BUT F9D+ !IR WAY BLOCK$ BY ! LEGATION POLICE1 !Y PROCE$$ 9/EAD TO ! H\SE ( ,CAO ,RUL91 A ,=EIGN ,M9I/RY (FICIAL :O HAD DRAWN ! IRE ( ! PATRIOTIC /UD5TS = HIS PRO-,JAPANESE S5TIM5TS4 ,! /UD5TS W]E /YMI$ MOM5T>ILY BY ! POLICE :O HAD CORDON$ (F ! H\SE1 & BY ! IMPOS+ WOOD5 GATES ?AT %UT !M (F4 ,SUDD5LY1 A F\R?-YE> ,BEIJ+ ,HI<] ,NORMAL ,COLLEGE /UD5T FROM ,HUNAN1 ,KUANG ,HU%5G1 RU%$ TO ! H\SE1 SMA%$ ! ?ICK WOOD5 %UTT]S ( ! GATE W9D[1 CLIMB$ 91 & FLUNG OP5 ! GATES TO LET 9 ! RE/ ( ! /UD5TS4 ,HE !N SET ! TOR* TO ! H\SE ) ! MAT*ES ) :I* HE HAD COME PREP>$4 ,KUANG WAS AN AN>*I/4.<#b#f#c.> 

,IT WAS APPROPRIATE ?AT ?IS DRAMATIC EV5T1 :I* SET (F ! *A9 ( EV5TS ?AT WAS TO BECOME ! ,MAY ,F\R? ,MOVEM5T1 WAS C>RI$ \T BY AN AN>*I/4 ,KUANG'S ACTION DRAMATIZ$ ! AN>*I/ 9FLU5CE ON ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS ( ! ,MAY ,F\R? P]IOD4 ,AN>*ISM WAS SOON TO BECOME ANA*RONI/IC 9 ,*9A4 ,! ,MAY ,F\R? ,MOVEM5T PRESAG$ A RIS+ TIDE ( PATRIOTISM1 :I* W\LD GRADUALLY R5D] AN>*ISM M>G9AL 9 ,*9ESE RADICAL ?9K+4 ,BUT ! YE>S IMM$IATELY BE=E & AFT] ! ,MAY ,F\R? ,MOVEM5T REPRES5T$ ! APOGEE 9 ! HOLD ( AN>*ISM UPON ! ,*9ESE RADICAL IMAG9ATION4 ,! ,MAY ,F\R? ,MOVEM5T WAS TRULY A REVOLUTION>Y MOM5T 9 MOD]N ,*9ESE HI/ORY4 ,IT K9DL$ ! RADICAL IMAG9ATION & SEEM$ TO GIVE SUB/ANCE TO ! UTOPIAN HOPES ( A :OLE G5]ATION4 ,KUANG HIMSELF RECOLLECT$ ?AT DUR+ ! M>* TO ,CAO'S H\SE 9DIVIDUALS LO/ !IR ID5TITY 9 ! MASS1 EV]YONE SANG TOGE!R1 EV]YONE M>*$ TOGE!R4.<#b#f#d.> ,HIS S5TIM5TS /& AS A METAPHOR = ! REVOLUTION>Y HOPES ! MOVEM5T EVOK$ AMONG ! Y\NG /UD5TS4 ,AN>*ISM EXPRESS$ !SE HOPES4 

,IF SOCIAL *ANGE WAS AT ! HE>T ( :AT PROGRESSIVE ,MAY ,F\R? PUBLICATIONS ADVOCAT$ & DISCUSS$ BY #a#i#a#i1 ! LANGUAGE ( AN>*ISM WAS ! TONGUE 9 :I* ?IS ADVOCACY F\ND ITS EXPRESSION4.<#b#f#e.> ,BY ! EVE ( ! ,MAY ,F\R? ,MOVEM5T1 AN>*I/S' VOCABUL>Y HAD ALREADY BECOME 9TEGRAL TO ! LANGUAGE ( RADICALISM 9 ,*9A4 ,?IS IS NOT TO SAY ?AT ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS :OLESALE BECAME AN>*I/S4 ,9 AN IMM$IATE S5SE1 AN>*ISM B5EFIT$ FROM ! TURN ! ,*9ESE REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5T TOOK 9 AB\T #a#i#a#i2 IT MOV$ 9TO ! C5T] ( MA9/REAM RADICAL ?9K+1 IT SPREAD BEYOND A FEW C5T]S TO BECOME A NATIONAL PH5OM5ON1 & !RE WAS A VIRTUAL EXPLOSION 9 ! NUMB]S ( AN>*I/S AS AN>*I/ GR\PS & PUBLICATIONS PROLIF]AT$ ?R\<\T ! C\NTRY4.<#b#f#f.> ,MORE IMPORTANT 9 ! LONG RUN1 H[EV]1 AN>*I/ IDEAS 5T]$ ! LANGUAGE EV5 ( ?OSE :O C\LD NOT BE DESCRIB$ AS AN>*I/S 9 ANY /RICT S5SE ( ! WORD4 ,AN>*ISM BECAME C5TRAL TO REVOLUTION>Y DISC\RSE4 

,! POPUL>ITY ( AN>*ISM AT ?IS TIME HAD MU* TO DO ) ! REORI5TATION ( ,*9ESE RADICAL ?9K+ ) ! SO-CALL$ ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T AFT] #a#i#a#e1 :I* BR\<T TO ! =E 9TELLECTUAL CONC]N--S& A RADICAL MOOD--?AT RESONAT$ ) ! !MES AN>*I/S HAD RAIS$ OV] ! PREVI\S DECADE4 ,IRONICALLY1 ! ,OCTOB] ,REVOLUTION 9 ,RUSSIA 9 #aiag 9ITIALLY HELP$ /IMULATE 9 ,*9A AN 9T]E/1 NOT 9 ,BOL%EVISM OR ,M>XISM1 BUT 9 AN>*ISM4 ,AN>*I/S W]E NOT PASSIVE B5EFICI>IES ( ?IS REORI5TATION1 H[EV]4 ,AS ! ONLY GR\P ( ORGANIZ$ SOCIAL RADICALS 9 ,*9A1 !Y ACTIVELY PROMOT$ AN>*ISM1 9JECT$ AN AN>*I/ /RA9 9TO ,NEW ,CULTURE ?9K+1 & 5GAG$ 9 ORGANIZATIONAL ACTIVITIES ?AT HELP$ %APE ! =M RADICAL ACTIVISM TOOK 9 ! ,MAY ,F\R? P]IOD4 

,CONTEMPOR>Y ,WITNESSES 

  

,9 E>LY #aib ! ,U4,S4 ,DEP>TM5T ( ,/ATE 9/RUCT$ ITS CONSUL> (FICIALS 9 ,*9A TO REPORT ON ,BOL%EVI/ ACTIVITIES4 ,OV] ! NEXT YE>1 A /REAM ( REPORTS ON ,COMMUNI/IC ,ACTIVITIES FL[$ 9TO ! FILES ( ! ,/ATE ,DEP>TM5T4 ,AM]ICAN CONSULS 9 ,*9A W5T COMB+ ! C\NTRY 9 SE>* ( ,BOL%EVI/S1 MOBILIZ+ ! HELP ( !IR ,BRITI% COLLEAGUES ON OCCASION1 &1 :]E POSSIBLE1 PREVAIL+ UPON ,*9ESE (FICIALS TO PUT A /OP TO ,BOL%EVI/ ACTIVITIES4 ,AL?\< !Y DID NOT UNCOV] AS MU* ACTIVITY AS !Y MI<T HAVE WI%$1 9 ONE OR TWO PLACES !Y DID DISCOV] AN AL>M+ LEVEL ( ,BOL%EVI/ ACTIVITY4 ,BY F> ! L>GE/ NUMB] ( DISPAT*ES ISSU$ FROM ! ,AM]ICAN CONSULATE 9 ,AMOY1 :I* DISCOV]$ ?AT ,BOL%EVI/ DOCTR9ES HAD MADE A CONSID]ABLE IMPRESSION 91 SURPRIS+LY1 ! ,ZHANGZH\ REGION ( ,FUJIAN PROV9CE4 ,AN ,APRIL #a1 #a#i#b1 DISPAT* FROM ! ,AMOY CONSULATE ON ! SUBJECT ,BOL%EVI/ ,PROPAG&A IS QUOT$ AT L5G? = ITS REVELATIONS3  
  

,I HAVE ! HONOR TO REPORT ?AT ,BOL%EVI/ PROPAG&A IS C>RI$ ON 9 ! CITY ( ,*ANG*[1 9L& FROM ,AMOY1 ! SEAT ( ! MILIT>Y GOV]NM5T ( ,G5]AL ,*5 ,*IUNG ,M+ .<,*5 ,JIONGM+.> COMM&+ ! ,S\!RN =CES4 

,I AM 9=M$ ?AT TEA*]S 9 ! ,*9ESE GOV]NM5T S*OOLS AT ,*ANG*[ HAVE BE5 SPREAD+ ! ,BOL%EVI/ DOCTR9E1 & OCCASIONALLY BREAK+ \T & WAV+ ! R$ FLAG4 ,AT A REC5T A?LETIC MEET+1 HELD ON A L>GE SCALE1 AT ,*ANG*[1 PAMPHLETS 9 ,*9ESE ADVOCAT+ AN>*ICAL COMMUNISM W]E CIRCULAT$4 ,I 5CLOSE A R\< TRANSLATION 9 ,5GLI% ( ONE SU* PAMPHLET1 :I* WAS H&$ P]SONALLY BY ,G5]AL ,*5 ,*IUNG ,M+ TO A =EIGN VISITOR TO ,*ANG*[ :O WAS PRES5T AT ! A?LETIC MEET4 ,G5]AL ,*5 ,*IUNG ,M+ IS REPORT$ TO HAVE MADE AN ADDRESS AT A TIFF9 TO (FICIALS & =EIGN]S1 HELD ON ! A?LETIC GR\NDS1 & TO HAVE HIMSELF ADVOCAT$ SOME ( ! SOCIALI/IC DOCTR9ES SET \T 9 ! PAMPHLET4 ,TURN+ TO ! =EIGN MISSION>IES PRES5T1 HE IS REPORT$ TO HAVE SAID ?AT ! ,SAVIOR HIMSELF WAS A SOCIALI/1 & :AT IS A SOCIALI/ BUT A ,BOL%EVIK4.<#b#f#g.>  
  

,AN ,APRIL #bd DISPAT* =W>D$ TO ! EMBASSY 9 ,BEIJ+ 9CLUD$ ADDITIONAL TRANSLATIONS ( ,BOL%EVI/ PAMPHLETS1 AS WELL AS A PROCLAMATION ISSU$ BY ! MAGI/RATE ( ,AMOY4 ,! LATT] READ3  
  

,! PROPAGATION ( ,AN>*ISM & ,BOL%EVISM IS CONTR>Y TO ! PUBLIC PEACE & MORALS1 DE/ROY+ VIRTUE & ! ,FIVE ,HUMAN ,RELATION%IPS 7P>5TS & *ILDR52 HUSB& & WIFE2 BRO!R & SI/] .<SIC.>2 SOV]EIGN & SUBJECT2 FRI5DS74 

,H]EAFT] ANYONE MAY >RE/ P]SONS 5GAG$ 9 DI/RIBUT+ ?IS PR9T$ MATT] & S5D !M TO ! C\RT OR H& !M OV] TO ! POLICE1 TO BE SEV]ELY PUNI%$4.<#b#f#h.>  
  

,! CONF\ND+ ( AN>*ISM & ,BOL%EVISM 9 !SE REPORTS1 :ATEV] IT MAY SAY AB\T ! POLITICAL $UCATION ( ,AM]ICAN DIPLOMATS1 WAS NEV]!LESS TYPICAL ( ! CONFUSION ?AT PREVAIL$ AT ?IS TIME OV] ! RELATION%IP ( !SE RADICAL IDEOLOGIES4 ,BUT NOT EV]YONE WAS CONFUS$4 ,9 A S]VICE REPORT HE FIL$ TO ! ,/ATE ,DEP>TM5T 9 ,DECEMB] #a#i#b1 ,JOHN ,DEWEY OBS]V$1 ) REF]5CE TO ! CASE ( A /UD5T :O HAD BE5 >RE/$ TWO MON?S E>LI] 9 ,BEIJ+ = SPREAD+ ,BOL%EVI/ LIT]ATURE1 ?AT HE 9VE/IGAT$ & F\ND ?AT IT WAS TRULY AN>*I/IC1 ADVOCAT+ ! ABOLITION ( GOV]NM5T & ! FAMILY1 BUT NO ,BOL%EVI/4 ,?\< !RE MI<T BE A FEW ,BOL%EVIKS >\ND ! C\NTRY1 ,DEWEY CONT9U$1 !Y HAD NO?+ TO DO ) ! G5]AL TONE & TEMP] ( RADICAL ?\<T 9 ! C\NTRY4.<#b#f#i.> ,HAD ,AM]ICAN CONSUL> (FICIALS 9 ,AMOY 9VE/IGAT$ ! ,BOL%EVI/ LIT]ATURE !Y DISCOV]$ 9 ,ZHANGZH\ ) ! SAME P]SPICACITY1 !Y MI<T HAVE REA*$ A SIMIL> CONCLUSION3 ?IS LIT]ATURE WAS CLE>LY AN>*I/1 PRODUC$ & DI/RIBUT$ BY FOLL[]S ( ,%IFU1 :O HAD ACCOMPANI$ ,*5 ,JIONGM+ TO ,FUJIAN 9 #a#i#a#h4 

,DEWEY WAS TO BE PROV5 WRONG CONC]N+ ! PROSPECTS ( ,BOL%EVISM 9 ,*9A4 ,BUT HIS ASSESSM5T ( ! SITUATION 9 #aiaib WAS ACCURATE4 ,9 ! EYES ( CONTEMPOR>IES1 AN>*ISM WAS BY F> ! MO/ IMPORTANT CURR5T 9 ,*9ESE RADICAL ?9K+ ( ! TIME4 

,9 ,JUNE #a#i#a#i1 ,*5 ,DUXIU WROTE 9 ! ,MEIZH\ P+LUN 7,WEEKLY CRITIC7 ?AT T[>D ! 5D ( ! ,Q+ DYNA/Y1 (FICIALS ACCUS$ EV]YONE :O WAS POLITICALLY SUSPECT ( BE+ A MEMB] ( ! ,TONGM5G HUI 7,REVOLUTION>Y ,ALLIANCE74 ,S9CE ! ,REVOLUTION ( #aiaa !Y HAD ALL LE>N$ TO PRAISE ! ,REVOLUTION>Y ,ALLIANCE4 ,N[1 HE COMPLA9$1 EV]YONE :O WAS POLITICALLY UNDESIRABLE WAS CALL$ AN AN>*I/1 DESPITE ! FACT ?AT !RE W]E ACTUALLY FEW AN>*I/S 9 ,*9A4.<#b#g.> 

,*5'S COMM5T SUGGE/S ?AT IT WAS GOV]NM5T /]EOTYP+ ( RADICALS1 RA!R ?AN ! POPUL>ITY ( AN>*ISM1 ?AT CREAT$ ! IMPRESSION ( WIDESPREAD AN>*I/ ACTIVITY 9 ,*9A4 ,?IS HAD SOME TRU? TO IT4 ,AN ACCURATE E/IMATE ( ! NUMB] ( AN>*I/S 9 ,*9A AT ?AT TIME MAY NEV] BE POSSIBLE2 IT IS UNLIKELY1 H[EV]1 ?AT !RE W]E EV] MORE ?AN A FEW HUNDR$ ACTIVE & COMMITT$ AN>*I/S AT ANY ONE TIME4 ,AN>*I/ ASSOCIATIONS W]E LOOSELY ORGANIZ$1 %ORT-LIV$1 & DIFFUSE 9 MEMB]%IP4 ,AN>*I/ EF=TS TO ORGANIZE A COH]5T F$]ATION F\ND]$ BE=E ! UNWILL+NESS ( AN>*I/S TO SUBMIT TO ORGANIZATION DISCIPL9E4 

,NEV]!LESS1 ,*9ESE (FICIALS MADE A /R5U\S EF=T TO SUPPRESS AN>*I/ ACTIVITY1 :I* ITSELF WAS A MAJOR REASON = ! FLUIDITY ( AN>*I/ ASSOCIATIONS4 ,GOV]NM5T AG5TS 9FILTRAT$ AN>*I/ ORGANIZATIONS1 AN>*I/ PUBLICATIONS W]E (T5 SUPPRESS$ AS SOON AS !Y HAD COME 9TO BE+1 & AN>*I/S HAD TO KEEP ON ! MOVE TO ESCAPE GOV]NM5T DETECTION & >RE/4.<#b#g#a.> ,?IS CON/ANT MOTION1 NECESSITAT$ BY GOV]NM5T SUPPRESSION1 WAS IRONICALLY A POSSIBLE REASON = GOV]NM5T FE>S ( A WIDESPREAD AN>*I/ CONSPIRACY4 

,! ,*9ESE GOV]NM5T DUR+ ?IS P]IOD ID5TIFI$ EXTREMISM 7GUOJI ZHUYI7 ) AN>*ISM1 & 9 ITS CON/ANT EF=TS TO TRACK D[N EXTREMI/S1 GAVE PUBLICITY TO ! AN>*I/ CAUSE4 ,! 9T]NAL DOCUM5TS ( ! ,BEIJ+ GOV]NM5T REVEAL ?AT AU?ORITIES W]E G5U9ELY CONC]N$ AB\T ! EFFECTS ON ! POPULATION--/UD5TS1 WORK]S1 & ESPECIALLY SOLDI]S--( ! S$ITI\S LIT]ATURE ?AT KEPT POPP+ UP 9 PO/ (FICES ACROSS ! C\NTRY4 ,CONC]N+ AN APPEAL TO SOLDI]S1 WRITT5 BY A ,BAOD+ AN>*I/ NAM$ ,LI ,DE%5G1 AN (FICIAL WROTE 9 ,MAY #aiai ?AT IF ?IS K9D ( CRAZY TALK WAS P]MITT$ TO SPREAD1 IT W\LD DI/URB ORD] & DE/ROY ! PEACE1 :I* W\LD NOT ONLY ?REAT5 ! EXI/5CE ( ! /ATE BUT EXT+UI% HUMANITY2 IT WAS A SP>K ?AT W\LD1 IF NOT EXT+UI%$1 />T A PRAIRIE FIRE4 ,9 LATE ,JUNE #a#i#a#i1 ,CAO ,KUN1 !N MILIT>Y GOV]NOR ( ,ZHILI PROV9CE1 PR$ICT$ SIMIL> RESULTS IF AN>*I/ ADVOCACY ( REVOLUTION AGA9/ K9%IP RELATIONS 7SANGANG WU*ANG71 = ECONOMIC EQUALITY1 LABOR ORGANIZATION1 & FRE$OM TO A*IEVE HUMANIT>IANISM W]E ALL[$ TO SPREAD AMONG /UD5TS :O W]E JU/ BEG9N+ TO QUIET D[N FROM ! ACTIVITIES ( ! ,MAY ,F\R? MOBILIZATION4 ,ANO!R REPORT FROM #aib OBS]V$ ?AT EXTREMI/S :O ADVOCAT$ SOCIAL AN>*O-COMMUNISM 7%EHUI WUZH5GFU GONG*AN ZHUYI71 :ILE NOT COMP>ABLE TO B&ITS1 W]E MORE DANG]\S TO ! /ATE ?AN B&ITS4.<#b#g#b.> 

,NEV]!LESS1 IF ! /R5G? ( AN>*ISM AT ?IS TIME WAS MORE AN IMPRESSION CREAT$ BY GOV]NM5TAL P]SECUTION ?AN A REALITY1 AS ,*5 SUGGE/$1 IT WAS AN IMPRESSION ?AT WAS %>$ WIDELY4 ,9 A #aiai ESSAY1 ,MORE ,TALK ( ,PROBLEMS1 ,LESS ,TALK ( ,ISMS1 ,HU ,%I PO9T$ TO ! AN>*I/S 79 ADDITION TO ,M>XI/S7 AS EXAMPLES ( IDEOLOGICAL ?9K+4.<#b#g#c.> ,*5 HIMSELF IMPLICITLY CONC$$ ! APPEALS ( AN>*ISM :5 HE CONDEMN$ ! NIHILI/IC T5D5CIES ( ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS = N\RI%+ AN>*I/ ?9K+4 ,BY #aiai ,*5 WAS AN IMPLACABLE FOE ( AN>*ISM2 HIS /ATEM5T REFLECT$ ! FRU/RATION HE FELT ) ! POPUL>ITY ( AN>*ISM AMONG ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS4 ,TWO YE>S LAT]1 HE WAS TO RESPOND TO A SUGGE/ION ?AT ! V>I\S ORGANS ( ! ,COMMUNI/ P>TY BE MOV$ FROM ,%AN<AI TO ,GUANGZH\ ) ! OBS]VATION3 ,AN>*I/S >E ALL OV] ?IS PLACE1 SPREAD+ SL&]\S RUMORS AB\T US4 ,H[ CAN WE MOVE TO ,GUANGZH\8.<#b#g#d.> ,AS LATE AS #a#i#b#b1 ! ,SOVIET GOV]NM5T 9 ,MOSC[ 9VIT$ AN AN>*I/ GR\P TO VISIT ! ,SOVIET ,UNION ) ! HOPE ( CONV]T+ !M TO ! ,BOL%EVIK CAUSE4.<#b#g#e.> 

,AN>*I/S MAY HAVE BE5 WEAK1 BUT !Y W]E /ILL ! MO/ NUM]\S AMONG PROPON5TS ( RADICAL SOCIAL REVOLUTION1 !Y W]E /ILL BETT] ORGANIZ$ ?AN O!RS 9 ! E>LY TW5TIES1 & !RE WAS MORE SY/EMATIC AN>*I/ LIT]ATURE AVAILABLE TO ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS ?AN WAS TRUE ( ANY O!R IDEOLOGY ( ,WE/]N ORIG94 ,AL?\< AN>*I/S PROV$ 9 ! LONG RUN TO BE UNABLE TO ORGANIZE !MSELVES 9TO A COH]5T MOVEM5T1 !Y HAD A L>GE NUMB] ( ORGANIZATIONS SCATT]$ ALL OV] ,*9A 9 ! E>LY TW5TIES1 &1 AT LEA/ 9 ! MAJOR URBAN C5T]S1 AN>*I/ MOBILITY PROVID$ !SE ORGANIZATIONS ) SOME MEASURE ( LOOSE ORGANIZATION4 ,9 ! IMM$IATE YE>S AFT] ! ,MAY ,F\R? ,MOVEM5T1 !RE W]E AN>*I/ SOCIETIES 9 ,BEIJ+1 ,%AN<AI1 ,NANJ+1 ,TIANJ91 ,GUANGZH\1 ,ZHANGZH\ 9 ,FUJIAN1 ,HANK\1 ,*5GDU1 & ,*ANG%A1 ) MORE ?AN ONE SOCIETY 9 SOME CASES4 ,OV]SEAS1 !RE W]E ,*9ESE AN>*I/ SOCIETIES 9 ,FRANCE1 ,S+APORE1 ! ,PHILIPP9ES1 ,SAN ,FRANCISCO1 & ,VANC\V]4.<#b#g#f.> ,!SE SOCIETIES PUBLI%$ !IR [N NEWSLETT]S & P]IODICALS TO SPREAD AN>*I/ IDEAS4 ,!Y ALSO S]V$ AS CORES = MASS MOBILIZATION :5 ! POLITICAL SITUATION ALL[$ 7OR 9/IGAT$7 SU* MOBILIZATION4 

,! AN>*I/ PRES5CE 9 ! ,MAY ,F\R? P]IOD WAS EV5 MORE EVID5T 9 ! SPREAD ( AN>*I/ LIT]ATURE 9 ! ,*9ESE PRESS & ( AN>*I/ PUBLICATIONS !MSELVES4 ,DUR+ ! TWO YE>S #aibb & #a#i#b#c1 MORE ?AN SEV5TY AN>*I/ PUBLICATIONS APPE>$ 9SIDE & \TSIDE ,*9A4.<#b#g#g.> ,TO BE SURE1 LIKE ! SOCIETIES ?AT PUBLI%$ !M1 !SE PUBLICATIONS W]E %ORT-LIV$2 MANY DID NOT LA/ BEYOND ONE ISSUE2 ALL ?AT REMA9S ( !M TODAY >E ANN\NCEM5TS ( PUBLICATION 9 O!R AN>*I/ J\RNALS4 ,!SE PUBLICATIONS ALSO HAD LIMIT$ CIRCULATION & QUITE POSSIBLY DID NOT REA* BEYOND ! LOCALITY 9 :I* !Y W]E PUBLI%$4 ,/ILL1 !Y PROVIDE EVID5CE = ! WIDESPREAD POPUL>ITY AN>*ISM 5JOY$ AT ?IS TIME4 ,!RE W]E AN>*I/ PUBLICATIONS ( LONG DURATION & NATIONAL SCOPE3 ,M9ZHONG1 PUBLI%$ #a#i#b#b-#a#i#b#g1 FIR/ 9 ,GUANGZH\ & !N 9 ,%AN<AI2 ,XUEHUI1 SUPPLEM5T TO ! ,GU(5G RIBAO 9 ,BEIJ+2 ,GONGYU1 PUBLI%$ 9 ,P>IS2 & ,*UNLEI 7FOLL[$ BY ,J+ZHE71 9 ,GUANGZH\4 ,!SE P]IODICALS1 ON ! ONE H&1 PROPAGAT$ AN>*I/ IDEAS2 ON ! O!R H&1 !Y CONC5TRAT$ 9CREAS+LY AFT] #aiba ON CRITICISM ( COMMUNISM & ! ,SOVIET ,UNION4 ,?R\< !SE PUBLICATIONS1 ,*9ESE HAD ACCESS TO ! MO/ REC5T DEVELOPM5TS 9 WORLD AN>*ISM4 

