,A ,REVIEW ( ,B4 ,F4 ,SK9N]'S ,V]BAL ,BEHAVIOR 

,PEOPLE 3 

,AU?OR 3 ,NOAM ,*OMSKY 

,TEXT 3 

,PREFACE 

,R]EAD+ ?IS REVIEW AFT] EI<T YE>S1 ,I F9D LITTLE ( SUB/ANCE ?AT ,I W\LD *ANGE IF ,I W]E TO WRITE IT TODAY4 ,I AM NOT AW>E ( ANY !ORETICAL OR EXP]IM5TAL WORK ?AT *ALL5GES ITS CONCLUSIONS2 NOR1 SO F> AS ,I KN[1 HAS !RE BE5 ANY ATTEMPT TO MEET ! CRITICISMS ?AT >E RAIS$ 9 ! REVIEW OR TO %[ ?AT !Y >E ]RONE\S OR ILL-F\ND$4 

,I HAD 9T5D$ ?IS REVIEW NOT SPECIFICALLY AS A CRITICISM ( ,SK9N]'S SPECULATIONS REG>D+ LANGUAGE1 BUT RA!R AS A MORE G5]AL CRITIQUE ( BEHAVIORI/ 7,I W\LD N[ PREF] TO SAY 0EMPIRICI/07 SPECULATION AS TO ! NATURE ( HI<] M5TAL PROCESSES4 ,MY REASON = DISCUSS+ ,SK9N]'S BOOK 9 SU* DETAIL WAS ?AT IT WAS ! MO/ C>EFUL & ?OR\<GO+ PRES5TATION ( SU* SPECULATIONS1 AN EVALUATION ?AT ,I FEEL IS /ILL ACCURATE4 ,!RE=E1 IF ! CONCLUSIONS ,I ATTEMPT$ TO SUB/ANTIATE 9 ! REVIEW >E CORRECT1 AS ,I BELIEVE !Y >E1 !N ,SK9N]'S WORK CAN BE REG>D$ AS1 9 EFFECT1 A R$UCTIO AD ABSURDUM ( BEHAVIORI/ ASSUMPTIONS4 ,MY P]SONAL VIEW IS ?AT IT IS A DEF9ITE M]IT1 NOT A DEFECT1 ( ,SK9N]'S WORK ?AT IT CAN BE US$ = ?IS PURPOSE1 & IT WAS = ?IS REASON ?AT ,I TRI$ TO DEAL ) IT FAIRLY EXHAU/IVELY4 ,I DO NOT SEE H[ HIS PROPOSALS CAN BE IMPROV$ UPON1 ASIDE FROM OCCASIONAL DETAILS & OV]SI<TS1 )9 ! FRAMEWORK ( ! G5]AL ASSUMPTIONS ?AT HE ACCEPTS4 ,I DO NOT1 9 O!R WORDS1 SEE ANY WAY 9 :I* HIS PROPOSALS CAN BE SUB/ANTIALLY IMPROV$ )9 ! G5]AL FRAMEWORK ( BEHAVIORI/ OR NEOBEHAVIORI/1 OR1 MORE G5]ALLY1 EMPIRICI/ IDEAS ?AT HAS DOM9AT$ MU* ( MOD]N L+UI/ICS1 PSY*OLOGY1 & PHILOSOPHY4 ,! CONCLUSION ?AT ,I HOP$ TO E/ABLI% 9 ! REVIEW1 BY DISCUSS+ !SE SPECULATIONS 9 !IR MO/ EXPLICIT & DETAIL$ =M1 WAS ?AT ! G5]AL PO9T ( VIEW WAS L>GELY MY?OLOGY1 & ?AT ITS WIDESPREAD ACCEPTANCE IS NOT ! RESULT ( EMPIRICAL SUPPORT1 P]SUASIVE REASON+1 OR ! ABS5CE ( A PLAUSIBLE ALT]NATIVE4 

,IF ,I W]E WRIT+ TODAY ON ! SAME TOPIC1 ,I W\LD TRY TO MAKE IT MORE CLE> ?AN ,I DID ?AT ,I WAS DISCUSS+ ,SK9N]'S PROPOSALS AS A P>ADIGM EXAMPLE ( A FUTILE T5D5CY 9 MOD]N SPECULATION AB\T LANGUAGE & M9D4 ,I W\LD ALSO BE SOME:AT LESS APOLOGETIC & HESITANT AB\T PROPOS+ ! ALT]NATIVE VIEW SKET*$ 9 ,SECTIONS #e & #aa -- & ALSO LESS AHI/ORICAL 9 PROPOS+ ?IS ALT]NATIVE1 S9CE 9 FACT IT EMBODIES ASSUMPTIONS ?AT >E NOT ONLY PLAUSIBLE & RELATIVELY WELL-CONFIRM$1 SO IT APPE>S TO ME1 BUT ALSO DEEPLY ROOT$ 9 A RI* & L>GELY =GOTT5 TRADITION ( RATIONALI/ PSY*OLOGY & L+UI/ICS4 ,I HAVE TRI$ TO CORRECT ?IS IMBALANCE 9 LAT] PUBLICATIONS 7,*OMSKY1 #a#i#f#b1 #a#i#f#d1 #a#i#f#f2 SEE ALSO ,MILL] ET AL41 #a#i#f2 ,KATZ & ,PO/AL1 #a#i#f#d2 ,FODOR1 #a#i#f#e2 ,L5NEB]G1 #a#i#f#f74 

,I ?9K IT W\LD ALSO HAVE BE5 VALUABLE TO TRY TO SKET* SOME ( ! REASONS -- & !RE W]E MANY -- ?AT HAVE MADE ! VIEW ,I WAS CRITICIZ+ SEEM PLAUSIBLE OV] A LONG P]IOD1 & ALSO TO DISCUSS ! REASONS = ! DECL9E ( ! ALT]NATIVE RATIONALI/ CONCEPTION :I*1 ,I WAS SUGGE/+1 %\LD BE REHABILITAT$4 ,SU* A DISCUSSION W\LD1 P]HAPS1 HAVE HELP$ TO PLACE ! SPECIFIC CRITIQUE ( ,SK9N] 9 A MORE MEAN+FUL CONTEXT4 

,REF]5CES 9 ! ,PREFACE 

,*OMSKY1 ,N41 0,EXPLANATORY ,MODELS 9 ,L+UI/ICS10 9 ,LOGIC1 ,ME?ODOLOGY & ,PHILOSOPHY ( ,SCI5CE1 $4 ,E4 ,NAGEL1 ,P4 ,SUPPES1 & ,A4 ,T>SKI4 ,/AN=D2 ,CALIPH43 ,/AN=D ,UNIV]SITY ,PRESS1 #a#i#f#b4 

-------1 ,CURR5T ,ISSUES 9 ,L+UI/IC ,!ORY4 ,! ,HAGUE3 ,M\TON & ,CO41 #a#i#f#d4 

-------1 ,C>TESIAN ,L+UI/ICS4 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,H>P] & ,R[1 ,PUBLI%]S1 #a#i#f#f4 

,FODOR1 ,J41 0,C\LD ,MEAN+ ,BE AN 'RM'10 ,J\RNAL ( ,V]BAL ,LE>N+ & ,V]BAL ,BEHAVIOR1 #d 7#a#i#f#e71 #g#c-#h#a4 

,KATZ1 ,J4 & ,P4 ,PO/AL1 ,AN ,9TEGRAT$ ,!ORY ( ,L+UI/IC ,DESCRIPTION4 ,CAMBRIDGE1 ,MASS3 ,M4,I4,T4 ,PRESS1 #a#i#f#d4 

,L5NEB]G1 ,E41 ,BIOLOGICAL ,BASES ( ,LANGUAGE4 7,9 PRESS47 

,MILL]1 ,G4 ,A41 ,E4 ,GALANT]1 & ,K4 ,H4 ,PRIBRAM1 ,PLANS & ! ,/RUCTURE ( ,BEHAVIOR4 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,HOLT1 ,RH9EH>T1 & ,W9/ON1 ,9C41 #a#i#f4 

,! ,REVIEW 

BY ,NOAM ,*OMSKY 

0,A ,REVIEW ( ,B4 ,F4 ,SK9N]'S ,V]BAL ,BEHAVIOR0 9 ,LANGUAGE1 #c#e1 ,NO4 #a 7#a#i#e#i71 #b#f-#e#h4 

,I 

,A GREAT MANY L+UI/S & PHILOSOPH]S CONC]N$ ) LANGUAGE HAVE EXPRESS$ ! HOPE ?AT !IR /UDIES MI<T ULTIMATELY BE EMB$D$ 9 A FRAMEWORK PROVID$ BY BEHAVIORI/ PSY*OLOGY1 & ?AT REFRACTORY >EAS ( 9VE/IGATION1 P>TICUL>LY ?OSE 9 :I* MEAN+ IS 9VOLV$1 WILL 9 ?IS WAY BE OP5$ UP TO FRUITFUL EXPLORATION4 ,S9CE ?IS VOLUME IS ! FIR/ L>GE-SCALE ATTEMPT TO 9CORPORATE ! MAJOR ASPECTS ( L+UI/IC BEHAVIOR )9 A BEHAVIORI/ FRAMEWORK1 IT M]ITS & WILL UND\BT$LY RECEIVE C>EFUL ATT5TION4 ,SK9N] IS NOT$ = HIS CONTRIBUTIONS TO ! /UDY ( ANIMAL BEHAVIOR4 ,! BOOK UND] REVIEW IS ! PRODUCT ( /UDY ( L+UI/IC BEHAVIOR EXT5D+ OV] MORE ?AN TW5TY YE>S4 ,E>LI] V]SIONS ( IT HAVE BE5 FAIRLY WIDELY CIRCULAT$1 & !RE >E QUITE A FEW REF]5CES 9 ! PSY*OLOGICAL LIT]ATURE TO ITS MAJOR IDEAS4 

,! PROBLEM TO :I* ?IS BOOK IS ADDRESS$ IS ?AT ( GIV+ A 0FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS0 ( V]BAL BEHAVIOR4 ,BY FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS1 ,SK9N] MEANS ID5TIFICATION ( ! V>IABLES ?AT CONTROL ?IS BEHAVIOR & SPECIFICATION ( H[ !Y 9T]ACT TO DET]M9E A P>TICUL> V]BAL RESPONSE4 ,FUR!RMORE1 ! CONTROLL+ V>IABLES >E TO BE DESCRIB$ COMPLETELY 9 T]MS ( SU* NOTIONS AS /IMULUS1 RE9=CEM5T1 DEPRIVATION1 :I* HAVE BE5 GIV5 A REASONABLY CLE> MEAN+ 9 ANIMAL EXP]IM5TATION4 ,9 O!R WORDS1 ! GOAL ( ! BOOK IS TO PROVIDE A WAY TO PR$ICT & CONTROL V]BAL BEHAVIOR BY OBS]V+ & MANIPULAT+ ! PHYSICAL 5VIRONM5T ( ! SPEAK]4 

,SK9N] FEELS ?AT REC5T ADVANCES 9 ! LABORATORY /UDY ( ANIMAL BEHAVIOR P]MIT US TO APPROA* ?IS PROBLEM ) A C]TA9 OPTIMISM1 S9CE 0! BASIC PROCESSES & RELATIONS :I* GIVE V]BAL BEHAVIOR ITS SPECIAL *>ACT]I/ICS >E N[ FAIRLY WELL UND]/OOD 444 ! RESULTS .<( ?IS EXP]IM5TAL WORK.> HAVE BE5 SURPRIS+LY FREE ( SPECIES RE/RICTIONS4 ,REC5T WORK HAS %[N ?AT ! ME?ODS CAN BE EXT5D$ TO HUMAN BEHAVIOR )\T S]I\S MODIFICATION0 7#c74.<#a.> 

,IT IS IMPORTANT TO SEE CLE>LY JU/ :AT IT IS 9 ,SK9N]'S PROGRAM & CLAIMS ?AT MAKES !M APPE> SO BOLD & REM>KABLE1 ,IT IS NOT PRIM>ILY ! FACT ?AT HE HAS SET FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS AS HIS PROBLEM1 OR ?AT HE LIMITS HIMSELF TO /UDY ( OBS]VABLES1 I4E41 9PUT-\TPUT RELATIONS4 ,:AT IS SO SURPRIS+ IS ! P>TICUL> LIMITATIONS HE HAS IMPOS$ ON ! WAY 9 :I* ! OBS]VABLES ( BEHAVIOR >E TO BE /UDI$1 &1 ABOVE ALL1 ! P>TICUL>LY SIMPLE NATURE ( ! FUNCTION :I*1 HE CLAIMS1 DESCRIBES ! CAUSATION ( BEHAVIOR4 ,ONE W\LD NATURALLY EXPECT ?AT PR$ICTION ( ! BEHAVIOR ( A COMPLEX ORGANISM 7OR MA*9E7 W\LD REQUIRE1 9 ADDITION TO 9=MATION AB\T EXT]NAL /IMULATION1 KN[L$GE ( ! 9T]NAL /RUCTURE ( ! ORGANISM1 ! WAYS 9 :I* IT PROCESSES 9PUT 9=MATION & ORGANIZES ITS [N BEHAVIOR4 ,!SE *>ACT]I/ICS ( ! ORGANISM >E 9 G5]AL A COMPLICAT$ PRODUCT ( 9BORN /RUCTURE1 ! G5ETICALLY DET]M9$ C\RSE ( MATURATION1 & PA/ EXP]I5CE4 ,9S(> AS 9DEP5D5T NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL EVID5CE IS NOT AVAILABLE1 IT IS OBVI\S ?AT 9F]5CES CONC]N+ ! /RUCTURE ( ! ORGANISM >E BAS$ ON OBS]VATION ( BEHAVIOR & \TSIDE EV5TS4 ,NEV]!LESS1 ONE'S E/IMATE ( ! RELATIVE IMPORTANCE ( EXT]NAL FACTORS & 9T]NAL /RUCTURE 9 ! DET]M9ATION ( BEHAVIOR WILL HAVE AN IMPORTANT EFFECT ON ! DIRECTION ( RESE>* ON L+UI/IC 7OR ANY O!R7 BEHAVIOR1 & ON ! K9DS ( ANALOGIES FROM ANIMAL BEHAVIOR /UDIES ?AT WILL BE CONSID]$ RELEVANT OR SUGGE/IVE4 

,PUTT+ IT DIFF]5TLY1 ANYONE :O SETS HIMSELF ! PROBLEM ( ANALYZ+ ! CAUSATION ( BEHAVIOR WILL 79 ! ABS5CE ( 9DEP5D5T NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL EVID5CE7 CONC]N HIMSELF ) ! ONLY DATA AVAILABLE1 NAMELY ! RECORD ( 9PUTS TO ! ORGANISM & ! ORGANISM'S PRES5T RESPONSE1 & WILL TRY TO DESCRIBE ! FUNCTION SPECIFY+ ! RESPONSE 9 T]MS ( ! HI/ORY ( 9PUTS4 ,?IS IS NO?+ MORE ?AN ! DEF9ITION ( HIS PROBLEM4 ,!RE >E NO POSSIBLE GR\NDS = >GUM5T H]E1 IF ONE ACCEPTS ! PROBLEM AS LEGITIMATE1 ?\< ,SK9N] HAS (T5 ADVANC$ & DEF5D$ ?IS DEF9ITION ( A PROBLEM AS IF IT W]E A !SIS :I* O!R 9VE/IGATORS REJECT4 ,! DIFF]5CES ?AT >ISE BETWE5 ?OSE :O AFFIRM & ?OSE :O D5Y ! IMPORTANCE ( ! SPECIFIC 0CONTRIBUTION ( ! ORGANISM0 TO LE>N+ & P]=MANCE CONC]N ! P>TICUL> *>ACT] & COMPLEXITY ( ?IS FUNCTION1 & ! K9DS ( OBS]VATIONS & RESE>* NECESS>Y = >RIV+ AT A PRECISE SPECIFICATION ( IT4 ,IF ! CONTRIBUTION ( ! ORGANISM IS COMPLEX1 ! ONLY HOPE ( PR$ICT+ BEHAVIOR EV5 9 A GROSS WAY WILL BE ?R\< A V]Y 9DIRECT PROGRAM ( RESE>* ?AT BEG9S BY /UDY+ ! DETAIL$ *>ACT] ( ! BEHAVIOR ITSELF & ! P>TICUL> CAPACITIES ( ! ORGANISM 9VOLV$4 

,SK9N]'S !SIS IS ?AT EXT]NAL FACTORS CONSI/+ ( PRES5T /IMULATION & ! HI/ORY ( RE9=CEM5T 79 P>TICUL>1 ! FREQU5CY1 >RANGEM5T1 & )HOLD+ ( RE9=C+ /IMULI7 >E ( OV]:ELM+ IMPORTANCE1 & ?AT ! G5]AL PR9CIPLES REVEAL$ 9 LABORATORY /UDIES ( !SE PH5OM5A PROVIDE ! BASIS = UND]/&+ ! COMPLEXITIES ( V]BAL BEHAVIOR4 ,HE CONFID5TLY & REPEAT$LY VOICES HIS CLAIM TO HAVE DEMON/RAT$ ?AT ! CONTRIBUTION ( ! SPEAK] IS QUITE TRIVIAL & ELEM5T>Y1 & ?AT PRECISE PR$ICTION ( V]BAL BEHAVIOR 9VOLVES ONLY SPECIFICATION ( ! FEW EXT]NAL FACTORS ?AT HE HAS ISOLAT$ EXP]IM5TALLY ) L[] ORGANISMS4 

,C>EFUL /UDY ( ?IS BOOK 7& ( ! RESE>* ON :I* IT DRAWS7 REVEALS1 H[EV]1 ?AT !SE A/ONI%+ CLAIMS >E F> FROM JU/IFI$4 ,IT 9DICATES1 FUR!RMORE1 ?AT ! 9SI<TS ?AT HAVE BE5 A*IEV$ 9 ! LABORATORIES ( ! RE9=CEM5T !ORI/1 ?\< QUITE G5U9E1 CAN BE APPLI$ TO COMPLEX HUMAN BEHAVIOR ONLY 9 ! MO/ GROSS & SUP]FICIAL WAY1 & ?AT SPECULATIVE ATTEMPTS TO DISCUSS L+UI/IC BEHAVIOR 9 !SE T]MS ALONE OMIT FROM CONSID]ATION FACTORS ( FUNDAM5TAL IMPORTANCE ?AT >E1 NO D\BT1 AM5ABLE TO SCI5TIFIC /UDY1 AL?\< !IR SPECIFIC *>ACT] CANNOT AT PRES5T BE PRECISELY =MULAT$4 ,S9CE ,SK9N]'S WORK IS ! MO/ EXT5SIVE ATTEMPT TO ACCOMMODATE HUMAN BEHAVIOR 9VOLV+ HI<] M5TAL FACULTIES )9 A /RICT BEHAVIORI/ S*EMA ( ! TYPE ?AT HAS ATTRACT$ MANY L+UI/S & PHILOSOPH]S1 AS WELL AS PSY*OLOGI/S1 A DETAIL$ DOCUM5TATION IS ( 9DEP5D5T 9T]E/4 ,! MAGNITUDE ( ! FAILURE ( ?IS ATTEMPT TO ACC\NT = V]BAL BEHAVIOR S]VES AS A K9D ( MEASURE ( ! IMPORTANCE ( ! FACTORS OMITT$ FROM CONSID]ATION1 & AN 9DICATION ( H[ LITTLE IS REALLY KN[N AB\T ?IS REM>KABLY COMPLEX PH5OM5ON4 

,! =CE ( ,SK9N]'S >GUM5T LIES 9 ! 5ORM\S WEAL? & RANGE ( EXAMPLES = :I* HE PROPOSES A FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS4 ,! ONLY WAY TO EVALUATE ! SUCCESS ( HIS PROGRAM & ! CORRECTNESS ( HIS BASIC ASSUMPTIONS AB\T V]BAL BEHAVIOR IS TO REVIEW !SE EXAMPLES 9 DETAIL & TO DET]M9E ! PRECISE *>ACT] ( ! CONCEPTS 9 T]MS ( :I* ! FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS IS PRES5T$4 ,SECTION #b ( ?IS REVIEW DESCRIBES ! EXP]IM5TAL CONTEXT ) RESPECT TO :I* !SE CONCEPTS >E ORIG9ALLY DEF9$4 ,SECTIONS #c & #d DEAL ) ! BASIC CONCEPTS -- /IMULUS1 RESPONSE1 & RE9=CEM5T1 ,SECTIONS #f TO #a ) ! NEW DESCRIPTIVE MA*9]Y DEVELOP$ SPECIFICALLY = ! DESCRIPTION ( V]BAL BEHAVIOR4 ,9 ,SECTION #e WE CONSID] ! /ATUS ( ! FUNDAM5TAL CLAIM1 DRAWN FROM ! LABORATORY1 :I* S]VES AS ! BASIS = ! ANALOGIC GUESSES AB\T HUMAN BEHAVIOR ?AT HAVE BE5 PROPOS$ BY MANY PSY*OLOGI/S4 ,! F9AL SECTION 7,SECTION #a#a7 WILL CONSID] SOME WAYS 9 :I* FUR!R L+UI/IC WORK MAY PLAY A P>T 9 CL>IFY+ SOME ( !SE PROBLEMS4 