,P]HAPS MORE IMPORTANT = PRES5T PURPOSES1 BY #aiai !RE WAS MORE AN>*I/ LIT]ATURE AVAILABLE TO ,*9ESE ?AN ANY O!R SOCIALI/ LIT]ATURE4 ,A SURVEY ( AN>*I/ WRIT+S FROM ?IS P]IOD %[S ?AT1 ?R\< ! ACCUMULAT$ EF=TS ( AN>*I/S OV] ! PREVI\S DECADE1 AN 9T]E/$ ,*9ESE READ] C\LD HAVE GA9$ A MORE COMPREH5SIVE UND]/&+ ( AN>*ISM ?R\< ,*9ESE LANGUAGE MAT]IALS ?AN WAS POSSIBLE = ANY O!R ,WE/]N SOCIAL & POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY4 ,A ,MAY #aiah LI/ 9 ! AN>*I/ J\RNAL ,ZIY\ LU 7,RECORDS ( FRE$OM7 9CLUD$ WORKS BY ,KROPOTK91 ,BAKUN91 ,GOLDMAN1 & ,TOL/OY4 ,A ,M>* #aiai LI/ 9 ,J9HUA 7,EVOLUTION7 CIT$ ADDITIONAL WORKS BY ,KROPOTK91 PLUS WORKS BY ,GRAVE1 ,RECLUS1 & ,L\IS ,BLANC4.<#b#g#h.> ,! REJUV5AT$ ,PEOPLE'S ,VOICE 9 #aibb PUBLI%$ A LI/ ( WORKS ?AT HAD BE5 PUBLI%$ BY ?AT SOCIETY BETWE5 #aiab & #a#i#b3 ! LI/ 9CLUD$ WORKS BY ,KROPOTK91 ,TOL/OY1 & ,MALATE/A1 AMONG O!RS1 SOME ( !M PUBLI%$ 9 $ITIONS ( UP TO #e1 COPIES4.<#b#g#i.> ,*9ESE C\LD ALSO SEE :AT !IR FAVORITE AN>*I/S HAD LOOK$ LIKE1 ?R\< ! #e1 PO/C>DS ( ,WE/]N AN>*I/S 7& ( AN>*I/ COLONIES SU* AS ! ,COLONIE D',AIGLEMONT 9 ,FRANCE7 ! SOCIETY HAD PUBLI%$ 9 #a#i#a#c4 ,ALL ?IS WAS1 ( C\RSE1 9 ADDITION TO ! WRIT+S BY ,*9ESE AN>*I/S !MSELVES4 

,BY #aiai AN>*I/ WORKS & WRIT+S APPE>$ REGUL>LY 9 ! MA9/REAM PRESS4 ,>TICLES ON ,TOL/OY'S PAN-LABORISM APPE>$ NOT ONLY 9 AN>*I/ P]IODICALS BUT 9 ! RADICAL & LIB]AL PRESS 9 G5]AL1 9CLUD+ 9FLU5TIAL PUBLICATIONS SU* AS ! ,EA/]N ,MISCELLANY 7,DONGFANG ZAZHI71 :]E EV5 CONS]VATIVE AU?ORS F\ND IT A DIRECTLY RELEVANT IDEA4 ,EV5 MORE WIDESPREAD WAS ! 9T]E/ 9 ! AN>*I/ IDEA ( MUTUAL AID & ITS PROG5ITOR1 ,KROPOTK91 :O 9 #aiai MAY HAVE BE5 ! MO/ REV]$ ,EUROPEAN RADICAL 9 ,*9ESE EYES4 ,HIS ,APPEAL TO ,Y\? WAS TO BE RESPONSIBLE = CONV]T+ 7OR AT LEA/ TURN+7 NUMB]S ( Y\NG RADICALS TO AN>*ISM4.<#b#h.> ,WORKS SU* AS ,MUTUAL ,AID1 ,! ,CONQUE/ ( ,BREAD1 & ,FIELDS1 ,FACTORIES & ,WORK%OPS1 AS WELL AS HIS AUTOBIOGRAPHY1 W]E READILY AVAILABLE & F\ND !IR WAY 9TO P]IODICALS ) A BROAD READ]%IP2 ONE ,SI*UAN AN>*I/ RECALL$ ?AT !SE W]E AMONG ! MO/ POPUL> READ+S ( ! DAY 9 #a#i#a#i4.<#b#h#a.> ,9 ,M>* #a#i#a#i1 ! ,LI<T ( ,LE>N+ 7,XU$5G1 SUPPLEM5T TO ,CURR5T ,AFFAIRS1 ,%I%I X9BAO1 9 ,%AN<AI ASSOCIAT$ ) ! ANTIREVOLUTION>Y ,RESE>* ,CLIQUE7 BEGAN TO S]IALIZE ,LI ,%IZ5G'S TRANSLATION ( ,MUTUAL ,AID4 ,LAT] 9 ! YE> ! ,WEEK5D ,REVIEW 7,X+QI P+LUN7 9 ,%AN<AI S]IALIZ$ ,! ,/ATE1 ! ONLY L5G?Y =EIGN WORK TO APPE> 9 ?AT J\RNAL4 ,>TICLES ON ,KROPOTK91 OR TRANSLATIONS ( HIS WORKS1 W]E /APLES ( ! READ+ PUBLIC4 ,BAKUN9'S ,GOD & ! ,/ATE WAS ANO!R POPUL> AN>*I/ WORK ( ! TIME4 

,! PROLIF]ATION ( AN>*I/S DUR+ ! ,MAY ,F\R? ,MOVEM5T1 & ! DIFFUSION ( AN>*I/ IDEAS1 MAY BE TAK5 AS PRIMA FACIE EVID5CE ?AT ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T PROVID$ F]TILE GR\ND = ! EFFLORESC5CE ( AN>*ISM 9 ,*9A4 ,9DE$1 ! 9TELLECTUAL & SOCIAL MOBILIZATION ( ! LATE #a#i#aS1 :I* WAS TO BECOME ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T1 MI<T WELL HAVE SEEM$ TO ! AN>*I/S ! FULFILLM5T ( !IR WI%ES = ! DIRECTION ( ! REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5T 9 ,*9A4 ,= ! PREVI\S DECADE1 AN>*I/S HAD BE5 ! MO/ P]SI/5T1 & ! MO/ SY/EMATIC1 EXPON5TS ( ! IDEAS ON SOCIAL *ANGE ?AT ROSE TO ! =EFRONT ( RADICAL ?9K+ AFT] #a#i#a#e4 ,AS !SE IDEAS GA9$ CURR5CY1 AN>*I/S & ! SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY ( AN>*ISM MOV$ FROM ! P]IPH]Y TO ! C5T] ( ,*9ESE ?\<T--NOT JU/ METAPHORICALLY1 9 ?\<T1 BUT ALSO GEOGRAPHICALLY1 FROM ,GUANGZH\ & PLACES ABROAD TO ,BEIJ+4 

,! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T & ,AN>*ISM 

  

,! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T1 ! FIR/ UNAMBIGU\S MANIFE/ATION ( ! DEM& = CULTURAL REVOLUTION 9 ! ,*9ESE REVOLUTION>Y MOVEM5T1 GOT UND] WAY 9 #aiae & BL5D$ 9 #aiai ) ! ,MAY ,F\R? ,MOVEM5T1 :I* SPREAD ! MESSAGE ( NEW CULTURE BROADLY BEYOND ! SMALL GR\P ( 9TELLECTUALS 7MA9LY 9 ,BEIJ+7 TO :I* IT HAD BE5 RE/RICT$ 9ITIALLY4 ,ITS IDEOLOGICAL PREMISES & DEM&S >E WELL KN[N & DO NOT REQUIRE EXT5SIVE ELABORATION4 ,H]E ,I %ALL ONLY HI<LI<T ITS MO/ \T/&+ CONC]NS4.<#b#h#b.> 

,ACCORD+ TO HI/ORIOGRAPHICAL CONV5TION1 ! MOVEM5T WAS 9ITIAT$ BY ! PROM95T 9TELLECTUAL ,*5 ,DUXIU 7LAT] A DEAN AT ,BEIJ+ ,UNIV]SITY & ! FIR/ SECRET>Y-G5]AL ( ! ,COMMUNI/ P>TY7 :5 HE F\ND$ ! ,NEW ,Y\? 7,X9 Q+NIAN7 MAGAZ9E 9 LATE #aiae & BEGAN TO ADVOCATE A NEW CULTURE = ,*9A4 ,OV] ! NEXT FEW YE>S1 ,*5 WAS ABLE TO RECRUIT SOME ( ,*9A'S MO/ PROM95T 9TELLECTUAL & LIT]>Y FIGURES1 & ! DEM& = A NEW CULTURE CAME TO 5COMPASS ALL ASPECTS ( 9TELLECTUAL LIFE1 FROM NEW IDEAS TO NEW WRIT+ TO A NEW E?ICAL BASIS = ,*9ESE SOCIETY4 ,9 #a#i#a#g1 :5 ,CAI ,YUANPEI WAS APPO9T$ *ANCELLOR ( ,BEIJ+ ,UNIV]SITY1 ! MOVEM5T ACQUIR$ AN 9/ITUTIONAL BASIS 9 ,*9A'S PREMI]E $UCATIONAL 9/ITUTION4 ,! ATMOSPH]E CREAT$ BY ! CULTURAL MOVEM5T CONTRIBUT$ TO ! ]UPTION ( /UD5T PROTE/ 9 ,BEIJ+ 9 ,MAY #aiai AGA9/ =EIGN CLAIMS ON ,*9ESE T]RITORY4 ,?\< PRIM>ILY PATRIOTIC 9 ITS ORI5TATION1 ! ,MAY ,F\R? ,MOVEM5T 9 TURN CREAT$ CONDITIONS = ! FUR!R SPREAD ( ! DEM& = A NEW CULTURE1 :I* BY MID-#a#i#a#i HAD BECOME NATIONAL 9 SCOPE4 ,! M]G+ ( ! TWO MOVEM5TS 9 #aiai REPRES5T$ A MAJOR TURN+ PO9T 9 ! HI/ORY ( ! ,*9ESE REVOLUTION & HAS RETA9$ A P>ADIGMATIC SIGNIFICANCE S9CE !N4 

,! MOVEM5T ORIG9AT$1 MO/ IMM$IATELY1 9 ! ACCUMULATION ( PATRIOTIC S5TIM5T AGA9/ =EIGN 7ESPECIALLY ,JAPANESE7 5CROA*M5T ON ,*9A4 ,MORE IMPORTANT FROM ! LONG-T]M P]SPECTIVE ( ! ,*9ESE REVOLUTION IS :AT IT REVEALS AB\T ! IDEOLOGICAL & SOCIAL CONDITIONS ( REVOLUTION4 ,! TURN TO CULTURE WAS A RESPONSE TO ! FAILURE ( ! POLITICAL 9/ITUTIONS CREAT$ BY ! REPUBLICAN ,REVOLUTION ( #a#i#a#a1 :I* NOT ONLY CREAT$ A DISGU/ ( POLITICS1 BUT TURN$ 9TELLECTUALS AWAY FROM ! PURSUIT ( POLITICAL SOLUTIONS TO SE>* = ANSW]S TO ,*9A'S POLITICAL PROBLEMS AT ! MORE FUNDAM5TAL LEVEL ( CULTURE & M5TALITY4 ,IT W\LD BE ]RONE\S TO ASSUME ?AT ?IS REPRES5T$ A %IFT FROM PUBLIC TO PRIVATE CONC]NS4 ,9DE$1 ADVOCATES ( A NEW CULTURE HAD COME TO VIEW POLITIES AS BE+ 9 ! REALM ( SELFI%NESS1 CORRUPTION1 & ! PURSUIT ( PRIVATE 9T]E/1 & BELIEV$ ?AT A G5U9E PUBLIC CONSCI\SNESS C\LD BE CREAT$ 9 ,*9A ONLY \TSIDE ( POLITICS1 A POSITION REM9ISC5T ( ! FIR/ G5]ATION ( RADICALS BUT N[ RE9=C$ BY ! EXP]I5CE ( A POLITICAL REVOLUTION4 

,?IS 9TELLECTUAL REORI5TATION 9 TURN DREW ITS SIGNIFICANCE FROM ! COM+ ( AGE ( A NEW G5]ATION ( ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS4 ,! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T WAS NOT SIMPLY AN 9TELLECTUAL MOVEM5T1 IT WAS ALSO A MOVEM5T ( NEW 9TELLECTUALS :O W]E 9T5SELY CONC]N$ ) PUBLIC & PATRIOTIC ISSUES1 BUT ALSO S\<T TO ASS]T !IR PRES5CE 9 PUBLIC AFFAIRS4 ,IT IS POSSIBLE TO SPEAK ( ! EM]G5CE 9 ! LATE #a#i#aS ( AN 9TELLIG5TSIA 9 ,*9A :O NO LONG] CONCEIV$ ( !MSELVES AS POLITICAL S]VANTS BUT RA!R DISCOV]$ AN ID5TITY 9 OPPOSITION TO POLITICS4 ,! NEW NATIONAL 9/ITUTIONS 7&1 TO A LESS] EXT5T1 PR(ESSIONS7 PROVID$ !M ) A SOCIAL BASIS ( !IR [N2 & ! REALM ( CULTURE >TICULAT$ !IR ORI5TATION AS A SOCIAL GR\P TO PROBLEMS ( SOCIETY4 ,!IR 9ITIALLY CULTURAL RADICALISM WAS TO BE TRANS=M$ BY ! ,MAY ,F\R? ,MOVEM5T1 :I* BR\<T !M \T ( !IR UNIV]SITIES 9TO ! /REETS4 ,! 5C\NT] ) ! RE/ ( ! POPULATION W\LD ADD A SOCIAL DIM5SION TO !IR CULTURAL CONC]NS & TRANS=M ! CULTURAL RADICALISM ( ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T 9TO ! SOCIAL RADICALISM ( ! TW5TIES4 

,! IDEOLOGY ( ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T IS BE/ VIEW$ AT A NUMB] ( LEVELS4 ,AT ! MO/ =MAL LEVEL WAS ITS CALL = SCI5CE & DEMOCRACY1 HI/ORICALLY REG>D$ AS ! MOVEM5T'S =EMO/ *>ACT]I/IC4 ,LEAD]S ( ! MOVEM5T VIEW$ ! CULTIVATION ( HABITS ( SCI5TIFIC ?9K+ & DEMOCRACY AS ! MO/ FUNDAM5TAL ELEM5TS 9 ! CREATION ( A NEW CULTURE& A NEW G5]ATION ( ,*9ESE4 ,?IS WAS TO LEAD TO AN UNPREC$5T$ AFFIRMATION ( MOD]N ,EURO-,AM]ICAN CULTURE & TO A TOTAL REPUDIATION ( ! HEGEMONIC NATIVE TRADITION1 ,CONFUCIANISM1 :I* N[ REPRES5T$ ALL ?AT WAS BACKW>D & SUP]/ITI\S AGA9/ ! 5LI<T5M5T ( MOD]NITY4 ,! ATTACK ON ! PA/ 9CLUD$ AN ATTACK ON ITS TEXTUAL & SOCIAL UND]P9N+S4 ,A NEW CULTURE DEM&$ A NEW LANGUAGE2 ,NEW ,CULTURE LEAD]S CALL$ = A NEW LIT]ATURE1 AS WELL AS = ! REPLACEM5T ( CLASSICAL WRIT+ BY A COLLOQUIAL /YLE1 TO OV]?R[ ! HEGEMONY NOT JU/ ( ! OLD TEXTS BUT ( ! OLD ELITE1 :I* D]IV$ ITS P[] FROM COMM& OV] ! TEXTS4 ,SOCIALLY1 ! ATTACK ON ! PA/ WAS C>RI$ OV] TO AN ATTACK ON ! 9/ITUTIONS ?R\< :I* ! PA/ LIV$ ON1 *IEFLY ! FAMILY1 N[ SE5 AS ! VEHICLE = ! TRANSMISSION ( ,CONFUCIAN SOCIAL VALUES4 ,! OV]?R[ ( ! FAMILY WAS CRUCIAL TO ! LIB]ATION ( Y\? FROM ! PA/ &1 !RE=E1 TO ! CREATION ( A NEW G5]ATION ( ,*9ESE4 ,! AFFIRMATION ( MOD]NITY WAS TO LEAD TO AN ICONOCLA/IC 79 ,L9 ,YU-%5G'S T]M7 REPUDIATION ( ! PA/1 :I* WAS TOTAL BECAUSE ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T ULTIMATELY *ALL5G$ ! V]Y VALUES ?AT HELD ! OLD SOCIETY TOGE!R4.<#b#h#c.> 

,9 ITS V]Y PREOCCUPATION ) CULTURE1 ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T 7LIKE ! ,MAY ,F\R? ,MOVEM5T 9 G5]AL7 WAS ITSELF A CULTURAL PH5OM5ON2 9 O!R WORDS1 ! ADVOCATES ( NEW CULTURE1 & !IR Y\?FUL AUDI5CE1 NOT ONLY ADVOCAT$ A NEW CULTURE1 !Y TRI$ TO LIVE IT4 ,9 ITS CONC]N ) CULTURE1 ! MOVEM5T FOCUS$ ON $UCATION AS ! PRIM>Y MEANS = *ANG+ ,*9A2 :ILE =MAL $UCATION WAS C5TRAL TO ITS CONCEPTION ( $UCATION1 IT WAS NOT A LIMIT+ B\ND>Y4 ,9 BR++ $UCATION CLOS] TO EV]YDAY LIFE1 ! MOVEM5T 79T5TIONALLY OR NOT7 PU%$ $UCATION \T ( =MAL 9/ITUTIONS4 ,! RESULT WAS ! CREATION \T ( A MOVEM5T ( IDEAS A RADICAL CULTURE ?AT S\<T ! IMM$IATE FULFILLM5T ( ?OSE IDEAS 9 SOCIAL PRACTICE4 ,A BYPRODUCT ( ?IS CULTURE WAS A PR(\ND IDEALISM 7BO? 9 ! S5SE ( A BELIEF 9 ! FUNDAM5TALNESS ( IDEAS & 9 ! S5SE ( ! IMM$IATE POSSIBILITY ( REALIZ+ !IR PROMISE74 ,AS ! ,MANIFE/O ( ,NEW ,Y\? 7MAGAZ9E7 PUT IT 9 LATE #a#i#a#i3  
  

,\R IDEAL NEW ]A & NEW SOCIETY >E TO BE HONE/1 PROGRESSIVE1 POSITIVE1 FREE1 EQUAL1 CREATIVE1 BEAUTIFUL1 K9D1 PEACEFUL1 FULL ( UNIV]SAL LOVE & MUTUAL ASSI/ANCE1 & PLEASANT LABOR2 9 %ORT1 HAPP9ESS = ! :OLE SOCIETY4 ,WE HOPE ?AT ! HYPOCRITICAL1 ! CONS]VATIVE1 ! NEGATIVE1 ! B\ND1 CLASS DIVID$1 CONV5TIONAL1 UGLY1 VICI\S1 W>R+1 RE/LESS1 IDLE1 PESSIMI/IC ELEM5TS1 HAPP9ESS = ! FEW--ALL !SE PH5OM5A WILL GRADUALLY DIM9I% & DISAPPE>4.<#b#h#d.>  
  

,P>TICIPANTS 9 ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T VIEW$ IT AS A ,*9ESE ,R5AISSANCE4 ,9 LAT] YE>S1 ! MOVEM5T--9 ITS EMPHASES ON SCI5CE & DEMOCRACY--W\LD BE COMP>$ TO ! ,EUROPEAN ,5LI<T5M5T1 :I* /ILL HOLDS AN IMPORTANT PLACE 9 REPRES5TATIONS ( ! MOVEM5T4 ,LIB]AL HI/ORIANS HAVE /RESS$ ! MOVEM5T'S LIB]ALISM2 ,COMMUNI/ HI/ORIANS ON ! :OLE HAVE AGRE$ ) ?IS ASSESSM5T1 ADD+ AS A SOCIAL DIM5SION ! BUR/+ =? ( A B\RGEOIS REVOLUTION 9 ,*9A4.<#b#h#e.> ,I ?9K WE CANNOT ID5TIFY ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T ) ANY ONE IDEOLOGY1 IF BY IDEOLOGY WE UND]/& AN >TICULATE CONCEPTION ( ! WORLD ) AN EXCLUSIVE /RUCTURE ( SOCIAL & POLITICAL ACTION4 ,! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T WAS NOT 9=M$ BY AN IDEOLOGY ?AT1 HAV+ CAPTUR$ ! CONSCI\SNESS ( A G5]ATION1 /OOD GU>D1 AS IT W]E1 AT ! GATES ( ?AT CONSCI\SNESS TO DET]M9E ! FL[ ( IDEAS4 ,! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T WAS A MOVEM5T ( IDEAS1 A CONSCI\SNESS 9 ! MAK+ ) A HI/ORY ( ITS [N4 ,AN>*ISM WAS ONE ( !SE IDEAS4 ,AN>*I/ IDEAS W]E READILY AVAILABLE TO ANYONE :O S\<T !M2 DUR+ !SE YE>S MORE PEOPLE S\<T !M ?AN EV] BE=E OR AFT] 9 ,*9ESE ?\<T4 ,AN>*I/S PROLIF]AT$1 & AN>*ISM SPREAD 9 ,*9ESE ?\<T AS ! MOVEM5T GA9$ MOM5TUM4 

,! EFFLORESC5CE ( AN>*ISM DUR+ ! ,MAY ,F\R? P]IOD IS NOT 9CONSI/5T ) ! REPRES5TATION ( ! ,MAY ,F\R? ,MOVEM5T 79 ITS ,NEW ,CULTURE PHASE7 AS AN ,5LI<T5M5T4 ,AN>*ISM 9 ,EUROPE HAD DEEP ROOTS1 ,APRIL ,C>T] HAS >GU$1 9 ! POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY & \TLOOK ( ! EI<TE5?-C5TURY ,5LI<T5M5T2 IT IS POSSIBLE TO VIEW AN AN>*ISM SU* AS ,KROPOTK9'S' AS AN UNCOMPROMIS+ REAFFIRMATION ( ! ,5LI<T5M5T PROMISE :5 O!RS1 9CLUD+ LIB]ALS1 HAD ALREADY GIV5 UP ON ! POSSIBILITY ( ITS REALIZATION4.<#b#h#f.> ,ANY SU* ANALOGY1 H[EV]1 IS ( NECESSITY IMP]FECT & MAY CONCEAL MORE ?AN IT REVEALS4 ,! POPUL>ITY ( AN>*ISM WAS B\ND UP PRIM>ILY ) CONCRETE PROBLEMS ?AT EM]G$ AS ! ,*9ESE REVOLUTION UNFOLD$ FOLL[+ ! REPUBLICAN ,REVOLUTION ( #a#i#a#a1 PROBLEMS TO :I* AN>*ISM SEEM$ TO (F] SOLUTIONS CONSI/5T ) ! PREVAIL+ MOOD ( ,*9ESE RADICALS4 ,ONE ,*9ESE HI/ORIAN HAS WRITT53  
  

,UND] ! CONDITIONS ( SEV]AL ?\S&S ( YE>S ( FEUDAL DESPOTISM1 ESPECIALLY ) ! DECL9E ( GOV]NM5T ) CON/ANT W>LORD DISA/] & REPEAT$ BY 9EFFECTIVE EF=TS AT GOV]NM5TAL RE=M1 IT WAS EASY = ! PEOPLE AT L>GE TO BECOME DISGU/$ ) POLITICS4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 ! ,*9ESE 9TELLIG5TSIA WAS MO/LY ( PETIT-B\RGEOIS ORIG92 IT HAD A P]SONALITY ?AT WAS SUBJECTIVE1 SUP]FICIAL1 EVANESC5T1 & IMPATI5T4 ,:5 !Y BEGAN TO DEM& REVOLUTION1 :AT BE/ SUIT$ !IR TA/E WAS NOT SCI5TIFIC SOCIALISM BUT EMPTY & HI<-BL[N UTOPIAS1 & AN>*ISM :I* FLAUNT$ EXI/+ CU/OMS4.<#b#h#g.>  
  

,IT IS QUE/IONABLE ?AT :5 MEMB]S ( ! ,*9ESE 9TELLIG5TSIA TURN$ TO SCI5TIFIC SOCIALISM AFT] #a#i#b1 !Y BECAME ANY ! LESS PETIT-B\RGEOIS1 BUT ! /ATEM5T TELLS US SOME?+ AB\T ! MOOD ?AT PREVAIL$ DUR+ ! IMM$IATE ,MAY ,F\R? P]IOD4 

,9 HIS #aicf 9T]VIEW ) ,$G> ,SN[1 ,MAO ,Z$ONG REM9ISC$3 ,AT ?IS TIME .<#a#i#a#h-#a#i.> MY M9D WAS A CURI\S MIXTURE ( IDEAS ( LIB]ALISM1 DEMOCRATIC RE=MISM & UTOPIAN SOCIALISM4 ,I HAD SOME:AT VAGUE PASSIONS AB\T N9ETE5? C5TURY DEMOCRACY1 ,UTOPIANISM & OLD-FA%ION$ LIB]ALISM1 & ,I WAS DEF9ITELY ANTI-MILIT>I/ & ANTI-IMP]IALI/4.<#b#h#h.> ,*[ ,TSE-TSUNG HAS OBS]V$ ( ?IS /ATEM5T ?AT ?IS CURI\S MIXTURE ( IDEAS WAS NOT A P>TICUL> /ATE ( M9D BELONG+ TO A P>TICUL> Y\NG /UD5T AT ! TIME4 ,IT ACTUALLY REPRES5T$ ! MA9 CURR5T ( ?\<T ( ! ACTIVE & RE/LESS Y\? 9 ! MIDDLE ( ! ,MAY ,F\R? ,MOVEM5T4.<#b#h#i.> ,*9ESE Y\? RESPOND$ ) 5?USIASM TO ! FLOOD ( ,NEW ,LE>N+ ?AT 9UNDAT$ ! 9TELLECTUAL WORLD AFT] #a#i#a#e4 ,A G5]ATION ?AT S\<T LIB]ATION 9 IDEAS ABSORB$ AS ! PROV]BIAL SPONGE EV]Y IDEA ?AT PROMIS$ LIB]ATION1 )\T MU* REG>D = ITS IDEOLOGICAL ORIG9 OR ITS SOCIAL & POLITICAL IMPLICATIONS4 ,! MOOD ?AT PREVAIL$ AT ! TIME WAS NOT REFLECTIVE DISCRIM9ATION BUT A EUPHORI\S REVOLUTION>Y ECLECTICISM ?AT C\LD IMAG9E A BASIC UNITY 9 DIV]SE IDEAS SO LONG AS !SE APPE>$ PROGRESSIVE1 DEMOCRATIC1 & SCI5TIFIC4 ,UND] ! CIRCUM/ANCES1 ! IDEAS AN>*I/S CONTRIBUT$ TO ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T W]E NOT EASILY DI/+UI%ABLE AS AN>*I/ IDEAS1 ESPECIALLY S9CE ! AN>*I/S DID NOT CLAIM !M EXPLICITLY = AN>*ISM4 ,BUT ! OP55D$NESS ( AN>*I/ IDEAS PROV$ TO BE AN ADVANTAGE 9 ! DIFFUSION ( AN>*ISM AMONG ,*9ESE Y\?4 ,! UTOPIANISM TO :I* ,MAO REF]R$ WAS AT ! TIME L>GELY A PRODUCT ( ! DIFFUSION ( AN>*I/ IDEALS AMONG ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS4 ,AN>*ISM HAD NO MONOPOLY OV] ! IDEAS ?AT W]E TO BECOME COMMONPLACES 9 ,*9ESE ?9K+ ( ! ,MAY ,F\R? P]IOD2 BUT AN>*I/S HAD BE5 ! MO/ CONSI/5T PROMOT]S ( ?OSE IDEAS 9 ! YE>S ?AT PREC$$ ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T1 & N[1 ON ! LEFT W+ ( ,NEW ,CULTURE ?9K+1 !Y /OOD READY TO B5EFIT FROM ! DIFFUSION )9 ! ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUAL SC5E ( IDEAS ( :I* !Y W]E ! MO/ 5?USIA/IC PROPON5TS4 

,AN>*I/ 9SPIRATION PROBABLY PLAY$ SOME P>T 9 ! ?9K+ ( ,NEW ,CULTURE LEAD]S :O W]E NOT O!RWISE AN>*I/S4 ,LIB]ALS SU* AS ,HU ,%I ,%I ,%I ,%I DISLIK$ AN>*ISM = OBVI\S REASONS4 ,BUT O!RS W]E MORE OP5 TO AN>*I/ IDEAS4 ,MORE ?AN ONE BIOGRAPH] HAS SUGGE/$ ?AT ,*5 ,DUXIU1 :O WAS TO TURN AGA9/ AN>*ISM AFT] #a#i#a#i1 WAS AW>E ( AN>*I/ IDEAS BE=E #aiaa & WAS POSSIBLY SYMPA!TIC TO !M4.<#b#i.> ,!RE IS NO CONCRETE EVID5CE = ?IS SUGGE/ION1 EV5 IT IF SEEMS PLAUSIBLE4 ,9 ! E>LY P>T ( ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T1 ,*5 WORK$ CLOSELY ) AN>*I/S 9 ,BEIJ+ ,UNIV]SITY &1 AS $ITOR ( ,X9 ,Q+NIAN1 SEEM$ TO BE MORE ?AN WILL+ TO PUBLI% AN>*I/ CONTRIBUTIONS4 ,AN IMPORTANT /ATEM5T HE MADE 9 #a#i#a#g1 :]E HE URG$ A %IFT ( ATT5TION FROM POLITICS TO CULTURE1 WAS 9SPIR$ BY A SPEE* GIV5 BY ! AN>*I/ ,LI ,%IZ5G2 ! 9TELLECTUAL AU?ORITIES HE CALL$ UPON TO SUPPORT HIS POSITION W]E ALL AN>*I/S1 ,WU ,ZHIHUI & ,ZHANG,JI1 9 ADDITION TO ,LI4.<#b#i#a.> ,9 #aiah HE CONTRIBUT$ AN >TICLE TO ! AN>*I/ P]IODICAL ,LABOR 7,LAODONG74.<#b#i#b.> ,LI ,DAZHAO1 :O DISAPPROV$ ( AN>*I/S BECAUSE ( !IR ADVOCACY ( T]ROR1 WAS ATTRACT$ 9 #aiac TO ! SOCIALISM ( ,JIANG ,KAN<U1 :I* HAD OV]LAPP$ AN>*ISM4 ,9 ! ,MAY ,F\R? P]IOD1 EV5 AFT] HE BECAME A ,M>XI/1 HE WAS A =EMO/ PROPON5T ( MUTUAL AID4.<#b#i#c.> ,YI ,BAI%A1 BRO!R ( ! MORE FAM\S ,YI ,PEIJI 7LAT] ! HEAD ( ! AN>*I/-9SPIR$ ,LABOR ,UNIV]SITY 9 ,%AN<AI71 & PROLIFIC CRITIC ( ,CONFUCIANISM 9 ,NEW ,Y\? MAGAZ9E1 WAS1 ACCORD+ TO ,*[ ,TSE-TSUNG1 AN AN>*I/4.<#b#i#d.> ,SO W]E ,QIAN ,XUANTONG1 PROM95T PHILOLOGI/ & HI/ORIAN1 & ,ZH\ ,ZUOR5 7BRO!R ( ,LU ,XUN & IMPORTANT LIT]>Y FIGURE 9 HIS [N RI<T1 :O W\LD PLAY AN IMPORTANT P>T 9 ! MASS ,NEW ,VILLAGE ,MOVEM5T 9 #a#i#a#i74.<#b#i#e.> 

,! 9T]E/ 9 AN>*ISM WAS P>TIALLY A PRODUCT ( ! CO9CID5CE BETWE5 ! ISSUES RAIS$ BY ! AN>*I/S & ! ISSUES ?AT BECAME ! FOCAL PO9TS ( 9TELLECTUAL CONC]N DUR+ ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T4 ,*>LOTTE ,FUR? ONCE OBS]V$ ?AT ) ! EXCEPTION ( ! ADVOCACY ( SCI5CE1 !RE WAS NO ,NEW ,CULTURE IDEA ?AT HAD NOT BE5 TAK5 UP BY ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS 9 E>LI] YE>S4.<#b#i#f.> ,ONE MI<T >GUE1 ON ! BASIS ( AN>*I/ LIT]ATURE BE=E #a#i#a#e1 ?AT ALL ! IDEAS ( ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T1 9CLUD+ SCI5CE1 HAD BE5 ANTICIPAT$ BY ! AN>*I/S A DECADE BE=E ! MOVEM5T4 ,AN>*I/S1 MOREOV]1 HAD RAIS$ !SE IDEAS MORE SY/EMATICALLY ?AN HAD ANY O!RS ON ! ,*9ESE SC5E4 ,IT W\LD SEEM NATURAL1 !RE=E1 ?AT AN>*ISM %\LD HAVE RECEIV$ ! ATT5TION IT DID DUR+ ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T4 ,AN>*I/S1 OBVI\SLY1 W]E NOT M]E OBS]V]S ( ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T1 !Y P>TICIPAT$4 ,!Y NOT ONLY 9FLU5C$ ! 9TELLECTUAL ORI5TATION ( ! MOVEM5T1 !Y PROVID$ ITS VOCABUL>Y4 

,AN>*I/S HAD CONSI/5TLY ADVOCAT$ ! CAUSE ( SCI5CE AGA9/ TRADITION1 RELIGION1 & SUP]/ITION4 ,!Y HAD BE5 ! FIR/ 9 ,*9A TO CALL = A REVOLUTION AGA9/ ,CONFUCIANISM4 ,!IR 9SI/5CE ON 9DIVIDUAL LIB]ATION1 ESPECIALLY ! LIB]ATION ( WOM51 HAD L$ !M TO A REPUDIATION ( ! FAMILY & ( ! ,CONFUCIAN VALUES 7! ,?REE ,BONDS & ! ,FIVE ,CON/ANTS7 ?AT 9=M$ ! ,*9ESE FAMILY4 ,!Y HAD CALL$ = AN E?ICAL REVOLUTION ?AT W\LD TRANS=M 9DIVIDUALS2 & :ILE !Y HAD SE5 9 $UCATION A KEY TO SU* TRANS=MATION1 !Y HAD VIEW$ $UCATION NOT AS =MAL $UCATION BUT AS $UCATION 9 ! TRANS=MATION ( QUOTIDIAN LIFE4 ,MO/ RELEVANT1 H[EV]1 MAY BE ! LOGIC ( ! AN>*I/ >GUM5T4 ,AN>*I/S HAD REPUDIAT$ POLITICS1 NOT ONLY 9 ! NAME ( FRE$OM1 BUT ALSO BECAUSE !Y VIEW$ POLITICS AS 9IMICAL TO A G5U9E PUBLIC CONSCI\SNESS & AN ORGANIC SOCIAL EXI/5CE4 ,!IR ADVOCACY ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION1 :I* SET ! SOCIAL AGA9/ ! POLITICAL1 HAD FOCUS$ ON CULTURAL REVOLUTION AS A PRIM>Y MEANS TO SOCIAL *ANGE1 NOT AS A SUB/ITUTE = *ANG+ SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS & RELATION%IPS BUT AS AN 9DISP5SABLE MOM5T 9 SOCIAL TRANS=MATION1 ) :I* A NEW G5]ATION C\LD >TICULATE CONC]NS ?AT W]E EM]G+ 9TO ITS CONSCI\SNESS4 ,AN>*ISM AS SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY LO/ ITS REMOT5ESS AS SOCIAL PROBLEMS 9 ,*9A AWAK5$ Y\? TO PROBLEMS TO :I* ! AN>*I/S HAD PO9T$ A DECADE E>LI]4 

,WE >E ACCU/OM$ TO ?9K+ ( ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T 9 T]MS ( ITS 9TELLECTUAL LEAD]S & ! AB/RACT IDEAS !Y 9JECT$ 9TO ! ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUAL SC5E4 ,:ILE !SE IDEAS W]E SIGNIFICANT MOM5TS 9 ! UNFOLD+ CONSCI\SNESS ( ! MOVEM5T1 !IR SIGNIFICANCE LAY NOT 9 !IR AB/RACT P[] BUT 9 !IR RELEVANCE TO ! PRACTICAL PROBLEMS ( A :OLE NEW G5]ATION ( ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS4 

,TO APPRECIATE ! APPEAL ( AN>*ISM 9 ,NEW ,CULTURE ?9K+1 OR ( ANY ( ! CURR5TS ( ?\<T ?AT W5T 9TO ! MAK+ ( ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T1 IT IS NECESS>Y TO VIEW ! MOVEM5T NOT SIMPLY AS AN 9TELLECTUAL MOVEM5T OR AS A REVOLUTION 9 ! REIFI$ REALM ( IDEAS1 BUT AS A MOVEM5T ( REAL LIV+ PEOPLE :O S\<T 9 IDEAS SOLUTIONS TO CONCRETE PRACTICAL PROBLEMS4 ,! TURN TO CULTURE AS ! >5A = SIGNIFICANT *ANGE WAS ITSELF PROVOK$ BY ! FAILURE ( ! REPUBLICAN EXP]IM5T 9 ,*9A & BY ! POLITICAL DEG5]ATION ?AT FOLL[$4 ,AS ,*5 ,DUXIU PUT IT 9 #aiag 7REF]R+ TO A REC5T SPEE* BY ,LI ,%IZ5G1 :I* HAD >GU$ = ! PRIORITY ( E?ICAL *ANGE73  
  

,IF WE DESIRE TO CONSOLIDATE ! ,REPUBLIC TODAY1 WE MU/ FIR/ WA% CLEAN ! ANTI-REPUBLICAN ?9K+ ?AT 9FUSES ! M9DS ( \R C\NTRYM51 = ! E?ICAL BASIS ?AT UND]LIES ! /ATE ORGANIZATION & ! SOCIAL SY/EM ( A ,REPUBLIC IS ! DIAMETRICAL OPPOSITE ( ! E?ICAL BASIS ?AT UND]LIES ! /ATE ORGANIZATION & SOCIAL SY/EM ( MON>*ICAL DESPOTISM3 ONE IS F\ND$ UPON ! SPIRIT ( EQUALITY2 ! O!R ON A DI/9CTION BETWE5 CLASSES ( HI< & L[4 ,! TWO CANNOT BE RECONCIL$4.<#b#i#g.>  
  

,:AT ,*9A NE$$1 ,*5 CONCLUD$1 WAS RE$UCATION 9 REPUBLICAN E?ICS & LIT]ACY4 ,EV5 ! LIT]>Y REVOLUTION1 AN IMPORTANT UND]TAK+ ( ,NEW ,CULTURE LEAD]S1 WAS TI$ TO ?IS PRACTICAL QUE/ION3 ! RE=M ( WRIT+ WAS NOT AN 5D 9 ITSELF 7AT LEA/ NOT TO EV]YONE7 BUT RA!R A MEANS TO PURGE ! HEGEMONY ( OLD IDEAS & MAKE NEW IDEAS ACCESSIBLE TO L>G] NUMB]S ( PEOPLE4 

,! CORRUPTION ( ,*9ESE POLITICS AT ?IS TIME GAVE TO ! MESSAGE ( A REVOLUTION 9 IDEAS A PRACTICAL URG5CY IT HAD NOT HAD E>LI]4 ,EV5 MORE SIGNIFICANT 9 ?IS RESPECT1 ,I ?9K1 W]E ! SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS ( CULTURAL REVOLUTION4 ,IF IT WAS REVULSION OV] EXI/+ POLITICS ?AT TURN$ ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS TO ! REALM ( CULTURE1 ! CULTURAL REVOLUTION !Y S\<T TO A*IEVE WAS NOT SIMPLY A REVOLUTION 9 IDEAS BUT A REVOLUTION 9 ! E?ICAL BASIS ( SOCIETY ?AT W\LD TRANS=M NOT ONLY ! /ATE BUT SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AS WELL4 ,! MESSAGE ( CULTURAL REVOLUTION WAS MO/ P[]FUL :]E IT PROMIS$ TO TRANS=M EXI/+ SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS1 *IEFLY ! FAMILY1 BECAUSE IT LIC5S$ A /RUGGLE AGA9/ ! AU?ORITY ( ! OLD :]E IT IMP+$ DIRECTLY UPON EV]YDAY LIFE4 ,*9ESE Y\? WAS NO D\BT DISSATISFI$ ) ! OLD-FA%ION$ RUL]%IP OV] ,*9A1 BUT IT WAS ! PROMISE ( ! OV]?R[ ( AU?ORITY 9 EV]YDAY LIFE ?AT DROVE IT TO ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T & PROVID$ ! MOVEM5T ) ! SOCIAL SUB/ANCE = ITS HI/ORICAL SIGNIFICANCE4 ,ULTIMATELY1 ! MOTIVE =CE ( ! MOVEM5T WAS TO BE PROVID$ BY ! NEW G5]ATION ( Y\NG 9TELLECTUALS :O CAME ( AGE 9 ! LATE #a#i#aS1 :OSE IDEALISM ONLY EXAC]BAT$ ! ALI5ATION !Y FELT FROM A SOCIAL SY/EM !Y HAD CEAS$1 UNLIKE !IR PR$ECESSORS1 TO TAKE = GRANT$4 ,P]HAPS ! MO/ IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTION ( ! OLD] G5]ATION ( 9TELLECTUALS :O 9ITIAT$ ! MOVEM5T WAS TO GIVE ,*9ESE Y\? ! CONFID5CE TO CREATE A SOCIAL SPACE :]E IT C\LD BREA! FREELY1 & A VOCABUL>Y = ITS YE>N+S4 ,AS ONE ,NEW ,Y\? READ] PHRAS$ IT3  
  

,?IS ,SPR+ ,I READ Y\R MAGAZ9E = ! FIR/ TIME4 ,AS IF WOK5 BY A BL[ ON ! HEAD1 ,I SUDD5LY REALIZ$ ! VALUE ( Y\?4 ,WE %\LD EMULATE ! ,WE/1 & ABOLI% ! OLD & WELCOME ! NEW4 ,I AM LIKE SOMEBODY :O IS SICK1 & :O MU/ BREA! 9 FRE% AIR & EXHALE ! OLD4 ,AL?\< AT PRES5T ,I AM NOT :AT Y\ MI<T DESCRIBE AS A NEW Y\?1 ,I AM SURE ?AT ,I CAN SWEEP FROM MY M9D ALL ! OLD ?\<TS ( ! PA/4 ,! CR$IT = ALL ?IS GOES TO ! SAVE-!-Y\? WORK Y\ HAVE BE5 DO+4.<#b#i#h.>  
  

,! /RUGGLE AGA9/ ! AU?ORITY ( ! OLD WAS NOT SOME /RUGGLE BETWE5 ! OLD & ! NEW 9 ! REALM ( AB/RACT IDEAS2 IT WAS A REAL-LIFE /RUGGLE 9 A SOCIETY :]E ! CULTURE ?AT 9TELLECTUALS REBELL$ AGA9/ WAS V]Y MU* ALIVE 9 ! SOCIAL /RUCTURES ( P[] & AU?ORITY4 ,! ICONS ?AT ,NEW ,CULTURE Y\? S\<T TO DE/ROY W]E ICONS ?AT WAT*$ OV] !IR EV]YDAY EXI/5CE4 ,! 9TELLECTUAL RADICALISM ( ,NEW ,CULTURE LEAD]S F\ND ITS FULFILLM5T 9 ! SOCIAL RADICALISM ( A G5]ATION TO :OM ! BURD5 ( ! PA/ WAS NOT AN IDEA BUT A LIV$ EXP]I5CE4 ,?IS Y\? WAS TO TAKE OV] ! LEAD]%IP ( ! MOVEM5T RAPIDLY1 & :5 IT DID1 IT ESCALAT$ ! RADICALISM ( ! MOVEM5T BEYOND ! EXPECTATIONS ( SOME ( ITS ORIG9AL LEAD]S1 :O DISCOV]$ ?AT !Y NO LONG] CONTROLL$ ! EV5TS !Y HAD SET 9 MOTION4 ,:5 ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T IS VIEW$ FROM ?IS P]SPECTIVE1 ! 9CREAS+LY 9EFFECTIVE EF=TS ( ?OSE P>TICIPANTS :O TOOK IT AS A MOVEM5T ( IDEAS PURE & SIMPLE1 & TRI$ TO KEEP IT ?AT WAY1 APPE> NOT AS ! ESS5CE ( ! MOVEM5T BUT AS AN IDEOLOGICAL POSITION )9 IT1 ?AT HELD =? ! 9TELLECTUALISM ( ! MOVEM5T TO KEEP 9 *ECK ! SOCIAL RADICALISM !IR IDEAS HAD UNLEA%$4 

,! CALL = CULTURAL REVOLUTION1 ?\< IT OBVI\SLY GLORIFI$ ! NEW & D5IGRAT$ ! OLD1 DID NOT NECESS>ILY REJECT ALL ?AT WAS OLD1 BUT FOCUS$ ON ?OSE ASPECTS ( ! ,*9ESE TRADITION ?AT LEGITIMIZ$ 9/ITUTIONS ?AT REPRODUC$ SOCIAL RELATIONS ( DOM9ATION & SUBORD9ATION1.<#b#i#i.> ESPECIALLY :]E IT RELAT$ TO Y\? & WOM54 ,WU ,YU1 ! UNCOMPROMIS+ CRITIC ( ,CONFUCIANISM1 ATTACK$ ,CONFUCIANISM NOT BECAUSE IT WAS OLD 7HE DID NOT EXT5D ! SAME ATTACK TO ,DAOISM & ,LEGALISM BUT US$ !M RA!R TO CRITICIZE ,CONFUCIANISM71 BUT BECAUSE IT UPHELD ! ,*9ESE FAMILY SY/EM4 ,HIS REM>K ?AT ! EFFECT ( ! IDEA ( FILIAL PIETY HAS BE5 TO TURN ,*9A 9TO A BIG FACTORY = ! MANUFACTUR+ ( OB$I5T SUBJECTS1 IS REVEAL+ ( ! MAT]IAL1 BECAUSE SOCIAL1 UND]/&+ ( CULTURE ?AT 9FUS$ ! CALL = CULTURAL REVOLUTION 9 !SE YE>S4.<#c.> ,IT WAS NOT AB/RACT ISSUES ( CULTURAL OR IDEAS1 BUT ! CALL = ! /RUGGLE AGA9/ ! HEGEMONY ( ! OLD OV] ! Y\NG1 ( M5 OV] WOM51 ( ! RI* OV] ! POOR1 ( /ATE OV] SOCIETY1 9 %ORT1 AGA9/ AU?ORITY1 ?AT 9 !SE YE>S FA%ION$ A SOCIAL MOVEM5T \T ( IDEAS4 

,! ,NEW ,CULTURE IDEA ( CULTURE1 AS IT HAD EM]G$ BY ! ,MAY ,F\R? P]IOD1 WAS A SOCIAL IDEA ( CULTURE3 CULTURAL REVOLUTION1 9 O!R WORDS1 REQUIR$ ! REVOLUTIONIZATION ( BASIC SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS4 ,!RE WAS A CONJUNCTURE BETWE5 ! SOCIAL LOGIC ( ?IS IDEA ( CULTURAL REVOLUTION & ! CULTURAL LOGIC ( ! AN>*I/ IDEA ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION4 ,9DE$1 ! DI/9CTION BETWE5 CULTURE & SOCIETY LO/ ITS MEAN+ 9 EI!R IDEA ( REVOLUTION ?AT CONCEIV$ ( SOCIETY AS ! 9/ITUTIONAL EMBODIM5T ( A CULTURE ( AU?ORITY1 & ( CULTURE AS ! >*ITECTONIC EXPRESSION ( SOCIAL /RUCTURES ( DOM9ATION & OPPRESSION4 ,9 !IR SE>* = CULTURAL LIB]ATION1 ,NEW ,CULTURE Y\? S\<T \T SOCIAL SPACES :]E !Y C\LD LIVE 9 FRE$OM4 ,MORE ?AN ANY O!R GR\P P>TICIPAT+ 9 ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T1 AN>*I/S (F]$ TO Y\? SU* SPACES4 ,AN>*I/S PROMIS$ ?AT !IR IDEA ( ,NEW ,CULTURE WAS TO *ANGE NOT IDEAS BUT LIFE AT ITS MO/ BASIC1 EV]YDAY LEVEL4 ,! WORK-/UDY 9/ITUTIONS !Y PROMOT$1 P]HAPS EV5 ! SYNDICATES1 REPRES5T$ SPACES 9 :I* Y\? C\LD F9D A NEW LIFE4 ,AS ,WANG ,GUANGQI WAS TO OBS]VE 9 #a#i#b1 WORK-/UDY GR\PS W]E NOT SIMPLY UTILIT>IAN 9/ITUTIONS1 BUT HAV5S FROM ! FAMILIES Y\? S\<T TO ESCAPE1 :]E !Y C\LD LIVE 9 FRE$OM & EQUALITY4.<#c#a.> 

,! SOCIAL PLI<T ( ,*9ESE Y\?1 AS WELL AS ITS HOPES & ! PROMISE ( ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T1 HAS BE5 CAPTUR$ MO/ COG5TLY 9 ! AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL NOVEL ,FAMILY BY ! PROM95T ,*9ESE AN>*I/ WRIT] ,BAJ91 :O CAME ( AGE AT ?IS TIME 7& BECAME AN AN>*I/1 ADOPT+ ! NAME ,BAJ91 MADE UP ( ! FIR/ SYLLABLE ( ,BAKUN9'S NAME & ! LA/ SYLLABLE ( ,KROPOTK9'S74.<#c#b.> ,AN>*I/ & ,NEW ,CULTURE CONC]NS RESONAT$ NOT JU/ AT ! LEVEL ( IDEAS1 BUT AT ! V]Y SOCIAL BASIS ( ! IDEAS & 9 !IR UND]LY+ LOGIC4 

,?IS IS NOT TO CLAIM ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T = AN>*ISM1 NOR TO R$UCE ! AN>*I/ ADVOCACY ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION TO ,NEW ,CULTURE CONC]NS4 ,!RE W]E MANY PO9TS ( DIV]G5CE BETWE5 ! G5]AL CONC]NS ( ! ,NEW ,CULTURE & ,MAY ,F\R? MOVEM5TS & AN>*ISM2 NOT ! LEA/ IMPORTANT ( !SE W]E ! PATRIOTIC FRU/RATIONS & ASPIRATIONS ?AT W\LD %ORTLY R$IRECT ! C\RSE ( ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T4 ,AN>*ISM1 :ILE 9TEGRAL TO ,NEW ,CULTURE ?9K+1 OCCUPI$ A PLACE 9 ITS BROAD SPECTRUM SOME:]E ON ! LEFT4 ,9DE$1 AN>*I/ P>TICIPATION 9 ! MOVEM5T WAS TO BR+ TO IT CONC]NS ?AT TURN$ ITS PREOCCUPATION ) CULTURE 9 ! DIRECTION ( SOCIAL *ANGE4 ,AN>*I/S W]E NOT PASSIVE B5EFICI>IES ( ! MOVEM5T2 ?R\< !IR ACTIVITIES1 !Y CONTRIBUT$ BO? TO ! RADICAL ACTIVITY ( ! MOVEM5T & TO ITS IDEOLOGICAL ORI5TATION4 ,IRONICALLY1 AN>*I/S1 = ALL !IR 9CAPACITY = ORGANIZATION1 W\LD MAKE ! MO/ IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTION BY PROVID+ ORGANIZATIONAL PR9CIPLES TO ! RADICAL EXP]IM5TS ) NEW =MS ( SOCIAL LIFE ! MOVEM5T PRODUC$4 