,I,I 

,AL?\< ?IS BOOK MAKES NO DIRECT REF]5CE TO EXP]IM5TAL WORK1 IT CAN BE UND]/OOD ONLY 9 T]MS ( ! G5]AL FRAMEWORK ?AT ,SK9N] HAS DEVELOP$ = ! DESCRIPTION ( BEHAVIOR4 ,SK9N] DIVIDES ! RESPONSES ( ! ANIMAL 9TO TWO MA9 CATEGORIES4 ,RESPOND5TS >E PURELY REFLEX RESPONSES ELICIT$ BY P>TICUL> /IMULI4 ,OP]ANTS >E EMITT$ RESPONSES1 = :I* NO OBVI\S /IMULUS CAN BE DISCOV]$4 ,SK9N] HAS BE5 CONC]N$ PRIM>ILY ) OP]ANT BEHAVIOR4 ,! EXP]IM5TAL >RANGEM5T ?AT HE 9TRODUC$ CONSI/S BASICALLY ( A BOX ) A B> ATTA*$ TO ONE WALL 9 SU* A WAY ?AT :5 ! B> IS PRESS$1 A FOOD PELLET IS DROPP$ 9TO A TRAY 7& ! B> PRESS IS RECORD$74 ,A RAT PLAC$ 9 ! BOX WILL SOON PRESS ! B>1 RELEAS+ A PELLET 9TO ! TRAY4 ,?IS /ATE ( AFFAIRS1 RESULT+ FROM ! B> PRESS1 9CREASES ! /R5G? ( ! B>-PRESS+ OP]ANT4 ,! FOOD PELLET IS CALL$ A RE9=C]2 ! EV5T1 A RE9=C+ EV5T4 ,! /R5G? ( AN OP]ANT IS DEF9$ BY ,SK9N] 9 T]MS ( ! RATE ( RESPONSE DUR+ EXT9CTION 7I4E1 AFT] ! LA/ RE9=CEM5T & BE=E RETURN TO ! PRE-CONDITION+ RATE74 

,SUPPOSE ?AT RELEASE ( ! PELLET IS CONDITIONAL ON ! FLA%+ ( A LI<T4 ,!N ! RAT WILL COME TO PRESS ! B> ONLY :5 ! LI<T FLA%ES4 ,?IS IS CALL$ /IMULUS DISCRIM9ATION4 ,! RESPONSE IS CALL$ A DISCRIM9AT$ OP]ANT & ! LI<T IS CALL$ ! OCCASION = ITS EMISSION3 ?IS IS TO BE DI/+UI%$ FROM ELICITATION ( A RESPONSE BY A /IMULUS 9 ! CASE ( ! RESPOND5T4.<#b.> ,SUPPOSE ?AT ! APP>ATUS IS SO >RANG$ ?AT B>-PRESS+ ( ONLY A C]TA9 *>ACT] 7E4G41 DURATION7 WILL RELEASE ! PELLET4 ,! RAT WILL !N COME TO PRESS ! B> 9 ! REQUIR$ WAY4 ,?IS PROCESS IS CALL$ RESPONSE DIFF]5TIATION4 ,BY SUCCESSIVE SLI<T *ANGES 9 ! CONDITIONS UND] :I* ! RESPONSE WILL BE RE9=C$1 IT IS POSSIBLE TO %APE ! RESPONSE ( A RAT OR A PIGEON 9 V]Y SURPRIS+ WAYS 9 A V]Y %ORT TIME1 SO ?AT RA!R COMPLEX BEHAVIOR CAN BE PRODUC$ BY A PROCESS ( SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION4 

,A /IMULUS CAN BECOME RE9=C+ BY REPEAT$ ASSOCIATION ) AN ALREADY RE9=C+ /IMULUS4 ,SU* A /IMULUS IS CALL$ A SECOND>Y RE9=C]4 ,LIKE MANY CONTEMPOR>Y BEHAVIORI/S1 ,SK9N] CONSID]S MONEY1 APPROVAL1 & ! LIKE TO BE SECOND>Y RE9=C]S :I* HAVE BECOME RE9=C+ BECAUSE ( !IR ASSOCIATION ) FOOD1 ETC4.<#c.> ,SECOND>Y RE9=C]S CAN BE G5]ALIZ$ BY ASSOCIAT+ !M ) A V>IETY ( DIFF]5T PRIM>Y RE9=C]S4 

,ANO!R V>IABLE ?AT CAN AFFECT ! RATE ( ! B>-PRESS+ OP]ANT IS DRIVE1 :I* ,SK9N] DEF9ES OP]ATIONALLY 9 T]MS ( H\RS ( DEPRIVATION4 ,HIS MAJOR SCI5TIFIC BOOK1 ,BEHAVIOR ( ,ORGANISMS1 IS A /UDY ( ! EFFECTS ( FOOD-DEPRIVATION & CONDITION+ ON ! /R5G? ( ! B>-PRESS+ RESPONSE ( HEAL?Y MATURE RATS4 ,PROBABLY ,SK9N]'S MO/ ORIG9AL CONTRIBUTION TO ANIMAL BEHAVIOR /UDIES HAS BE5 HIS 9VE/IGATION ( ! EFFECTS ( 9T]MITT5T RE9=CEM5T1 >RANG$ 9 V>I\S DIFF]5T WAYS1 PRES5T$ 9 ,BEHAVIOR ( ,ORGANISMS & EXT5D$ 7) PECK+ ( PIGEONS AS ! OP]ANT UND] 9VE/IGATION7 9 ! REC5T ,S*$ULES ( ,RE9=CEM5T BY ,F]/] & ,SK9N] 7#a#i#e#g74 ,IT IS APP>5TLY !SE /UDIES ?AT ,SK9N] HAS 9 M9D :5 HE REF]S TO ! REC5T ADVANCES 9 ! /UDY ( ANIMAL BEHAVIOR4.<#d.> 

,! NOTIONS /IMULUS1 RESPONSE1 RE9=CEM5T >E RELATIVELY WELL DEF9$ ) RESPECT TO ! B>-PRESS+ EXP]IM5TS & O!RS SIMIL>LY RE/RICT$4 ,BE=E WE CAN EXT5D !M TO REAL-LIFE BEHAVIOR1 H[EV]1 C]TA9 DIFFICULTIES MU/ BE FAC$4 ,WE MU/ DECIDE1 FIR/ ( ALL1 :E!R ANY PHYSICAL EV5T TO :I* ! ORGANISM IS CAPABLE ( REACT+ IS TO BE CALL$ A /IMULUS ON A GIV5 OCCASION1 OR ONLY ONE TO :I* ! ORGANISM 9 FACT REACTS2 & CORRESPOND+LY1 WE MU/ DECIDE :E!R ANY P>T ( BEHAVIOR IS TO BE CALL$ A RESPONSE1 OR ONLY ONE CONNECT$ ) /IMULI 9 LAWFUL WAYS4 ,QUE/IONS ( ?IS SORT POSE SOME?+ ( A DILEMMA = ! EXP]IM5TAL PSY*OLOGI/4 ,IF HE ACCEPTS ! BROAD DEF9ITIONS1 *>ACT]IZ+ ANY PHYSICAL EV5T IMP++ ON ! ORGANISM AS A /IMULUS & ANY P>T ( ! ORGANISM'S BEHAVIOR AS A RESPONSE1 HE MU/ CONCLUDE ?AT BEHAVIOR HAS NOT BE5 DEMON/RAT$ TO BE LAWFUL4 ,9 ! PRES5T /ATE ( \R KN[L$GE1 WE MU/ ATTRIBUTE AN OV]:ELM+ 9FLU5CE ON ACTUAL BEHAVIOR TO ILL-DEF9$ FACTORS ( ATT5TION1 SET1 VOLITION1 & CAPRICE4 ,IF WE ACCEPT ! N>R[] DEF9ITIONS1 !N BEHAVIOR IS LAWFUL BY DEF9ITION 7IF IT CONSI/S ( RESPONSES72 BUT ?IS FACT IS ( LIMIT$ SIGNIFICANCE1 S9CE MO/ ( :AT ! ANIMAL DOES WILL SIMPLY NOT BE CONSID]$ BEHAVIOR4 ,H5CE1 ! PSY*OLOGI/ EI!R MU/ ADMIT ?AT BEHAVIOR IS NOT LAWFUL 7OR ?AT HE CANNOT AT PRES5T %[ ?AT IT IS -- NOT AT ALL A DAMAG+ ADMISSION = A DEVELOP+ SCI5CE71 OR MU/ RE/RICT HIS ATT5TION TO ?OSE HI<LY LIMIT$ >EAS 9 :I* IT IS LAWFUL 7E4G41 ) ADEQUATE CONTROLS1 B>-PRESS+ 9 RATS2 LAWFULNESS ( ! OBS]V$ BEHAVIOR PROVIDES1 = ,SK9N]1 AN IMPLICIT DEF9ITION ( A GOOD EXP]IM5T74 

,SK9N] DOES NOT CONSI/5TLY ADOPT EI!R C\RSE4 ,HE UTILIZES ! EXP]IM5TAL RESULTS AS EVID5CE = ! SCI5TIFIC *>ACT] ( HIS SY/EM ( BEHAVIOR1 & ANALOGIC GUESSES 7=MULAT$ 9 T]MS ( A METAPHORIC EXT5SION ( ! TE*NICAL VOCABUL>Y ( ! LABORATORY7 AS EVID5CE = ITS SCOPE4 ,?IS CREATES ! ILLUSION ( A RIGOR\S SCI5TIFIC !ORY ) A V]Y BROAD SCOPE1 AL?\< 9 FACT ! T]MS US$ 9 ! DESCRIPTION ( REAL-LIFE & ( LABORATORY BEHAVIOR MAY BE M]E HOMONYMS1 ) AT MO/ A VAGUE SIMIL>ITY ( MEAN+4 ,TO SUB/ANTIATE ?IS EVALUATION1 A CRITICAL ACC\NT ( HIS BOOK MU/ %[ ?AT ) A LIT]AL READ+ 7:]E ! T]MS ( ! DESCRIPTIVE SY/EM HAVE SOME?+ LIKE ! TE*NICAL MEAN+S GIV5 9 ,SK9N]'S DEF9ITIONS7 ! BOOK COV]S ALMO/ NO ASPECT ( L+UI/IC BEHAVIOR1 & ?AT ) A METAPHORIC READ+1 IT IS NO MORE SCI5TIFIC ?AN ! TRADITIONAL APPROA*ES TO ?IS SUBJECT MATT]1 & R>ELY AS CLE> & C>EFUL4.<#e.> 

,I,I,I 

,CONSID] FIR/ ,SK9N]'S USE ( ! NOTIONS /IMULUS & RESPONSE4 ,9 ,BEHAVIOR ( ,ORGANISMS 7#i7 HE COMMITS HIMSELF TO ! N>R[ DEF9ITIONS = !SE T]MS4 ,A P>T ( ! 5VIRONM5T & A P>T ( BEHAVIOR >E CALL$ /IMULUS 7ELICIT+1 DISCRIM9AT$1 OR RE9=C+7 & RESPONSE1 RESPECTIVELY1 ONLY IF !Y >E LAWFULLY RELAT$2 ?AT IS1 IF ! DYNAMIC LAWS RELAT+ !M %[ SMOO? & REPRODUCIBLE CURVES4 ,EVID5TLY1 /IMULI & RESPONSES1 SO DEF9$1 HAVE NOT BE5 %[N TO FIGURE V]Y WIDELY 9 ORD9>Y HUMAN BEHAVIOR4.<#f.> ,WE CAN1 9 ! FACE ( PRES5TLY AVAILABLE EVID5CE1 CONT9UE TO MA9TA9 ! LAWFULNESS ( ! RELATION BETWE5 /IMULUS & RESPONSE ONLY BY DEPRIV+ !M ( !IR OBJECTIVE *>ACT]4 ,A TYPICAL EXAMPLE ( /IMULUS CONTROL = ,SK9N] W\LD BE ! RESPONSE TO A PIECE ( MUSIC ) ! UTT]ANCE ,MOZ>T OR TO A PA9T+ ) ! RESPONSE ,DUT*4 ,!SE RESPONSES >E ASS]T$ TO BE 0UND] ! CONTROL ( EXTREMELY SUBTLE PROP]TIES0 ( ! PHYSICAL OBJECT OR EV5T 7#a#h74 ,SUPPOSE 9/EAD ( SAY+ ,DUT* WE HAD SAID ,CLA%ES ) ! WALLPAP]1 ,I ?\<T Y\ LIK$ AB/RACT WORK1 ,NEV] SAW IT BE=E1 ,TILT$1 ,HANG+ TOO L[1 ,BEAUTIFUL1 ,HIDE\S1 ,REMEMB] \R CAMP+ TRIP LA/ SUMM]81 OR :ATEV] ELSE MI<T COME 9TO \R M9DS :5 LOOK+ AT A PICTURE 79 ,SK9N]IAN TRANSLATION1 :ATEV] O!R RESPONSES EXI/ 9 SUFFICI5T /R5G?74 ,SK9N] C\LD ONLY SAY ?AT EA* ( !SE RESPONSES IS UND] ! CONTROL ( SOME O!R /IMULUS PROP]TY ( ! PHYSICAL OBJECT4 ,IF WE LOOK AT A R$ *AIR & SAY R$1 ! RESPONSE IS UND] ! CONTROL ( ! /IMULUS R$NESS2 IF WE SAY *AIR1 IT IS UND] ! CONTROL ( ! COLLECTION ( PROP]TIES 7= ,SK9N]1 ! OBJECT7 *AIRNESS 7#a#a71 & SIMIL>LY = ANY O!R RESPONSE4 ,?IS DEVICE IS AS SIMPLE AS IT IS EMPTY4 ,S9CE PROP]TIES >E FREE = ! ASK+ 7WE HAVE AS MANY ( !M AS WE HAVE NONSYNONYM\S DESCRIPTIVE EXPRESSIONS 9 \R LANGUAGE1 :ATEV] ?IS MEANS EXACTLY71 WE CAN ACC\NT = A WIDE CLASS ( RESPONSES 9 T]MS ( ,SK9N]IAN FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS BY ID5TIFY+ ! CONTROLL+ /IMULI4 ,BUT ! WORD /IMULUS HAS LO/ ALL OBJECTIVITY 9 ?IS USAGE4 ,/IMULI >E NO LONG] P>T ( ! \TSIDE PHYSICAL WORLD2 !Y >E DRIV5 BACK 9TO ! ORGANISM4 ,WE ID5TIFY ! /IMULUS :5 WE HE> ! RESPONSE4 ,IT IS CLE> FROM SU* EXAMPLES1 :I* AB\ND1 ?AT ! TALK ( /IMULUS CONTROL SIMPLY DISGUISES A COMPLETE RETREAT TO M5TALI/IC PSY*OLOGY4 ,WE CANNOT PR$ICT V]BAL BEHAVIOR 9 T]MS ( ! /IMULI 9 ! SPEAK]'S 5VIRONM5T1 S9CE WE DO NOT KN[ :AT ! CURR5T /IMULI >E UNTIL HE RESPONDS4 ,FUR!RMORE1 S9CE WE CANNOT CONTROL ! PROP]TY ( A PHYSICAL OBJECT TO :I* AN 9DIVIDUAL WILL RESPOND1 EXCEPT 9 HI<LY >TIFICIAL CASES1 ,SK9N]'S CLAIM ?AT HIS SY/EM1 AS OPPOS$ TO ! TRADITIONAL ONE1 P]MITS ! PRACTICAL CONTROL ( V]BAL BEHAVIOR.<#g.> IS QUITE FALSE4 

,O!R EXAMPLES ( /IMULUS CONTROL M]ELY ADD TO ! G5]AL MY/IFICATION4 ,?US1 A PROP] N\N IS HELD TO BE A RESPONSE 0UND] ! CONTROL ( A SPECIFIC P]SON OR ?+0 7AS CONTROLL+ /IMULUS1 #a#a#c74 ,I HAVE (T5 US$ ! WORDS ,EIS5H[] & ,MOSC[1 :I* ,I PRESUME >E PROP] N\NS IF ANY?+ IS1 BUT HAVE NEV] BE5 /IMULAT$ BY ! CORRESPOND+ OBJECTS4 ,H[ CAN ?IS FACT BE MADE COMPATIBLE ) ?IS DEF9ITION8 ,SUPPOSE ?AT ,I USE ! NAME ( A FRI5D :O IS NOT PRES5T4 ,IS ?IS AN 9/ANCE ( A PROP] N\N UND] ! CONTROL ( ! FRI5D AS /IMULUS8 ,ELSE:]E IT IS ASS]T$ ?AT A /IMULUS CONTROLS A RESPONSE 9 ! S5SE ?AT PRES5CE ( ! /IMULUS 9CREASES ! PROBABILITY ( ! RESPONSE4 ,BUT IT IS OBVI\SLY UNTRUE ?AT ! PROBABILITY ?AT A SPEAK] WILL PRODUCE A FULL NAME IS 9CREAS$ :5 ITS BE>] FACES ! SPEAK]4 ,FUR!RMORE1 H[ CAN ONE'S [N NAME BE A PROP] N\N 9 ?IS S5SE8 

,A MULTITUDE ( SIMIL> QUE/IONS >ISE IMM$IATELY4 ,IT APPE>S ?AT ! WORD CONTROL H]E IS M]ELY A MISLEAD+ P>APHRASE = ! TRADITIONAL D5OTE OR REF]4 ,! ASS]TION 7#a#a#e7 ?AT SO F> AS ! SPEAK] IS CONC]N$1 ! RELATION ( REF]5CE IS 0SIMPLY ! PROBABILITY ?AT ! SPEAK] WILL EMIT A RESPONSE ( A GIV5 =M 9 ! PRES5CE ( A /IMULUS HAV+ SPECIFI$ PROP]TIES0 IS SURELY 9CORRECT IF WE TAKE ! WORDS PRES5CE1 /IMULUS1 & PROBABILITY 9 !IR LIT]AL S5SE4 ,?AT !Y >E NOT 9T5D$ TO BE TAK5 LIT]ALLY IS 9DICAT$ BY MANY EXAMPLES1 AS :5 A RESPONSE IS SAID TO BE 0CONTROLL$0 BY A SITUATION OR /ATE ( AFFAIRS AS 0/IMULUS40 ,?US1 ! EXPRESSION A NE$LE 9 A HAY/ACK 0MAY BE CONTROLL$ AS A UNIT BY A P>TICUL> TYPE ( SITUATION0 7#a#a#f72 ! WORDS 9 A S+LE P>T ( SPEE*1 E4G41 ALL ADJECTIVES1 >E UND] ! CONTROL ( A S+LE SET ( SUBTLE PROP]TIES ( /IMULI 7#a#b#a72 0! S5T5CE ,! BOY RUNS A /ORE IS UND] ! CONTROL ( AN EXTREMELY COMPLEX /IMULUS SITUATION0 7#c#c#e7 0,HE IS NOT AT ALL WELL MAY FUNCTION AS A /&>D RESPONSE UND] ! CONTROL ( A /ATE ( AFFAIRS :I* MI<T ALSO CONTROL ,HE IS AIL+0 7#c#b#e72 :5 AN 5VOY OBS]VES EV5TS 9 A =EIGN C\NTRY & REPORTS UPON HIS RETURN1 HIS REPORT IS UND] 0REMOTE /IMULUS CONTROL0 7#d#a#f72 ! /ATEM5T ,?IS IS W> MAY BE A RESPONSE TO A 0CONFUS+ 9T]NATIONAL SITUATION0 7#d#d#a72 ! SUFFIX -$ IS CONTROLL$ BY ?AT 0SUBTLE PROP]TY ( /IMULI :I* WE SPEAK ( AS ACTION-9-!-PA/0 7#a#b#a7 JU/ AS ! -S 9 ,! BOY RUNS IS UND] ! CONTROL ( SU* SPECIFIC FEATURES ( ! SITUATION AS ITS 0CURR5CY0 7#c#c#b74 ,NO *>ACT]IZATION ( ! NOTION /IMULUS CONTROL ?AT IS REMOTELY RELAT$ TO ! B>-PRESS+ EXP]IM5T 7OR ?AT PRES]VES ! FA9TE/ OBJECTIVITY7 CAN BE MADE TO COV] A SET ( EXAMPLES LIKE !SE1 9 :I*1 = EXAMPLE1 ! CONTROLL+ /IMULUS NE$ NOT EV5 IMP+E ON ! RESPOND+ ORGANISM4 

,CONSID] N[ ,SK9N]'S USE ( ! NOTION RESPONSE4 ,! PROBLEM ( ID5TIFY+ UNITS 9 V]BAL BEHAVIOR HAS ( C\RSE BE5 A PRIM>Y CONC]N ( L+UI/S1 & IT SEEMS V]Y LIKELY ?AT EXP]IM5TAL PSY*OLOGI/S %\LD BE ABLE TO PROVIDE MU*-NE$$ ASSI/ANCE 9 CLE>+ UP ! MANY REMA9+ DIFFICULTIES 9 SY/EMATIC ID5TIFICATION4 ,SK9N] RECOGNIZES 7#b7 ! FUNDAM5TAL *>ACT] ( ! PROBLEM ( ID5TIFICATION ( A UNIT ( V]BAL BEHAVIOR1 BUT IS SATISFI$ ) AN ANSW] SO VAGUE & SUBJECTIVE ?AT IT DOES NOT REALLY CONTRIBUTE TO ITS SOLUTION4 ,! UNIT ( V]BAL BEHAVIOR -- ! V]BAL OP]ANT -- IS DEF9$ AS A CLASS ( RESPONSES ( ID5TIFIABLE =M FUNCTIONALLY RELAT$ TO ONE OR MORE CONTROLL+ V>IABLES4 ,NO ME?OD IS SUGGE/$ = DET]M9+ 9 A P>TICUL> 9/ANCE :AT >E ! CONTROLL+ V>IABLES1 H[ MANY SU* UNITS HAVE OCCURR$1 OR :]E !IR B\ND>IES >E 9 ! TOTAL RESPONSE4 ,NOR IS ANY ATTEMPT MADE TO SPECIFY H[ MU* OR :AT K9D ( SIMIL>ITY 9 =M OR CONTROL IS REQUIR$ = TWO PHYSICAL EV5TS TO BE CONSID]$ 9/ANCES ( ! SAME OP]ANT4 ,9 %ORT1 NO ANSW]S >E SUGGE/$ = ! MO/ ELEM5T>Y QUE/IONS ?AT MU/ BE ASK$ ( ANYONE PROPOS+ A ME?OD = DESCRIPTION ( BEHAVIOR4 ,SK9N] IS CONT5T ) :AT HE CALLS AN EXTRAPOLATION ( ! CONCEPT ( OP]ANT DEVELOP$ 9 ! LABORATORY TO ! V]BAL FIELD4 ,9 ! TYPICAL ,SK9N]IAN EXP]IM5T1 ! PROBLEM ( ID5TIFY+ ! UNIT ( BEHAVIOR IS NOT TOO CRUCIAL4 ,IT IS DEF9$1 BY FIAT1 AS A RECORD$ PECK OR B>-PRESS1 & SY/EMATIC V>IATIONS 9 ! RATE ( ?IS OP]ANT & ITS RESI/ANCE TO EXT9CTION >E /UDI$ AS A FUNCTION ( DEPRIVATION & S*$UL+ ( RE9=CEM5T 7PELLETS74 ,! OP]ANT IS ?US DEF9$ ) RESPECT TO A P>TICUL> EXP]IM5TAL PROC$URE4 ,?IS IS P]FECTLY REASONABLE & HAS L$ TO MANY 9T]E/+ RESULTS4 ,IT IS1 H[EV]1 COMPLETELY MEAN+LESS TO SPEAK ( EXTRAPOLAT+ ?IS CONCEPT ( OP]ANT TO ORD9>Y V]BAL BEHAVIOR4 ,SU* 0EXTRAPOLATION0 LEAVES US ) NO WAY ( JU/IFY+ ONE OR ANO!R DECISION AB\T ! UNITS 9 ! 0V]BAL REP]TOIRE40 

,SK9N] SPECIFIES 0RESPONSE /R5G?0 AS ! BASIC DATUM1 ! BASIC DEP5D5T V>IABLE 9 HIS FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS4 ,9 ! B>-PRESS+ EXP]IM5T1 RESPONSE /R5G? IS DEF9$ 9 T]MS ( RATE ( EMISSION DUR+ EXT9CTION4 ,SK9N] HAS >GU$.<#h.> ?AT ?IS IS 0! ONLY DATUM ?AT V>IES SIGNIFICANTLY & 9 ! EXPECT$ DIRECTION UND] CONDITIONS :I* >E RELEVANT TO ! 'LE>N+ PROCESS4'0 ,9 ! BOOK UND] REVIEW1 RESPONSE /R5G? IS DEF9$ AS 0PROBABILITY ( EMISSION0 7#b#b74 ,?IS DEF9ITION PROVIDES A COM=T+ IMPRESSION ( OBJECTIVITY1 :I*1 H[EV]1 IS QUICKLY DISPELL$ :5 WE LOOK 9TO ! MATT] MORE CLOSELY4 ,! T]M PROBABILITY HAS SOME RA!R OBSCURE MEAN+ = ,SK9N] 9 ?IS BOOK4.<#i.> ,WE >E TOLD1 ON ! ONE H&1 ?AT 0\R EVID5CE = ! CONTRIBUTION ( EA* V>IABLE .<TO RESPONSE /R5G?.> IS BAS$ ON OBS]VATION ( FREQU5CIES ALONE0 7#b#h74 ,AT ! SAME TIME1 IT APPE>S ?AT FREQU5CY IS A V]Y MISLEAD+ MEASURE ( /R5G?1 S9CE1 = EXAMPLE1 ! FREQU5CY ( A RESPONSE MAY BE 0PRIM>ILY ATTRIBUTABLE TO ! FREQU5CY ( OCCURR5CE ( CONTROLL+ V>IABLES0 7#b#g74 ,IT IS NOT CLE> H[ ! FREQU5CY ( A RESPONSE CAN BE ATTRIBUTABLE TO ANY?+ ,B,U,T ! FREQU5CY ( OCCURR5CE ( ITS CONTROLL+ V>IABLES IF WE ACCEPT ,SK9N]'S VIEW ?AT ! BEHAVIOR OCCURR+ 9 A GIV5 SITUATION IS 0FULLY DET]M9$0 BY ! RELEVANT CONTROLL+ V>IABLES 7#a#g#e1 #b#b#h74 ,FUR!RMORE1 AL?\< ! EVID5CE = ! CONTRIBUTION ( EA* V>IABLE TO RESPONSE /R5G? IS BAS$ ON OBS]VATION ( FREQU5CIES ALONE1 IT TURNS \T ?AT 0WE BASE ! NOTION ( /R5G? UPON SEV]AL K9DS ( EVID5CE0 7#b#b71 9 P>TICUL> 7#b#b-#b#h73 EMISSION ( ! RESPONSE 7P>TICUL>LY 9 UNUSUAL CIRCUM/ANCES71 5]GY LEVEL 7/RESS71 PIT* LEVEL1 SPE$ & DELAY ( EMISSION1 SIZE ( LETT]S ETC4 9 WRIT+1 IMM$IATE REPETITION1 & -- A F9AL FACTOR1 RELEVANT BUT MISLEAD+ -- OV]-ALL FREQU5CY4 

,( C\RSE1 ,SK9N] RECOGNIZES ?AT !SE MEASURES DO NOT CO-V>Y1 BECAUSE 7AMONG O!R REASONS7 PIT*1 /RESS1 QUANTITY1 & R$UPLICATION MAY HAVE 9T]NAL L+UI/IC FUNCTIONS4.<#a.> ,H[EV]1 HE DOES NOT HOLD !SE CONFLICTS TO BE V]Y IMPORTANT1 S9CE ! PROPOS$ FACTORS 9DICATIVE ( /R5G? >E 0FULLY UND]/OOD BY EV]YONE0 9 ! CULTURE 7#b#g74 ,= EXAMPLE1 0IF WE >E %[N A PRIZ$ WORK ( >T & EXCLAIM ,BEAUTIFUL61 ! SPE$ & 5]GY ( ! RESPONSE WILL NOT BE LO/ ON ! [N]40 ,IT DOES NOT APPE> TOTALLY OBVI\S ?AT 9 ?IS CASE ! WAY TO IMPRESS ! [N] IS TO %RIEK ,BEAUTIFUL 9 A L\D1 HI<-PIT*$ VOICE1 REPEAT$LY1 & ) NO DELAY 7HI< RESPONSE /R5G?74 ,IT MAY BE EQUALLY EFFECTIVE TO LOOK AT ! PICTURE SIL5TLY 7LONG DELAY7 & !N TO MURMUR ,BEAUTIFUL 9 A S(T1 L[-PIT*$ VOICE 7BY DEF9ITION1 V]Y L[ RESPONSE /R5G?74 

,IT IS NOT UNFAIR1 ,I BELIEVE1 TO CONCLUDE FROM ,SK9N]'S DISCUSSION ( RESPONSE /R5G?1 ! BASIC DATUM 9 FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS1 ?AT HIS EXTRAPOLATION ( ! NOTION ( PROBABILITY CAN BE/ BE 9T]PRET$ AS1 9 EFFECT1 NO?+ MORE ?AN A DECISION TO USE ! WORD PROBABILITY1 ) ITS FAVORABLE CONNOTATIONS ( OBJECTIVITY1 AS A COV] T]M TO P>APHRASE SU* L[-/ATUS WORDS AS 9T]E/1 9T5TION1 BELIEF1 & ! LIKE4 ,?IS 9T]PRETATION IS FULLY JU/IFI$ BY ! WAY 9 :I* ,SK9N] USES ! T]MS PROBABILITY & /R5G?4 ,TO CITE JU/ ONE EXAMPLE1 ,SK9N] DEF9ES ! PROCESS ( CONFIRM+ AN ASS]TION 9 SCI5CE AS ONE ( 0G5]AT+ ADDITIONAL V>IABLES TO 9CREASE ITS PROBABILITY0 7#d#b#e71 & MORE G5]ALLY1 ITS /R5G? 7#d#b#e-#b#i74 ,IF WE TAKE ?IS SUGGE/ION QUITE LIT]ALLY1 ! DEGREE ( CONFIRMATION ( A SCI5TIFIC ASS]TION CAN BE MEASUR$ AS A SIMPLE FUNCTION ( ! L\DNESS1 PIT*1 & FREQU5CY ) :I* IT IS PROCLAIM$1 & A G5]AL PROC$URE = 9CREAS+ ITS DEGREE ( CONFIRMATION W\LD BE1 = 9/ANCE1 TO TRA9 MA*9E GUNS ON L>GE CR[DS ( PEOPLE :O HAVE BE5 9/RUCT$ TO %\T IT4 ,A BETT] 9DICATION ( :AT ,SK9N] PROBABLY HAS 9 M9D H]E IS GIV5 BY HIS DESCRIPTION ( H[ ! !ORY ( EVOLUTION1 AS AN EXAMPLE1 IS CONFIRM$4 ,?IS 0S+LE SET ( V]BAL RESPONSES 444 IS MADE MORE PLAUSIBLE -- IS /R5G!N$ -- BY SEV]AL TYPES ( CON/RUCTION BAS$ UPON V]BAL RESPONSES 9 GEOLOGY1 PALEONTOLOGY1 G5ETICS1 & SO ON0 7#d#b#g74 ,WE >E NO D\BT TO 9T]PRET ! T]MS /R5G? & PROBABILITY 9 ?IS CONTEXT AS P>APHRASES ( MORE FAMILI> LOCUTIONS SU* AS 0JU/IFI$ BELIEF0 OR 0W>RANT$ ASS]TABILITY10 OR SOME?+ ( ! SORT4 ,SIMIL> LATITUDE ( 9T]PRETATION IS PRESUMABLY EXPECT$ :5 WE READ ?AT 0FREQU5CY ( EFFECTIVE ACTION ACC\NTS 9 TURN = :AT WE MAY CALL ! LI/5]'S 'BELIEF'0 7#h#h7 OR ?AT 0\R BELIEF 9 :AT SOMEONE TELLS US IS SIMIL>LY A FUNCTION (1 OR ID5TICAL )1 \R T5D5CY TO ACT UPON ! V]BAL /IMULI :I* HE PROVIDES0 7#a#f74.<#a#a.> 

,I ?9K IT IS EVID5T1 !N1 ?AT ,SK9N]'S USE ( ! T]MS /IMULUS1 CONTROL1 RESPONSE1 & /R5G? JU/IFY ! G5]AL CONCLUSION /AT$ 9 ! LA/ P>AGRAPH ( ,SECTION #b4 ,! WAY 9 :I* !SE T]MS >E BR\<T TO BE> ON ! ACTUAL DATA 9DICATES ?AT WE MU/ 9T]PRET !M AS M]E P>APHRASES = ! POPUL> VOCABUL>Y COMMONLY US$ TO DESCRIBE BEHAVIOR & AS HAV+ NO P>TICUL> CONNECTION ) ! HOMONYM\S EXPRESSIONS US$ 9 ! DESCRIPTION ( LABORATORY EXP]IM5TS4 ,NATURALLY1 ?IS T]M9OLOGICAL REVISION ADDS NO OBJECTIVITY TO ! FAMILI> M5TALI/IC MODE ( DESCRIPTION4 

,I,V 

,! O!R FUNDAM5TAL NOTION BORR[$ FROM ! DESCRIPTION ( B>-PRESS+ EXP]IM5TS IS RE9=CEM5T4 ,IT RAISES PROBLEMS :I* >E SIMIL>1 & EV5 MORE S]I\S4 ,9 ,BEHAVIOR ( ,ORGANISMS1 0! OP]ATION ( RE9=CEM5T IS DEF9$ AS ! PRES5TATION ( A C]TA9 K9D ( /IMULUS 9 A TEMPORAL RELATION ) EI!R A /IMULUS OR RESPONSE4 ,A RE9=C+ /IMULUS IS DEF9$ AS SU* BY ITS P[] TO PRODUCE ! RESULT+ *ANGE .<9 /R5G?.>4 ,!RE IS NO CIRCUL>ITY AB\T ?IS3 SOME /IMULI >E F\ND TO PRODUCE ! *ANGE1 O!RS NOT1 & !Y >E CLASSIFI$ AS RE9=C+ & NONRE9=C+ ACCORD+LY0 7#f#b74 ,?IS IS A P]FECTLY APPROPRIATE DEF9ITION.<#a#b.> = ! /UDY ( S*$ULES ( RE9=CEM5T4 ,IT IS P]FECTLY USELESS1 H[EV]1 9 ! DISCUSSION ( REAL-LIFE BEHAVIOR1 UNLESS WE CAN SOMEH[ *>ACT]IZE ! /IMULI :I* >E RE9=C+ 7& ! SITUATIONS & CONDITIONS UND] :I* !Y >E RE9=C+74 ,CONSID] FIR/ ( ALL ! /ATUS ( ! BASIC PR9CIPLE ?AT ,SK9N] CALLS ! 0LAW ( CONDITION+0 7LAW ( EFFECT74 ,IT READS3 0IF ! OCCURR5CE ( AN OP]ANT IS FOLL[$ BY PRES5CE ( A RE9=C+ /IMULUS1 ! /R5G? IS 9CREAS$0 7,BEHAVIOR ( ,ORGANISMS1 #b#a74 ,AS RE9=CEM5T WAS DEF9$1 ?IS LAW BECOMES A TAUTOLOGY4.<#a#c.> ,= ,SK9N]1 LE>N+ IS JU/ *ANGE 9 RESPONSE /R5G?4.<#a#d.> ,AL?\< ! /ATEM5T ?AT PRES5CE ( RE9=CEM5T IS A SUFFICI5T CONDITION = LE>N+ & MA9T5ANCE ( BEHAVIOR IS VACU\S1 ! CLAIM ?AT IT IS A NECESS>Y CONDITION MAY HAVE SOME CONT5T1 DEP5D+ ON H[ ! CLASS ( RE9=C]S 7& APPROPRIATE SITUATIONS7 IS *>ACT]IZ$4 ,SK9N] DOES MAKE IT V]Y CLE> ?AT 9 HIS VIEW RE9=CEM5T IS A NECESS>Y CONDITION = LANGUAGE LE>N+ & = ! CONT9U$ AVAILABILITY ( L+UI/IC RESPONSES 9 ! ADULT4.<#a#e.> ,H[EV]1 ! LOOS5ESS ( ! T]M RE9=CEM5T AS ,SK9N] USES IT 9 ! BOOK UND] REVIEW MAKES IT 5TIRELY PO9TLESS TO 9QUIRE 9TO ! TRU? OR FALSITY ( ?IS CLAIM4 ,EXAM9+ ! 9/ANCES ( :AT ,SK9N] CALLS RE9=CEM5T1 WE F9D ?AT NOT EV5 ! REQUIREM5T ?AT A RE9=C] BE AN ID5TIFIABLE /IMULUS IS TAK5 S]I\SLY4 ,9 FACT1 ! T]M IS US$ 9 SU* A WAY ?AT ! ASS]TION ?AT RE9=CEM5T IS NECESS>Y = LE>N+ & CONT9U$ AVAILABILITY ( BEHAVIOR IS LIKEWISE EMPTY4 

,TO %[ ?IS1 WE CONSID] SOME EXAMPLES ( RE9=CEM5T4 ,FIR/ ( ALL1 WE F9D A HEAVY APPEAL TO AUTOMATIC SELF-RE9=CEM5T1 ,?US1 0A MAN TALKS TO HIMSELF444 BECAUSE ( ! RE9=CEM5T HE RECEIVES0 7#a#f#c72 0! *ILD IS RE9=C$ AUTOMATICALLY :5 HE DUPLICATES ! S\NDS ( AIRPLANES1 /REETC>S 4440 7#a#f#d72 0! Y\NG *ILD ALONE 9 ! NURS]Y MAY AUTOMATICALLY RE9=CE HIS [N EXPLORATORY V]BAL BEHAVIOR :5 HE PRODUCES S\NDS :I* HE HAS HE>D 9 ! SPEE* ( O!RS0 7#e#h72 0! SPEAK] :O IS ALSO AN ACCOMPLI%$ LI/5] 'KN[S :5 HE HAS CORRECTLY E*O$ A RESPONSE' & IS RE9=C$ !REBY0 7#f#h72 ?9K+ IS 0BEHAV+ :I* AUTOMATICALLY AFFECTS ! BEHAV] & IS RE9=C+ BECAUSE IT DOES SO0 7#d#c#h2 CUTT+ ONE'S F+] %\LD ?US BE RE9=C+1 & AN EXAMPLE ( ?9K+72 0! V]BAL FANTASY1 :E!R OV]T OR COV]T1 IS AUTOMATICALLY RE9=C+ TO ! SPEAK] AS LI/5]4 ,JU/ AS ! MUSICIAN PLAYS OR COMPOSES :AT HE IS RE9=C$ BY HE>+1 OR AS ! >TI/ PA9TS :AT RE9=CES HIM VISUALLY1 SO ! SPEAK] 5GAG$ 9 V]BAL FANTASY SAYS :AT HE IS RE9=C$ BY HE>+ OR WRITES :AT HE IS RE9=C$ BY READ+0 7#d#c#i72 SIMIL>LY1 C>E 9 PROBLEM SOLV+1 & RATIONALIZATION1 >E AUTOMATICALLY SELF-RE9=C+ 7#d#d#b-#d#c74 ,WE CAN ALSO RE9=CE SOMEONE BY EMITT+ V]BAL BEHAVIOR AS SU* 7S9CE ?IS RULES \T A CLASS ( AV]SIVE /IMULATIONS1 #a#f#g71 BY NOT EMITT+ V]BAL BEHAVIOR 7KEEP+ SIL5T & PAY+ ATT5TION1 #a#i#i71 OR BY ACT+ APPROPRIATELY ON SOME FUTURE OCCASION 7#a#e#b3 0! /R5G? ( .<! SPEAK]'S.> BEHAVIOR IS DET]M9$ MA9LY BY ! BEHAVIOR :I* ! LI/5] WILL EXHIBIT ) RESPECT TO A GIV5 /ATE ( AFFAIRS02 ?IS ,SK9N] CONSID]S ! G5]AL CASE ( 0COMMUNICATION0 OR 0LETT+ ! LI/5] KN[074 ,9 MO/ SU* CASES1 ( C\RSE1 ! SPEAK] IS NOT PRES5T AT ! TIME :5 ! RE9=CEM5T TAKES PLACE1 AS :5 0! >TI/444IS RE9=C$ BY ! EFFECTS HIS WORKS HAVE UPON444 O!RS0 7#b#b#d71 OR :5 ! WRIT] IS RE9=C$ BY ! FACT ?AT HIS 0V]BAL BEHAVIOR MAY REA* OV] C5TURIES OR TO ?\S&S ( LI/5]S OR READ]S AT ! SAME TIME4 ,! WRIT] MAY NOT BE RE9=C$ (T5 OR IMM$IATELY1 BUT HIS NET RE9=CEM5T MAY BE GREAT0 7#b#f2 ?IS ACC\NTS = ! GREAT 0/R5G?0 ( HIS BEHAVIOR74 ,AN 9DIVIDUAL MAY ALSO F9D IT RE9=C+ TO 9JURE SOMEONE BY CRITICISM OR BY BR++ BAD NEWS1 OR TO PUBLI% AN EXP]IM5TAL RESULT :I* UPSETS ! !ORY ( A RIVAL 7#a#e#d71 TO DESCRIBE CIRCUM/ANCES :I* W\LD BE RE9=C+ IF !Y W]E TO OCCUR 7#a#f#e71 TO AVOID REPETITION 7#b#b#b71 TO 0HE>0 HIS [N NAME ?\< 9 FACT IT WAS NOT M5TION$ OR TO HE> NONEXI/5T WORDS 9 HIS *ILD'S BABBL+ 7#b#e#i71 TO CL>IFY OR O!RWISE 9T5SIFY ! EFFECT ( A /IMULUS :I* S]VES AN IMPORTANT DISCRIM9ATIVE FUNCTION 7#d#a#f71 & SO ON4 