,AN>*I/S W]E ALSO TO B5EFIT FROM ! ,OCTOB] ,REVOLUTION 9 ,RUSSIA1 ( :I* !Y W]E ! FIR/ ,*9ESE 9T]PRET]S4 ,?ANKS MA9LY TO !IR 9T]PRETATIONS1 ! PREVAIL+ IMPRESSION 9 ,*9A 9ITIALLY WAS ?AT ! ,BOL%EVIK REVOLUTION WAS NOT A ,M>XI/ BUT AN AN>*I/ REVOLUTION4 ,GIV5 ITS PRE/IGE 9 ,*9A1 ! REVOLUTION 9 #a#i#a#h-#a#i#a#i WAS TO /IMULATE CONSID]ABLE 9T]E/ 9 AN>*ISM AMONG RADICALS1 9CLUD+ ?OSE RADICALS :O %ORTLY W\LD TURN TO ! E/ABLI%M5T ( A ,COMMUNI/ P>TY 9 ,*9A4 ,9 ! IMM$IATE ,MAY ,F\R? P]IOD1 COMMUNISM 9 ,*9A WAS /ILL = ! MO/ P>T ID5TIFI$ ) AN>*O-COMMUNISM1 :I*1 ,*9ESE ,COMMUNI/ HI/ORIANS HAVE COMPLA9$1 DELAY$1 9 ! CONFUSION IT CREAT$1 ! ACCEPTANCE ( ,M>XISM BY ,*9ESE RADICALS4 

,AN>*I/ ,ACTIVITY ,AFT] #aiae 

  

,AS ( #a#i#a#e1 !RE W]E TWO ID5TIFIABLE & RELAT$ GR\PS ( AN>*I/S 9 ,*9A3 ! ,P>IS AN>*I/S1 & ! ,GUANGZH\ AN>*I/S ( ! ,AN>*I/ ,F$]ATION 79 ,%AN<AI & ,GUANGZH\71 :I* ,%IFU HAD E/ABLI%$ BE=E HIS DEA?4 ,BY ! TIME ( ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T1 ,LI ,%IZ5G & ,WU ,ZHIHUI W]E AMONG ,*9A'S MO/ PROM95T 9TELLECTUALS2 ( ! SAME G5]ATION AS ! 9ITIATORS ( ! MOVEM5T1 SU* AS ,*5 ,DUXIU1 !Y W]E WELL PLAC$ ?R\< P]SONAL CONNECTIONS TO 9FLU5CE CULTURAL LIFE4 ,GUANGZH\ AN>*I/S W]E Y\NG] & MORE LOCAL 9 ORI5TATION4 ,!Y W]E ALSO MORE PURITANICAL 9 !IR LOYALTY TO AN>*I/ PR9CIPLES4 ,AL?\< NOT SO 9FLU5TIAL AS ! ,P>IS AN>*I/S1 !Y W]E MORE ACTIVE AT ! LOCAL LEVEL & MORE 9VOLV$ ) SOCIAL ORGANIZATION4 ,MANY ( !M W]E /UD5TS & S*OOLTEA*]S & PROVID$ MU* ( ! AN>*I/ SOCIAL ACTIVISM DUR+ ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T4 ,AFT] #aiai !Y W\LD EM]GE AS 9TELLECTUAL LEAD]S 9 ! AN>*I/ MOVEM5T AS WELL4 ,:ILE ON ! :OLE !Y FOLL[$ ! LEAD ( ! OLD] AN>*I/S1 !RE WAS ALSO SOME T5SION BETWE5 ! TWO GR\PS OV] AN>*I/ PURITY 9 P]SONAL LIFE1 AS WELL AS ! NATURE ( AN>*I/ ACTIVITY1 A T5SION NO D\BT EXAGG]AT$ BY REGIONAL LOYALTIES4 

,! ,P>IS AN>*I/S W]E TO MAKE ! MO/ VISIBLE CONTRIBUTIONS TO ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T4 ,?IS WAS DUE NOT SO MU* TO !IR IDEAS AS TO !IR ACTIVITIES 9 ! REALM ( $UCATION4 ,! WORK-/UDY PROGRAM !Y 9ITIAT$ AFT] #aiaa BECAME 9 !SE YE>S A TRA9+ GR\P = AN>*I/S & AN EFFECTIVE MEANS = ! PROPAGATION ( AN>*I/ IDEAS4 ,9DE$1 SOME ( ! IDEAS G5]AT$ BY ?IS PROGRAM W]E TO LA/ BEYOND ! AN>*I/S & HAVE A LA/+ EFFECT ON REVOLUTION>Y ?\<T 9 ,*9A4 

,AFT] ! #aiaa ,REVOLUTION1 ,WU ,ZHIHUI & ,LI ,%IZ5G1 ! TWO LEAD]S ( ! ,*9ESE AN>*I/S 9 ,P>IS1 HAD RETURN$ TO ,*9A TO WORK )9 ! CONTEXT ( ! NEW REPUBLICAN REGIME4 ,9 #aiab !Y E/ABLI%$ ! ,WORLD ,SOCIETY 7HIJIE %E1 NAM$ AFT] ! SOCIETY ! AN>*I/S E/ABLI%$ 9 ,P>IS 9 #a#i#f7 TO PROMOTE $UCATION1 ESPECIALLY $UCATION ABROAD1 :I* !Y ?\<T W\LD RESOLVE BASIC SOCIAL PROBLEMS1 9CLUD+ CLASS DIVISION4 ,AS ! DECL>ATION ( ! ,ASSOCIATION PUT IT1 ,F>SI<T$ M5 REG>D ! FACT ?AT HI<] $UCATION IS NOT YET UNIV]SAL AS ! REASON :Y CLASSES >E BORN4 ,!Y GRIEVE AB\T ?IS & .<?9K ?AT.> ! WAY ( REM$Y+ ! SITUATION IS TO MAKE $UCATION EQUAL .<= ALL.>4.<#c#c.> 

,\T ( ?IS GOAL WAS BORN ! ,NEW ,SOCIETY ,MOVEM5T 7X9 %EHUI YUNDONG71 :I* S\<T TO 9CREASE PEOPLE'S HAPP9ESS BY ADVANC+ !IR MORALITY4 ,! AN>*I/S ( ! ,WORLD ,ASSOCIATION1 :O W]E ALSO ,FRANCOPHILES1 BELIEV$ ?AT ,FRANCE1 ) ITS LIB]T>IAN & REVOLUTION>Y TRADITION1 (F]$ ! MO/ ATTRACTIVE 5VIRONM5T = ,*9ESE /UD5TS :O WANT$ A MOD]N $UCATION4 ,) ?IS GOAL 9 M9D1 9 #aiab !Y E/ABLI%$ ! ,SOCIETY = ,FRUGAL ,/UDY 9 ,FRANCE 7,LIUFA JIANXUEHUI74 ,FRUGALITY1 ! AN>*I/S BELIEV$1 W\LD NOT ONLY S]VE ! PRACTICAL GOALS ( ! MOVEM5T1 BUT ALSO HELP BUILD MORAL *>ACT]4.<#c#d.> 

,! ,SOCIETY = ,FRUGAL ,/UDY S5T A NUMB] ( /UD5TS TO ,FRANCE 7& ,BRITA97 BE=E ,WORLD ,W> ,I1 BUT ?IS ACTIVITY DECL9$ ) ! ONSET ( ! W>4 ,DUR+ ! W> FEW ,*9ESE /UD5TS W5T TO ,FRANCE = /UDY4 ,AN>*I/ ACTIVITY 9 ,FRANCE1 H[EV]1 HAD A BOO/ FROM ANO!R S\RCE3 ,*9ESE LABOR4 ,DUR+ ! W>1 AB\T #b1 ,*9ESE LABOR]S W]E IMPORT$ TO HELP ) LABOR %ORTAGE CREAT$ BY ! W>4 ,SOME ( !SE LABOR]S WORK$ AS COOLIES 9 ,FR5* >MIES1 O!RS 9 ,FR5* FACTORIES4 ,AFT] ! W> MANY W\LD /AY ON 9 ,FRANCE AS WORK]S4 

,9 #aiad AN>*I/S HAD E/ABLI%$ ! NEW ,SOCIETY = ,DILIG5T-WORK & ,FRUGAL-/UDY1 :OSE MAJOR AIM WAS TO $UCATE ,*9ESE WORK]S 9 ,FRANCE4 ,BE=E #aiaa ! AN>*I/S HAD EMPLOY$ ,*9ESE LABOR 9 !IR PR9T+ PLANT & 9 ! BEAN CURD FACTORY !Y HAD E/ABLI%$ TO SUPPORT !IR ACTIVITIES4 ,!IR $UCATIONAL ACTIVITIES ) !SE WORK]S PROVID$ ! MODEL = ! $UCATIONAL ACTIVITY !Y W\LD UND]TAKE LAT]4 

,AN>*I/S PLAY$ A CRUCIAL ROLE 9 ! IMPORTATION ( ,*9ESE WORK]S 9TO ,FRANCE DUR+ ! W>4 ,9 #aiaf !Y E/ABLI%$ ! ,S9O-,FR5* ,$UCATIONAL ,ASSOCIATION 9 COOP]ATION ) ,FR5* BUS9ESS & ACADEMIC LEAD]S4 ,! MAJOR ACTIVITY ( ! ,ASSOCIATION WAS TO RECRUIT ,*9ESE WORK]S = ,FRANCE4 ,9 !IR S*OOL = ! WORK]S !Y DEVOT$ !IR EF=TS TO ! IMPROVEM5T ( WORK]S' BEHAVIOR & MORALITY4 ,!SE WORK]S W]E ALSO GIV5 A RUDIM5T>Y $UCATION 9 G5]AL SUBJECTS AS WELL AS 9 LABOR ORGANIZATION4 ,AN>*I/S S]V$ AS LECTUR]S 9 ! S*OOL2 ,CAI ,YUANPEI WAS PROM95T AMONG !M4.<#c#e.> 

,AFT] ! W> ! ,SOCIETY = ,DILIG5T-WORK & ,FRUGAL-/UDY TURN$ ONCE AGA9 TO /UD5TS4 ,APPLY+ TO /UD5TS !IR EXP]I5CES 9 $UCAT+ LABOR]S1 ! ,SOCIETY >RANG$ = /UD5TS TO F9D WORK 9 ,FRANCE 9 ORD] TO F9ANCE !IR /UDIES4 ,BY #aiai !RE W]E AB\T T5 S*OOLS 9 ,*9A TO PREP>E /UD5TS = /UDY 9 ,FRANCE4 ,BY #aib !RE W]E 9 ,FRANCE MORE ?AN A ?\S& /UD5TS 9 ! PROGRAM ( ! ,SOCIETY = ,DILIG5T-WORK & ,FRUGAL-/UDY4 

,! WORK-/UDY PROGRAM WAS TO HAVE AN IMPORTANT EFFECT ON RADICAL POLITICS 9 ,*9A4 ,NOT ALL ( ! ,*9ESE /UD5TS :O W5T TO ,FRANCE UND] AN>*I/ AUSPICES BECAME AN>*I/S4 ,AMONG ! PROGRAM'S GRADUATES W]E ?OSE :O W\LD BECOME LEAD]S ( ! ,COMMUNI/ P>TY AS WELL AS ( ! PATRIOTIC ,*9ESE ,Y\? P>TY4 ,NEV]!LESS1 ITS IMM$IATE EFFECT WAS ! PUBLICIZ+ ( ! AN>*I/ CAUSE 9 ,*9A4 ,EV5 ?OSE AMONG ITS GRADUATES :O REJECT$ AN>*ISM W5T ?R\< AN AN>*I/ PHASE & W]E 9ITIAT$ 9TO RADICALISM ?R\< AN>*ISM4 

,EQUALLY IMPORTANT W]E ! IDEOLOGICAL RAMIFICATIONS ( ! AN>*I/ PROGRAMS4 ,! EXT5D$ CONTACT ) ,*9ESE WORK]S 9 ,FRANCE EXP&$ CONSCI\SNESS ( LABOR & ! LABOR]1 FIR/ AMONG AN>*I/S1 & !N AMONG O!R GR\PS 9 ,*9A4 ,! WORK-/UDY PROGRAM MEANT DIFF]5T ?+S TO DIFF]5T PEOPLE4 ,TO SOME IT WAS M]ELY A PRACTICAL MEANS = PROVID+ ,*9ESE ) A ,WE/]N $UCATION4 ,IT ALSO PRODUC$ IDEALS ?AT W\LD HAVE AN IMPORTANT 9FLU5CE ON ,NEW ,CULTURE ?9K+ & ! G5]ATION ( ,NEW ,CULTURE Y\?4 

,! AN>*I/S CONNECT$ ) ,%IFU1 OR 9ITIAT$ 9TO AN>*ISM BY ! ACTIVITIES ( HIS GR\P1 PLAY$ A LESS VISIBLE BUT EQUALLY IMPORTANT ROLE 9 SPREAD+ AN>*I/ IDEAS 9 ,*9A AT ?IS TIME4 ,%IFU'S DEA? AT AN E>LY AGE 9 #aiae HAD LEFT ?IS GR\P )\T A CLE> LEAD]%IP 9 !SE YE>S4 ,NEV]!LESS1 ,GUANGZH\ AN>*I/S W]E TO FAN \T FROM !IR BASE 9 ! ,S\? TO MAJOR METROPOLITAN C5T]S1 SPREAD+ ! AN>*I/ MESSAGE & ORGANIZ+ AN>*I/ GR\PS ?AT W]E TO S]VE AS LODES = AN>*I/ ACTIVITY4 

,9 ,GUANGZH\ ITSELF ! MO/ SIGNIFICANT AN>*I/ ACTIVITY REVOLV$ >\ND LABOR ORGANIZATION4 ,BE=E #aiae ! AN>*I/S HAD DISPLAY$ 9T]E/ 9 SYNDICALISM & LABOR $UCATION2 !IR IDEAS1 ACCORD+ TO ,M+ ,*AN1 HAD 9FLU5CE ON LABOR EV5 9 !SE YE>S4.<#c#f.> ,XIE ,Y+BO1 ! 9FLU5TIAL LABOR LEAD] 9 ,GUANGZH\1 HAD BE5 ASSOCIAT$ ) ,%IFU 9 ! ,*9A ,ASSASS9ATION ,CORPS BE=E #aiaa & WAS HIMSELF A SYNDICALI/2 ?IS CONNECTION POSSIBLY FACILITAT$ AN>*I/ 5TRY 9TO ! LABOR MOVEM5T4 ,AN>*I/S P>TICIPAT$ 9 ! FIR/ CELEBRATION ( ,MAY ,DAY 9 ,*9A 9 #a#i#a#h4 ,9 ! SAME YE> !Y HELP$ ORGANIZE A ,GUANGZH\ ,TEAH\SE ,LABOR ,UNION1 :I* DREW A MEMB]%IP ( #a#a1 WORK]S FROM AMONG TRADE GUILDS & TEAH\SE EMPLOYES4#c#g.> ,9 ! NEXT YE> B>B]S 9 ! >EA W]E ORGANIZ$ UND] AN>*I/ 9FLU5CE4 ,?R\< ,XIE ,Y+BO1 AN>*I/S W]E ALSO 9FLU5TIAL 9 ! ,ME*ANICS' ,UNION4 ,!SE UNIONS HAVE BE5 DESCRIB$ AS ! FIR/ MOD]N LABOR UNIONS 9 ,*9A4 ,%IFU'S BRO!R1 ,LIU ,%IX91 PLAY$ A LEAD+ P>T 9 !SE ACTIVITIES4.<#c#h.> 

,AN>*I/S W]E ALSO 5GAG$ 9 ! PROPAGATION ( AN>*I/ IDEAS1 USUALLY UND] ! GUISE ( ,ESP]ANTO S*OOLS4 ,BY #aiae 7AFT] ! ,%IFU GR\P HAD BE5 =C$ \T ( ,GUANGZH\ & MOV$ TO ,%AN<AI71 !RE WAS AN AN>*I/ S*OOL 9 ,%AN<AI 9 ADDITION TO ! ONE 9 ,GUANGZH\4 ,ACCORD+ TO ONE S\RCE1 BY #aiad !RE W]E ,ESP]ANTO S*OOLS 9 ,TIANJ91 ,FUZH\1 ,%AN<AI1 ,BEIJ+1 ,*5GDU1 AMONG O!RS4.<#c#i.> ,IT IS NOT LIKELY ?AT ALL !SE S*OOLS W]E E/ABLI%$ BY AN>*I/S1 LET ALONE AN>*I/S ( ,%IFU'S GR\P4 ,NEV]!LESS1 !RE WAS AN 9TIMATE RELATION%IP 9 !SE YE>S BETWE5 ,ESP]ANTO & AN>*ISM2 & ,ESP]ANTO TEXTBOOKS1 SU* AS ! ONE $IT$ BY ,\ ,%5GBAI 9 ,GUANGZH\1 S]V$ TO SPREAD AN>*I/ WRIT+S 9 SOME SECURITY FROM ! AU?ORITIES4.<#c#a.> 

,SOME ( ! ,GUANGZH\ AN>*I/S FOLL[$ ,*5 ,JIONGM+ TO ,FUJIAN 9 #aiah :]E1 UND] HIS PROTECTION1 !Y PROPAGAT$ ,%IFU'S AN>*ISM4 ,AS 9 ! CASE ( ,XIE ,Y+BO1 ! LABOR LEAD]1 ,*5'S CONNECTION TO ! AN>*I/S WAS A P]SONAL ONE2 HE1 TOO1 HAD BE5 ASSOCIAT$ ) ,%IFU 9 ! ,*9A ,ASSASS9ATION ,CORPS & AFT] #aiaa EXT5D$ HIS PROTECTION TO ,%IFU & HIS FOLL[]S4 ,! PROTECTION1 H[EV]1 W5T BEYOND PURELY P]SONAL CONSID]ATIONS4 ,*5 HIMSELF1 IRONICALLY = A MILIT>I/1 HAD SOME SYMPA?Y = AN>*ISM2 ACCORD+ TO ,W9/ON ,HSIEH1 AT ?IS TIME HE WAS ALSO RESPONSIBLE = F9ANC+ ! ,S9O-,FR5* ,UNIV]SITY 9 ,LYONS4.<#c#a#a.> ,ONE AN>*I/ RECALL$ ?AT UND] HIS LEAD]%IP ,ZHANGZH\ 9 !SE YE>S BECAME A MODEL CITY4 ,AN>*I/S OP]AT$ FREELY UND] HIS PROTECTION & EV5 PUBLI%$ A NEWSPAP]4 

,BO? L9ES ( AN>*I/ ACTIVITY1 ! WORK-/UDY PROGRAM 9 ,FRANCE & ! ACTIVITIES ( ,%IFU'S FOLL[]S 9 ,*9A1 ILLU/RATE ! AMBIVAL5T RELATION%IP ( AN>*I/S TO ! AU?ORITIES :OSE OV]?R[ !Y ADVOCAT$4 ,?IS RELATION%IP REFLECT$ A P]SI/5T T5D5CY AMONG ,*9ESE AN>*I/S TO 9/RUM5TALIZE AN>*ISM 9 ! S]VICE ( GOALS ?AT CONTRADICT$ !IR [N PR(ESS$ AIMS4 ,! ,P>IS AN>*I/S HOBNOBB$ OP5LY ) BO? ! POLITICAL & ! ECONOMIC ELITE 9 ,*9A & ABROAD2 ! ,S9O-,FR5* ,$UCATIONAL ,ASSOCIATION WAS A SEMI(FICIAL ORGANIZATION4 ,%IFU'S FOLL[]S1 MU* MORE CLE>LY AN>*I/ 9 !IR ID5TITY AT ?IS TIME1 ACCEPT$ PROTECTION FROM ! AU?ORITIES :5 !Y C\LD4 

,?IS ACCEPTANCE WAS P>TIALLY DUE TO A G5U9E NE$ = PROTECTION4 ,DISCUSSIONS ( RADICAL ACTIVITY 9 ,*9A AT ?IS TIME R>ELY /RESS ! ADV]SE POLITICAL CIRCUM/ANCES UND] :I* RADICALS OP]AT$4 ,WU ,ZHIHUI'S NAME WAS AMONG ?OSE LI/$ BY ! ,%AN<AI POLICE AS DANG]\S ,BOL%EVI/S 9 ,*9A4 ,*9ESE AU?ORITIES1 C5TRAL OR LOCAL1 W]E EV] READY TO SUPPRESS EXTREME RADICAL ACTIVITIES4 ,AM]ICAN CONSULS W]E ABLE TO GET ! LOCAL AU?ORITIES TO 9T]V5E AGA9/ ! AN>*I/S 9 ,FUJIAN1 9 SPITE ( ,*5'S PROTECTION4 ,RADICAL LIT]ATURE WAS (T5 SMUGGL$ BETWE5 FALSE COV]S TO AVOID DETECTION1 AS IS ILLU/RAT$ BY ! EXAMPLE ( AN AN>*I/ MANIFE/O PUBLI%$ 9 ,BAOD+FU1 :I* AU?ORITIES DISCOV]$ )9 ! COV]S ( A ,*9ESE BIBLE4.<#c#a#b.> 

,AN>*I/ ASSOCIATION ) AU?ORITY WAS ALSO A CONSEQU5CE ( ! P]SI/5CE ( P]SONAL RELATION%IPS ?AT (T5 CONTRADICT$ ! V]BAL COMMITM5TS ( ! AN>*I/S4 ,IT ALSO GAVE AN>*I/S FALSE HOPES AB\T ! POSSIBILITY ( RELIANCE ON AU?ORITIES ?AT APPE>$ FAVORABLE TO !IR CAUSE4 ,AN>*I/S W]E TO DISCOV] ?IS1 MU* TO !IR REGRET1 9 #a#i#b#h1 :5 !IR FLIRTATION ) ! ,GUOM9DANG UND] ,*IANG ,KAI-%EK WAS TO RESULT 9 A TRAGIC BETRAYAL ( !IR CAUSE BY ,*IANG--& BY ! DOY5S ( AN>*ISM 9 ,*9A1 :O OBVI\SLY PLAC$ !IR P]SONAL RELATION%IPS & (FICIAL 9FLU5CE ABOVE !IR LONG-T]M IDEOLOGICAL COMMITM5TS4 

,) ! APPO9TM5T ( ,CAI ,YUANPEI AS ! *ANCELLOR ( ,BEIJ+ ,UNIV]SITY1 AN>*I/ ACTIVITY1 LIKE ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T 9 G5]AL1 GA9$ A NEW MOM5TUM4 ,! APPO9TM5T ( ,CAI WAS P>TICUL>LY MEAN+FUL = ! AN>*I/S1 BECAUSE ,CAI HAD LONG BE5 9VOLV$ ) ! ,P>IS AN>*I/S 7MO/ REC5TLY 9 ! WORK-/UDY PROGRAM 9 ,P>IS71 & WAS HIMSELF A PHILOSOPHICAL AN>*I/ 7SEE *APT] #b ABOVE74 

,AFT] #aiag ,BEIDA WAS TO EM]GE AS A C5T] ( AN>*I/ ACTIVITY 9 ,*9A4 ,NO ONE HAS SUGGE/$ ?AT ,CAI TRI$ ACTIVELY TO PROPAGATE AN>*I/ IDEAS AT ,BEIDA1 BUT HIS RE=MS AT ! UNIV]SITY CREAT$ AN ATMOSPH]E 9 :I* AN>*I/S C\LD FL\RI%1 & HE WAS RESPONSIBLE1 ALBEIT 9DIRECTLY & 9 SOME:AT REIFI$ =M1 = PUBLICIZ+ IDEAS ?AT HAD ORIG9AT$ ) ! AN>*I/S4 ,HIS RE=MS ATTRACT$ TO ! UNIV]SITY AN>*I/S :O HAD BE5 HIS CLOSE 9TELLECTUAL ASSOCIATES OV] ! PREVI\S DECADE1 SU* AS ,LI ,%IZ5G 7:O TAU<T MORAL PHILOSOPHY AS WELL AS BIOLOGY7 & ,WU ,ZHIHUI 7AN ACADEMIC ADVIS]74 ,( ! ,GUANGZH\ AN>*I/S ,HUANG ,L+ %UANG & ,YUAN ,ZH5Y+ W]E PR(ESSORS AT ! UNIV]SITY1 ,\ ,%5GBAI & O!RS 5ROLL$ AS /UD5TS4 ,ACCORD+ TO ,XU ,DEH5G1 AN>*I/S CON/ITUT$ ONE ( ! ?REE MAJOR GR\PS 9 ! UNIV]SITY FACULTY1 9 ADDITION TO ! ,NEW ,Y\? GR\P & ! CONS]VATIVES4.<#c#a#c.> 

,CAI'S [N ACTIVITIES C\LD AT LEA/ HAVE BE5 CON/RU$ BY ! AN>*I/S AS FAVORABLE TO !IR CAUSE4 ,ONE ( ! IMPORTANT COMPON5TS ( HIS $UCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY WAS ! FO/]+ ( A GR\P SPIRIT & HABITS ( MUTUAL AID4 ,TO ?IS 5D HE 5C\RAG$ /UD5TS TO E/ABLI% GR\PS ?AT RANG$ ALL ! WAY FROM DISCUSSION GR\PS TO COOP]ATIVES4 ,SOON AFT] HE BECAME *ANCELLOR HE SPONSOR$ ! E/ABLI%M5T ( ! ,PROMOTE ,VIRTUE ,SOCIETY 7,J9DE HUI74.<#c#a#d.> ,?IS SOCIETY1 :I* D]IV$ ITS NAME FROM ! AN>*I/ SOCIETY ( #a#i#a#b1 ADOPT$ = ITS GUIDEL9ES ! PR9CIPLES ( ANO!R3 ,%IFU'S ,CONSCI5CE ,SOCIETY 7,X9%E74 ,! DECL>ATION ( ! SOCIETY REF]R$ SPECIFICALLY TO ! ,J9DE HUI ( ! E>LY ,REPUBLIC :I*1 IT SAID1 HAD BE5 F\ND$ BY SOCIALI/S SU* AS ,CAI1 ,WU1 & ,LI1 TO DEAL ) ! QUE/IONS ( H[ TO A*IEVE COMMUNISM & ABOLI% M>RIAGE4.<#c#a#e.> ,! SOCIETY WAS ABLE TO RECRUIT AB\T A ?\S& MEMB]S BY ! ,MAY ,F\R? P]IOD4 

,! TEA*+ ( ,ESP]ANTO WAS ANO!R >EA ( AN>*I/ ACTIVITY4 ,! AN>*I/ ,SUN ,GUOZHANG 7LAT] ASSOCIAT$ ) ! RADICAL ,F5D\ .<,/RUGGLE.> MAGAZ9E1 :I* ADVOCAT$ A NIHILI/IC AN>*ISM7 WAS 9 *>GE ( ! TEA*+ ( ,ESP]ANTO2 ACCORD+ TO A NOTICE 9 ! /UD5T DAILY ( ! UNIV]SITY 9 ,DECEMB] #a#i#a#g1 HIS ,ESP]ANTO CLASS HAD ATTRACT$ FIFTY-?REE /UD5TS1 AL?\< IT IS H>D TO TELL :E!R !SE /UD5TS W]E ALL FROM ,BEIDA4.<#c#a#f.> ,9 ! SAME MON?1 ! PAP] />T$ TO S]IALIZE AN >TICLE BY ,\ ,%5GBAI ON ,ZAM5H(1 ! 9V5TOR ( ,ESP]ANTO4 

,!RE IS ALSO CONSID]ABLE EVID5CE ?AT AN>*I/S =M$ A P[]FUL GR\P )9 /UD5T ACTIVITIES 9 ! UNIV]SITY4 ,9 ,FEBRU>Y #aiah ,SUN ,GUOZHANG BECAME ! $ITOR ( ! /UD5T DAILY1 :I* !N BEGAN TO PUBLI% >TICLES 9 ,ESP]ANTO 7,*5 ,DUXIU WAS A FACULTY ADVIS]74.<#c#a#g.> ,9 #aib ,ZHU ,QIANZHI1 LAT] TO GA9 FAME AS A PROPON5T ( NIHILI/ AN>*ISM1 BECAME $ITOR ( ! /UD5T WEEKLY4 ,UND] HIS $ITOR%IP ! WEEKLY PUBLI%$ DEBATES ON AN>*ISM & LABOR2 TWO ( ITS ISSUES C>RI$ ! PICTURES ( ,KROPOTK9 & ,BAKUN9 ON ! COV]4.<#c#a#h.> ,!RE IS ALSO 9DIRECT EVID5CE ( AN>*I/ P[] 9 ! UNIV]SITY4 ,9 #aiah /UD5TS AT ! UNIV]SITY ORGANIZ$ A SOCIETY TO PROTE/ ,JAPANESE ACTIVITIES AGA9/ ,*9A4 ,! /UD5TS WANT$ TO CALL ! SOCIETY ! ,PATRIOTIC ,SOCIETY 7,AIGUO HUI71 BUT1 ACCORD+ TO ,XU ,DEH5G1 *ANG$ ! NAME TO ,SAVE-!-,NATION ,SOCIETY 7,JIUGUO HUI7 UND] PRESSURE FROM ! AN>*I/S4.<#c#a#i.> 

,IF AN>*I/S W]E ACTIVE 9 ! V>I\S ORGANIZATIONS 9 ! UNIV]SITY ?AT W]E NOT EXPLICITLY AN>*I/1 !Y ALSO HAD !IR [N ORGANIZATIONS4 ,9 #aiag /UD5TS & FACULTY ORGANIZ$ ! ,TRU? ,SOCIETY 7,%I%E7 TO PROMOTE AN>*I/ GOALS4 ,ITS MEMB]S W]E ,HUANG ,L+%UANG1 ,HUA ,L91 ,\ ,%5GBAI1 & ,YUAN ,ZH5Y+1 ALL LEAD]S ( ! AN>*I/ MOVEM5T 9 ! #a#i#bS4 ,9 #aiai ?IS SOCIETY WAS REPLAC$ BY ,EVOLUTION ,SOCIETY 7,J9HUA %E71 :I* BR\<T ,BEIDA AN>*I/S TOGE!R ) AN>*I/S FROM O!R P>TS ( ,*9A4 ,O!R ,BEIDA AN>*I/S1 L$ BY ,ZHU ,QIANZHI1 E/ABLI%$ 9 #aibc ! ,/RUGGLE ,SOCIETY 7,F5D\ %E7 TO PROPAGATE !IR [N V]SION ( AN>*ISM4.<#c#b.> 

,AN>*I/ ACTIVITY WAS REFLECT$ 9 AN>*I/ PUBLICATION4 ,AN>*I/S HAD P>TICIPAT$ 9 ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T FROM ! BEG9N+ ?R\< !IR CONTRIBUTIONS TO ,NEW ,Y\?4 ,! NAMES ( ,WU ,ZHIHUI1 7,HUANG7 ,L+ ,%UANG1 7,YUAN7 ,ZH5 ,Y+1 ,HUA ,L91 7,LIANG7 ,B+XIAN APPE>$ FREQU5TLY 9 ! J\RNAL BE=E #a#i#a#i4 ,!IR CONTRIBUTIONS TO ,NEW ,Y\?1 H[EV]1 LACK$ A CLE> ID5TITY4.<#c#b#a.> ,!SE CONTRIBUTIONS RANG$ FROM DISCUSSIONS ( ,NIETZS*E'S PHILOSOPHY TO TRANSLATIONS ( ,TOL/OY & ,EMMA ,GOLDMAN4 ,!Y W]E ALMO/ :OLLY 9 SUPPORT ( ?AT J\RNAL'S ADVOCACY ( 9DIVIDUAL LIB]ATION FROM SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS4 ,:ILE !Y P]=M$ AN IMPORTANT FUNCTION 9 ACQUA9T+ ,NEW ,Y\? READ]S ) ! NAMES ( FAM\S AN>*I/S & !IR VIEWS ON ! 9DIVIDUAL1 M>RIAGE1 & ! FAMILY1 !Y DID NOT IMP>T ANY CLE> PICTURE ( AN>*ISM AS A COMPREH5SIVE SOCIAL & POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY ) AN ID5TITY ( ITS [N4 

,MORE IMPORTANT AS S\RCES = AN>*ISM W]E A NUMB] ( J\RNALS PUBLI%$ BY ! AN>*I/S1 OR GUID$ BY !M4 ,9 ,AUGU/ #a#i#a#f1 ,*9ESE 9 ,FRANCE />T$ TO PUBLI% ! ,LU,\ ZAZHI4 ,O/5SIBLY ! ORGAN ( ! ,S9O-,FR5* ,$UCATIONAL ,ASSOCIATION1 ! J\RNAL PUBLICIZ$ ! VIEWS ( ! AN>*I/S :O DOM9AT$ ?AT ORGANIZATION4 ,ITS $ITOR WAS ,*U ,M9YI ( ! ,NEW ,]A AN>*I/S4 ,AMONG ! MO/ PROLIFIC CONTRIBUTORS W]E ,CAI ,YUANPEI1 ,LI ,%IZ5G1 ,WANG ,J+WEI1 & ,WANG ,%IJIE4 ,?IS WAS FOLL[$ 9 ,JANU>Y #aiag BY ,HUAGONG ,ZAZHI 7,*9ESE LABOR]S' J\RNAL71 A J\RNAL ADDRESS$ TO ,*9ESE WORK]S 9 ,FRANCE4 ,! J\RNAL PUBLI%$ PIECES TO $UCATE ! WORK]S & RID !M ( !IR UNDESIRABLE HABITS2 ITS MOTTOES W]E DILIG5CE1 FRUGALITY1 & /UDY4 ,LECTURES BY ,LI ,%IZ5G & ,CAI ,YUANPEI 9 ! WORK]S' S*OOL TOOK UP MO/ ( ! J\RNAL'S SPACE DEVOT$ TO DISCUSSIONS4 

,9 ,JULY #aiag ,TRU? ,SOCIETY AT ,BEIDA BEGAN TO PUBLI% ,ZIY\ LU 7,RECORDS ( FRE$OM74 ,ACCORD+ TO ,HUANG ,L+%UANG1 ,TRU? ,SOCIETY WAS ONE ( ! ?REE LEGS ( ! TRIPOD ( AN>*ISM 9 ,*9A1 ! O!RS BE+ ,X9%E 7,CONSCI5CE ,SOCIETY7 9 ,GUANGZH\ & ! ,QUN%E 7,MASSES ,SOCIETY7 9 ,NANJ+4 ,RECORDS ( ,FRE$OM WAS DEVOT$ TO ! SE>* = AN>*I/ ORGANIZATION 9 POLITICS & ADVOCACY ( ! TRUE PR9CIPLE ( COMMUNISM 9 ECONOMICS4.<#c#b#b.> ,ITS CONTRIBUTORS 9CLUD$ PROM95T MEMB]S ( A RIS+ G5]ATION ( AN>*I/S4 ,ASIDE FROM ,HUANG ,L+%UANG1 !SE W]E ,HUA ,L91 ,\ ,%5GBAI1 & ,YUAN ,ZH5Y+4 

,O!R AN>*I/ P]IODICALS APPE>$ 9 #a#i#a#h3 ,R5QUN 7,MASSES7 PUBLI%$ BY ! ,MASSES ,SOCIETY 9 ,NANJ+1 & ! ,P+%E ZAZHI 7,PEACE ,SOCIETY J\RNAL7 PUBLI%$ BY ,PEACE ,SOCIETY 9 ,%&ONG4 ,!SE J\RNALS W]E %ORT-LIV$ BECAUSE ( 9T]NAL DIFFICULTIES & H>ASSM5T BY AU?ORITIES4 ,9 ,JANU>Y #aiai F\R AN>*I/ SOCIETIES 7,PEOPLE'S ,VOICE 9 ,GUANGZH\1 ,MASSES 9 ,NANJ+1 ,PEACE ,SOCIETY 9 ,%&ONG1 & ,TRU? ,SOCIETY 9 ,BEIJ+7 M]G$ TO E/ABLI% A NEW SOCIETY1 ,J9HUA %E 7,EVOLUTION ,SOCIETY71 & />T$ PUBLICATION ( A NEW J\RNAL1 ,J9HUA ZAZHI 7,EVOLUTION MAGAZ9E7 9 ,NANJ+4 ,! J\RNAL B>ELY MADE IT PA/ ! ,MAY ,F\R? ,MOVEM5T1 :5 IT WAS CLOS$ D[N BY ! AU?ORITIES4.<#c#b#c.> 

,! P>TICIPANTS 9 !SE ACTIVITIES GIVE US A CLUE TO ! RAPID SPREAD & PROLIF]ATION ( AN>*I/ GR\PS \TSIDE MAJOR URBAN C5T]S DUR+ ! ,MAY ,F\R? ,MOVEM5T4 ,ACCORD+ TO ,LIU ,%IX91 ! ,MASSES ,SOCIETY 9 ,NANJ+ DREW ITS MEMB]%IP FROM =M] MEMB]S ( ! ,SOCIALI/ P>TY 7! ,PURE SOCIALI/S ( ,TAIXU'S GR\P74.<#c#b#d.> ,MEMB]S ( ! ,SOCIALI/ P>TIES ( ! E>LY REPUBLICAN P]IOD1 ) !IR AN>*I/ 9CL9ATIONS1 MAY HAVE PROVID$ A POOL ( POT5TIAL MEMB]S4 ,IT WILL BE RECALL$ ?AT ,JIANG ,KAN<U HIMSELF HAD RETURN$ TO ,*9A AT ?IS TIME1 & WAS 5GAG$ ONCE AGA9 9 ORGANIZ+ ACTIVITIES AMONG :I* WAS A ?REE_/TWO SOCIETY 7NO GOV]NM5T1 NO FAMILY1 NO RELIGION3 FROM EA* ACCORD+ TO HIS ABILITY1 TO EA* ACCORD+ TO HIS NE$74 ,IF NOT AN>*I/1 /RICTLY SPEAK+1 IT IS PLAUSIBLE NEV]!LESS ?AT !SE GR\PS 9 ! PROV9CES DID PLAY A P>T 9 ! PROPAGATION ( AN>*ISM4 

,! MO/ NOVEL AN>*I/ PUBLICATIONS 9 ! P]IOD BE=E ! ,MAY ,F\R? ,MOVEM5T W]E TWO J\RNALS DEVOT$ TO LABOR1 ,MIRROR TO ,LABOR 7,LAODONG BAOJIAN7 & ,LABOR 7,LAODONG71 BO? PUBLI%$ 9 #a#i#a#h4 ,( !SE TWO1 BY F> ! MORE IMPORTANT WAS ,LABOR1 ,*9A'S FIR/ J\RNAL DEVOT$ SPECIFICALLY TO ! PROMOTION ( ! CAUSE ( LABOR]S 7& TO C>RY LABOR 9 ITS TITLE74 ,MIRROR TO ,LABOR RAIS$ LABOR ISSUES MA9LY 9 PASS+ 9 ITS DISCUSSIONS ( G5]AL ISSUES ( AN>*ISM1 :I* W]E CONT9U\S ) DISCUSSIONS 9 ,PEOPLE'S ,VOICE E>LI]4 ,LABOR1 $IT$ BY ,LIANG ,B+XIAN1 ADDRESS$ QUE/IONS ( LABOR DIRECTLY4 ,! J\RNAL DISCUSS$ ! CONFLICT BETWE5 LABOR & CAPITAL & ADVOCAT$ SOCIAL REVOLUTION TO RESOLVE IT4 ,AMONG ITS FIR/S W]E DISCUSSIONS ( ! SIGNIFICANCE ( ,MAY ,DAY & ( LABOR ACTIVITIES 9 ,*9A4 ,IT WAS ALSO ! FIR/ J\RNAL 9 ,*9A TO DISCUSS ! IMPLICATIONS ( ! ,OCTOB] ,REVOLUTION 9 SOME DEP?1 :I* UNEXPECT$LY W\LD B5EFIT ! CAUSE ( SPREAD+ AN>*ISM4 

,! ,OCTOB] ,REVOLUTION & ,AN>*ISM 

  

,!RE IS SOME EVID5CE ?AT ,*9ESE RADICALS 9ITIALLY VIEW$ ! ,OCTOB] ,REVOLUTION 9 ,RUSSIA NOT AS A ,M>XI/ BUT AS AN AN>*I/ REVOLUTION--OR AT LEA/ A REVOLUTION ?AT WAS CONSI/5T ) AN>*I/ GOALS4 ,ONE ,*9ESE HI/ORIAN HAS WRITT5 ( RADICALS 9 ,GUANGZH\3  
  

,AT ! TIME .<I4E41 BE=E ! ,MAY ,F\R? ,MOVEM5T 9 #a#i#a#i.>1 QUITE A FEW PEOPLE ?\<T ?AT ! VICTORY ( ! ,OCTOB] ,REVOLUTION 9 ,RUSSIA WAS ! VICTORY ( AN>*O-COMMUNISM4 ,RADICALS :O W]E DISSATISFI$ ) ! SITUATION 9 ,*9A & WANT$ A REVOLUTION BEGAN1 !RE=E1 TO BELIEVE 9 AN>*ISM4.<#c#b#e.>  
  

,LE/ ?IS BE VIEW$ AS AN IDIOSYNCRASY ( ,GUANGZH\1 :]E AN>*ISM HAD /RONG ROOTS1 WE MAY NOTE ?AT ,%AO ,LIZI1 PROM95T ,GUOM9DANG MEMB] & A P>TICIPANT 9 ! E>LY ACTIVITIES ( ! ,COMMUNI/ P>TY1 RECALL$ ! SAME T5D5CY 9 ,%AN<AI4.<#c#b#f.> ,ACCORD+ TO ,MAURICE ,MEISN]1 FOLL[+ ! ,OCTOB] ,REVOLUTION ! NAME ( ,KROPOTK9 BEGAN TO APPE> ) GREAT] FREQU5CY 9 ! WRIT+S ( ,LI ,DAZHAO1 LAT] ,*9A'S FIR/ ,M>XI/4 ,9DE$1 ,LI'S [N WRIT+S ON ! ,OCTOB] ,REVOLUTION 9 LATE #aiah W]E 9FUS$ ) ! LANGUAGE ( AN>*ISM4.<#c#b#g.> 

,MU* ( ?IS CONF\ND+ ( ! ,OCTOB] ,REVOLUTION ) AN>*ISM WAS A CONSEQU5CE ( WORLDWIDE CONFUSION OV] ! ,REVOLUTION 9 #a#i#a#h4 ,PROM95T AN>*I/S1 9CLUD+ ,EMMA ,GOLDMAN & ,KROPOTK9 HIMSELF1 BELIEV$ E>LY ON ?AT ! ,REVOLUTION1 IF NOT AN>*I/1 AT LEA/ HAD ! POT5TIAL = DEVELOP+ 9TO AN AN>*I/ SOCIAL REVOLUTION4 ,9 ,*9A ! CONFUSION WAS COMP\ND$ ) ! ASSOCIATION ( ! IDEA ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION ) AN>*ISM4 ,UNTIL ! #a#i#bS AN>*I/S W]E ! ONLY ONES 9 ,*9A CONSI/5TLY TO ADVOCATE A SOCIAL REVOLUTION FROM BEL[4 ,! ,OCTOB] ,REVOLUTION1 :I* QUICKLY CAME TO BE HAIL$ BY RADICALS WORLDWIDE AS ! FIR/ G5U9E SOCIAL REVOLUTION 9 HI/ORY1 PLAUSIBLY APPE>$ TO ,*9ESE RADICALS AS AN AN>*I/ REVOLUTION4 ,?AT OPPON5TS ( ! ,REVOLUTION VULG>LY LABEL$ IT AN>*I/ MAY HAVE CONFIRM$ ! IMPRESSION4 ,AN>*I/S !MSELVES1 EV5 AN>*I/S 9 ! ,SOVIET ,UNION1 SU* AS ,EMMA ,GOLDMAN & ,ALEX&] ,B]KMAN1 W\LD NOT R5\NCE ! ASSOCIATION ( AN>*ISM ) ! ,BOL%EVIK ,REVOLUTION UNTIL #a#i#b#b1 EV5 IF !Y HAD GR[N SUSPICI\S ( IT BY E>LY #a#i#a#i4 ,?IS WAS ALSO :5 ,*9ESE AN>*I/S AB&ON$ HOPES 9 AN AN>*I/-,BOL%EVIK COOP]ATION 9 ! CAUSE ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION4 

,AN>*I/S 9 ,*9A 9 #aiah ACTIVELY CONTRIBUT$ TO ?IS ASSOCIATION ( AN>*ISM ) ! ,OCTOB] ,REVOLUTION4 ,! TWO DISCUSSIONS ( ! ,OCTOB] ,REVOLUTION PUBLI%$ 9 ! SECOND ISSUE ( ,LABOR 9 ,APRIL #aiah >E AMONG ! MO/ DETAIL$ REPORTS ON ! MEAN+ & IDEOLOGY ( ! ,REVOLUTION TO BE PUBLI%$ 9 ,*9A 9 #a#i#a#h4 7,?IS WAS ALSO ! ISSUE TO CELEBRATE ,MAY ,DAY = ! FIR/ TIME74 ,!SE REPORTS MAY HAVE %AP$ ! VIEWS ( ,*9ESE RADICALS ON ! ,REVOLUTION WELL 9TO #aiah &1 9 !IR ID5TIFICATION ( AN>*ISM ) A REVOLUTION ?AT C>RI$ CONSID]ABLE PRE/IGE 9 RADICAL EYES1 HELP$ ADD TO ! PRE/IGE& ! PROPAGATION( AN>*ISM AS WELL4 ,AN >TICLE BY ONE ,YI ,CUN1 5TITL$ ,! ,POLITICAL ,/RATEGY ( ! ,EXTREMI/S 9 ,RUSSIA 7,IGUO GUOJIPAI %IX+ZHI ZH5GLUE71 DESCRIB$ ! ,REVOLUTION 9 T]MS ( ITS 9T]NAL & EXT]NAL POLICIES4 ,QUOT+ ,TROTSKY1 ! AU?OR DESCRIB$ ! ,REVOLUTION AS A REVOLUTION 9 ! BROAD S5SE GUANGYIDI GEM+71 MEAN+ ?AT ! ,REVOLUTION WAS NOT RE/RICT$ TO POLITICS BUT EXT5D$ TO ! ECONOMIC REALM AS WELL1 & ALSO ?AT IT WAS NOT M]ELY NATIONAL BUT GLOBAL 9 ITS ASPIRATIONS1 AS WAS %[N BY EF=TS TO EXPORT ! ,REVOLUTION4 ,AS ! AU?OR PUT IT1 ,! REVOLUTION ACCOMPLI%$ BY ! ,RUSSIANS IS A WORLD REVOLUTION1 IT IS A SOCIAL TRANS=MATION 7GAIGE74.<#c#b#h.>,IT WAS A REVOLUTION1 HE OBS]V$1 ?AT BUREAUCRATS & ! WEAL?Y FE>$ BUT :I* LABOR]S & ! POOR WELCOM$4 ,!RE IS LITTLE QUE/ION ( ! SYMPA?IES ( ! AU?OR1 :O REF]R$ TO ! REVOLUTION>IES AS BRO!RS 7XIONGDI7 & COMPATRIOTS 7TONGBAO74 

,A SIMIL> TONE P]VAD$ ! SECOND >TICLE1 ,A ,BRIEF ,ACC\NT ( ,L591 ! ,LEAD] ( ! ,RUSSIAN ,SOCIAL ,REVOLUTION 7,IGUO %EHUI GEM+ZHI XIANF5G ,L9+ %ILUE71 :I* DESCRIB$ ,L59 AS ! MO/ 5?USIA/IC PROPON5T ( UNIV]SALISM 7DATONG ZHUYI7 9 ! WORLD4 ,AS 9 ! FIR/ >TICLE1 ?IS DISCUSSION1 TOO1 /RESS$ AS ! GOALS ( ! ,REVOLUTION ! IMM$IATE T]M9ATION ( ! W> & ! R$I/RIBUTION ( PROP]TY TO RELIEVE ! POOR4 ,IT DESCRIB$ ! REVOLUTION 9 \R NEI<BOR ,RUSSIA AS A SOCIAL REVOLUTION TO MAKE EQUAL ! RI* & ! POOR4 ,MORE SIGNIFICANTLY1 ! AU?OR /AT$ ?AT :ILE PEOPLE FE> !SE TWO WORDS1 SOCIAL REVOLUTION1 IT IS NO?+ BUT A NATURAL T5D5CY ( ! WORLD4.<#c#b#i.> ,A SIMIL> /ATEM5T WAS REPEAT$ 9 AN ESSAY 9 ! ?IRD ISSUE ( ! J\RNAL1 ,AN ,ANALYSIS ( ,L591 ! ,REALITY ( ! ,RUSSIAN ,REVOLUTION 7,L9+ZHI JIEPEI1 ,IGUO GEM+ZHI ZH5XIANG74 ,ANTICIPAT+ ,LI ,DAZHAO BY TWO MON?S1 ! AU?OR /AT$3 ,! ,FR5* ,REVOLUTION GAVE BIR? TO ! CIVILIZATION ( ! N9ETE5? C5TURY2 ! ,RUSSIAN ,REVOLUTION REPRES5TS ! T5D5CIES ( ! TW5TIE? C5TURY4.<#c#c.> 

,9 5SU+ ISSUES 7! LA/ ONE WAS NO4 #e 9 ,JULY #a#i#a#h71 ,LABOR PUBLI%$ O!R DISCUSSIONS ( ! ,RUSSIAN ,REVOLUTION1 9CLUD+ ONE ON ! V>I\S SOCIALI/ GR\PS 9 ,RUSSIA & !IR PUBLICATION ORGANS1 AN >TICLE ON ! CONSEQU5CES ( PEASANT LIB]ATION1 & BRIEF BIOGRAPHIES ( ,TROTSKY & ,BRE%KOVSKAYA4 ,I HAVE NOT SE5 !SE ISSUES & AM UNABLE1 !RE=E1 TO ANALYZE !IR CONT5T4 ,SUFFICE IT TO SAY H]E ?AT !SE DISCUSSIONS W]E 9T]SP]S$ ) ! MANY >TICLES ! J\RNAL PUBLI%$ ON LABOR & AN>*ISM4 ,PROM95T AMONG ITS CAUSES WAS ,TOL/OY'S LABORISM 7LAODONG ZHUYI71 :I* ,LI ,DAZHAO W\LD HAIL A FEW MON?S LAT] AS A BASIC FEATURE ( ! ,REVOLUTION4 