,FROM ?IS SAMPLE1 IT CAN BE SE5 ?AT ! NOTION ( RE9=CEM5T HAS TOTALLY LO/ :ATEV] OBJECTIVE MEAN+ IT MAY EV] HAVE HAD4 ,RUNN+ ?R\< !SE EXAMPLES1 WE SEE ?AT A P]SON CAN BE RE9=C$ ?\< HE EMITS NO RESPONSE AT ALL1 & ?AT ! RE9=C+ /IMULUS NE$ NOT IMP+E ON ! RE9=C$ P]SON OR NE$ NOT EV5 EXI/ 7IT IS SUFFICI5T ?AT IT BE IMAG9$ OR HOP$ =74 ,:5 WE READ ?AT A P]SON PLAYS :AT MUSIC HE LIKES 7#a#f#e71 SAYS :AT HE LIKES 7#a#f#e71 ?9KS :AT HE LIKES 7#d#c#h-#c#i71 READS :AT BOOKS HE LIKES 7#a#f#c71 ETC41 ,B,E,C,A,U,S,E HE F9DS IT RE9=C+ TO DO SO1 OR ?AT WE WRITE BOOKS OR 9=M O!RS ( FACTS ,B,E,C,A,U,S,E WE >E RE9=C$ BY :AT WE HOPE WILL BE ! ULTIMATE BEHAVIOR ( READ] OR LI/5]1 WE CAN ONLY CONCLUDE ?AT ! T]M RE9=CEM5T HAS A PURELY RITUAL FUNCTION4 ,! PHRASE 0,X IS RE9=C$ BY ,Y 7/IMULUS1 /ATE ( AFFAIRS1 EV5T1 ETC470 IS BE+ US$ AS A COV] T]M = 0,X WANTS ,Y10 0,X LIKES ,Y10 0,X WI%ES ?AT ,Y W]E ! CASE10 ETC4 ,9VOK+ ! T]M RE9=CEM5T HAS NO EXPLANATORY =CE1 & ANY IDEA ?AT ?IS P>APHRASE 9TRODUCES ANY NEW CL>ITY OR OBJECTIVITY 9TO ! DESCRIPTION ( WI%+1 LIK+1 ETC41 IS A S]I\S DELUSION4 ,! ONLY EFFECT IS TO OBSCURE ! IMPORTANT DIFF]5CES AMONG ! NOTIONS BE+ P>APHRAS$4 ,ONCE WE RECOGNIZE ! LATITUDE ) :I* ! T]M RE9=CEM5T IS BE+ US$1 MANY RA!R />TL+ COMM5TS LOSE !IR 9ITIAL EFFECT -- = 9/ANCE1 ?AT ! BEHAVIOR ( ! CREATIVE >TI/ IS 0CONTROLL$ 5TIRELY BY ! CONT+5CIES ( RE9=CEM5T0 7#a#e74 ,:AT HAS BE5 HOP$ = FROM ! PSY*OLOGI/ IS SOME 9DICATION H[ ! CASUAL & 9=MAL DESCRIPTION ( EV]YDAY BEHAVIOR 9 ! POPUL> VOCABUL>Y CAN BE EXPLA9$ OR CL>IFI$ 9 T]MS ( ! NOTIONS DEVELOP$ 9 C>EFUL EXP]IM5T & OBS]VATION1 OR P]HAPS REPLAC$ 9 T]MS ( A BETT] S*EME4 ,A M]E T]M9OLOGICAL REVISION1 9 :I* A T]M BORR[$ FROM ! LABORATORY IS US$ ) ! FULL VAGU5ESS ( ! ORD9>Y VOCABUL>Y1 IS ( NO CONCEIVABLE 9T]E/4 

,IT SEEMS ?AT ,SK9N]'S CLAIM ?AT ALL V]BAL BEHAVIOR IS ACQUIR$ & MA9TA9$ 9 0/R5G?0 ?R\< RE9=CEM5T IS QUITE EMPTY1 BECAUSE HIS NOTION ( RE9=CEM5T HAS NO CLE> CONT5T1 FUNCTION+ ONLY AS A COV] T]M = ANY FACTOR1 DETECTABLE OR NOT1 RELAT$ TO ACQUISITION OR MA9T5ANCE ( V]BAL BEHAVIOR4.<#a#f.> ,SK9N]'S USE ( ! T]M CONDITION+ SUFF]S FROM A SIMIL> DIFFICULTY4 ,PAVLOVIAN & OP]ANT CONDITION+ >E PROCESSES AB\T :I* PSY*OLOGI/S HAVE DEVELOP$ REAL UND]/&+4 ,9/RUCTION ( HUMAN BE+S IS NOT4 ,! CLAIM ?AT 9/RUCTION & IMP>T+ ( 9=MATION >E SIMPLY MATT]S ( CONDITION+ 7#c#e#g-#f#f7 IS PO9TLESS4 ,! CLAIM IS TRUE1 IF WE EXT5D ! T]M CONDITION+ TO COV] !SE PROCESSES1 BUT WE KN[ NO MORE AB\T !M AFT] HAV+ REVIS$ ?IS T]M 9 SU* A WAY AS TO DEPRIVE IT ( ITS RELATIVELY CLE> & OBJECTIVE *>ACT]4 ,IT IS1 AS F> AS WE KN[1 QUITE FALSE1 IF WE USE CONDITION+ 9 ITS LIT]AL S5SE4 ,SIMIL>LY1 :5 WE SAY ?AT 0IT IS ! FUNCTION ( PR$ICATION TO FACILITATE ! TRANSF] ( RESPONSE FROM ONE T]M TO ANO!R OR FROM ONE OBJECT TO ANO!R0 7#c#f#a71 WE HAVE SAID NO?+ ( ANY SIGNIFICANCE4 ,9 :AT S5SE IS ?IS TRUE ( ! PR$ICATION ,:ALES >E MAMMALS8 ,OR1 TO TAKE ,SK9N]'S EXAMPLE1 :AT PO9T IS !RE 9 SAY+ ?AT ! EFFECT ( ,! TELEPHONE IS \T ( ORD] ON ! LI/5] IS TO BR+ BEHAVIOR =M]LY CONTROLL$ BY ! /IMULUS \T ( ORD] UND] CONTROL ( ! /IMULUS TELEPHONE 7OR ! TELEPHONE ITSELF7 BY A PROCESS ( SIMPLE CONDITION+ 7#c#f#b78 ,:AT LAWS ( CONDITION+ HOLD 9 ?IS CASE8 ,FUR!RMORE1 :AT BEHAVIOR IS CONTROLL$ BY ! /IMULUS \T ( ORD]1 9 ! AB/RACT8 ,DEP5D+ ON ! OBJECT ( :I* ?IS IS PR$ICAT$1 ! PRES5T /ATE ( MOTIVATION ( ! LI/5]1 ETC41 ! BEHAVIOR MAY V>Y FROM RAGE TO PLEASURE1 FROM FIX+ ! OBJECT TO ?R[+ IT \T1 FROM SIMPLY NOT US+ IT TO TRY+ TO USE IT 9 ! NORMAL WAY 7E4G41 TO SEE IF IT IS REALLY \T ( ORD]71 & SO ON4 ,TO SPEAK ( 0CONDITION+0 OR 0BR++ PREVI\SLY AVAILABLE BEHAVIOR UND] CONTROL ( A NEW /IMULUS0 9 SU* A CASE IS JU/ A K9D ( PLAY-ACT+ AT SCI5CE 7CF4 ALSO #d#cN74 

,V 

,! CLAIM ?AT C>EFUL >RANGEM5T ( CONT+5CIES ( RE9=CEM5T BY ! V]BAL COMMUNITY IS A NECESS>Y CONDITION = LANGUAGE-LE>N+ HAS APPE>$1 9 ONE =M OR ANO!R1 9 MANY PLACES4.<#a#g.> ,S9CE IT IS BAS$ NOT ON ACTUAL OBS]VATION1 BUT ON ANALOGIES TO LABORATORY /UDY ( L[] ORGANISMS1 IT IS IMPORTANT TO DET]M9E ! /ATUS ( ! UND]LY+ ASS]TION )9 EXP]IM5TAL PSY*OLOGY PROP]4 ,! MO/ COMMON *>ACT]IZATION ( RE9=CEM5T 7ONE :I* ,SK9N] EXPLICITLY REJECTS1 9CID5TALLY7 IS 9 T]MS ( DRIVE R$UCTION4 ,?IS *>ACT]IZATION CAN BE GIV5 SUB/ANCE BY DEF9+ DRIVES 9 SOME WAY 9DEP5D5TLY ( :AT 9 FACT IS LE>N$4 ,IF A DRIVE IS PO/ULAT$ ON ! BASIS ( ! FACT ?AT LE>N+ TAKES PLACE1 ! CLAIM ?AT RE9=CEM5T IS NECESS>Y = LE>N+ WILL AGA9 BECOME AS EMPTY AS IT IS 9 ! ,SK9N]IAN FRAMEWORK4 ,!RE IS AN EXT5SIVE LIT]ATURE ON ! QUE/ION ( :E!R !RE CAN BE LE>N+ )\T DRIVE R$UCTION 7LAT5T LE>N+74 ,! 0CLASSICAL0 EXP]IM5T ( ,BLODGETT 9DICAT$ ?AT RATS :O HAD EXPLOR$ A MAZE )\T REW>D %[$ A M>K$ DROP 9 NUMB] ( ]RORS 7AS COMP>$ TO A CONTROL GR\P :I* HAD NOT EXPLOR$ ! MAZE7 UPON 9TRODUCTION ( A FOOD REW>D1 9DICAT+ ?AT ! RAT HAD LE>N$ ! /RUCTURE ( ! MAZE )\T R$UCTION ( ! HUNG] DRIVE4 ,DRIVE-R$UCTION !ORI/S C\NT]$ ) AN EXPLORATORY DRIVE :I* WAS R$UC$ DUR+ ! PRE-REW>D LE>N+1 & CLAIM$ ?AT A SLI<T DECREM5T 9 ]RORS C\LD BE NOT$ BE=E FOOD REW>D4 ,A WIDE V>IETY ( EXP]IM5TS1 ) SOME:AT CONFLICT+ RESULTS1 HAVE BE5 C>RI$ \T ) A SIMIL> DESIGN4.<#a#h.> ,FEW 9VE/IGATORS /ILL D\BT ! EXI/5CE ( ! PH5OM5ON1 ,E4 ,R4 ,HILG>D1 9 HIS G5]AL REVIEW ( LE>N+ !ORY1.<#a#i.> CONCLUDES ?AT 0!RE IS NO LONG] ANY D\BT BUT ?AT1 UND] APPROPRIATE CIRCUM/ANCES1 LAT5T LE>N+ IS DEMON/RABLE40 

,MORE REC5T WORK HAS %[N ?AT NOVELTY & V>IETY ( /IMULUS >E SUFFICI5T TO >\SE CURIOSITY 9 ! RAT & TO MOTIVATE IT TO EXPLORE 7VISUALLY71 & 9 FACT1 TO LE>N 7S9CE ON A PRES5TATION ( TWO /IMULI1 ONE NOVEL1 ONE REPEAT$1 ! RAT WILL ATT5D TO ! NOVEL ONE71.<#b.> ?AT RATS WILL LE>N TO *OOSE ! >M ( A S+LE-*OICE MAZE ?AT LEADS TO A COMPLEX MAZE1 RUNN+ ?R\< ?IS BE+ !IR ONLY 0REW>D02.<#b#a.> ?AT MONKEYS CAN LE>N OBJECT DISCRIM9ATIONS & MA9TA9 !IR P]=MANCE AT A HI< LEVEL ( EFFICI5CY ) VISUAL EXPLORATION 7LOOK+ \T ( A W9D[ = #c SECONDS7 AS ! ONLY REW>D.<#b#b.> &1 P]HAPS MO/ /RIK+LY ( ALL1 ?AT MONKEYS & APES WILL SOLVE RA!R COMPLEX MANIPULATION PROBLEMS ?AT >E SIMPLY PLAC$ 9 !IR CAGES1 & WILL SOLVE DISCRIM9ATION PROBLEMS ) ONLY EXPLORATION & MANIPULATION AS 9C5TIVES4.<#b#c.> ,9 !SE CASES1 SOLV+ ! PROBLEM IS APP>5TLY ITS [N 0REW>D40 ,RESULTS ( ?IS K9D CAN BE H&L$ BY RE9=CEM5T !ORI/S ONLY IF !Y >E WILL+ TO SET UP CURIOSITY1 EXPLORATION1 & MANIPULATION DRIVES1 OR TO SPECULATE SOMEH[ AB\T ACQUIR$ DRIVES.<#b#d.> = :I* !RE IS NO EVID5CE \TSIDE ( ! FACT ?AT LE>N+ TAKES PLACE 9 !SE CASES4 

,!RE IS A V>IETY ( O!R K9DS ( EVID5CE ?AT HAS BE5 (F]$ TO *ALL5GE ! VIEW ?AT DRIVE R$UCTION IS NECESS>Y = LE>N+4 ,RESULTS ON S5SORY-S5SORY CONDITION+ HAVE BE5 9T]PRET$ AS DEMON/RAT+ LE>N+ )\T DRIVE R$UCTION4.<#b#e.> ,OLDS HAS REPORT$ RE9=CEM5T BY DIRECT /IMULATION ( ! BRA91 FROM :I* HE CONCLUDES ?AT REW>D NE$ NOT SATISFY A PHYSIOLOGICAL NE$ OR )DRAW A DRIVE /IMULUS4.<#b#f.> ,! PH5OM5ON ( IMPR9T+1 LONG OBS]V$ BY ZOOLOGI/S1 IS ( P>TICUL> 9T]E/ 9 ?IS CONNECTION4 ,SOME ( ! MO/ COMPLEX PATT]NS ( BEHAVIOR ( BIRDS1 9 P>TICUL>1 >E DIRECT$ T[>DS OBJECTS & ANIMALS ( ! TYPE TO :I* !Y HAVE BE5 EXPOS$ AT C]TA9 CRITICAL E>LY P]IODS ( LIFE4.<#b#g.> ,IMPR9T+ IS ! MO/ /RIK+ EVID5CE = ! 9NATE DISPOSITION ( ! ANIMAL TO LE>N 9 A C]TA9 DIRECTION & TO REACT APPROPRIATELY TO PATT]NS & OBJECTS ( C]TA9 RE/RICT$ TYPES1 (T5 ONLY LONG AFT] ! ORIG9AL LE>N+ HAS TAK5 PLACE4 ,IT IS1 CONSEQU5TLY1 UNREW>D$ LE>N+1 ?\< ! RESULT+ PATT]NS ( BEHAVIOR MAY BE REF9$ ?R\< RE9=CEM5T4 ,ACQUISITION ( ! TYPICAL SONGS ( SONG BIRDS IS1 9 SOME CASES1 A TYPE ( IMPR9T+4 ,?ORPE REPORTS /UDIES ?AT %[ 0?AT SOME *>ACT]I/ICS ( ! NORMAL SONG HAVE BE5 LE>N$ 9 ! E>LIE/ Y\?1 BE=E ! BIRD ITSELF IS ABLE TO PRODUCE ANY K9D ( FULL SONG40.<#b#h.> ,! PH5OM5ON ( IMPR9T+ HAS REC5TLY BE5 9VE/IGAT$ UND] LABORATORY CONDITIONS & CONTROLS ) POSITIVE RESULTS4.<#b#i.> 

,PH5OM5A ( ?IS G5]AL TYPE >E C]TA9LY FAMILI> FROM EV]YDAY EXP]I5CE4 ,WE RECOGNIZE PEOPLE & PLACES TO :I* WE HAVE GIV5 NO P>TICUL> ATT5TION4 ,WE CAN LOOK UP SOME?+ 9 A BOOK & LE>N IT P]FECTLY WELL ) NO O!R MOTIVE ?AN TO CONFUTE RE9=CEM5T !ORY1 OR \T ( BOR$OM1 OR IDLE CURIOSITY4 ,EV]YONE 5GAG$ 9 RESE>* MU/ HAVE HAD ! EXP]I5CE ( WORK+ ) FEV]I% & PROLONG$ 9T5SITY TO WRITE A PAP] :I* NO ONE ELSE WILL READ OR TO SOLVE A PROBLEM :I* NO ONE ELSE ?9KS IMPORTANT & :I* WILL BR+ NO CONCEIVABLE REW>D -- :I* MAY ONLY CONFIRM A G5]AL OP9ION ?AT ! RESE>*] IS WA/+ HIS TIME ON IRRELEVANCIES4 ,! FACT ?AT RATS & MONKEYS DO LIKEWISE IS 9T]E/+ & IMPORTANT TO %[ 9 C>EFUL EXP]IM5T4 ,9 FACT1 /UDIES ( BEHAVIOR ( ! TYPE M5TION$ ABOVE HAVE AN 9DEP5D5T & POSITIVE SIGNIFICANCE ?AT F> \TWEI<S !IR 9CID5TAL IMPORTANCE 9 BR++ 9TO QUE/ION ! CLAIM ?AT LE>N+ IS IMPOSSIBLE )\T DRIVE R$UCTION4 ,IT IS NOT AT ALL UNLIKELY ?AT 9SI<TS >IS+ FROM ANIMAL BEHAVIOR /UDIES ) ?IS BROAD5$ SCOPE MAY HAVE ! K9D ( RELEVANCE TO SU* COMPLEX ACTIVITIES AS V]BAL BEHAVIOR ?AT RE9=CEM5T !ORY HAS1 SO F>1 FAIL$ TO EXHIBIT4 ,9 ANY EV5T1 9 ! LI<T ( PRES5TLY AVAILABLE EVID5CE1 IT IS DIFFICULT TO SEE H[ ANYONE CAN BE WILL+ TO CLAIM ?AT RE9=CEM5T IS NECESS>Y = LE>N+1 IF RE9=CEM5T IS TAK5 S]I\SLY AS SOME?+ ID5TIFIABLE 9DEP5D5TLY ( ! RESULT+ *ANGE 9 BEHAVIOR4 

,SIMIL>LY1 IT SEEMS QUITE BEYOND QUE/ION ?AT *ILDR5 ACQUIRE A GOOD DEAL ( !IR V]BAL & NONV]BAL BEHAVIOR BY CASUAL OBS]VATION & IMITATION ( ADULTS & O!R *ILDR54.<#c.> ,IT IS SIMPLY NOT TRUE ?AT *ILDR5 CAN LE>N LANGUAGE ONLY ?R\< 0METICUL\S C>E0 ON ! P>T ( ADULTS :O %APE !IR V]BAL REP]TOIRE ?R\< C>EFUL DIFF]5TIAL RE9=CEM5T1 ?\< IT MAY BE ?AT SU* C>E IS (T5 ! CU/OM 9 ACADEMIC FAMILIES4 ,IT IS A COMMON OBS]VATION ?AT A Y\NG *ILD ( IMMIGRANT P>5TS MAY LE>N A SECOND LANGUAGE 9 ! /REETS1 FROM O!R *ILDR51 ) AMAZ+ RAPIDITY1 & ?AT HIS SPEE* MAY BE COMPLETELY FLU5T & CORRECT TO ! LA/ ALLOPHONE1 :ILE ! SUBTLETIES ?AT BECOME SECOND NATURE TO ! *ILD MAY ELUDE HIS P>5TS DESPITE HI< MOTIVATION & CONT9U$ PRACTICE4 ,A *ILD MAY PICK UP A L>GE P>T ( HIS VOCABUL>Y & 0FEEL0 = S5T5CE /RUCTURE FROM TELEVISION1 FROM READ+1 FROM LI/5+ TO ADULTS1 ETC4 ,EV5 A V]Y Y\NG *ILD :O HAS NOT YET ACQUIR$ A M9IMAL REP]TOIRE FROM :I* TO =M NEW UTT]ANCES MAY IMITATE A WORD QUITE WELL ON AN E>LY TRY1 ) NO ATTEMPT ON ! P>T ( HIS P>5TS TO TEA* IT TO HIM4 ,IT IS ALSO P]FECTLY OBVI\S ?AT1 AT A LAT] /AGE1 A *ILD WILL BE ABLE TO CON/RUCT & UND]/& UTT]ANCES :I* >E QUITE NEW1 & >E1 AT ! SAME TIME1 ACCEPTABLE S5T5CES 9 HIS LANGUAGE4 ,EV]Y TIME AN ADULT READS A NEWSPAP]1 HE UND\BT$LY COMES UPON C\NTLESS NEW S5T5CES :I* >E NOT AT ALL SIMIL>1 9 A SIMPLE1 PHYSICAL S5SE1 TO ANY ?AT HE HAS HE>D BE=E1 & :I* HE WILL RECOGNIZE AS S5T5CES & UND]/&2 HE WILL ALSO BE ABLE TO DETECT SLI<T DI/ORTIONS OR MISPR9TS4 ,TALK ( 0/IMULUS G5]ALIZATION0 9 SU* A CASE SIMPLY P]PETUATES ! MY/]Y UND] A NEW TITLE4 ,!SE ABILITIES 9DICATE ?AT !RE MU/ BE FUNDAM5TAL PROCESSES AT WORK QUITE 9DEP5D5TLY ( 0FE$BACK0 FROM ! 5VIRONM5T4 ,I HAVE BE5 ABLE TO F9D NO SUPPORT :ATSOEV] = ! DOCTR9E ( ,SK9N] & O!RS ?AT SL[ & C>EFUL %AP+ ( V]BAL BEHAVIOR ?R\< DIFF]5TIAL RE9=CEM5T IS AN ABSOLUTE NECESSITY4 ,IF RE9=CEM5T !ORY REALLY REQUIRES ! ASSUMPTION ?AT !RE BE SU* METICUL\S C>E1 IT SEEMS BE/ TO REG>D ?IS SIMPLY AS A R$UCTIO AD ABSURDUM >GUM5T AGA9/ ?IS APPROA*4 ,IT IS ALSO NOT EASY TO F9D ANY BASIS 7OR1 = ?AT MATT]1 TO ATTA* V]Y MU* CONT5T7 TO ! CLAIM ?AT RE9=C+ CONT+5CIES SET UP BY ! V]BAL COMMUNITY >E ! S+LE FACTOR RESPONSIBLE = MA9TA9+ ! /R5G? ( V]BAL BEHAVIOR4 ,! S\RCES ( ! 0/R5G?0 ( ?IS BEHAVIOR >E ALMO/ A TOTAL MY/]Y AT PRES5T4 ,RE9=CEM5T UND\BT$LY PLAYS A SIGNIFICANT ROLE1 BUT SO DO A V>IETY ( MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS AB\T :I* NO?+ S]I\S IS KN[N 9 ! CASE ( HUMAN BE+S4 

,AS F> AS ACQUISITION ( LANGUAGE IS CONC]N$1 IT SEEMS CLE> ?AT RE9=CEM5T1 CASUAL OBS]VATION1 & NATURAL 9QUISITIV5ESS 7C\PL$ ) A /RONG T5D5CY TO IMITATE7 >E IMPORTANT FACTORS1 AS IS ! REM>KABLE CAPACITY ( ! *ILD TO G5]ALIZE1 HYPO!SIZE1 & 0PROCESS 9=MATION0 9 A V>IETY ( V]Y SPECIAL & APP>5TLY HI<LY COMPLEX WAYS :I* WE CANNOT YET DESCRIBE OR BEG9 TO UND]/&1 & :I* MAY BE L>GELY 9NATE1 OR MAY DEVELOP ?R\< SOME SORT ( LE>N+ OR ?R\< MATURATION ( ! N]V\S SY/EM4 ,! MANN] 9 :I* SU* FACTORS OP]ATE & 9T]ACT 9 LANGUAGE ACQUISITION IS COMPLETELY UNKN[N4 ,IT IS CLE> ?AT :AT IS NECESS>Y 9 SU* A CASE IS RESE>*1 NOT DOGMATIC & P]FECTLY >BITR>Y CLAIMS1 BAS$ ON ANALOGIES TO ?AT SMALL P>T ( ! EXP]IM5TAL LIT]ATURE 9 :I* ONE HAPP5S TO BE 9T]E/$4 

,! PO9TLESSNESS ( !SE CLAIMS BECOMES CLE> :5 WE CONSID] ! WELL-KN[N DIFFICULTIES 9 DET]M9+ TO :AT EXT5T 9BORN /RUCTURE1 MATURATION1 & LE>N+ >E RESPONSIBLE = ! P>TICUL> =M ( A SKILL$ OR COMPLEX P]=MANCE4.<#c#a.> ,TO TAKE JU/ ONE EXAMPLE1.<#c#b.> ! GAP+ RESPONSE ( A NE/L+ ?RU% IS AT FIR/ RELEAS$ BY J>R+ ( ! NE/1 &1 AT A LAT] /AGE1 BY A MOV+ OBJECT ( SPECIFIC SIZE1 %APE1 & POSITION RELATIVE TO ! NE/L+4 ,AT ?IS LAT] /AGE ! RESPONSE IS DIRECT$ T[>D ! P>T ( ! /IMULUS OBJECT CORRESPOND+ TO ! P>5T'S HEAD1 & *>ACT]IZ$ BY A COMPLEX CONFIGURATION ( /IMULI ?AT CAN BE PRECISELY DESCRIB$4 ,KN[+ JU/ ?IS1 IT W\LD BE POSSIBLE TO CON/RUCT A SPECULATIVE1 LE>N+-!ORETIC ACC\NT ( H[ ?IS SEQU5CE ( BEHAVIOR PATT]NS MI<T HAVE DEVELOP$ ?R\< A PROCESS ( DIFF]5TIAL RE9=CEM5T1 & IT W\LD NO D\BT BE POSSIBLE TO TRA9 RATS TO DO SOME?+ SIMIL>4 ,H[EV]1 !RE APPE>S TO BE GOOD EVID5CE ?AT !SE RESPONSES TO FAIRLY COMPLEX 0SIGN /IMULI0 >E G5ETICALLY DET]M9$ & MATURE )\T LE>N+4 ,CLE>LY1 ! POSSIBILITY CANNOT BE DISC\NT$4 ,CONSID] N[ ! COMP>ABLE CASE ( A *ILD IMITAT+ NEW WORDS4 ,AT AN E>LY /AGE WE MAY F9D RA!R GROSS CORRESPOND5CES4 ,AT A LAT] /AGE1 WE F9D ?AT REPETITION IS ( C\RSE F> FROM EXACT 7I4E41 IT IS NOT MIMICRY1 A FACT :I* ITSELF IS 9T]E/+71 BUT ?AT IT REPRODUCES ! HI<LY COMPLEX CONFIGURATION ( S\ND FEATURES ?AT CON/ITUTE ! PHONOLOGICAL /RUCTURE ( ! LANGUAGE 9 QUE/ION4 ,AGA91 WE CAN PROPOSE A SPECULATIVE ACC\NT ( H[ ?IS RESULT MI<T HAVE BE5 OBTA9$ ?R\< ELABORATE >RANGEM5T ( RE9=C+ CONT+5CIES4 ,H]E TOO1 H[EV]1 IT IS POSSIBLE ?AT ABILITY TO SELECT \T ( ! COMPLEX AUDITORY 9PUT ?OSE FEATURES ?AT >E PHONOLOGICALLY RELEVANT MAY DEVELOP L>GELY 9DEP5D5TLY ( RE9=CEM5T1 ?R\< G5ETICALLY DET]M9$ MATURATION4 ,TO ! EXT5T ?AT ?IS IS TRUE1 AN ACC\NT ( ! DEVELOPM5T & CAUSATION ( BEHAVIOR ?AT FAILS TO CONSID] ! /RUCTURE ( ! ORGANISM WILL PROVIDE NO UND]/&+ ( ! REAL PROCESSES 9VOLV$4 

,IT IS (T5 >GU$ ?AT EXP]I5CE1 RA!R ?AN 9NATE CAPACITY TO H&LE 9=MATION 9 C]TA9 SPECIFIC WAYS1 MU/ BE ! FACTOR ( OV]:ELM+ DOM9ANCE 9 DET]M9+ ! SPECIFIC *>ACT] ( LANGUAGE ACQUISITION1 S9CE A *ILD SPEAKS ! LANGUAGE ( ! GR\P 9 :I* HE LIVES4 ,BUT ?IS IS A SUP]FICIAL >GUM5T4 ,AS LONG AS WE >E SPECULAT+1 WE MAY CONSID] ! POSSIBILITY ?AT ! BRA9 HAS EVOLV$ TO ! PO9T :]E1 GIV5 AN 9PUT ( OBS]V$ ,*9ESE S5T5CES1 IT PRODUCES 7BY AN 9DUCTION ( APP>5TLY FANTA/IC COMPLEXITY & SUDD5NESS7 ! RULES ( ,*9ESE GRAMM>1 & GIV5 AN 9PUT ( OBS]V$ ,5GLI% S5T5CES1 IT PRODUCES 7BY1 P]HAPS1 EXACTLY ! SAME PROCESS ( 9DUCTION7 ! RULES ( ,5GLI% GRAMM>2 OR ?AT GIV5 AN OBS]V$ APPLICATION ( A T]M TO C]TA9 9/ANCES1 IT AUTOMATICALLY PR$ICTS ! EXT5SION TO A CLASS ( COMPLEXLY RELAT$ 9/ANCES4 ,IF CLE>LY RECOGNIZ$ AS SU*1 ?IS SPECULATION IS NEI!R UNREASONABLE NOR FANTA/IC2 NOR1 = ?AT MATT]1 IS IT BEYOND ! B\NDS ( POSSIBLE /UDY4 ,!RE IS ( C\RSE NO KN[N NEURAL /RUCTURE CAPABLE ( P]=M+ ?IS TASK 9 ! SPECIFIC WAYS ?AT OBS]VATION ( ! RESULT+ BEHAVIOR MI<T LEAD US TO PO/ULATE2 BUT = ?AT MATT]1 ! /RUCTURES CAPABLE ( ACC\NT+ = EV5 ! SIMPLE/ K9DS ( LE>N+ HAVE SIMIL>LY DEFI$ DETECTION4.<#c#c.> ,SUMM>IZ+ ?IS BRIEF DISCUSSION1 IT SEEMS ?AT !RE IS NEI!R EMPIRICAL EVID5CE NOR ANY KN[N >GUM5T TO SUPPORT ANY SPECIFIC CLAIM AB\T ! RELATIVE IMPORTANCE ( 0FE$BACK0 FROM ! 5VIRONM5T & ! 09DEP5D5T CONTRIBUTION ( ! ORGANISM0 9 ! PROCESS ( LANGUAGE ACQUISITION4 

,V,I 

,WE N[ TURN TO ! SY/EM ?AT ,SK9N] DEVELOPS SPECIFICALLY = ! DESCRIPTION ( V]BAL BEHAVIOR4 ,S9CE ?IS SY/EM IS BAS$ ON ! NOTIONS /IMULUS1 RESPONSE1 & RE9=CEM5T1 WE CAN CONCLUDE FROM ! PREC$+ SECTIONS ?AT IT WILL BE VAGUE & >BITR>Y4 ,= REASONS NOT$ 9 ,SECTION #a1 H[EV]1 ,I ?9K IT IS IMPORTANT TO SEE 9 DETAIL H[ F> FROM ! M>K ANY ANALYSIS PHRAS$ SOLELY 9 !SE T]MS MU/ BE & H[ COMPLETELY ?IS SY/EM FAILS TO ACC\NT = ! FACTS ( V]BAL BEHAVIOR4 ,CONSID] FIR/ ! T]M V]BAL BEHAVIOR ITSELF4 ,?IS IS DEF9$ AS 0BEHAVIOR RE9=C$ ?R\< ! M$IATION ( O!R P]SONS0 7#b74 ,! DEF9ITION IS CLE>LY MU* TOO BROAD4 ,IT W\LD 9CLUDE AS V]BAL BEHAVIOR1 = EXAMPLE1 A RAT PRESS+ ! B> 9 A ,SK9N]-BOX1 A *ILD BRU%+ HIS TEE?1 A BOX] RETREAT+ BE=E AN OPPON5T1 & A ME*ANIC REPAIR+ AN AUTOMOBILE4 ,EXACTLY H[ MU* ( ORD9>Y L+UI/IC BEHAVIOR IS V]BAL 9 ?IS S5SE1 H[EV]1 IS SOME?+ ( A QUE/ION3 P]HAPS1 AS ,I HAVE PO9T$ \T ABOVE1 A FAIRLY SMALL FRACTION ( IT1 IF ANY SUB/ANTIVE MEAN+ IS ASSIGN$ TO ! T]M RE9=C$4 ,?IS DEF9ITION IS SUBSEQU5TLY REF9$ BY ! ADDITIONAL PROVISION ?AT ! M$IAT+ RESPONSE ( ! RE9=C+ P]SON 7! LI/5]7 MU/ ITSELF 0HAVE BE5 CONDITION$ PRECISELY 9 ORD] TO RE9=CE ! BEHAVIOR ( ! SPEAK]0 7#b#b#e1 ITALICS HIS74 ,?IS /ILL COV]S ! EXAMPLES GIV5 ABOVE1 IF WE CAN ASSUME ?AT ! RE9=C+ BEHAVIOR ( ! PSY*OLOGI/1 ! P>5T1 ! OPPOS+ BOX]1 & ! PAY+ CU/OM] >E ! RESULT ( APPROPRIATE TRA9+1 :I* IS P]HAPS NOT UNREASONABLE4 ,A SIGNIFICANT P>T ( ! FRAGM5T ( L+UI/IC BEHAVIOR COV]$ BY ! E>LI] DEF9ITION WILL NO D\BT BE EXCLUD$ BY ! REF9EM5T1 H[EV]4 ,SUPPOSE1 = EXAMPLE1 ?AT :ILE CROSS+ ! /REET ,I HE> SOMEONE %\T ,WAT* \T = ! C> & JUMP \T ( ! WAY4 ,IT CAN H>DLY BE PROPOS$ ?AT MY JUMP+ 7! M$IAT+1 RE9=C+ RESPONSE 9 ,SK9N]'S USAGE7 WAS CONDITION$ 7?AT IS1 ,I WAS TRA9$ TO JUMP7 PRECISELY 9 ORD] TO RE9=CE ! BEHAVIOR ( ! SPEAK]2 & SIMIL>LY1 = A WIDE CLASS ( CASES4 ,SK9N]'S ASS]TION ?AT ) ?IS REF9$ DEF9ITION 0WE N>R[ \R SUBJECT TO :AT IS TRADITIONALLY RECOGNIZ$ AS ! V]BAL FIELD0 7#b#b#e7 APPE>S TO BE GROSSLY 9 ]ROR4 

,V,I,I 

,V]BAL OP]ANTS >E CLASSIFI$ BY ,SK9N] 9 T]MS ( !IR 0FUNCTIONAL0 RELATION TO DISCRIM9AT$ /IMULUS1 RE9=CEM5T1 & O!R V]BAL RESPONSES4 ,A M& IS DEF9$ AS 0A V]BAL OP]ANT 9 :I* ! RESPONSE IS RE9=C$ BY A *>ACT]I/IC CONSEQU5CE & IS !RE=E UND] ! FUNCTIONAL CONTROL ( RELEVANT CONDITIONS ( DEPRIVATION OR AV]SIVE /IMULATION0 7#c#e74 ,?IS IS MEANT TO 9CLUDE QUE/IONS1 COMM&S1 ETC4 ,EA* ( ! T]MS 9 ?IS DEF9ITION RAISES A HO/ ( PROBLEMS4 ,A M& SU* AS ,PASS ! SALT IS A CLASS ( RESPONSES4 ,WE CANNOT TELL BY OBS]V+ ! =M ( A RESPONSE :E!R IT BELONGS TO ?IS CLASS 7,SK9N] IS V]Y CLE> AB\T ?IS71 BUT ONLY BY ID5TIFY+ ! CONTROLL+ V>IABLES4 ,?IS IS G5]ALLY IMPOSSIBLE4 ,DEPRIVATION IS DEF9$ 9 ! B>-PRESS+ EXP]IM5T 9 T]MS ( L5G? ( TIME ?AT ! ANIMAL HAS NOT BE5 F$ OR P]MITT$ TO DR9K4 ,9 ! PRES5T CONTEXT1 H[EV]1 IT IS QUITE A MY/]I\S NOTION4 ,NO ATTEMPT IS MADE H]E TO DESCRIBE A ME?OD = DET]M9+ 0RELEVANT CONDITIONS ( DEPRIVATION0 9DEP5D5TLY ( ! 0CONTROLL$0 RESPONSE4 ,IT IS ( NO HELP AT ALL TO BE TOLD 7#c#b7 ?AT IT CAN BE *>ACT]IZ$ 9 T]MS ( ! OP]ATIONS ( ! EXP]IM5T]4 ,IF WE DEF9E DEPRIVATION 9 T]MS ( ELAPS$ TIME1 !N AT ANY MOM5T A P]SON IS 9 C\NTLESS /ATES ( DEPRIVATION4.<#c#d.> ,IT APPE>S ?AT WE MU/ DECIDE ?AT ! RELEVANT CONDITION ( DEPRIVATION WAS 7SAY7 SALT-DEPRIVATION1 ON ! BASIS ( ! FACT ?AT ! SPEAK] ASK$ = SALT 7! RE9=C+ COMMUNITY :I* 0SETS UP0 ! M& IS 9 A SIMIL> PR$ICAM5T74 ,9 ?IS CASE1 ! ASS]TION ?AT A M& IS UND] ! CONTROL ( RELEVANT DEPRIVATION IS EMPTY1 & WE >E 7CONTR>Y TO ,SK9N]'S 9T5TION7 ID5TIFY+ ! RESPONSE AS A M& COMPLETELY 9 T]MS ( =M4 ,! WORD RELEVANT 9 ! DEF9ITION ABOVE CONCEALS SOME RA!R S]I\S COMPLICATIONS4 

,9 ! CASE ( ! M& ,PASS ! SALT1 ! WORD DEPRIVATION IS NOT \T ( PLACE1 ?\< IT APPE>S TO BE ( LITTLE USE = FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS4 ,SUPPOSE H[EV] ?AT ! SPEAK] SAYS ,GIVE ME ! BOOK1 ,TAKE ME = A RIDE1 OR ,LET ME FIX IT4 ,:AT K9DS ( DEPRIVATION CAN BE ASSOCIAT$ ) !SE M&S8 ,H[ DO WE DET]M9E OR MEASURE ! RELEVANT DEPRIVATION8 ,I ?9K WE MU/ CONCLUDE 9 ?IS CASE1 AS BE=E1 EI!R ?AT ! NOTION DEPRIVATION IS RELEVANT AT MO/ TO A M9UTE FRAGM5T ( V]BAL BEHAVIOR1 OR ELSE ?AT ! /ATEM5T 0,X IS UND] ,Y-DEPRIVATION0 IS JU/ AN ODD P>APHRASE = 0,X WANTS ,Y10 BE>+ A MISLEAD+ & UNJU/IFIABLE CONNOTATION ( OBJECTIVITY4 