,ON ! BASIS ( ! >TICLES 9 ! E>LI] ISSUES1 IT IS POSSIBLE TO /ATE ?AT ,LABOR PORTRAY$ ! ,OCTOB] ,REVOLUTION AS A REVOLUTION 9 P]FECT H>MONY ) AN>*I/ ASPIRATIONS4 ,AN >TICLE 9 ! FIR/ ISSUE1 :I* WAS DEVOT$ TO ! DISCUSSION ( LABOR'S /RUGGLES AGA9/ ! W> 9 ,EUROPE1 DESCRIB$ ! IDEOLOGY ( ! ,OCTOB] ,REVOLUTION AS AN>*O-COMMUNISM 7WUZH5GFU GONG*AN71 FIR/1 & FRE$OM1 EQUALITY1 & UNIV]SAL LOVE1 SECOND4 ,! SAME PIECE DESCRIB$ ! GOALS ( ! ,REVOLUTION AS ! E/ABLI%M5T ( AN>*Y1 ! ABOLITION ( PRIVATE PROP]TY & RELIGION1 & ! T]M9ATION ( ! W>4.<#c#c#a.> ,! >TICLES 9 ! FOLL[+ ISSUE ( ! J\RNAL1 :I* ,I HAVE ALREADY DISCUSS$1 E*O$ !SE VIEWS 9 !IR DEPICTION ( ,BOL%EVIK POLICIES AS EF=TS TO GET RID ( LAWS1 & ( ,L59 AS A ?OR\<GO+ 9T]NATIONALI/ :O HAD NO CONCEPTION ( NATIONAL B\ND>IES4 ,! >TICLE 9 NUMB] ?REE CIT$ ABOVE W\LD SEEM TO HAVE CORRECT$ !SE VIEWS BY PO9T+ TO ! FACT ?AT ! ,BOL%EVIKS TRAC$ !IR L9EAGE TO ,M>X1 :O HAD BE5 AT ODDS ) AN>*I/S4 ,BUT ! G5]AL IMPRESSION TO BE GA9$ FROM ! J\RNAL1 ESPECIALLY CONSID]+ ITS OV]ALL AN>*I/ CONTEXT1 WAS ?AT ! ,RUSSIAN ,REVOLUTION DID NOT DEVIATE SIGNIFICANTLY FROM AN>*I/ NOTIONS ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION4 

,BY E>LY #aiai SOME AN>*I/S W\LD TURN AGA9/ ! ,OCTOB] ,REVOLUTION & ,BOL%EVISM2 O!RS CONT9U$ TO VIEW IT FAVORABLY & EV5 TO REG>D IT AS BASICALLY AN>*I/4 ,AS LATE AS #aib ! >EA ( ,FUJIAN UND] ,*5 ,JIONGM+1 A HOTB$ ( AN>*I/ ACTIVITY1 WAS KN[N AS ! ,SOVIET ,RUSSIA ( ,S\!RN ,FUJIAN1 & AN>*I/S !RE 7L$ BY ,LIANG ,B+XIAN :O N[ $IT$ ! AN>*I/ J\RNAL 9 ,FUJIAN7 S]V$ AS A MAJOR S\RCE ( 9=MATION ON ! ,SOVIET ,UNION & ! PROGRESS ( ! REVOLUTION4 ,!Y W]E HI< ON ! LI/ ( PEOPLE TO CONTACT ( ! ,COM9T]N AG5T ,GREGORY ,VOIT9SKY :5 HE >RIV$ 9 ,*9A 9 ,M>* #aib TO ORGANIZE COMMUNISM4 ,:5 ! ,NEW ,Y\? MAGAZ9E BECAME AN ORGAN ( ! 9CIPI5T ,COMMUNI/ P>TY 9 ,SEPTEMB] #aib & ADD$ A NEW SECTION ON ! ,SOVIET ,UNION1 ,*5 ,DUXIU ASK$ ! AN>*I/ ,YUAN ,ZH5Y+ TO $IT IT4 

,! ,DIALECTICS ( ,REVOLUTION3 ,SOCIAL ,REVOLUTION & ,E?ICAL ,TRANS=MATION 

  

,BY ! LATE #a#i#aS AN>*ISM 9 ,*9A HAD ASSUM$ A MORE COMPLEX VISAGE4 ,9 ADDITION TO ! SOCIAL AN>*I/S1 !RE W]E AN>*I/S = :OM AN>*ISM REPRES5T$ AN EXTREME 9DIVIDUALISM ( ! K9D ?AT HAD BE5 ADVOCAT$ BY ,MAX ,/IRN] 7,ZHU ,QIANZHI71 OR PO9T$ ! WAY TO ! FULFILLM5T ( AN ES!TIC CONCEPTION ( LIFE 7,ZH\ ,ZUOR5 & ,HUA ,L974 ,*9ESE AN>*I/S ALSO DISCOV]$ NEW =EIGN AN>*I/S1 NOTABLY ,EMMA ,GOLDMAN1 :OSE WRIT+S ON LOVE & ! FAMILY 7& LAT] ON ! ,SOVIET ,UNION7 ACQUIR$ 5ORM\S POPUL>ITY DUR+ ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T2 ,GOLDMAN W\LD MAKE A PR(\ND IMPRESSION ON ONE AN>*I/ 9 P>TICUL>1 ,BAJ91 :O W\LD COME TO VIEW H] AS HIS SPIRITUAL MO!R & =M A LIFELONG DEVOTION TO H]4 

,! 9CREAS+ V>IETY ( AN>*ISMS1 & ! PROLIF]ATION ( AN>*I/ GR\PS 9 ! AFT]MA? ( ! ,MAY ,F\R? ,MOVEM5T1 MAKES IT NE>LY IMPOSSIBLE TO SUMM>IZE ! ?9K+ ( ,*9ESE AN>*I/S AT ?IS TIME4 ,MU* ( ?IS REMA9S TO BE UNCOV]$4 ,I WILL RE/RICT ! DISCUSSION H]E TO ! SOCIAL AN>*I/S & FOCUS ON ?OSE IDEAS ?AT W]E TO MAKE A LA/+ IMPRESSION ON ,MAY ,F\R? RADICALISM& ! REVOLUTION>Y DISC\RSE 9 ,*9A4 

,AN>*I/S SPREAD !IR IDEAS 9 !SE YE>S NOT ONLY 9 AN>*I/ J\RNALS1 BUT ?R\< CONTRIBUTIONS TO PUBLICATIONS ( G5]AL 9T]E/1 AS WELL AS ! CIRCULATION ( PAMPHLETS 7AMONG :I* ,%IFU'S WRIT+S W]E V]Y PROM95T71 :I* ?R\< CL&E/9E MEANS F\ND !IR WAY 9TO EV5 PROV9CIAL LOCALITIES4 ,NO LESS IMPORTANT AS TEXTS ON AN>*ISM W]E AN>*I/ ACTIVITIES1 :I* W]E P>TICUL>LY IMPORTANT 9 ! EM]G5CE ( A RADICAL CULTURE AMONG ,MAY ,F\R? Y\?4 

,AMONG ! IDEOLOGIES ?AT W5T 9TO ! MAK+ ( ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T1 AN>*ISM EM]G$ E>LY ON AS ! IDEOLOGY ( ! RADICAL ,LEFT1 :I* S\<T TO /E] ! CULTURAL REVOLUTION 9 ! DIRECTION ( A SOCIAL REVOLUTION1 SAW 9 ! CULTURAL TRANS=MATION ( ,*9ESE SOCIETY A MEANS ( MOV+ ,*9A T[>D SOCIALISM1 & DESIR$1 AT LEA/ 9 !ORY1 TO EXP& ! CULTURAL REVOLUTION BEYOND 9TELLECTUALS TO 5COMPASS ! COMMON PEOPLE 7P+M974.<#c#c#b.> ,/UDIES ( ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T1 9CLUD+ /UDIES BY ,COMMUNI/ S*OL>S1 LEAVE ! IMPRESSION ?AT SOCIALISM WAS NOT A SIGNIFICANT COMPON5T ( ! MOVEM5T UNTIL AFT] #aiai :51 UND] ! 9FLU5CE ( ! ,RUSSIAN ,REVOLUTION1 ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS BEGAN TO %[ 9T]E/ 9 IT4 ,?IS IS MISLEAD+1 & VALID ONLY IF WE D5Y ! SOCIALISM ( ! AN>*I/S4 ,IT IS TRUE ?AT ! WORD SOCIALI/ DOES NOT APPE> V]Y (T5 9 ,NEW ,CULTURE LIT]ATURE BE=E #a#i#a#i4 ,*9ESE AN>*I/S !MSELVES DID NOT ADV]TISE !IR AN>*ISM 9 !IR CONTRIBUTIONS TO MA9/REAM J\RNALS SU* AS ,NEW ,Y\? OR ! ,R5AISSANCE2 ! WORD AN>*ISM APPE>S R>ELY 9 AN>*I/ CONTRIBUTIONS TO !SE J\RNALS1 & !N 9 ! DESCRIPTION ( ! POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY ( AU?ORS SU* AS ,TOL/OY & ,EMMA ,GOLDMAN1 :OSE WORKS ! AN>*I/S TRANSLAT$ 9TO ,*9ESE4 ,:AT DI/+UI%$ AN>*I/ WRIT+S 9 !SE YE>S WAS NOT !IR CLAIM TO SOCIALISM1 BUT !IR ADVOCACY ( A SOCIAL REVOLUTION1 ! HALLM>K ( SOCIALI/ IDEOLOGIES 9 ,*9A S9CE #a#i#e4 ,DUR+ ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T1 AN>*I/S W]E TO EM]GE AS ! *AMPIONS 9 ,*9ESE ?\<T ( A SOCIAL REVOLUTION ?AT W5T BEYOND *ANGES 9 CULTURE OR POLITICS1 & ?\< !IR IDEAS MAY NOT BE READILY ID5TIFIABLE AS CON/ITUT+ A SOCIALI/ PROGRAM1 !Y W]E RESPONSIBLE = 9TRODUC+ 9TO ,NEW ,CULTURE DISC\RSE NOT JU/ SOCIALI/ IDEAS & A SOCIALI/ VOCABUL>Y1 BUT A SOCIALI/ VISION AS WELL4 ,?IS NOT ONLY PREP>$ ! GR\ND = ! EFFLORESC5CE ( SOCIALISM FOLL[+ ! ,MAY ,F\R? ,MOVEM5T1 BUT ALSO HELPS EXPLA9 :Y AN>*ISM %\LD HAVE 5JOY$ ! GREATE/ POPUL>ITY AMONG COMPET+ SOCIAL REVOLUTION>Y IDEOLOGIES 9 ! E>LY ,MAY ,F\R? P]IOD4 

,AN>*I/ IDEAS & ACTIVITY 9 ! ,MAY ,F\R? P]IOD FOLL[$ ALONG ! L9ES E/ABLI%$ BY E>LI] AN>*I/S4 ,BASIC TO !M WAS ! AN>*I/ COMMITM5T TO SOCIAL REVOLUTION ?R\< $UCATION1 :OSE ULTIMATE GOAL WAS ! E?ICAL TRANS=MATION ( 9DIVIDUALS TO DISCOV] ! NATURAL AN>*I/ 9CL9ATIONS ?AT W]E A UNIV]SAL HUMAN 5D[M5T4 ,TWO ASPECTS ( ?IS 5D[M5T BECAME P>TICUL>LY PROM95T 9 DISCUSSIONS ( AN>*ISM 9 ! ,MAY ,F\R? P]IOD1 ) LA/+ IMPLICATIONS = REVOLUTION>Y DISC\RSE3 MUTUAL AID & ! COMB9ATION ( LABOR & LE>N+ 9 ! CREATION ( A NEW G5]ATION ( Y\?4 ,BY #aiai !SE TWO IDEAS HAD BECOME FUNDAM5TAL TO ! EXP]IM5TS 9 ! REORGANIZATION ( SOCIAL LIFE 7A COMMUNAL MOVEM5T1 SO TO SPEAK7 ?AT EXPRESS$ MORE ELOQU5TLY ?AN WORDS ! RADICAL CULTURE ?AT AN>*I/S HAD HELP$ FA%ION4 

,A BRIEF SUMM>Y ( ! PREMISES CONC]N+ ! ROLE ( $UCATION ?AT HAD E>LI] 9=M$ ! AN>*I/ IDEA ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION MAY BE USEFUL H]E1 = !SE SAME PREMISES %AP$ ! IDEOLOGY ( ,MAY ,F\R? AN>*I/S4 ,AN>*I/S BELIEV$ ?AT A REVOLUTION>Y SOCIETY C\LD BE ONLY AS GOOD AS ! REVOLUTION>Y PROCESS ?AT PRODUC$ IT4 ,9 ! E>LIE/ PHASE ( AN>*ISM 9 ,*9A1 AN>*I/S SU* AS ,ZHANG ,JI HAD BELIEV$ ?AT ! 5DS JU/IFI$ ! MEANS4 ,AN>*I/S CONT9U$ TO EXPRESS A SIMIL> ORI5TATION 9 LAT] YE>S4 ,AN>*I/ WRIT+ & PROGRAMS WELL 9TO ! TW5TIES (T5 DISPLAY$ A P5*ANT = VIOL5CE3 PROPAG&A BY ! DE$ WAS A REGUL> FEATURE ( AN>*I/ PROGRAMS2 & 9 #aibe ! ,MANIFE/O ( ,HUNAN AN>*I/S DECL>$ BRAVELY ?AT ONE BOMB IS BETT] ?AN A ?\S& BOOKS4.<#c#c#c.> 

,DET]M9ATION ( ! EXT5T TO :I* AN>*I/S PRACTIC$ ! K9D ( VIOL5CE !Y PREA*$ MU/ AWAIT A DIFF]5T K9D ( RESE>*4 ,! EVID5CE IS ?AT ! MAJORITY ( AN>*I/S 7& ! MO/ 9FLU5TIAL7 PLAC$ PEACEFUL PROPAG&A & $UCATION AHEAD ( VIOL5CE1 :I* WAS CONSI/5T ) ! CONCEPTION ( REVOLUTION ?AT UND]LAY MO/ AN>*I/ WRIT+3 ?AT VIOL5CE & OPPRESSION P]PETRAT$ 9 ! NAME ( REVOLUTION W\LD CREATE A VIOL5T & OPPRESSIVE SOCIETY ?AT BETRAY$ ! PROMISE ( REVOLUTION4 ,9DE$1 ! DI/9CTIVE FEATURE ( ! AN>*I/ PROGRAM ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION WAS ?AT REVOLUTION1 9 ORD] TO PRODUCE A G5U9ELY REVOLUTION>Y SOCIETY1 MU/ 9 ! V]Y PROCESS ( REVOLUTION CREATE ! 9/ITUTIONS ( ! FUTURE4 ,BASIC TO ?IS PROGRAM WAS A CONCEPTION ( REVOLUTION AS A PROCESS RA!R ?AN AS A DISCRETE HI/ORICAL UND]TAK+4 ,AN>*I/S BY ! ,MAY ,F\R? P]IOD REFUS$ TO DI/+UI% 5DS & MEANS1 ! GOALS ( REVOLUTION FROM ! MEANS EMPLOY$ TO A*IEVE ?OSE GOALS4 ,REVOLUTION MU/ 9 ITS PROGRESS CREATE ! 9/ITUTIONS ?AT CONTA9$1 9 EMBRYO1 ! SOCIETY ( ! FUTURE4 ,!SE 9/ITUTIONS W\LD 9 TURN SECURE ! FUR!R PROGRESS ( REVOLUTION BY PROVID+ SOCIAL SPACES = ! TRANS=MATION ( 9DIVIDUALS & !IR SOCIAL CONSCI\SNESS4 ,TO ! AN>*I/S ?IS REVOLUTION>Y DIALECTIC RUL$ \T ! UTILIZATION ( ANY MEANS ?AT CONTRADICT$ ! ULTIMATE GOALS ( ! REVOLUTION1 S9CE BAD MEANS W\LD FUR!R DI/ORT ! SOCIAL NATURE ( 9DIVIDUALS & LEAD !M AWAY FROM1 NOT T[>D1 ! *]I%$ GOAL ( REVOLUTION4 ,?IS1 WE %ALL SEE1 WAS ! PO9T ( DEP>TURE = AN>*I/ CRITIQUES ( ,BOL%EVISM 9 ! TW5TIES4 

,NEW ,]A AN>*I/S A DECADE E>LI] HAD E/ABLI%$ ! PLACE ( $UCATION 9 REVOLUTION3 $UCATION WAS BUT ! POSITIVE ASPECT ( REVOLUTION1 AS VIOL5CE WAS ITS NEGATIVE ASPECT4 ,! NEGATIVE PURPOSE ( REVOLUTION WAS TO CLE> AWAY ! 9/ITUTIONAL & MAT]IAL OB/ACLES TO ! LIB]ATION ( ! HUMAN POT5TIAL2 BUT IT WAS $UCATION1 ITS POSITIVE ASPECT1 ?AT NURTUR$ ! MORALITY DEM&$ BY ! AN>*I/ IDEAL & MADE POSSIBLE ! CREATION ( ! EMBRYONIC AN>*I/ 9/ITUTIONS ?AT M>K$ ! PROGRESS ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION4 

,! AN>*I/ REVOLUTION>Y IDEA RESOLV$ ITSELF ULTIMATELY 9TO A DIALECTIC BETWE5 ! 9DIVIDUAL & SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS3 ! DIFFUSION ( AN>*I/ MORALITY AMONG 9DIVIDUALS W\LD LEAD TO ! SUB/ITUTION ( EMBRYONIC AN>*I/ SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS = AU?ORIT>IAN 9/ITUTIONS1 :I* W\LD1 9 TURN1 FUR!R PROMOTE ! PROGRESS ( AN>*I/ MORALITY--UNTIL1 EV5TUALLY1 AN>*ISM CAME TO 5COMPASS ALL ASPECTS ( LIFE = ALL ( HUMANITY4 ,$UCATION1 9 O!R WORDS1 WAS REVOLUTION2 REVOLUTION1 $UCATION4 

,AN>*I/S VIEW$ LE>N+1 ESPECIALLY SCI5TIFIC LE>N+1 AS AN IMPORTANT COMPON5T ( ! $UCATION !Y PROPOS$4 ,!RE IS NO MORALITY O!R ?AN LE>N+1 ,WU ,ZHIHUI HAD PROCLAIM$ 9 ! ,NEW ,]A4 ,! ,TRU? ,SOCIETY 9 ,BEIDA ADOPT$ AS ITS BASIC GUIDEL9E ! SLOGAN ( ADVANC+ MORALITY & CULTIVAT+ KN[L$GE4.<#c#c#d.> ,! ,DECL>ATION ( ,PROGRESS ,SOCIETY 9 #aiai /AT$1 QUOT+ ,?OMAS ,HUXLEY3 ,IF ! PRES5T ADVANCE ( LE>N+ CANNOT FUNDAM5TALLY ALT] ! DECAD5T CONDITION 9 :I* ! GREAT MAJORITY ( HUMANK9D LIVES1 !N ,I CAN SAY ONLY ONE ?+3 LET US QUICKLY CALL UPON ?AT M]CIFUL COMET TO WIPE \T ?IS GLOBE1 & US ) IT4.<#c#c#e.> ,AN>*I/S COMMONLY HELD ?AT ! MORALITY ( A PEOPLE WAS PROPORTIONATE TO !IR LE>N+4 ,! PROGRESS 9 LE>N+1 9 O!R WORDS1 WAS 9 ITSELF A PROGRESS T[>D ! K9D ( SOCIETY !Y 5VISAG$4 ,AS 9 E>LI] YE>S1 ?IS UND]LAY !IR CALL = ! UNIV]SALIZATION ( $UCATION1 :I* !Y BELIEV$ WAS ! PR]EQUISITE TO HUMAN PROGRESS4 

,! /RESS ON $UCATION IS A REM9D] ( ! BASICALLY RE=MI/ & EVOLUTION>Y APPROA* TO REVOLUTION ?AT *>ACT]IZ$ ,*9ESE AN>*ISM2 9 ! ,DECL>ATION ( ,EVOLUTION 7,J9HUA7 ,SOCIETY 9 #a#i#a#i1 ,HUANG ,L+%UANG REIT]AT$ ,LI ,%IZ5G'S EXPLANATION 9 ,NEW ,]A ( REVOLUTION AS RE-EVOLUTION1 AS A MEANS ( SECUR+ ! 9EVITABLE ADVANCE ( SOCIETY4.<#c#c#f.> ,NEV]!LESS1 AN>*I/S ASSIGN$ A DEEPLY RADICAL FUNCTION TO $UCATION4 ,! GOAL ( $UCATION 7AS ( REVOLUTION7 WAS TO ELIM9ATE AU?ORITY 7QIANGQUAN71 & !REBY 5ABLE 9DIVIDUALS TO DISCOV] !IR TRUE SELVES4 ,AN>*I/S SAW 9 AU?ORITY ! FUNDAM5TAL CAUSE = ! DI/ORTION ( ! NATURAL GOODNESS ( PEOPLE & BELIEV$ ?AT1 ONCE AU?ORITY HAD BE5 ELIM9AT$1 ! BASIC GOODNESS ( HUMANITY W\LD REASS]T ITSELF 9 ! =MATION ( AN AN>*I/ SOCIETY4 ,AU?ORITY WAS DIFFUS$ ?R\<\T PRES5T SOCIETY1 EMBODI$ 9 ITS V>I\S 9/ITUTIONS4 ,9 ! WORDS ( ,HUANG ,L+%UANG1 ,:AT WE MEAN BY AU?ORITY IS NOT M]ELY ! MILIT>ISM ( ,G]MANY & ,AU/RIA1 OR ! SUP]MANISM ( ,NIETZ*E1 BUT ! POLITICS1 RELIGION1 LAW & CAPITALISM ( PRES5T SOCIETY :I* OB/RUCT ! REALIZATION ( FRE$OM & HAPP9ESS BY HUMANITY AS A :OLE4 ,HUANG NEGLECT$ TO SPELL \T ONE 9/ITUTION ( AU?ORITY :OSE REPUDIATION BY ! AN>*I/S W\LD ADD 5ORM\SLY TO !IR APPEAL DUR+ ! ,MAY ,F\R? P]IOD3 ! FAMILY4 ,AN>*I/S HAD BELIEV$ ALL ALONG ?AT ! FAMILY WAS ! EMBODIM5T ( AU?ORITY 9 EV]YDAY LIFE2 IT WAS ALSO1 AS ! MANIFE/O ( ,HUNAN AN>*I/S PUT IT1 AN 9/RUM5T = ! PRODUCTION ( SELFI%NESS4.<#c#c#g.> 

,) ! ABOLITION ( AU?ORITY1 ! 9/9CTIVE GOODNESS 7& SOCIABILITY7 W\LD ASS]T ITSELF1 & ! T5D5CY TO SELFI%NESS1 PLUND]1 & OPPRESSION ( 9DIVIDUALS UND] PRES5T-DAY SOCIETY W\LD BE ]ADICAT$4 ,AS A MANIFE/O ?AT ISSU$ FROM ,ZHANGZH\ 7MO/ PROBABLY ONE ( ,%IFU'S ESSAYS7 PUT IT1 ! PR9CIPLE ( AN>*ICAL COMMUNISM WAS A TRU? HIDD5 9 EV]Y 9DIVIDUAL'S M9D4.<#c#c#h.> ,MORAL TRANS=MATION1 OR RA!R MORAL RE/ITUTION1 ( ! 9DIVIDUAL WAS KEY TO ! AN>*I/ VIEW ( AN $UCATION ?AT W\LD RESULT 9 SOCIAL REVOLUTION4 

,?IS MORALITY WAS ULTIMATELY A SOCIAL MORALITY4 ,AN>*I/S DESIR$ TO ABOLI% 9/ITUTIONS ?AT EMBODI$ AU?ORITY1 9/ITUTIONS ?AT DIVID$ PEOPLE FROM ONE ANO!R & OB/RUCT$ ! CREATION ( AN ORGANIC SOCIETY ?AT D]IV$ ITS COHESIV5ESS NOT FROM CO]CION BUT FROM ! NATURAL T5D5CY ( HUMANK9D TO VOLUNT>Y ASSOCIATION4 ,! AN>*I/ CONVICTION 9 ! POSSIBILITY ( REALIZ+ SU* A SOCIETY WAS GR\ND$ 9 A VISION ( HUMANITY ?AT WAS AT ONCE NATURAL1 ES!TIC1 & RATIONAL4 ,AN>*ISM IS ! MEANS TO 7A*IEV+7 BEAUTY1 ,COMMUNISM IS ! WAY TO 7A*IEV+7 GOODNESS1 ,HUANG ,L+%UANG WROTE 9 HIS PREFATORY ESSAY TO ,RECORDS ( ,FRE$OM 9 #a#i#a#g4 ,AT ! HE>T ( ?IS VISION WAS A CONVICTION 9 ! 9/9CTIVE GOODNESS ( HUMAN BE+S4 ,A LETT] 9 ! SAME ISSUE ( ! J\RNAL /AT$3 ,! MORALITY ( AN>*ISM IS EQUALITY1 UNIV]SAL LOVE 7BOAI7 & FRE$OM2 !RE IS NOT ONE AMONG !SE ?AT IS NOT 9 ACCORD ) ! SPONTANE\S GR[? ( HUMAN NATURAL 5D[M5TS4.<#c#c#i.> 

,! PR9CIPLE ( AN>*ICAL COMMUNISMIS A TRU? HIDD5 9 EV]Y 9DIVIDUAL'S M9D1 ! ,ZHANGZH\ MANIFE/O HAD DECL>$1 & EXPLA9$ ?AT ?IS TRU? 7AN>*ICAL MORALITY7 WAS NO?+ BUT LABOR & COOP]ATION1 BO? ( :I* >E NATURAL GIFTS TO HUMAN BE+S & >E NOT D]IV$ FROM ! \TSIDE4 7,COOP]ATION PRESUMABLY WAS HUZHU1 MUTUAL AID1 9 ! ORIG9AL47 ,BY #aiah ! CREATION ( 9/ITUTIONAL SPACES ?AT W\LD P]MIT ! PRACTICE ( MUTUAL AID & ! COMB9ATION ( LABOR & LE>N+ APPE>$ AS ! MO/ PROM95T ASPECTS ( ! AN>*I/ CONCEPTION ( ! PROCESS ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION1 & = ALL ! RE=MISM IMPLICIT 9 ! 9SI/5CE ON $UCATION AS ! MEANS TO REVOLUTION1 !SE GOALS W]E QUITE RADICAL 9 !IR CULTURAL IMPLICATIONS4 ,MUTUAL AID WAS TO ! AN>*I/S ! CORN]/ONE ( AN>*I/ MORALITY1 AS IT HAD BE5 TO ,KROPOTK94 ,9 HIS ,AN>*I/ ,MORALITY1 ,KROPOTK9 HAD WRITT53  
  