,! NOTION AV]SIVE CONTROL IS JU/ AS CONFUS$4 ,?IS IS 9T5D$ TO COV] ?REATS1 BEAT+1 & ! LIKE 7#c#c74 ,! MANN] 9 :I* AV]SIVE /IMULATION FUNCTIONS IS SIMPLY DESCRIB$4 ,IF A SPEAK] HAS HAD A HI/ORY ( APPROPRIATE RE9=CEM5T 7E4G41 IF A C]TA9 RESPONSE WAS FOLL[$ BY 0CESSATION ( ! ?REAT ( SU* 9JURY -- ( EV5TS :I* HAVE PREVI\SLY BE5 FOLL[$ BY SU* 9JURY & :I* >E !RE=E CONDITION$ AV]SIVE /IMULI071 !N HE WILL T5D TO GIVE ! PROP] RESPONSE :5 ! ?REAT :I* HAD PREVI\SLY BE5 FOLL[$ BY ! 9JURY IS PRES5T$4 ,IT W\LD APPE> TO FOLL[ FROM ?IS DESCRIPTION ?AT A SPEAK] WILL NOT RESPOND PROP]LY TO ! M& ,Y\R MONEY OR Y\R LIFE 7#c#h7 UNLESS HE HAS A PA/ HI/ORY ( BE+ KILL$4 ,BUT EV5 IF ! DIFFICULTIES 9 DESCRIB+ ! ME*ANISM ( AV]SIVE CONTROL >E SOMEH[ REMOV$ BY A MORE C>EFUL ANALYSIS1 IT WILL BE ( LITTLE USE = ID5TIFY+ OP]ANTS = REASONS SIMIL> TO ?OSE M5TION$ 9 ! CASE ( DEPRIVATION4 

,IT SEEMS1 !N1 ?AT 9 ,SK9N]'S T]MS !RE IS 9 MO/ CASES NO WAY TO DECIDE :E!R A GIV5 RESPONSE IS AN 9/ANCE ( A P>TICUL> M&4 ,H5CE IT IS MEAN+LESS1 )9 ! T]MS ( HIS SY/EM1 TO SPEAK ( ! *>ACT]I/IC CONSEQU5CES ( A M&1 AS 9 ! DEF9ITION ABOVE4 ,FUR!RMORE1 EV5 IF WE EXT5D ! SY/EM SO ?AT M&S CAN SOMEH[ BE ID5TIFI$1 WE WILL HAVE TO FACE ! OBVI\S FACT ?AT MO/ ( US >E NOT =TUNATE 5\< TO HAVE \R REQUE/S1 COMM&S1 ADVICE1 & SO ON *>ACT]I/ICALLY RE9=C$ 7!Y MAY NEV]!LESS EXI/ 9 CONSID]ABLE /R5G?74 ,!SE RESPONSES C\LD !RE=E NOT BE CONSID]$ M&S BY ,SK9N]4 ,9 FACT1 ,SK9N] SETS UP A CATEGORY ( 0MAGICAL M&S0 7#d#h-#d#i7 TO COV] ! CASE ( 0M&S :I* CANNOT BE ACC\NT$ = BY %[+ ?AT !Y HAVE EV] HAD ! EFFECT SPECIFI$ OR ANY SIMIL> EFFECT UPON SIMIL> OCCASIONS0 7! WORD EV] 9 ?IS /ATEM5T %\LD BE REPLAC$ BY *>ACT]I/ICALLY74 ,9 !SE PSEUDO-M&S1 0! SPEAK] SIMPLY DESCRIBES ! RE9=CEM5T APPROPRIATE TO A GIV5 /ATE ( DEPRIVATION OR AV]SIVE /IMULATION40 ,9 O!R WORDS1 GIV5 ! MEAN+ ?AT WE HAVE BE5 L$ TO ASSIGN TO RE9=CEM5T & DEPRIVATION1 ! SPEAK] ASKS = :AT HE WANTS4 ,! REM>K ?AT 0A SPEAK] APPE>S TO CREATE NEW M&S ON ! ANALOGY ( OLD ONES0 IS ALSO NOT V]Y HELPFUL4 

,SK9N]'S CLAIM ?AT HIS NEW DESCRIPTIVE SY/EM IS SUP]IOR TO ! TRADITIONAL ONE 0BECAUSE ITS T]MS CAN BE DEF9$ ) RESPECT TO EXP]IM5TAL OP]ATIONS0 7#d#e7 IS1 WE SEE ONCE AGA91 AN ILLUSION4 ,! /ATEM5T 0,X WANTS ,Y0 IS NOT CL>IFI$ BY PO9T+ \T A RELATION BETWE5 RATE ( B>-PRESS+ & H\RS ( FOOD-DEPRIVATION2 REPLAC+ 0,X WANTS ,Y0 BY 0,X IS DEPRIV$ ( ,Y0 ADDS NO NEW OBJECTIVITY TO ! DESCRIPTION ( BEHAVIOR4 ,HIS FUR!R CLAIM = ! SUP]IORITY ( ! NEW ANALYSIS ( M&S IS ?AT IT PROVIDES AN OBJECTIVE BASIS = ! TRADITIONAL CLASSIFICATION 9TO REQUE/S1 COMM&S1 ETC4 7#c#h-#d#a74 ,! TRADITIONAL CLASSIFICATION IS 9 T]MS ( ! 9T5TION ( ! SPEAK]4 ,BUT 9T5TION1 ,SK9N] HOLDS1 CAN BE R$UC$ TO CONT+5CIES ( RE9=CEM5T1 &1 CORRESPOND+LY1 WE CAN EXPLA9 ! TRADITIONAL CLASSIFICATION 9 T]MS ( ! RE9=C+ BEHAVIOR ( ! LI/5]4 ,?US1 A QUE/ION IS A M& :I* 0SPECIFIES V]BAL ACTION1 & ! BEHAVIOR ( ! LI/5] P]MITS US TO CLASSIFY IT AS A REQUE/1 A COMM&1 OR A PRAY]0 7#c#i74 ,IT IS A REQUE/ IF 0! LI/5] IS 9DEP5D5TLY MOTIVAT$ TO RE9=CE ! SPEAK]0 A COMM& IF 0! LI/5]'S BEHAVIOR IS444 RE9=C$ BY R$UC+ A ?REAT1 A PRAY] IF ! M& 0PROMOTES RE9=CEM5T BY G5]AT+ AN EMOTIONAL DISPOSITION40 ,! M& IS ADVICE IF ! LI/5] IS POSITIVELY RE9=C$ BY ! CONSEQU5CES ( M$IAT+ ! RE9=CEM5T ( ! SPEAK]2 IT IS A W>N+ IF 0BY C>RY+ \T ! BEHAVIOR SPECIFI$ BY ! SPEAK]1 ! LI/5] ESCAPES FROM AV]SIVE /IMULATION0 & SO ON4 ,ALL ?IS IS OBVI\SLY WRONG IF ,SK9N] IS US+ ! WORDS REQUE/1 COMM&1 ETC41 9 ANY?+ LIKE ! S5SE ( ! CORRESPOND+ ,5GLI% WORDS4 ,! WORD QUE/ION DOES NOT COV] COMM&S4 ,PLEASE PASS ! SALT IS A REQUE/ 7BUT NOT A QUE/ION71 :E!R OR NOT ! LI/5] HAPP5S TO BE MOTIVAT$ TO FULFILL IT2 NOT EV]YONE TO :OM A REQUE/ IS ADDRESS$ IS FAVORABLY DISPOS$4 ,A RESPONSE DOES NOT CEASE TO BE A COMM& IF IT IS NOT FOLL[$2 NOR DOES A QUE/ION BECOME A COMM& IF ! SPEAK] ANSW]S IT BECAUSE ( AN IMPLI$ OR IMAG9$ ?REAT4 ,NOT ALL ADVICE IS GOOD ADVICE1 & A RESPONSE DOES NOT CEASE TO BE ADVICE IF IT IS NOT FOLL[$4 ,SIMIL>LY1 A W>N+ MAY BE MISGUID$2 HE$+ IT MAY CAUSE AV]SIVE /IMULATION1 & IGNOR+ IT MI<T BE POSITIVELY RE9=C+4 ,9 %ORT1 ! 5TIRE CLASSIFICATION IS BESIDE ! PO9T4 ,A MOM5T'S ?\<T IS SUFFICI5T TO DEMON/RATE ! IMPOSSIBILITY ( DI/+UI%+ BETWE5 REQUE/S1 COMM&S1 ADVICE1 ETC41 ON ! BASIS ( ! BEHAVIOR OR DISPOSITION ( ! P>TICUL> LI/5]4 ,NOR CAN WE DO ?IS ON ! BASIS ( ! TYPICAL BEHAVIOR ( ALL LI/5]S4 ,SOME ADVICE IS NEV] TAK51 IS ALWAYS BAD1 ETC41 & SIMIL>LY1 ) O!R K9DS ( M&S4 ,SK9N]'S EVID5T SATISFACTION ) ?IS ANALYSIS ( ! TRADITIONAL CLASSIFICATION IS EXTREMELY PUZZL+4 

,V,I,I,I 

,M&S >E OP]ANTS ) NO SPECIFI$ RELATION TO A PRIOR /IMULUS4 ,A TACT1 ON ! O!R H&1 IS DEF9$ AS 0A V]BAL OP]ANT 9 :I* A RESPONSE ( GIV5 =M IS EVOK$ 7OR AT LEA/ /R5G!N$7 BY A P>TICUL> OBJECT OR EV5T OR PROP]TY ( AN OBJECT OR EV5T0 7#h#a74 ,! EXAMPLES QUOT$ 9 ! DISCUSSION ( /IMULUS CONTROL 7,SECTION #c7 >E ALL TACTS4 ,! OBSCURITY ( ! NOTION /IMULUS CONTROL MAKES ! CONCEPT ( ! TACT RA!R MY/ICAL4 ,S9CE1 H[EV]1 ! TACT IS 0! MO/ IMPORTANT ( V]BAL OP]ANTS10 IT IS IMPORTANT TO 9VE/IGATE ! DEVELOPM5T ( ?IS CONCEPT 9 MORE DETAIL4 

,WE FIR/ ASK :Y ! V]BAL COMMUNITY 0SETS UP0 TACTS 9 ! *ILD -- ?AT IS1 H[ ! P>5T IS RE9=C$ BY SETT+ UP ! TACT4 ,! BASIC EXPLANATION = ?IS BEHAVIOR ( ! P>5T 7#h#e-#h#f7 IS ! RE9=CEM5T HE OBTA9S BY ! FACT ?AT HIS CONTACT ) ! 5VIRONM5T IS EXT5D$2 TO USE ,SK9N]'S EXAMPLE1 ! *ILD MAY LAT] BE ABLE TO CALL HIM TO ! TELEPHONE4 7,IT IS DIFFICULT TO SEE1 !N1 H[ FIR/ *ILDR5 ACQUIRE TACTS1 S9CE ! P>5T DOES NOT HAVE ! APPROPRIATE HI/ORY ( RE9=CEM5T47 ,REASON+ 9 ! SAME WAY1 WE MAY CONCLUDE ?AT ! P>5T 9DUCES ! *ILD TO WALK SO ?AT HE CAN MAKE SOME MONEY DELIV]+ NEWSPAP]S4 ,SIMIL>LY1 ! P>5T SETS UP AN 0E*OIC REP]TOIRE0 7E4G41 A PHONEMIC SY/EM7 9 ! *ILD BECAUSE ?IS MAKES IT EASI] TO TEA* HIM NEW VOCABUL>Y1 & EXT5D+ ! *ILD'S VOCABUL>Y IS ULTIMATELY USEFUL TO ! P>5T4 0,9 ALL !SE CASES WE EXPLA9 ! BEHAVIOR ( ! RE9=C+ LI/5] BY PO9T+ TO AN IMPROVEM5T 9 ! POSSIBILITY ( CONTROLL+ ! SPEAK] :OM HE RE9=CES0 7#e#f74 ,P]HAPS ?IS PROVIDES ! EXPLANATION = ! BEHAVIOR ( ! P>5T 9 9DUC+ ! *ILD TO WALK3 ! P>5T IS RE9=C$ BY ! IMPROVEM5T 9 HIS CONTROL ( ! *ILD :5 ! *ILD'S MOBILITY 9CREASES4 ,UND]LY+ !SE MODES ( EXPLANATION IS A CURI\S VIEW ?AT IT IS SOMEH[ MORE SCI5TIFIC TO ATTRIBUTE TO A P>5T A DESIRE TO CONTROL ! *ILD OR 5HANCE HIS [N POSSIBILITIES = ACTION ?AN A DESIRE TO SEE ! *ILD DEVELOP & EXT5D HIS CAPACITIES4 ,NE$LESS TO SAY1 NO EVID5CE IS (F]$ TO SUPPORT ?IS CONT5TION4 

,CONSID] N[ ! PROBLEM ( EXPLA9+ ! RESPONSE ( ! LI/5] TO A TACT4 ,SUPPOSE1 = EXAMPLE1 ?AT ,B HE>S ,A SAY FOX & REACTS APPROPRIATELY -- LOOKS >\ND1 RUNS AWAY1 AIMS HIS RIFLE1 ETC4 ,H[ CAN WE EXPLA9 ,B'S BEHAVIOR8 ,SK9N] RI<TLY REJECTS ANALYZES ( ?IS (F]$ BY ,J4 ,B4 ,WATSON & ,B]TR& ,RUSSELL4 ,HIS [N EQUALLY 9ADEQUATE ANALYSIS PROCE$S AS FOLL[S 7#h#g-#h#h74 ,WE ASSUME 7L7 0?AT 9 ! HI/ORY ( .<,B.> ! /IMULUS FOX HAS BE5 AN OCCASION UPON :I* LOOK+ >\ND HAS BE5 FOLL[$ BY SEE+ A FOX0 & 7#b7 0?AT ! LI/5] HAS SOME CURR5T '9T]E/ 9 SEE+ FOXES' -- ?AT BEHAVIOR :I* DEP5DS UPON A SE5 FOX = ITS EXECUTION IS /RONG1 & ?AT ! /IMULUS SUPPLI$ BY A FOX IS !RE=E RE9=C+40 ,B C>RIES \T ! APPROPRIATE BEHAVIOR1 !N1 BECAUSE 0! HE>D /IMULUS FOX IS ! OCCASION UPON :I* TURN+ & LOOK+ AB\T IS FREQU5TLY FOLL[$ BY ! RE9=CEM5T ( SEE+ A FOX10 I4E1 HIS BEHAVIOR IS A DISCRIM9AT$ OP]ANT4 ,?IS EXPLANATION IS UNCONV9C+4 ,B MAY NEV] HAVE SE5 A FOX & MAY HAVE NO CURR5T 9T]E/ 9 SEE+ ONE1 & YET MAY REACT APPROPRIATELY TO ! /IMULUS FOX4.<#c#e.> ,S9CE EXACTLY ! SAME BEHAVIOR MAY TAKE PLACE :5 NEI!R ( ! ASSUMPTIONS IS FULFILL$1 SOME O!R ME*ANISM MU/ BE OP]ATIVE H]E4 

,SK9N] REM>KS SEV]AL TIMES ?AT HIS ANALYSIS ( ! TACT 9 T]MS ( /IMULUS CONTROL IS AN IMPROVEM5T OV] ! TRADITIONAL =MULATIONS 9 T]MS ( REF]5CE & MEAN+4 ,?IS IS SIMPLY NOT TRUE4 ,HIS ANALYSIS IS FUNDAM5TALLY ! SAME AS ! TRADITIONAL ONE1 ?\< MU* LESS C>EFULLY PHRAS$4 ,9 P>TICUL>1 IT DIFF]S ONLY BY 9DISCRIM9ATE P>APHRASE ( SU* NOTIONS AS D5OTATION 7REF]5CE7 & CONNOTATION 7MEAN+71 :I* HAVE BE5 KEPT CLE>LY AP>T 9 TRADITIONAL =MULATIONS1 9 T]MS ( ! VAGUE CONCEPT /IMULUS CONTROL4 ,9 ONE TRADITIONAL =MULATION A DESCRIPTIVE T]M IS SAID TO D5OTE A SET ( 5TITIES & TO CONNOTE OR DESIGNATE A C]TA9 PROP]TY OR CONDITION ?AT AN 5TITY MU/ POSSESS OR FULFILL IF ! T]M IS TO APPLY TO IT4.<#c#f.> ,?US1 ! T]M V]TEBRATE REF]S TO 7D5OTES1 IS TRUE (7 V]TEBRATES & CONNOTES ! PROP]TY HAV+ A SP9E OR SOME?+ ( ! SORT4 ,?IS CONNOT$ DEF9+ PROP]TY IS CALL$ ! MEAN+ ( ! T]M4 ,TWO T]MS MAY HAVE ! SAME REF]5CE BUT DIFF]5T MEAN+S4 ,?US1 IT IS APP>5TLY TRUE ?AT ! CREATURES ) HE>TS >E ALL & ONLY ! V]TEBRATES4 ,IF SO1 !N ! T]M CREATURE ) A HE>T REF]S TO V]TEBRATES & DESIGNATES ! PROP]TY HAV+ A HE>T4 ,?IS IS PRESUMABLY A DIFF]5T PROP]TY 7A DIFF]5T G5]AL CONDITION7 FROM HAV+ A SP9E2 H5CE ! T]MS V]TEBRATE & CREATURE ) A HE>T >E SAID TO HAVE DIFF]5T MEAN+S4 ,?IS ANALYSIS IS NOT 9CORRECT 7= AT LEA/ ONE S5SE ( MEAN+71 BUT ITS MANY LIMITATIONS HAVE FREQU5TLY BE5 PO9T$ \T4.<#c#g.> ,! MAJOR PROBLEM IS ?AT !RE IS NO GOOD WAY TO DECIDE :E!R TWO DESCRIPTIVE T]MS DESIGNATE ! SAME PROP]TY4.<#c#h.> ,AS WE HAVE JU/ SE51 IT IS NOT SUFFICI5T ?AT !Y REF] TO ! SAME OBJECTS4 ,V]TEBRATE & CREATURE ) A SP9E W\LD BE SAID TO DESIGNATE ! SAME PROP]TY 7DI/9CT FROM ?AT DESIGNAT$ BY CREATURE ) A HE>T74 ,IF WE ASK :Y ?IS IS SO1 ! ONLY ANSW] APPE>S TO BE ?AT ! T]MS >E SYNONYM\S4 ,! NOTION PROP]TY ?US SEEMS SOMEH[ LANGUAGE-B\ND1 & APPEAL TO 0DEF9+ PROP]TIES0 %$S LITTLE LI<T ON QUE/IONS ( MEAN+ & SYNONYMY4 