,! ANT1 ! BIRD1 ! M>MOT1 ! SAVAGE HAVE READ NEI!R ,KANT NOR ! FA!RS ( ! *UR* NOR EV5 ,MOSES4 ,& YET ALL HAVE ! SAME IDEA ( GOOD & EVIL4 ,& IF Y\ REFLECT = A MOM5T ON :AT LIES AT ! BOTTOM ( ?IS IDEA1 Y\ WILL SEE DIRECTLY ?AT :AT IS CONSID]$ AS GOOD AMONG ANTS1 M>MOTS1 & ,*RI/IANS OR A!I/ MORALI/S IS ?AT :I* IS USEFUL = ! PRES]VATION ( ! RACE2 & ?AT :I* IS CONSID]$ EVIL IS ?AT :I* IS HURTFUL = RACE PRES]VATION4 7,ITALICS 9 ORIG9AL7  
  

,KROPOTK9 VIEW$ SOLID>ITY1 !RE=E1 AS A NATURAL LAW ( F> GREAT] IMPORTANCE ?AN ?AT /RUGGLE = EXI/5CE1 & CONCLUD$ ?AT ! LAW ( MUTUAL AID1 NOT COMPETITION1 WAS ! LAW ( PROGRESS4.<#c#d.> 

,*9ESE AN>*I/S1 FOLL[+ ,KROPOTK91 TOOK ?IS NATURAL T5D5CY TO MUTUAL AID AS ! ESS5TIAL CONT5T ( HUMAN GOODNESS 7LIANGX974 ,!Y 5D[$ ?IS T5D5CY ) ! /ATUS ( A UNIV]SAL SCI5TIFIC PR9CIPLE 7GONGLI7 & SET IT AGA9/ ,D>W9IAN NOTIONS ( CONFLICT1 :I*1 !Y BELIEV$1 5C\RAG$ M5 TO EAT M54 ,HUA ,L9 >GU$ ?AT N9ETE5?-C5TURY SCI5CE HAD PROV5 ?AT MAN WAS A SOCIAL ANIMAL4.<#c#d#a.> ,CAI ,YUANPEI LECTUR$ TO ,*9ESE WORK]S 9 ,P>IS ?AT DIVISION ( LABOR & SOCIAL 9T]DEP5D5CE W]E FUNDAM5TAL *>ACT]I/ICS ( HUMAN SOCIETY4.<#c#d#b.> ,MUTUAL AID WAS RATIONAL1 NOT ONLY BECAUSE IT WAS NATURAL TO HUMANK9D 7& ! RATIONAL OP]ATION ( ! COSMOS71 BUT BECAUSE IT HAD ! BLESS+S1 ! AN>*I/S BELIEV$1 ( MOD]N SCI5CE4 

,IF MUTUAL AID WAS ONE 9/9CTIVE 5D[M5T ( HUMANITY1 LABOR WAS ! O!R4 ,AN>*I/ MORALITY1 ,%IFU WROTE 9 #a#i#a#d1 WAS NO?+ BUT MUTUAL AID & LABOR3 ! TWO >E 9/9CTIVE TO HUMANITY4 ,HE W5T ON TO EXPLA9 ?AT LABOR IS HUMANK9D'S NATURAL DUTY & MUTUAL AID ITS 9H]5T VIRTUE4.<#c#d#c.> ,9 ! AN>*I/ CONCEPTION LABOR WAS NOT SIMPLY UTILIT>IAN1 A NECESSITY = ! SU/5ANCE ( LIFE1 BUT WAS A MORAL IMP]ATIVE ( HUMAN EXI/5CE4 ,:AT MADE LABOR UNPLEASANT WAS ITS CO]CIVE NATURE2 ) ! LIB]ATION ( HUMANK9D1 LABOR W\LD REALIZE ITS TRUE NATURE AS A FUNDAM5TAL HUMAN 5D[M5T4 

,! /RESS ON MUTUAL AID AS AN 9/9CTIVE 5D[M5T ( HUMANITY WAS PRES5T 9 ,*9ESE AN>*ISM FROM ITS ORIG9S 9 ,P>IS BE=E #a#i#a#a1 SPREAD ?R\< ! WRIT+S & TRANSLATIONS ( ,LI ,%IZ5G1 :O HIMSELF HAD BE5 TRA9$ AS A BIOLOGI/1 & WAS RESPONSIBLE = 9TRODUC+ TO ,*9A ,KROPOTK9'S IDEAS ON MUTUAL AID AS ! MOTIVE =CE ( PROGRESS 9 NATURE & SOCIETY ALIKE4 ,LABOR RECEIV$ SCANT ATT5TION 9 ,*9ESE AN>*I/ WRIT+S BE=E #a#i#a#a4 ,9 ! HUNDR$ SOME ISSUES ( ,NEW ,]A PUBLI%$ BE=E #a#i#a#a1 ONLY TWO >TICLES DEALT ) LABOR1 & ?OSE 9 ! MO/ G5]AL T]MS4 ,LABOR AS A NECESSITY ( AN>*I/ SOCIETY HAD RECEIV$ GREAT] ATT5TION FROM ,LIU ,%IPEI1 ! LEAD+ LI<T ( ! ,TOKYO AN>*I/S1 :O HAD 9CORPORAT$ 9TO HIS AN>*I/ UTOPIA ! P]=MANCE ( MANUAL LABOR BY EA* 9DIVIDUAL4 ,! AN>*I/ F$]ATION ( ,%IFU 9 #aiae HAD ALSO /RESS$ ! IMPORTANCE ( UNIV]SAL LABOR4 

,! 9CREAS+ ATT5TION ,*9ESE AN>*I/S DEVOT$ TO LABOR 9 ! LATE #a#i#aS WAS POSSIBLY A CONSEQU5CE ( !IR 9T5SIFY+ RELATION%IP ) LABOR]S1 BO? 9 ,*9A1 9 ! SYNDICALI/ ACTIVITIES ( ! ,GUANGZH\ AN>*I/S1 & 9 ,P>IS1 :]E AN>*I/S W]E 9VOLV$ 9 ! $UCATION ( ! LABOR]S !Y HAD IMPORT$ 9TO ,FRANCE4 ,!RE WAS ALSO A SUBTLE BUT SIGNIFICANT *ANGE 9 !SE YE>S 9 ATTITUDES T[>D LABOR4 ,EV5 9 ! ,DECL>ATION ( ,AN>*O-,COMMUNI/ ,COMRADES1 CIT$ 9 *APT] #d1 ,%IFU DISPLAY$ AN AMBIGUITY ON ! QUE/ION ( LABOR4 ,HE PRES5T$ LABOR AS AN 9/9CTIVE HUMAN 5D[M5T1 BUT W5T ON TO EXPLA9 ?AT LABOR W\LD BECOME MORE PLEASANT 9 ! FUTURE ) HELP FROM TE*NOLOGY4 ,BY ! TIME ( ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T1 H[EV]1 AN>*I/S PRES5T$ LABOR1 NOT AS A NECESS>Y EVIL1 BUT AS A MANIFE/ATION ( ! ESS5TIAL BEAUTY ( AN>*I/ MORALITY & HUMAN 9/9CT4 ,?IS WAS POSSIBLY DUE TO GREAT] FAMILI>ITY ) ?OSE WRIT+S ( ,KROPOTK9 ?AT EXTOLL$ ! VIRTUES ( LABOR1 ,! ,CONQUE/ ( ,BREAD & ,FIELDS1 ,FACTORIES & ,WORK%OPS1 BO? WIDELY READ 9 ,*9A 9 ! LATE #a#i#aS4 ,ALL ?AT IS POSSIBLE TO SAY ) C]TA9TY1 H[EV]1 IS ?AT ! /RESS ON LABOR AS ONE ( ! TWO NATURAL 5D[M5TS ( HUMANITY1 & A MORAL IMP]ATIVE ?AT WAS AN EXPRESSION ( ! NATURAL GOODNESS & BEAUTY ( ! HUMAN SPIRIT1 APPE>$ MORE & MORE FREQU5TLY 9 AN>*I/ WRIT+S AS ! AN>*I/ 9VOLVEM5T ) LABOR GA9$ 9 MOM5TUM 9 ! YE>S AFT] #a#i#a#e4 ,BY #aiai MUTUAL AID & LABOR APPE>$ TO MANY AS CORN]/ONES ( AN>*I/ PHILOSOPHY & ! MEANS TO A*IEVE ! GOOD SOCIETY ( ! AN>*I/ VISION4 

,! AN>*I/ >GUM5T = UNIV]SAL LABOR %$S LI<T ON AN>*I/S' APPROA* TO ! QUE/ION ( CLASS & CLASS CONFLICT4 ,AN>*I/S CALL$ = ! ABOLITION ( CLASS OPPRESSION1 OR ! AU?ORITY EX]T$ BY ONE CLASS OV] ANO!R1 :I* !Y VIEW$ AS ANO!R MANIFE/ATION ( ! SELFI%NESS CREAT$ BY A SOCIAL ORD] BAS$ ON ! PR9CIPLE ( AU?ORITY4 ,! AN>*I/ POSITION ON ! QUE/ION ( CLASS1 H[EV]1 WAS PROBLEMATIC4 ,:ILE !IR ANALYSIS ( CLASS OPPRESSION OV]LAPP$ ) ,M>XI/ EXPLANATIONS ( ?IS PROBLEM1 !Y DIFF]$ FROM ,M>XI/S 7AT LEA/ MA9/REAM ,M>XI/S ( ! DAY7 9 ! CAUSES TO :I* !Y ATTRIBUT$ CLASS OPPRESSION &1 !RE=E1 9 ! SOLUTIONS !Y (F]$4 ,AN>*I/S TOOK ACC\NT ( ! ECONOMIC BASIS ( CLASS OPPRESSION & PLAC$ ! ABOLITION ( PRIVATE PROP]TY & PRODUCTION = PR(IT HI< ON !IR AG5DA ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION4 ,%IFU1 :O WAS MORE RADICAL ?AN ! ,P>IS AN>*I/S 9 ?IS RESPECT1 PO9T$ TO CAPITALISM AS ONE ( ! TW9 EVILS ( CONTEMPOR>Y SOCIETY1 ! O!R BE+ ! /ATE4 ,NEV]!LESS1 AN>*I/S 9 G5]AL EXHIBIT$ A MORE MORALI/IC APPRECIATION ( CLASS OPPRESSION ?AN ! MAT]IALI/ ,M>XI/ UND]/&+ ( CLASS DIVISION & CONFLICT 9 T]MS ( ! PROCESS ( PRODUCTION4 ,:ILE AN>*I/ ANALYZES (T5 REF]R$ TO ! B\RGEOISIE & ! PROLET>IAT1 !IR DESCRIPTIONS ( CLASSES1 MORE (T5 ?AN NOT1 JUXTAPOS$ ! RI* AGA9/ ! POOR1 ?OSE :O DID NOT LABOR AGA9/ ?OSE :O DID1 & M5TAL AGA9/ MANUAL LABOR4 ,?IS WAS CONSI/5T ) ! AN>*I/ VIEW ?AT1 ULTIMATELY1 P[] & AU?ORITY1 & ! SELFI%NESS !Y G5]AT$1 W]E ! CAUSE RA!R ?AN ! EFFECT ( ECONOMIC 9EQUALITY4 

,B5EA? !IR RADICAL CLASS RHETORIC1 AN>*I/S REJECT$ CLASS CONFLICT AS A MEANS ( RESOLV+ CLASS OPPRESSION4 ,?IS WAS TO BE >TICULAT$ FULLY AFT] ! ,MAY ,F\R? ,MOVEM5T 9 ! C\RSE ( AN>*I/ CRITIQUES ( COMMUNISM1 BUT IT WAS ALREADY EXPRESS$ 9 AN>*I/ WRIT+S 9 ! #a#i#aS4 ,AN>*I/S BELIEV$ ?AT CLASS CONFLICT WAS JU/ ANO!R EXPRESSION ( SELFI%NESS 9 SOCIETY &1 9/EAD ( RESOLV+ SOCIAL QUE/IONS1 M]ELY P]PETUAT$ !M 9 ANO!R GUISE4 ,AN>*ISM (F]$ A MEANS TO RESOLV+ ?IS PROBLEM PEACEFULLY4 ,AS ,WU ,ZHIHUI /AT$ 9 ,LAODONG 9 ,LAODONG 9 #a#i#a#h3 ,SO ! ,LABOR MAGAZ9E WI%ES TO MAKE CLE> ! PR9CIPLES ( CLASS W> & TO RESE>* ME?ODS ( PACIFY+ IT1 SO ?AT ALONG ) ! LABOR+ PEOPLE ( ! :OLE WORLD1 WE CAN RESOLVE ?IS PROBLEM & SEEK A CORRECT LIFE4.<#c#d#d.> ,CLASSES1 ! AN>*I/S BELIEV$1 C\LD BE ABOLI%$ ONLY ) ! ABOLITION ( AU?ORITY AS ! >*ITECTONIC PR9CIPLES ( SOCIETY4.<#c#d#e.> 

,TO SUMM>IZE1 !N1 AN>*I/S P]CEIV$ TWO 9T]RELAT$ FUNCTIONS 9 $UCATION4 ,FIR/ WAS ! ACCUMULATION ( LE>N+ NECESS>Y TO PURGE 9DIVIDUALS ( !IR SUP]/ITIONS1 :I* 5COMPASS$ ALL ! IDEOLOGICAL CONVICTIONS ?AT UND]GIRD$ AU?ORIT>IAN SOCIETY4 ,MORE IMPORTANT1 $UCATION MU/ CREATE ?OSE SPACES :]E1 FREE FROM ! AU?ORITY ( EXI/+ 9/ITUTIONS1 9DIVIDUALS W\LD BE ABLE TO REALIZE !IR NATURAL PROP5SITY TO SOCIAL EXI/5CE4 ,ESPECIALLY IMPORTANT 9 ?IS REG>D W]E 9/ITUTIONS ?AT PROMOT$ MUTUAL AID & ! FREE EX]CISE ( LABOR4 ,! ONE PREP>$ ! GR\ND = ! O!R 9 A DIALECTICAL 9T]PLAY BETWE5 CONSCI\SNESS & SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS1 :I* ! AN>*I/S VIEW$ AS ! ESS5TIAL CONT5T ( ! SOCIAL REVOLUTION !Y ESP\S$4 

,AN>*I/ ACTIVITY DUR+ ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T WAS A DIRECT EXPRESSION ( ?IS IDEA ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION4 ,AN>*I/ WRIT+S 9 !SE YE>S PROMOT$ !SE IDEAS2 BUT MU* MORE ELOQU5T 9 CONVEY+ AN>*I/ PHILOSOPHY1 & MU* MORE EFFECTIVE 9 ! PROPAGATION ( AN>*I/ IDEAS W]E ! EF=TS ( AN>*I/S TO TRANSLATE !IR VISION 9TO ! BEG9N+S ( AN AN>*I/ REALITY 9 ! WOMB ( CONTEMPOR>Y SOCIETY4 ,AN>*I/ SOCIAL ACTIVITY NOT ONLY PROVIDES US ) AN IDEOLOGICAL TEXT 9 :I* ! UTOPIAN VISION ( ! AN>*I/S ASSUMES CONCRETE =M1 IT ALSO 5ABL$ ! AN>*I/S !MSELVES TO >TICULATE ! PRACTICAL CON/ITUTION ( !IR VISION ( HUMANITY4 

,!SE ACTIVITIES RANG$ FROM ! DILIG5T-WORK FRUGAL-/UDY PROGRAM 9 ,FRANCE TO ! SYNDICALI/ ACTIVITIES ( ! AN>*I/S 9 ,*9A1 FROM ! ,J9DE HUI AT ,BEIDA TO ! ,NEW ,VILLAGE ,MOVEM5T 7X9CUN YUNDONG71 ( :I* ,ZH\ ,ZUOR5 WAS ! MAJOR PROPON5T1 BUT ESPECIALLY ! WORK-/UDY MOVEM5T1 :I*1 >\ND ! ,MAY ,F\R? ,MOVEM5T1 ASSUM$ ! PROPORTIONS ( A ?\<T TIDE 9 ! ,*9ESE /UD5T WORLD4 ,:ILE !SE ACTIVITIES DIFF]$ WIDELY 9 SCOPE & CON/ITU5CY1 !Y HAD ONE PURPOSE 9 COMMON3 TO PROVIDE Y\? ) AN 9/ITUTIONAL 5VIRONM5T 9 :I* TO CULTIVATE HABITS ( MUTUAL AID & LABOR4 ,= SOME AN>*I/S !Y ALSO REPRES5T$ SMALL ORGANIZATIONS ?AT W]E ! />T+ PO9T ( AN>*I/ REORGANIZATION ( SOCIETY AS A L>GE ASSOCIATION ( SMALL-SCALE ORGANIZATIONS4 

,( !SE ACTIVITIES1 ! SYNDICALI/ MOVEM5T & ! WORK-/UDY MOVEM5T 9 ,FRANCE W]E MO/ SIGNIFICANT4 ,! AN>*I/ SYNDICALI/ MOVEM5T REPRES5T$ ! EM]G5CE ( ! MOD]N LABOR MOVEM5T 9 ,*9A4 ,AN>*I/S SPE>HEAD$ ! LABOR MOVEM5T 9 ,GUANGZH\ & ,HUNAN & POSSIBLY 9 ,%AN<AI4 ,) ! EXCEPTION ( ,GUANGZH\1 !SE AN>*I/ ORIG9S W\LD BE %ORT-LIV$2 AN>*I/S BEGAN TO LOSE GR\ND TO ! ,COMMUNI/S ALMO/ IMM$IATELY AFT] ! E/ABLI%M5T ( ! ,COMMUNI/ P>TY 9 #a#i#b#a4.<#c#d#f.> ,NEV]!LESS1 AN>*I/S %[$ A CONSCI\SNESS ( ,*9ESE LABOR BE=E ANY O!R RADICAL GR\PS & CONTRIBUT$ TO ! DIFFUSION ( ?IS CONSCI\SNESS DUR+ ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T4 

,MOREOV]1 ! TACTICS ! AN>*I/S EMPLOY$ 9 ! ORGANIZATION ( LABOR W]E TO BECOME COMMON TACTICS ( LABOR ORGANIZATION 9 ,*9A3 E/ABLI%M5T ( WORK]S' S*OOLS & CLUBS TO $UCATE LABOR 9 ! PROCESS ( ORGANIZATION4 ,!SE TACTICS W]E P>TIALLY A CONSEQU5CE ( AN>*I/ BELIEF ?AT ,*9ESE LABOR WAS TOO BACKW>D CULTURALLY TO P]MIT IMM$IATE LABOR ORGANIZATION4 ,AS LATE AS #a#i#a#h1 ,WU ,ZHIHUI WROTE 9 ,LABOR ?AT ! E/ABLI%M5T ( A LABOR P>TY 7GONGDANG7 9 ,*9A MU/ AWAIT ! $UCATION ( ! WORK+ CLASS4.<#c#d#g.> ,AN>*I/S BELIEV$ ?AT IF LABOR ORGANIZATION WAS TO BE EFFECTIVE1 & 9 ACCORDANCE ) AN>*I/ PR9CIPLES1 LABOR]S HAD TO DO !IR [N ORGANIZ+4 ,! $UCATION ( LABOR]S MU/ ACCOMPANY ANY EF=TS AT LABOR ORGANIZATION 9 ORD] TO 5ABLE LABOR]S TO TAKE *>GE ( !IR [N ORGANIZATIONS4 

,!SE TACTICS ALSO REFLECT$1 H[EV]1 ! DEEP-SEAT$ AN>*I/ BELIEF 9 SOCIAL REVOLUTION AS A PROCESS ( $UCATION4 ,TO ! AN>*I/S1 SYNDICATES W]E NOT M]ELY ORGANS = REPRES5T+ LABOR 9T]E/S BUT NEW SOCIAL 9/ITUTIONS 9 :I* TO PROMOTE AN>*I/ MORALITY4 ,:5 ! TIME >RIV$ = ! F9AL SOCIAL REVOLUTION1 !SE 9/ITUTIONS W\LD S]VE AS ! UNITS ( AN>*I/ SOCIAL ORGANIZATION4.<#c#d#h.> ,?IS GOAL WAS POSSIBLY MORE IMPORTANT TO SOME AN>*I/S ?AN ! PROMOTION ( LABOR 9T]E/S1 :I* MAY HAVE BE5 A REASON ?AT AN>*I/S F\ND !MSELVES UNABLE TO COMPETE ) ! ,COMMUNI/S 9 ! TW5TIES4 

,:ATEV] ! REASONS MAY BE = ! SUCCESS OR FAILURE ( AN>*I/ SYNDICALI/ ACTIVITIES1 IT WAS IMPORTANT ?AT !SE ACTIVITIES BR\<T ,*9ESE LABOR & /UD5TS TOGE!R = ! FIR/ TIME4 ,IT IS DIFFICULT TO SAY :AT EFFECT ?IS MAY HAVE HAD ON ! CONSCI\SNESS ( ,*9ESE LABOR]S3 IT C]TA9LY LEFT ITS IMPR9T ON ! CONSCI\SNESS ( /UD5TS4 ,! 5C\NT] W\LD ULTIMATELY RESULT 9 ! EXPLOSIVE MIXTURE ?AT BUR/ =? 9 ! #a#i#bS 9 URBAN SOCIAL REVOLUTION4 

,MORE IMM$IATELY SIGNIFICANT WAS ! WORK-/UDY MOVEM5T 9 ,FRANCE1 ( :I* ! AN>*I/S W]E ! >*ITECTS & :I* WAS BASICALLY A PRODUCT ( AN>*I/S' EXP]I5CES 9 $UCAT+ ! LABOR]S !Y HAD IMPORT$ TO WORK 9 !IR D(U FACTORY BE=E #a#i#a#a1 & !N ! L>GE NUMB]S ( ,*9ESE LABOR]S :O1 ?R\< !IR AG5CY1 HAD GONE TO WORK 9 ,FR5* FACTORIES DUR+ ! W>4 ,!SE EXP]I5CES HAD 9SPIR$ 9 !M ! IDEA ( LABOR+ 9TELLECTUALS ?AT WAS ! BASIS ( ! WORK-/UDY PROGRAM4 ,9DE$1 IT WAS 9 SU* J\RNALS AS ! ,J\RNAL ( ,*9ESE ,/UD5TS 9 ,EUROPE 7,LU,\ ZAZHI71 :I* BEGAN 9 #a#i#a#f1 & ,*9ESE ,LABOR]S' ,J\RNAL 7,HUAGONG ZAZHI71 :I* BEGAN 9 #a#i#a#g1 BO? 9 ,P>IS1 ?AT AN>*I/S FIR/ />T$ PROPAGAT+ ! IDEA ( COMB9+ LABOR & /UDY4.<#c#d#i.> 

,! REASON+ UND]LY+ ! WORK-/UDY MOVEM5T WAS QUITE PRACTICAL4 ,AS 9 ! CASE ( ! LABOR]S :OSE $UCATION ! AN>*I/S HAD CONDUCT$ AS SP>E-TIME $UCATION 9 NI<T S*OOLS1 /UD5TS :O W5T TO ,FRANCE ON ! PROGRAM W\LD WORK P>T ( ! TIME TO F9ANCE !IR $UCATION1 & W\LD ALSO /UDY P>T-TIME4 ,TO MANY 9 ,*9A1 9CLUD+ P>TICIPANTS 9 ! PROGRAM1 ! APPEAL ( ! WORK-/UDY PROGRAM LAY 9 ITS PRACTICAL ASPECTS3 IT PROVID$ ! MEANS TO ACQUIR+ AN $UCATION ?AT MI<T O!RWISE HAVE BE5 F9ANCIALLY DIFFICULT OR IMPOSSIBLE4 ,TO SOME1 SU* AS ,HU ,%I & ,WANG ,J+WEI 7:O WAS HIMSELF 9VOLV$ 9 ! PROGRAM & WAS1 = A :ILE1 $ITOR ( ,LU\ ZAZHI71 ?IS PRACTICAL ASPECT WAS ! MO/ IMPORTANT ASPECT ( ! PROGRAM4 ,HU ,%I SAW 9 IT A P>ALLEL TO ! P>T-TIME WORK P>T-TIME /UDY PROGRAMS HE HAD 5C\NT]$ 9 ! ,UNIT$ ,/ATES2 BUT HE OBJECT$ TO ! MORE IDEALI/IC ASPECTS ( ! PROGRAM AS OB/ACLES TO ITS SUCCESS4.<#c#e.> ,MANY ( ! ,*9ESE /UD5TS :O P>TICIPAT$ 9 ! PROGRAM SEEM NOT TO HAVE %>$ ! IDEALI/IC ZEAL ( ITS SPONSORS1 :O (T5 COMPLA9$ ?AT /UD5TS C>$ LITTLE AB\T LABOR & W]E CONC]N$ MA9LY ) MAK+ IT BY ACQUIR+ AN $UCATION4.<#c#e#a.> 