,SK9N] ACCEPTS ! TRADITIONAL ACC\NT 9 TOTO1 AS CAN BE SE5 FROM HIS DEF9ITION ( A TACT AS A RESPONSE UND] CONTROL ( A PROP]TY 7/IMULUS7 ( SOME PHYSICAL OBJECT OR EV5T4 ,WE HAVE F\ND ?AT ! NOTION CONTROL HAS NO REAL SUB/ANCE & IS P]HAPS BE/ UND]/OOD AS A P>APHRASE ( D5OTE OR CONNOTE OR1 AMBIGU\SLY1 BO?4 ,! ONLY CONSEQU5CE ( ADOPT+ ! NEW T]M /IMULUS CONTROL IS ?AT ! IMPORTANT DIFF]5CES BETWE5 REF]5CE & MEAN+ >E OBSCUR$4 ,IT PROVIDES NO NEW OBJECTIVITY4 ,! /IMULUS CONTROLL+ ! RESPONSE IS DET]M9$ BY ! RESPONSE ITSELF2 !RE IS NO 9DEP5D5T & OBJECTIVE ME?OD ( ID5TIFICATION 7SEE ,SECTION #c74 ,CONSEQU5TLY1 :5 ,SK9N] DEF9ES SYNONYMY AS ! CASE 9 :I* 0! SAME /IMULUS LEADS TO QUITE DIFF]5T RESPONSES0 7#a#a#h71 WE CAN HAVE NO OBJECTION4 ,! RESPONSES *AIR & R$ MADE ALT]NATIVELY TO ! SAME OBJECT >E NOT SYNONYM\S1 BECAUSE ! /IMULI >E CALL$ DIFF]5T4 ,! RESPONSES V]TEBRATE & CREATURE ) A SP9E W\LD BE CONSID]$ SYNONYM\S BECAUSE !Y >E CONTROLL$ BY ! SAME PROP]TY ( ! OBJECT UND] 9VE/IGATION2 9 MORE TRADITIONAL & NO LESS SCI5TIFIC T]MS1 !Y EVOKE ! SAME CONCEPT4 ,SIMIL>LY1 :5 METAPHORICAL EXT5SION IS EXPLA9$ AS DUE TO 0! CONTROL EX]CIS$ BY PROP]TIES ( ! /IMULUS :I*1 ?\< PRES5T AT RE9=CEM5T1 DO NOT 5T] 9TO ! CONT+5CY RESPECT$ BY ! V]BAL COMMUNITY0 7#i#b2 TRADITIONALLY1 ACCID5TAL PROP]TIES71 NO OBJECTION CAN BE RAIS$ :I* HAS NOT ALREADY BE5 LEVEL$ AGA9/ ! TRADITIONAL ACC\NT4 ,JU/ AS WE C\LD 0EXPLA90 ! RESPONSE ,MOZ>T TO A PIECE ( MUSIC 9 T]MS ( SUBTLE PROP]TIES ( ! CONTROLL+ /IMULI1 WE CAN1 ) EQUAL FACILITY1 EXPLA9 ! APPE>ANCE ( ! RESPONSE SUN :5 NO SUN IS PRES5T1 AS 9 ,JULIET IS .<LIKE.> ! SUN4 0,WE DO SO BY NOT+ ?AT ,JULIET & ! SUN HAVE COMMON PROP]TIES1 AT LEA/ 9 !IR EFFECT ON ! SPEAK]0 7#i#c74 ,S9CE ANY TWO OBJECTS HAVE 9DEF9ITELY MANY PROP]TIES 9 COMMON1 WE CAN BE C]TA9 ?AT WE WILL NEV] BE AT A LOSS TO EXPLA9 A RESPONSE ( ! =M ,A IS LIKE ,B1 = >BITR>Y ,A & ,B4 ,IT IS CLE>1 H[EV]1 ?AT ,SK9N]'S RECURR5T CLAIM ?AT HIS =MULATION IS SIMPL] & MORE SCI5TIFIC ?AN ! TRADITIONAL ACC\NT HAS NO BASIS 9 FACT4 

,TACTS UND] ! CONTROL ( PRIVATE /IMULI 7,BLOOMFIELD'S 0DISPLAC$ SPEE*07 =M A L>GE & IMPORTANT CLASS 7#a#c-#d#f71 9CLUD+ NOT ONLY SU* RESPONSES AS FAMILI> & BEAUTIFUL1 BUT ALSO V]BAL RESPONSES REF]R+ TO PA/1 POT5TIAL1 OR FUTURE EV5TS OR BEHAVIOR4 ,= EXAMPLE1 ! RESPONSE ,!RE WAS AN ELEPHANT AT ! ZOO 0MU/ BE UND]/OOD AS A RESPONSE TO CURR5T /IMULI1 9CLUD+ EV5TS )9 ! SPEAK] HIMSELF0 7#a#d#c74.<#c#i.> ,IF WE N[ ASK \RSELVES :AT PROPORTION ( ! TACTS 9 ACTUAL LIFE >E RESPONSES TO 7DESCRIPTIONS (7 ACTUAL CURR5T \TSIDE /IMULATION1 WE CAN SEE JU/ H[ L>GE A ROLE MU/ BE ATTRIBUT$ TO PRIVATE /IMULI4 ,A M9UTE AM\NT ( V]BAL BEHAVIOR1 \TSIDE ! NURS]Y1 CONSI/S ( SU* REM>KS AS ,?IS IS R$ & ,!RE IS A MAN4 ,! FACT ?AT FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS MU/ MAKE SU* A HEAVY APPEAL TO OBSCURE 9T]NAL /IMULI IS AGA9 A MEASURE ( ITS ACTUAL ADVANCE OV] TRADITIONAL =MULATIONS4 

,I,X 

,RESPONSES UND] ! CONTROL ( PRIOR V]BAL /IMULI >E CONSID]$ UND] A DIFF]5T HEAD+ FROM ! TACT4 ,AN E*OIC OP]ANT IS A RESPONSE :I* 0G5]ATES A S\ND PATT]N SIMIL> TO ?AT ( ! /IMULUS0 7#e#e74 ,IT COV]S ONLY CASES ( IMM$IATE IMITATION4.<#d.> ,NO ATTEMPT IS MADE TO DEF9E ! S5SE 9 :I* A *ILD'S E*OIC RESPONSE IS 0SIMIL>0 TO ! /IMULUS SPOK5 9 ! FA!R'S BASS VOICE2 IT SEEMS1 ?\< !RE >E NO CLE> /ATEM5TS AB\T ?IS1 ?AT ,SK9N] W\LD NOT ACCEPT ! ACC\NT ( ! PHONOLOGI/ 9 ?IS RESPECT1 BUT NO?+ ELSE IS (F]$4 ,! DEVELOPM5T ( AN E*OIC REP]TOIRE IS ATTRIBUT$ COMPLETELY TO DIFF]5TIAL RE9=CEM5T4 ,S9CE ! SPEAK] WILL DO NO MORE1 ACCORD+ TO ,SK9N]1 ?AN :AT IS DEM&$ ( HIM BY ! V]BAL COMMUNITY1 ! DEGREE ( ACCURACY 9SI/$ ON BY ?IS COMMUNITY WILL DET]M9E ! ELEM5TS ( ! REP]TOIRE1 :ATEV] !SE MAY BE 7NOT NECESS>ILY PHONEMES74 0,9 A V]BAL COMMUNITY :I* DOES NOT 9SI/ ON A PRECISE CORRESPOND5CE1 AN E*OIC REP]TOIRE MAY REMA9 SLACK & WILL BE LESS SUCCESSFULLY APPLI$ TO NOVEL PATT]NS40 ,!RE IS NO DISCUSSION ( SU* FAMILI> PH5OM5A AS ! ACCURACY ) :I* A *ILD WILL PICK UP A SECOND LANGUAGE OR A LOCAL DIALECT 9 ! C\RSE ( PLAY+ ) O!R *ILDR51 :I* SEEM %>PLY 9 CONFLICT ) !SE ASS]TIONS4 ,NO AN?ROPOLOGICAL EVID5CE IS CIT$ TO SUPPORT ! CLAIM ?AT AN EFFECTIVE PHONEMIC SY/EM DOES NOT DEVELOP 7?IS IS ! SUB/ANCE ( ! QUOT$ REM>K7 9 COMMUNITIES ?AT DO NOT 9SI/ ON PRECISE CORRESPOND5CE4 

,A V]BAL RESPONSE TO A WRITT5 /IMULUS 7READ+7 IS CALL$ TEXTUAL BEHAVIOR4 

,O!R V]BAL RESPONSES TO V]BAL /IMULI >E CALL$ 9TRAV]BAL OP]ANTS4 ,P>ADIGM 9/ANCES >E ! RESPONSE F\R TO ! /IMULUS TWO PLUS TWO OR ! RESPONSE ,P>IS TO ! /IMULUS CAPITAL ( ,FRANCE4 ,SIMPLE CONDITION+ MAY BE SUFFICI5T TO ACC\NT = ! RESPONSE F\R TO TWO PLUS TWO1.<#d#a.> BUT ! NOTION ( 9TRAV]BAL RESPONSE LOSES ALL MEAN+ :5 WE F9D IT EXT5D$ TO COV] MO/ ( ! FACTS ( HI/ORY & MANY ( ! FACTS ( SCI5CE 7#g#b1 #a#b#i72 ALL WORD ASSOCIATION & 0FLI<T ( IDEAS0 7#g#c-#g#f72 ALL TRANSLATIONS & P>APHRASE 7#g#g72 REPORTS ( ?+S SE51 HE>D1 OR REMEMB]$ 7#c#a#e72 &1 9 G5]AL1 L>GE SEGM5TS ( SCI5TIFIC1 MA!MATICAL1 & LIT]>Y DISC\RSE4 ,OBVI\SLY1 ! K9D ( EXPLANATION ?AT MI<T BE PROPOS$ = A /UD5T'S ABILITY TO RESPOND ) ,P>IS TO CAPITAL ( ,FRANCE1 AFT] SUITABLE PRACTICE1 CAN H>DLY BE S]I\SLY (F]$ TO ACC\NT = HIS ABILITY TO MAKE A JUDICI\S GUESS 9 ANSW]+ ! QUE/IONS 7TO HIM NEW73 ,:AT IS ! SEAT ( ! ,FR5* GOV]NM5T81 444 ! S\RCE ( ! LIT]>Y DIALECT8144 ! *IEF T>GET ( ! ,G]MAN BLITZKRIEG81 ETC41 OR HIS ABILITY TO PROVE A NEW !OREM1 TRANSLATE A NEW PASSAGE1 OR P>APHRASE A REM>K = ! FIR/ TIME OR 9 A NEW WAY4 

,! PROCESS ( 0GETT+ SOMEONE TO SEE A PO9T10 TO SEE SOME?+ Y\R WAY1 OR TO UND]/& A COMPLEX /ATE ( AFFAIRS 7E4G41 A DIFFICULT POLITICAL SITUATION OR A MA!MATICAL PRO(7 IS1 = ,SK9N]1 SIMPLY A MATT] ( 9CREAS+ ! /R5G? ( ! LI/5]'S ALREADY AVAILABLE BEHAVIOR4.<#d#b.> ,S9CE 0! PROCESS IS (T5 EXEMPLIFI$ BY RELATIVELY 9TELLECTUAL SCI5TIFIC OR PHILOSOPHICAL DISC\RSE10 ,SK9N] CONSID]S IT 0ALL ! MORE SURPRIS+ ?AT IT MAY BE R$UC$ TO E*OIC1 TEXTUAL1 OR 9TRAV]BAL SUPPLEM5TATION0 7#b#f#i74 ,AGA91 IT IS ONLY ! VAGU5ESS & LATITUDE ) :I* ! NOTIONS /R5G? & 9TRAV]BAL RESPONSE >E US$ ?AT SAVE ?IS FROM ABSURDITY4 ,IF WE USE !SE T]MS 9 !IR LIT]AL S5SE1 IT IS CLE> ?AT UND]/&+ A /ATEM5T CANNOT BE EQUAT$ TO %\T+ IT FREQU5TLY 9 A HI<-PIT*$ VOICE 7HI< RESPONSE /R5G?71 & A CLEV] & CONV9C+ >GUM5T CANNOT BE ACC\NT$ = ON ! BASIS ( A HI/ORY ( PAIR+S ( V]BAL RESPONSES4.<#d#c.> 

,X 

,A F9AL CLASS ( OP]ANTS1 CALL$ AUTOCLITICS1 9CLUDES ?OSE ?AT >E 9VOLV$ 9 ASS]TION1 NEGATION1 QUANTIFICATION1 QUALIFICATION ( RESPONSES1 CON/RUCTION ( S5T5CES1 & ! 0HI<LY COMPLEX MANIPULATIONS ( V]BAL ?9K+40 ,ALL !SE ACTS >E TO BE EXPLA9$ 09 T]MS ( BEHAVIOR :I* IS EVOK$ BY OR ACTS UPON O!R BEHAVIOR ( ! SPEAK]0 7#c#a#c74 ,AUTOCLITICS >E1 !N1 RESPONSES TO ALREADY GIV5 RESPONSES1 OR RA!R1 AS WE F9D 9 READ+ ?R\< ?IS SECTION1 !Y >E RESPONSES TO COV]T OR 9CIPI5T OR POT5TIAL V]BAL BEHAVIOR4 ,AMONG ! AUTOCLITICS >E LI/$ SU* EXPRESSIONS AS ,I RECALL1 ,I IMAG9E1 = EXAMPLE1 ASSUME1 LET ,X EQUAL4441 ! T]MS ( NEGATION1 ! IS ( PR$ICATION & ASS]TION1 ALL1 SOME1 IF1 !N1 &1 9 G5]AL1 ALL MORPHEMES O!R ?AN N\NS1 V]BS1 & ADJECTIVES1 AS WELL AS GRAMMATICAL PROCESSES ( ORD]+ & >RANGEM5T4 ,H>DLY A REM>K 9 ?IS SECTION CAN BE ACCEPT$ )\T S]I\S QUALIFICATION4 ,TO TAKE JU/ ONE EXAMPLE1 CONSID] ,SK9N]'S ACC\NT ( ! AUTOCLITIC ALL 9 ,ALL SWANS >E :ITE 7#c#b#i74 ,OBVI\SLY WE CANNOT ASSUME ?AT ?IS IS A TACT TO ALL SWANS AS /IMULUS4 ,IT IS SUGGE/$1 !RE=E1 ?AT WE TAKE ALL TO BE AN AUTOCLITIC MODIFY+ ! :OLE S5T5CE ,SWANS >E :ITE4 ,ALL CAN !N BE TAK5 AS EQUIVAL5T TO ALWAYS1 OR ALWAYS IT IS POSSIBLE TO SAY4 ,NOTICE1 H[EV]1 ?AT ! MODIFI$ S5T5CE ,SWANS >E :ITE IS JU/ AS G5]AL AS ,ALL SWANS >E :ITE4 ,FUR!RMORE1 ! PROPOS$ TRANSLATION ( ALL IS 9CORRECT IF TAK5 LIT]ALLY4 ,IT IS JU/ AS POSSIBLE TO SAY ,SWANS >E GRE5 AS TO SAY ,SWANS >E :ITE4 ,IT IS NOT ALWAYS POSSIBLE TO SAY EI!R 7E4G41 :ILE Y\ >E SAY+ SOME?+ ELSE OR SLEEP+74 ,PROBABLY :AT ,SK9N] MEANS IS ?AT ! S5T5CE CAN BE P>APHRAS$ 0,X IS :ITE IS TRUE1 = EA* SWAN ,X40 ,BUT ?IS P>APHRASE CANNOT BE GIV5 )9 HIS SY/EM1 :I* HAS NO PLACE = TRUE4 

,SK9N]'S ACC\NT ( GRAMM> & SYNTAX AS AUTOCLITIC PROCESSES 7,*AP4 #a#c7 DIFF]S FROM A FAMILI> TRADITIONAL ACC\NT MA9LY 9 ! USE ( ! PSEUDO-SCI5TIFIC T]MS CONTROL OR EVOKE 9 PLACE ( ! TRADITIONAL REF]4 ,?US1 9 ,! BOY RUNS1 ! F9AL S ( RUNS IS A TACT UND] CONTROL ( SU* 0SUBTLE PROP]TIES ( A SITUATION0 AS 0! NATURE ( RUNN+ AS AN ACTIVITY RA!R ?AN AN OBJECT OR PROP]TY ( AN OBJECT40.<#d#d.> 7,PRESUMABLY1 !N1 9 ,! ATTEMPT FAILS1 ,! DIFFICULTY REMA9S1 ,HIS ANXIETY 9CREASES1 ETC41 WE MU/ ALSO SAY ?AT ! S 9DICATES ?AT ! OBJECT DESCRIB$ AS ! ATTEMPT IS C>RY+ \T ! ACTIVITY ( FAIL+1 ETC47 ,9 ! BOY'S GUN1 H[EV]1 ! S D5OTES POSSESSION 7AS1 PRESUMABLY1 9 ! BOY'S >RIVAL1 444 /ORY1 444 AGE1 ETC47 & IS UND] ! CONTROL ( ?IS 0RELATIONAL ASPECT ( ! SITUATION0 7#c#c#f74 ,! 0RELATIONAL AUTOCLITIC ( ORD]0 7:ATEV] IT MAY MEAN TO CALL ! ORD] ( A SET ( RESPONSES A RESPONSE TO !M7 9 ,! BOY RUNS ! /ORE IS UND] ! CONTROL ( AN 0EXTREMELY COMPLEX /IMULUS SITUATION10 NAMELY1 ?AT ! BOY IS RUNN+ ! /ORE 7#c#c#e74 ,& 9 ! HAT & ! %OE IS UND] ! CONTROL ( ! PROP]TY 0PAIR40 ,?R\< 9 ! DOG W5T ?R\< ! H$GE IS UND] ! CONTROL ( ! 0RELATION BETWE5 ! GO+ DOG & ! H$GE0 7#c#d#b74 ,9 G5]AL1 N\NS >E EVOK$ BY OBJECTS1 V]BS BY ACTIONS1 & SO ON4 ,SK9N] CONSID]S A S5T5CE TO BE A SET ( KEY RESPONSES 7N\NS1 V]BS1 ADJECTIVES7 ON A SKELETAL FRAME 7#c#d#f74 ,IF WE >E CONC]N$ ) ! FACT ?AT ,SAM R5T$ A LEAKY BOAT1 ! RAW RESPONSES TO ! SITUATION >E R5T1 BOAT1 LEAK1 & ,SAM4 ,AUTOCLITICS 79CLUD+ ORD]7 :I* QUALIFY !SE RESPONSES1 EXPRESS RELATIONS BETWE5 !M1 & ! LIKE1 >E !N ADD$ BY A PROCESS CALL$ COMPOSITION & ! RESULT IS A GRAMMATICAL S5T5CE1 ONE ( MANY ALT]NATIVES AMONG :I* SELECTION IS RA!R >BITR>Y4 ,! IDEA ?AT S5T5CES CONSI/ ( LEXICAL ITEMS PLAC$ 9 A GRAMMATICAL FRAME IS ( C\RSE A TRADITIONAL ONE1 )9 BO? PHILOSOPHY & L+UI/ICS4 ,SK9N] ADDS TO IT ONLY ! V]Y IMPLAUSIBLE SPECULATION ?AT 9 ! 9T]NAL PROCESS ( COMPOSITION1 ! N\NS1 V]BS1 & ADJECTIVES >E *OS5 FIR/ & !N >E >RANG$1 QUALIFI$1 ETC41 BY AUTOCLITIC RESPONSES TO !SE 9T]NAL ACTIVITIES4.<#d#e.> 

,?IS VIEW ( S5T5CE /RUCTURE1 :E!R PHRAS$ 9 T]MS ( AUTOCLITICS1 SYNCATEGOREMATIC EXPRESSIONS1 OR GRAMMATICAL & LEXICAL MORPHEMES1 IS 9ADEQUATE4 ,%EEP PROVIDE WOOL HAS NO 7PHYSICAL7 FRAME AT ALL1 BUT NO O!R >RANGEM5T ( !SE WORDS IS AN ,5GLI% S5T5CE4 ,! SEQU5CES FURI\SLY SLEEP IDEAS GRE5 COLORLESS & FRI5DLY Y\NG DOGS SEEM H>MLESS HAVE ! SAME FRAMES1 BUT ONLY ONE IS A S5T5CE ( ,5GLI% 7SIMIL>LY1 ONLY ONE ( ! SEQU5CES =M$ BY READ+ !SE FROM BACK TO FRONT74 ,/RUGGL+ >TI/S CAN BE A NUISANCE HAS ! SAME FRAME AS M>K+ PAP]S CAN BE A NUISANCE1 BUT IS QUITE DIFF]5T 9 S5T5CE /RUCTURE1 AS CAN BE SE5 BY REPLAC+ CAN BE BY IS OR >E 9 BO? CASES4 ,!RE >E MANY O!R SIMIL> & EQUALLY SIMPLE EXAMPLES4 ,IT IS EVID5T ?AT MORE IS 9VOLV$ 9 S5T5CE /RUCTURE ?AN 9S]TION ( LEXICAL ITEMS 9 GRAMMATICAL FRAMES2 NO APPROA* TO LANGUAGE ?AT FAILS TO TAKE !SE DEEP] PROCESSES 9TO ACC\NT CAN POSSIBLY A*IEVE MU* SUCCESS 9 ACC\NT+ = ACTUAL L+UI/IC BEHAVIOR4 