,TO ! AN>*I/S :O HAD 9ITIAT$ ! PROGRAM1 ! IDEA ( COMB9+ LABOR ) LE>N+ HAD A MU* MORE AMBITI\S SIGNIFICANCE4 ,HUA ,L9 REM>K$ ?AT IF ,*9A WAS TO *ANGE1 ! *ANGE W\LD BE ACCOMPLI%$ BY ?OSE :O P>TICIPAT$ 9 WORK-/UDY4.<#c#e#b.> ,AN >TICLE 9 ,LABOR /AT$3 ,) WORK & /UDY COMB9$1 WORK]S WILL BECOME S*OL>S1 S*OL>S WILL BECOME WORK]S1 TO CREATE A NEW SOCIETY ?AT WILL REALIZE ! GOAL ( FROM EA* ACCORD+ TO HIS ABILITY1 TO EA* ACCORD+ TO HIS NE$4.<#c#e#c.> ,POSSIBLY ! MO/ ELOQU5T ADVOCATE ( WORK-/UDY WAS ,CAI ,YUANPEI1 :O SAW 9 ?IS COMB9ATION ! SOLUTION NOT ONLY TO ! PROBLEM ( Y\? ACQUIR+ AN $UCATION1 BUT TO ! WEI<TIE/ PROBLEMS ( ,*9A & ! WORLD4.<#c#e#d.> 

,AS ! WORK-/UDY MOVEM5T GA9$ MOM5TUM !RE WAS A NOTICEABLE *ANGE 9 AN>*I/ WRIT+S T[>D ! GLORIFICATION ( LABOR4 ,LAODONG MAGAZ9E 9 #aiah ADOPT$ AS ITS GUIDEL9ES REV]5CE = LABOR & ! PROMOTION ( LABORISM 7LAODONG ZHUYI74.<#c#e#e.> ,LABOR WAS TO BE VALU$ BEYOND ITS CONTRIBUTION TO PRODUCTION4 ,E?ICALLY1 LABOR WAS ! GREATE/ OBLIGATION ( HUMAN LIFE1 & ! S\RCE ( CIVILIZATION4 ,MORALLY1 LABOR WAS ! MEANS TO AVOID MORAL DEG5]ATION & HELP MORAL GR[?1 IT WAS A MEANS TO =G+ SPIRITUAL WILLP[]4 ,WORK1 ! GUIDEL9ES /AT$1 HELP$ NOT ONLY ! 9DIVIDUAL BUT SOCIETY AS A :OLE4 ,LABORISM WAS TO BECOME A COMMON T]M ( ,NEW ,CULTURE VOCABUL>Y DUR+ ! ,MAY ,F\R? P]IOD1 COMP>ABLE 9 ITS POPUL>ITY TO MUTUAL AID4 

,AN>*ISM & ,CULTURAL ,RADICALISM 9 ! ,MAY ,F\R? ,P]IOD 

  

,BY LATE #aiah AN>*I/ WRIT+ & ACTIVITY HAD BR\<T AN>*I/ IDEAS ( SOCIAL REVOLUTION ?R\< $UCATION 9TO ! LANGUAGE ( ! ,NEW ,CULTURE ,MOVEM5T4 ,TWO LEAD]S ( ! MOVEM5T W]E P>TICUL>LY IMPORTANT 9 PUBLICIZ+ !SE IDEAS4 ,ONE WAS ,CAI ,YUANPEI1 ! *ANCELLOR ( ,BEIJ+ ,UNIV]SITY1 :O HIMSELF HAD LONG BE5 AN ASSOCIATE ( ! ,P>IS AN>*I/S & P>TICIPAT$ 9 !IR ACTIVITIES 9 ,P>IS4 ,/>T+ AT ?IS TIME & = ! RE/ ( ! DECADE1 ,CAI W\LD BE ONE ( ! =EMO/ ADVOCATES ( COMB9+ LABOR ) LE>N+ 9 $UCATION4 ,9 ! LATE TW5TIES HE WAS TO PLAY A LEAD+ P>T 9 ! F\ND+ ( ! AN>*I/-9SPIR$ ,LABOR ,UNIV]SITY 9 ,%AN<AI4 

,! O!R WAS ,WANG ,GUANGQI :O1 ?\< NOT ( EQUAL PROM95CE1 HAD A /RONG 9FLU5CE ON ,*9ESE Y\? AS HEAD ( ! ,Y\NG ,*9A ,ASSOCIATION 7,%AONIAN ,ZHONGGUO XUEHUI71 POSSIBLY ! MO/ IMPORTANT /UD5T ORGANIZATION ( ! IMM$IATE ,MAY ,F\R? P]IOD1 :I* 9CLUD$ 9 ITS MEMB]%IP SOME ( ! MO/ IMPORTANT FIGURES 9 ! F\ND+ ( ! ,COMMUNI/ P>TY 9 #aibba 79CLUD+ ,LI ,DAZHAO1 ,MAO ,Z$ONG1 ,YUN ,DAIY+1 & ,D5G ,ZHONGXIA71 AS WELL AS Y\NG RADICALS :O W\LD LAT] F\ND ! ,*9ESE ,Y\? P>TY 7,ZHONGGUO Q+NIAN DANG74 ,UND] ! LEAD]%IP ( ,WANG1 :O %[$ AN UNMI/AKABLE 9CL9ATION TO AN>*ISM 9 #a#i#a#i1 ! ,Y\NG ,*9A ,ASSOCIATION W\LD EM]GE 9 #aiai AS ! =EMO/ EXPON5T ( REORGANIZ+ ,*9A FROM ! BOTTOM UP ?R\< ! AG5CY ( SMALL GR\PS 7XIAO ZUZHI71 AN IDEA ?AT FIGUR$ PROM95TLY 9 SOCIALI/ ?9K+ 9 #a#i#a#i4 ,WANG HIMSELF BECAME A MAJOR PROMOT] ( ! COMMUNAL EXP]IM5TS 9 #aiai ?AT W5T UND] ! NAME ,NEW ,LIFE ,MOVEM5T 7,X9 %5<UO YUNDONG7 ?AT DISPLAY$ A CLE> AN>*I/ 9SPIRATION & ORI5TATION4 

,! AN>*I/ ADVOCACY ( LABOR CAU<T ! POPUL> IMAG9ATION 9 A PHRASE US$ BY ,CAI ,YUANPEI 9 A SPEE* LATE 9 #a#i#a#h4 ,CAI PROCLAIM$3  
  

,! WORLD ( ! FUTURE IS ! WORLD ( LABOR6 ,! LABOR WE SPEAK ( IS NOT ! LABOR ( METAL WORK]S1 ( C>P5T]S1 & SO =?4 ,! UND]TAK+ ( ALL ?OSE :O USE !IR [N LABOR P[] TO B5EFIT O!RS IS LABOR REG>DLESS ( :E!R IT IS M5TAL OR MANUAL4 ,F>M]S DO ! LABOR ( CULTIVAT+1 M]*ANTS DO ! LABOR ( TRANSPORT+1 WRIT]S & 9V5TORS DO $UCATIONAL LABOR4 ,WE >E ALL LABOR]S4 ,WE MU/ ALL RECOGNIZE ! VALUE ( LABOR4 ,LABOR IS SACR$ 7LAODONG %5%5G74.<#c#e#f.>  
  

,LABOR TO ! AN>*I/S WAS ! GREAT EQUALIZ]4 ,AN>*I/S DIFF]$ FROM ,M>XI/S 9 !IR CLASS ANALYSIS 9 ! EMPHASIS !Y PLAC$ ON ?OSE :O LABOR$ & ?OSE :O DID NOT4 ,! ECONOMIC PROBLEMS ( CONTEMPOR>Y SOCIETY1 !Y BELIEV$1 >OSE L>GELY FROM ! EXPLOITATION ( LABOR]S BY A P>ASITIC CLASS4 ,! MAJOR DI/9CTION1 AS ,CAI'S /ATEM5T IMPLIES1 WAS NOT BETWE5 ! PROLET>IAT & ! B\RGEOISIE1 BUT BETWE5 ?OSE :O LABOR$ & ?OSE :O DID NOT4 ,! DI/9CTION HAD A SPECIAL RELEVANCE 9 ,*9A1 :]E ,CONFUCIAN TRADITION HAD = TWO ?\S& YE>S DRAWN A DI/9CTION BETWE5 M5TAL & MANUAL LABOR AS ! JU/IFICATION = DI/+UI%+ ! GOV]NORS & ! GOV]N$4 ,! COMB9ATION ( MANUAL & M5TAL LABOR WAS1 TO ! AN>*I/S1 A MEANS ( OV]COM+ ECONOMIC EXPLOITATION 9 SOCIETY4 ,CAI'S VIEWS ON ?IS QUE/ION >E RELEVANT TO AN UND]/&+ ( AN>*I/ VIEWS ON LABOR & ITS SIGNIFICANCE = A*IEV+ SOCIAL EQUALITY3  
  

,9 \R IDEAL SOCIETY1 ALL PEOPLE WILL LIVE ACCORD+ TO ! PR9CIPLE FROM EA* ACCORD+ TO HIS ABILITY1 TO EA* ACCORD+ TO HIS NE$4 ,ACCORD+ TO HIS ABILITY PO9TS TO LABOR2 :E!R IT IS MANUAL OR M5TAL1 ALL IS LABOR ?AT CONTRIBUTES TO ! EXI/5CE ( HUMANK9D & ! ADVANCE ( CULTURE4 ,NE$S >E ( TWO K9DS3 PHYSICAL NE$S SU* AS CLO?+1 FOOD1 & %ELT]1 & SPIRITUAL NE$S SU* AS LE>N+4 ,N[ !RE >E SOME PEOPLE :O DO NOT DO ANY WORK1 OR DO WORK ?AT IS NOT REAL WORK4 ,?OSE :O DO REAL WORK CANNOT BUT WORK BITT]LY & WORK LONG H\RS4 ,ASIDE FROM !M1 ! RE/ USE SPECIAL PRIVILEGES TO TAKE & WA/E 9 HUGE QUANTITIES :AT HUMANK9D NE$S4 ,CONSEQU5TLY1 ! REAL WORK]S DO NOT GET 5\< ( :AT !Y NE$4 ,P]HAPS !Y GET SOME ( :AT !Y NE$ PHYSICALLY1 BUT !Y >E TOTALLY DEPRIV$ ( :AT !Y NE$ SPIRITUALLY4 ,IS ?IS NOT A GREAT OB/ACLE TO ! ADVANCE ( CULTURE8 ,IF WE WANT TO ]ADICATE ?IS OB/ACLE1 WE MU/ FIR/ REALIZE A LIFE :]E LABOR & LE>N+ PROCE$ TOGE!R4.<#c#e#g.>  
  

,?IS1 ! AN>*I/S BELIEV$1 W\LD BE A REVOLUTION FROM BEL[ & W\LD AVOID ALL ! BLOOD%$ ( A VIOL5T UPHEAVAL1 :I* MU/ FOLL[ IF ! HUMAN CONDITION IS NOT AMELIORAT$4 

,! WORK-/UDY PROGRAM 9 ,FRANCE1 & ! IDEAS IT G5]AT$1 S]V$ AS ! 9SPIRATION = COMMUNAL EXP]IM5TS >\ND ! IDEA ( WORK-/UDY ?AT ASSUM$ ! PROPORTIONS ( A TIDE 9 #a#i#a#i#b4 ,!SE EXP]IM5TS W5T BY DIFF]5T NAMES4 ,! MO/ FAM\S WAS ! ,LABOR-,LE>N+ ,MUTUAL-,AID ,GR\P 7,GONGDU HUZHU TUAN71 E/ABLI%$ 9 ,BEIJ+ AT ! 5D ( #aiai & SPONSOR$ BY ,WANG ,GUANGQI1 :O HIMSELF HAD P>TICIPAT$ 9 ! WORK-/UDY PROGRAM 9 ,FRANCE & :O W5T ?R\< AN AN>*I/ PHASE AT ?AT TIME4 ,ALMO/ EQUALLY FAM\S WAS ! ,WORK-,/UDY ,ASSOCIATION 7,GONGXUE HUT71 E/ABLI%$ ON ,MAY #c1 #a#i#a#i1 BY /UD5TS AT ,BEIJ+ ,HI<] ,NORMAL ,COLLEGE4 ,! FOLL[+ DAY A MEMB] ( ?IS GR\P1 ,KUANG ,HU%5G1 WAS TO LEAD ! ATTACK ON ,CAO ,RUL9'S H\SE4 ,ALSO P>T ( ?IS TIDE WAS ! ,NEW ,VILLAGE ,MOVEM5T1 9 :I* ,ZH\ ,ZUOR5 PLAY$ A LEAD+ P>T4 ,!SE EXP]IM5TS 9 TURN 9SPIR$ SIMIL> EXP]IM5TS 9 O!R MAJOR URBAN C5T]S1 SU* AS ,TIANJ91 ,%AN<AI1 ,WU*AN1 ,NANJ+1 & ,GUANGZH\4 

,AL?\< !SE WORK-/UDY GR\PS W]E NOT ID5TICAL1 !Y %>$ C]TA9 *>ACT]I/ICS ?AT PO9T TO !IR AN>*I/ 9SPIRATION4 ,MUTUAL AID & LABOR W]E ESS5TIAL TO !IR FUNCTION+4 ,WORK-/UDY GR\PS W]E SUPPOS$ TO F9ANCE ! $UCATIONAL ACTIVITIES ( !IR MEMB]S ?R\< 9COME FROM GR\P 5T]PRISES OR 9DIVIDUAL LABOR4 ,9 EI!R CASE1 ! 9COME ( ! GR\P W\LD BE POOL$ AS ! BASIS = A COMMUNAL 7GONGTONG7 LIFE4 ,DIVISION ( LABOR )9 ! GR\P WAS TO BE ORGANIZ$ TO 5HANCE 9T]DEP5D5CE AMONG ! MEMB]S4 ,! GUID+ PR9CIPLE 9 MO/ CASES WAS FROM EA* ACCORD+ TO HIS ABILITY1 TO EA* ACCORD+ TO HIS NE$4.<#c#e#h.> 

,! ,NEW ,VILLAGE ,MOVEM5T IS 9T]E/+ BECAUSE ( ITS PECULI>ITIES4 ,UNLIKE ! O!R WORK-/UDY GR\PS1 ! MAJOR GOAL ( NEW VILLAGES AS CONCEIV$ BY ,ZH\ ,ZUOR5 WAS NOT /UDY1 BUT ! PROMOTION ( LABOR 7EXCEPT = ?OSE ) SPECIAL TAL5TS74 ,:AT MAKES ! ,NEW ,VILLAGE IDEA MO/ 9T]E/+1 H[EV]1 WAS AN AGR>IAN IMPULSE ?AT LAY AT ITS ORIG9S3 NEW VILLAGES W]E CONCEIV$ AS AGR>IAN COMMUNES ?AT W\LD C>RY ! AN>*I/ MESSAGE 9TO ! C\NTRYSIDE4 ,! ,NEW ,VILLAGE ,MOVEM5T ( ! ,MAY ,F\R? P]IOD WAS 9SPIR$ BY A SIMIL> MOVEM5T 9 ,JAPAN1 9 P>TICUL> ! MOVEM5T 9ITIAT$ BY ,MU%AKOJI ,SANEATSU1 :I* ITSELF HAD TAK5 ITS 9SPIRATION FROM ,TOL/OY & ,KROPOTK94 ,NEV]!LESS1 BE=E ! ,MAY ,F\R? P]IOD1 BO? ! SOCIALI/S ( ,JIANG ,KAN<U & ! AN>*I/S ( ,%IFU HAD EXP]IM5T$ ) NEW VILLAGES ( !IR [N4 ,! ,NEW ,VILLAGE ,MOVEM5T WAS NOT COMP>ABLE 9 ITS 9FLU5CE TO ! WORK-/UDY EXP]IM5TS1 BUT IT DID HAVE SOME 9FLU5CE 9 ,BEIJ+ :]E1 9 A NUMB] ( S*OOLS /UD5TS ORGANIZ$ !IR [N NEW VILLAGES & 5GAG$ 9 SOME AGRICULTURAL CULTIVATION TO MEET !IR [N SUBSI/5CE NE$S4.<#c#e#i.> 

,ALL !SE EXP]IM5TS W]E QUICK FAILURES4 ,! ,BEIJ+ ,LABOR-,LE>N+ ,MUTUAL-,AID ,GR\P LA/$ ONLY AB\T F\R MON?S BE=E IT F\ND]$ UPON ! ECONOMIC DIFFICULTIES IT 5C\NT]$4 ,?IS WAS TO BE ! COMMON FATE ( ALL ,MAY ,F\R? COMMUNAL EXP]IM5TS4 ,9 A SITUATION ?AT MADE ECONOMIC 5T]PRISE & EMPLOYM5T DIFFICULT1 ! GR\PS RAPIDLY FELL VICTIM TO F9ANCIAL DIFFICULTIES4 ,SOME W]E TO CONCLUDE1 AS ,DAI ,JITAO DID1 ?AT ! WORK-/UDY GR\PS DID NOT (F] A SOLUTION TO PROBLEMS ?AT W5T DEEP 9TO ! ECONOMIC /RUCTURE ( ! SOCIETY 9 :I* !Y HAD HOP$ TO A*IEVE !IR UTOPIAN ASPIRATIONS4.<#c#f.> 

,AS LONG AS !Y LA/$1 H[EV]1 ! WORK-/UDY GR\PS SEEM$ TO (F] A GLIMPSE ( ,*9ESE 9TELLECTUALS ( ! GOOD SOCIETY4 ,ONE AU?OR1 WRIT+ 9 ,LIB]ATION & ,RE=M 7,JIEFANG YU GAIZAO71 SAW 9 LABOR-LE>N+ ! BEG9N+ ( A NEW ]A 9 HUMAN HI/ORY3 ,! PR9CIPLE ( LABOR-LE>N+ 7GONGDU ZHUYI7 IS A NEW /AGE 9 ! EVOLUTION ( HUMAN LIFE1 .<IT.> IS A BEAUTIFUL PRODUCT NURTUR$ BY ! NEW ?\<T TIDE ( ! TW5TIE? C5TURY1 & ! F\NDATION = ! NEW SOCIETY ( ! FUTURE4.<#c#f#a.> ,WANG ,GUANGQI1 ! SPONSOR ( ! ,LABOR-,LE>N+ ,MUTUAL-,AID ,GR\P 9 ,BEIJ+1 WAS EV5 MORE EC/ATIC AB\T ! POSSIBILITIES (F]$ BY WORK-/UDY3  
  

,LABOR-LE>N+ MUTUAL-AID GR\PS >E ! EMBRYO ( A NEW SOCIETY1 ! FIR/ /EP TO ! FULFILLM5T ( \R IDEAS4 ,IF ! LABOR-LE>N+ MUTUAL-AID GR\PS SUCCE$1 ! IDEAL ( FROM EA* ACCORD+ TO HIS ABILITY1 TO EA* ACCORD+ TO HIS NE$ WILL BE GRADUALLY REALIZ$4 ,! PRES5T LABOR-LE>N+ MUTUAL-AID MOVEM5T MAY WELL BE DESCRIB$ AS A PEACEFUL ECONOMIC REVOLUTION4.<#c#f#b.>  
  

,NEI!R1 H[EV]1 EQUAL$ 9 EC/ASY ! CONTRIBUTOR TO ,GONGXUE 7,WORK-/UDY7 MAGAZ9E ( ! ,WORK-/UDY ,ASSOCIATION1 :O SAW 9 LABOR & LE>N+ ! TWO TRACKS ( ! RAILROAD TO ,HEAV54.<#c#f#c.> 

,9 T]MS ( ! LONG-T]M SIGNIFICANCE ( AN>*I/ IDEAS 9 REVOLUTION>Y DISC\RSE1 MO/ IMPORTANT MAY HAVE BE5 ! 9ITIAL ATTRACTION TO AN>*ISM AT ?IS TIME ( ! RADICAL ACTIVI/S :O W\LD LAT] EM]GE AS ! LEAD]S ( ! ,COMMUNI/ P>TY4 ,LI ,DAZHAO'S ATTRACTION TO AN>*ISM 9 ! AFT]MA? ( ! ,OCTOB] ,REVOLUTION WAS REPLICAT$ BY O!R F\ND]S ( ! ,COMMUNI/ P>TY :O1 ) ! POSSIBLE EXCEPTION ( ,*5 ,DUXIU1 ALL W5T ?R\< AN AN>*I/ PHASE BE=E TURN+ TO ,M>XISM 9 #a#i#b#b#a4 ,ACCORD+ TO ,LIANG ,B+XIAN1 BO? ,MAO ,Z$ONG & ,QU ,QIUBAI W]E CORRESPOND5TS ) ! ,PEOPLE'S ,VOICE ,SOCIETY4.<#c#f#d.> ,YUN ,DAIY+ ACKN[L$G$ 9 HIS DI>IES ?AT HE WAS AN AN>*I/ 9 ! LATE #a#i#aS2 ,ZH5G ,PEIGANG RECALLS ?AT HE WAS ALSO A CONTRIBUTOR TO ,LABOR 9 #a#i#a#h4.<#c#f#e.> ,9 #aiag ,YUN E/ABLI%$ A ,MUTUAL ,AID ,SOCIETY 7,HUZHU %E7 9 ,WUHAN4 ,MANY O!R LAT] ,COMMUNI/ LEAD]S W]E P>TICIPANTS 9 ! WORK-/UDY PROGRAM 9 ,FRANCE1 AMONG !M ,ZH\ ,5LAI & ,D5G ,XIAOP+ & LESS]-KN[N NAMES SU* AS ,XU ,TELI :O W\LD LAT] PLAY IMPORTANT P>TS 9 ! ,COMMUNI/ $UCATIONAL E/ABLI%M5T4 

,! ,COMMUNI/ P>TY1 :5 IT WAS E/ABLI%$ 9 #a#i#b#b#a1 WAS F\ND$ ON /UD5T ASSOCIATIONS ?AT >OSE DUR+ ! RADICAL MOVEM5T & CULTURE ( ! E>LY ,MAY ,F\R? P]IOD4.<#c#f#f.> ,AS ) O!R SOCIETIES ( ! TIME1 AN>*I/ PR9CIPLES PLAY$ AN IMPORTANT P>T 9 !IR ORGANIZATION 9 PROVID+ GUID+ PR9CIPLES ( SOCIAL LIFE2 MUTUAL AID & ! PRACTICE ( LABOR TO SU/A9 ! SOCIETIES APPE>$ 9 ?IS CONTEXT NOT AS REMOTE IDEALS BUT AS FUNCTIONAL PR9CIPLES 9 ! ORGANIZATION ( NEW /YLES ( COLLECTIVE LIV+4 ,BE=E !Y W]E RECRUIT$ 9TO ! 9CIPI5T ,COMMUNI/ P>TY ORGANIZATION 9 #a#i#b1 !SE SOCIETIES 9 !IR IDEOLOGICAL ORI5TATION W]E 9CL9$ TO AN>*ISM RA!R ?AN TO ,M>XISM1 AS !IR MEMB]S HAVE ACKN[L$G$ 9 !IR RECOLLECTIONS4 

,IT WAS ALSO ?R\< AN>*I/ 9SPIRATION ?AT MANY ( ! LAT] ,COMMUNI/S W]E 9TRODUC$ 9TO SOCIAL ACTIVISM4 ,MAO ,Z$ONG BECAME 9VOLV$ 9 LABOR ACTIVITY 9 ,HUNAN ?R\< HIS ASSOCIATION ) AN>*I/ LABOR LEAD]S1 AS DID ,D5G ,ZHONGXIA & ,ZHANG ,GUOTAO 9 ,BEIJ+1 :O W]E AMONG ! =EMO/ LABOR ORGANIZ]S ( ! ,COMMUNI/ P>TY 9 ! #a#i#bS4 ,! WORK-/UDY PROGRAM 9 ,FRANCE1 :I* BR\<T /UD5TS & LABOR]S TOGE!R1 PRODUC$ SOME ( ! MO/ EFFECTIVE LABOR LEAD]S 9 ! ,COMMUNI/ MOVEM5T4 

,AN>*I/S1 :O W]E AMONG ! FIR/ RADICALS TO TURN TO AGR>IAN ORGANIZATION1 MAY HAVE PROVID$ ! 9SPIRATION = ! FIR/ ,COMMUNI/ AGR>IAN ORGANIZ]S4 ,P5G ,PAI1 ! MO/ PROM95T ,COMMUNI/ AGR>IAN ORGANIZ] ( ! TW5TIES1 WAS 9CL9$ TO AN>*ISM :5 HE MADE HIS FIR/ =AYS 9TO ! C\NTRYSIDE4 ,SO WAS ,%5 ,XUANLU1 ,ZHEJIANG RADICAL & CO$ITOR ) ,DAI ,JITAO ( ! ,GUOM9DANG ,M>XI/ PUBLICATION1 ,X+QI P+LUN 7,! WEEK5D CRITIC74 ,%51 A ,GUOM9DANG MEMB] & A MEMB] ( ! ,ZHEJIANG PROV9CIAL ASSEMBLY1 HAD A BACKGR\ND AS A L&LORD BUT F\ND 9SPIRATION 9 ,TOL/OY4 ,HIS ACTIVITIES 9 ,ZHEJIANG W\LD LEAD TO ONE ( ! FIR/ MAJOR RURAL MOVEM5TS TO EM]GE \T ( ,MAY ,F\R? RADICALISM4.<#c#f#g.> 

,?IS AN>*I/ PHASE 9 ! RADICALIZATION ( LAT] ,COMMUNI/ LEAD]S MADE = CONSID]ABLE CONFUSION BETWE5 ,M>XISM & AN>*ISM 9 #a#i#a#i#b4 ,IT MAY ALSO HAVE IMPR9T$ ON !IR M9DS MEMORIES ( RADICAL PRACTICES ?AT1 AS PRACTICES ( EV]YDAY RADICAL CULTURE1 MAY HAVE BE5 MORE LA/+ 9 !IR IMPLICATIONS ?AN =MAL 9TELLECTUAL COMMITM5TS4 

,FROM 3 ,!,AN>*I/,LIBR>Y4ORG4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
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