,X,I 

,! PREC$+ DISCUSSION COV]S ALL ! MAJOR NOTIONS ?AT ,SK9N] 9TRODUCES 9 HIS DESCRIPTIVE SY/EM4 ,MY PURPOSE 9 DISCUSS+ ! CONCEPTS ONE BY ONE WAS TO %[ ?AT 9 EA* CASE1 IF WE TAKE HIS T]MS 9 !IR LIT]AL MEAN+1 ! DESCRIPTION COV]S ALMO/ NO ASPECT ( V]BAL BEHAVIOR1 & IF WE TAKE !M METAPHORICALLY1 ! DESCRIPTION (F]S NO IMPROVEM5T OV] V>I\S TRADITIONAL =MULATIONS4 ,! T]MS BORR[$ FROM EXP]IM5TAL PSY*OLOGY SIMPLY LOSE !IR OBJECTIVE MEAN+ ) ?IS EXT5SION1 & TAKE OV] ! FULL VAGU5ESS ( ORD9>Y LANGUAGE4 ,S9CE ,SK9N] LIMITS HIMSELF TO SU* A SMALL SET ( T]MS = P>APHRASE1 MANY IMPORTANT DI/9CTIONS >E OBSCUR$4 ,I ?9K ?AT ?IS ANALYSIS SUPPORTS ! VIEW EXPRESS$ 9 ,SECTION ,I1 ?AT ELIM9ATION ( ! 9DEP5D5T CONTRIBUTION ( ! SPEAK] & LE>N] 7A RESULT :I* ,SK9N] CONSID]S ( GREAT IMPORTANCE1 CF4 #c#a#a-#a#b7 CAN BE A*IEV$ ONLY AT ! CO/ ( ELIM9AT+ ALL SIGNIFICANCE FROM ! DESCRIPTIVE SY/EM1 :I* !N OP]ATES AT A LEVEL SO GROSS & CRUDE ?AT NO ANSW]S >E SUGGE/$ TO ! MO/ ELEM5T>Y QUE/IONS4.<#d#f.> ,! QUE/IONS TO :I* ,SK9N] HAS ADDRESS$ HIS SPECULATIONS >E HOPELESSLY PREMATURE4 ,IT IS FUTILE TO 9QUIRE 9TO ! CAUSATION ( V]BAL BEHAVIOR UNTIL MU* MORE IS KN[N AB\T ! SPECIFIC *>ACT] ( ?IS BEHAVIOR2 & !RE IS LITTLE PO9T 9 SPECULAT+ AB\T ! PROCESS ( ACQUISITION )\T MU* BETT] UND]/&+ ( :AT IS ACQUIR$4 

,ANYONE :O S]I\SLY APPROA*ES ! /UDY ( L+UI/IC BEHAVIOR1 :E!R L+UI/1 PSY*OLOGI/1 OR PHILOSOPH]1 MU/ QUICKLY BECOME AW>E ( ! 5ORM\S DIFFICULTY ( /AT+ A PROBLEM :I* WILL DEF9E ! >EA ( HIS 9VE/IGATIONS1 & :I* WILL NOT BE EI!R COMPLETELY TRIVIAL OR HOPELESSLY BEYOND ! RANGE ( PRES5T-DAY UND]/&+ & TE*NIQUE4 ,9 SELECT+ FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS AS HIS PROBLEM1 ,SK9N] HAS SET HIMSELF A TASK ( ! LATT] TYPE4 ,9 AN EXTREMELY 9T]E/+ & 9SI<TFUL PAP]1.<#d#g.> ,K4 ,S4 ,LA%LEY HAS IMPLICITLY DELIMIT$ A CLASS ( PROBLEMS :I* CAN BE APPROA*$ 9 A FRUITFUL WAY BY ! L+UI/ & PSY*OLOGI/1 & :I* >E CLE>LY PRELIM9>Y TO ?OSE ) :I* ,SK9N] IS CONC]N$4 ,LA%LEY RECOGNIZES1 AS ANYONE MU/ :O S]I\SLY CONSID]S ! DATA1 ?AT ! COMPOSITION & PRODUCTION ( AN UTT]ANCE IS NOT SIMPLY A MATT] ( /R++ TOGE!R A SEQU5CE ( RESPONSES UND] ! CONTROL ( \TSIDE /IMULATION & 9TRAV]BAL ASSOCIATION1 & ?AT ! SYNTACTIC ORGANIZATION ( AN UTT]ANCE IS NOT SOME?+ DIRECTLY REPRES5T$ 9 ANY SIMPLE WAY 9 ! PHYSICAL /RUCTURE ( ! UTT]ANCE ITSELF4 ,A V>IETY ( OBS]VATIONS LEAD HIM TO CONCLUDE ?AT SYNTACTIC /RUCTURE IS 0A G5]ALIZ$ PATT]N IMPOS$ ON ! SPECIFIC ACTS AS !Y OCCUR0 7#e#a#b71 & ?AT 0A CONSID]ATION ( ! /RUCTURE ( ! S5T5CE & O!R MOTOR SEQU5CES WILL %[444?AT !RE >E1 BEH9D ! OV]TLY EXPRESS$ SEQU5CES1 A MULTIPLICITY ( 9TEGRATIVE PROCESSES :I* CAN ONLY BE 9F]R$ FROM ! F9AL RESULTS ( !IR ACTIVITY0 7#e#i74 ,HE ALSO COMM5TS ON ! GREAT DIFFICULTY ( DET]M9+ ! 0SELECTIVE ME*ANISMS0 US$ 9 ! ACTUAL CON/RUCTION ( A P>TICUL> UTT]ANCE 7#e#b#b74 

,AL?\< PRES5T-DAY L+UI/ICS CANNOT PROVIDE A PRECISE ACC\NT ( !SE 9TEGRATIVE PROCESSES1 IMPOS$ PATT]NS1 & SELECTIVE ME*ANISMS1 IT CAN AT LEA/ SET ITSELF ! PROBLEM ( *>ACT]IZ+ !SE COMPLETELY4 ,IT IS REASONABLE TO REG>D ! GRAMM> ( A LANGUAGE ,L IDEALLY AS A ME*ANISM ?AT PROVIDES AN 5UM]ATION ( ! S5T5CES ( ,L 9 SOME?+ LIKE ! WAY 9 :I* A D$UCTIVE !ORY GIVES AN 5UM]ATION ( A SET ( !OREMS4 7,GRAMM>1 9 ?IS S5SE ( ! WORD1 9CLUDES PHONOLOGY47 ,FUR!RMORE1 ! !ORY ( LANGUAGE CAN BE REG>D$ AS A /UDY ( ! =MAL PROP]TIES ( SU* GRAMM>S1 &1 ) A PRECISE 5\< =MULATION1 ?IS G5]AL !ORY CAN PROVIDE A UNI=M ME?OD = DET]M9+1 FROM ! PROCESS ( G5]ATION ( A GIV5 S5T5CE1 A /RUCTURAL DESCRIPTION :I* CAN GIVE A GOOD DEAL ( 9SI<T 9TO H[ ?IS S5T5CE IS US$ & UND]/OOD4 ,9 %ORT1 IT %\LD BE POSSIBLE TO D]IVE FROM A PROP]LY =MULAT$ GRAMM> A /ATEM5T ( ! 9TEGRATIVE PROCESSES & G5]ALIZ$ PATT]NS IMPOS$ ON ! SPECIFIC ACTS ?AT CON/ITUTE AN UTT]ANCE4 ,! RULES ( A GRAMM> ( ! APPROPRIATE =M CAN BE SUBDIVID$ 9TO ! TWO TYPES1 OPTIONAL & OBLIGATORY2 ONLY ! LATT] MU/ BE APPLI$ 9 G5]AT+ AN UTT]ANCE4 ,! OPTIONAL RULES ( ! GRAMM> CAN BE VIEW$1 !N1 AS ! SELECTIVE ME*ANISMS 9VOLV$ 9 ! PRODUCTION ( A P>TICUL> UTT]ANCE4 ,! PROBLEM ( SPECIFY+ !SE 9TEGRATIVE PROCESSES & SELECTIVE ME*ANISMS IS NONTRIVIAL & NOT BEYOND ! RANGE ( POSSIBLE 9VE/IGATION4 ,! RESULTS ( SU* A /UDY MI<T1 AS ,LA%LEY SUGGE/S1 BE ( 9DEP5D5T 9T]E/ = PSY*OLOGY & NEUROLOGY 7& CONV]SELY74 ,AL?\< SU* A /UDY1 EV5 IF SUCCESSFUL1 W\LD BY NO MEANS ANSW] ! MAJOR PROBLEMS 9VOLV$ 9 ! 9VE/IGATION ( MEAN+ & ! CAUSATION ( BEHAVIOR1 IT SURELY WILL NOT BE UNRELAT$ TO !SE4 ,IT IS AT LEA/ POSSIBLE1 FUR!RMORE1 ?AT SU* A NOTION AS SEMANTIC G5]ALIZATION1 TO :I* SU* HEAVY APPEAL IS MADE 9 ALL APPROA*ES TO LANGUAGE 9 USE1 CONCEALS COMPLEXITIES & SPECIFIC /RUCTURE ( 9F]5CE NOT F> DIFF]5T FROM ?OSE ?AT CAN BE /UDI$ & EXHIBIT$ 9 ! CASE ( SYNTAX1 & ?AT CONSEQU5TLY ! G5]AL *>ACT] ( ! RESULTS ( SYNTACTIC 9VE/IGATIONS MAY BE A CORRECTIVE TO OV]SIMPLIFI$ APPROA*ES TO ! !ORY ( MEAN+4 

,! BEHAVIOR ( ! SPEAK]1 LI/5]1 & LE>N] ( LANGUAGE CON/ITUTES1 ( C\RSE1 ! ACTUAL DATA = ANY /UDY ( LANGUAGE4 ,! CON/RUCTION ( A GRAMM> :I* 5UM]ATES S5T5CES 9 SU* A WAY ?AT A MEAN+FUL /RUCTURAL DESCRIPTION CAN BE DET]M9$ = EA* S5T5CE DOES NOT 9 ITSELF PROVIDE AN ACC\NT ( ?IS ACTUAL BEHAVIOR4 ,IT M]ELY *>ACT]IZES AB/RACTLY ! ABILITY ( ONE :O HAS MA/]$ ! LANGUAGE TO DI/+UI% S5T5CES FROM NONS5T5CES1 TO UND]/& NEW S5T5CES 79 P>T71 TO NOTE C]TA9 AMBIGUITIES1 ETC4 ,!SE >E V]Y REM>KABLE ABILITIES4 ,WE CON/ANTLY READ & HE> NEW SEQU5CES ( WORDS1 RECOGNIZE !M AS S5T5CES1 & UND]/& !M4 ,IT IS EASY TO %[ ?AT ! NEW EV5TS ?AT WE ACCEPT & UND]/& AS S5T5CES >E NOT RELAT$ TO ?OSE ) :I* WE >E FAMILI> BY ANY SIMPLE NOTION ( =MAL 7OR SEMANTIC OR /ATI/ICAL7 SIMIL>ITY OR ID5TITY ( GRAMMATICAL FRAME4 ,TALK ( G5]ALIZATION 9 ?IS CASE IS 5TIRELY PO9TLESS & EMPTY4 ,IT APPE>S ?AT WE RECOGNIZE A NEW ITEM AS A S5T5CE NOT BECAUSE IT MAT*ES SOME FAMILI> ITEM 9 ANY SIMPLE WAY1 BUT BECAUSE IT IS G5]AT$ BY ! GRAMM> ?AT EA* 9DIVIDUAL HAS SOMEH[ & 9 SOME =M 9T]NALIZ$4 ,& WE UND]/& A NEW S5T5CE1 9 P>T1 BECAUSE WE >E SOMEH[ CAPABLE ( DET]M9+ ! PROCESS BY :I* ?IS S5T5CE IS D]IV$ 9 ?IS GRAMM>4 

,SUPPOSE ?AT WE MANAGE TO CON/RUCT GRAMM>S HAV+ ! PROP]TIES \TL9$ ABOVE4 ,WE CAN !N ATTEMPT TO DESCRIBE & /UDY ! A*IEVEM5T ( ! SPEAK]1 LI/5]1 & LE>N]4 ,! SPEAK] & ! LI/5]1 WE MU/ ASSUME1 HAVE ALREADY ACQUIR$ ! CAPACITIES *>ACT]IZ$ AB/RACTLY BY ! GRAMM>4 ,! SPEAK]'S TASK IS TO SELECT A P>TICUL> COMPATIBLE SET ( OPTIONAL RULES4 ,IF WE KN[1 FROM GRAMMATICAL /UDY1 :AT *OICES >E AVAILABLE TO HIM & :AT CONDITIONS ( COMPATIBILITY ! *OICES MU/ MEET1 WE CAN PROCE$ MEAN+FULLY TO 9VE/IGATE ! FACTORS ?AT LEAD HIM TO MAKE ONE OR ANO!R *OICE4 ,! LI/5] 7OR READ]7 MU/ DET]M9E1 FROM AN EXHIBIT$ UTT]ANCE1 :AT OPTIONAL RULES W]E *OS5 9 ! CON/RUCTION ( ! UTT]ANCE4 ,IT MU/ BE ADMITT$ ?AT ! ABILITY ( A HUMAN BE+ TO DO ?IS F> SURPASSES \R PRES5T UND]/&+4 ,! *ILD :O LE>NS A LANGUAGE HAS 9 SOME S5SE CON/RUCT$ ! GRAMM> = HIMSELF ON ! BASIS ( HIS OBS]VATION ( S5T5CES & NONS5T5CES 7I4E41 CORRECTIONS BY ! V]BAL COMMUNITY74 ,/UDY ( ! ACTUAL OBS]V$ ABILITY ( A SPEAK] TO DI/+UI% S5T5CES FROM NONS5T5CES1 DETECT AMBIGUITIES1 ETC41 APP>5TLY =CES US TO ! CONCLUSION ?AT ?IS GRAMM> IS ( AN EXTREMELY COMPLEX & AB/RACT *>ACT]1 & ?AT ! Y\NG *ILD HAS SUCCE$$ 9 C>RY+ \T :AT FROM ! =MAL PO9T ( VIEW1 AT LEA/1 SEEMS TO BE A REM>KABLE TYPE ( !ORY CON/RUCTION4 ,FUR!RMORE1 ?IS TASK IS ACCOMPLI%$ 9 AN A/ONI%+LY %ORT TIME1 TO A L>GE EXT5T 9DEP5D5TLY ( 9TELLIG5CE1 & 9 A COMP>ABLE WAY BY ALL *ILDR54 ,ANY !ORY ( LE>N+ MU/ COPE ) !SE FACTS4 

,IT IS NOT EASY TO ACCEPT ! VIEW ?AT A *ILD IS CAPABLE ( CON/RUCT+ AN EXTREMELY COMPLEX ME*ANISM = G5]AT+ A SET ( S5T5CES1 SOME ( :I* HE HAS HE>D1 OR ?AT AN ADULT CAN 9/ANTANE\SLY DET]M9E :E!R 7& IF SO1 H[7 A P>TICUL> ITEM IS G5]AT$ BY ?IS ME*ANISM1 :I* HAS MANY ( ! PROP]TIES ( AN AB/RACT D$UCTIVE !ORY4 ,YET ?IS APPE>S TO BE A FAIR DESCRIPTION ( ! P]=MANCE ( ! SPEAK]1 LI/5]1 & LE>N]4 ,IF ?IS IS CORRECT1 WE CAN PR$ICT ?AT A DIRECT ATTEMPT TO ACC\NT = ! ACTUAL BEHAVIOR ( SPEAK]1 LI/5]1 & LE>N]1 NOT BAS$ ON A PRIOR UND]/&+ ( ! /RUCTURE ( GRAMM>S1 WILL A*IEVE V]Y LIMIT$ SUCCESS4 ,! GRAMM> MU/ BE REG>D$ AS A COMPON5T 9 ! BEHAVIOR ( ! SPEAK] & LI/5] :I* CAN ONLY BE 9F]R$1 AS ,LA%LEY HAS PUT IT1 FROM ! RESULT+ PHYSICAL ACTS4 ,! FACT ?AT ALL NORMAL *ILDR5 ACQUIRE ESS5TIALLY COMP>ABLE GRAMM>S ( GREAT COMPLEXITY ) REM>KABLE RAPIDITY SUGGE/S ?AT HUMAN BE+S >E SOMEH[ SPECIALLY DESIGN$ TO DO ?IS1 ) DATA-H&L+ OR 0HYPO!SIS-=MULAT+0 ABILITY ( UNKN[N *>ACT] & COMPLEXITY4.<#d#h.> ,! /UDY ( L+UI/IC /RUCTURE MAY ULTIMATELY LEAD TO SOME SIGNIFICANT 9SI<TS 9TO ?IS MATT]4 ,AT ! MOM5T ! QUE/ION CANNOT BE S]I\SLY POS$1 BUT 9 PR9CIPLE IT MAY BE POSSIBLE TO /UDY ! PROBLEM ( DET]M9+ :AT ! BUILT-9 /RUCTURE ( AN 9=MATION-PROCESS+ 7HYPO!SIS-=M+7 SY/EM MU/ BE TO 5ABLE IT TO >RIVE AT ! GRAMM> ( A LANGUAGE FROM ! AVAILABLE DATA 9 ! AVAILABLE TIME4 ,AT ANY RATE1 JU/ AS ! ATTEMPT TO ELIM9ATE ! CONTRIBUTION ( ! SPEAK] LEADS TO A 0M5TALI/IC0 DESCRIPTIVE SY/EM ?AT SUCCE$S ONLY 9 BLURR+ IMPORTANT TRADITIONAL DI/9CTIONS1 A REFUSAL TO /UDY ! CONTRIBUTION ( ! *ILD TO LANGUAGE LE>N+ P]MITS ONLY A SUP]FICIAL ACC\NT ( LANGUAGE ACQUISITION1 ) A VA/ & UNANALYZ$ CONTRIBUTION ATTRIBUT$ TO A /EP CALL$ G5]ALIZATION :I* 9 FACT 9CLUDES JU/ AB\T EV]Y?+ ( 9T]E/ 9 ?IS PROCESS4 ,IF ! /UDY ( LANGUAGE IS LIMIT$ 9 !SE WAYS1 IT SEEMS 9EVITABLE ?AT MAJOR ASPECTS ( V]BAL BEHAVIOR WILL REMA9 A MY/]Y4 

,NOTES 

.<#a.> ,SK9N]'S CONFID5CE 9 REC5T A*IEVEM5TS 9 ! /UDY ( ANIMAL BEHAVIOR & !IR APPLICABILITY TO COMPLEX HUMAN BEHAVIOR DOES NOT APPE> TO BE WIDELY %>$4 ,9 MANY REC5T PUBLICATIONS ( CONFIRM$ BEHAVIORI/S !RE IS A PREVAIL+ NOTE ( SKEPTICISM ) REG>D TO ! SCOPE ( !SE A*IEVEM5TS4 ,= REPRES5TATIVE COMM5TS1 SEE ! CONTRIBUTIONS TO ,MOD]N ,LE>N+ ,!ORY 7BY ,W4 ,K4 ,E/ES ET AL42 ,NEW ,YORK3 ,APPLETON-,C5TURY-,CR(TS1 ,9C41 #a#i#e#d72 ,B4 ,R4 ,BUGELSKI1 ,PSY*OLOGY ( ,LE>N+ 7,NEW ,YORK3 ,HOLT1 ,R9EH>T @& ,W9/ON1 ,9C41 #a#i#e#f72 ,S4 ,KO*1 9 ,NEBRASKA ,SYMPOSIUM ON ,MOTIVATION1 #eh 7,L9COLN1 #a#i#e#f72 ,W4 ,S4 ,V]PLANCK1 0,LE>N$ & ,9NATE ,BEHAVIOR10 ,PSY*4 ,REV41 #e#b1 7#a#i#e#e71 #a#c#i4 ,P]HAPS ! /RONGE/ VIEW IS ?AT ( ,H4 ,H>L[1 :O HAS ASS]T$ 70,MICE1 ,MONKEYS1 ,M51 & ,MOTIVES10 ,PSY*4 ,REV41 #f1 .<#a#i#e#c.> #b#c-#c#b7 ?AT 0A /RONG CASE CAN BE MADE = ! PROPOSITION ?AT ! IMPORTANCE ( ! PSY*OLOGICAL PROBLEMS /UDI$ DUR+ ! LA/ #ae YE>S HAS DECREAS$ AS A NEGATIVELY ACCEL]AT$ FUNCTION APPROA*+ AN ASYMPTOTE ( COMPLETE 9DIFF]5CE40 ,N4 ,T9B]G51 A LEAD+ REPRES5TATIVE ( A DIFF]5T APPROA* TO ANIMAL BEHAVIOR /UDIES 7COMP>ATIVE E?OLOGY71 CONCLUDES A DISCUSSION ( FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS ) ! COMM5T ?AT 0WE MAY N[ DRAW ! CONCLUSION ?AT ! CAUSATION ( BEHAVIOR IS IMM5SELY MORE COMPLEX ?AN WAS ASSUM$ 9 ! G5]ALIZATIONS ( ! PA/4 ,A NUMB] ( 9T]NAL & EXT]NAL FACTORS ACT UPON COMPLEX C5TRAL N]V\S /RUCTURES4 ,SECOND1 IT WILL BE OBVI\S ?AT ! FACTS AT \R DISPOSAL >E V]Y FRAGM5T>Y 9DE$0 -- ,! ,/UDY ( ,9/9CT 7,TORONTO3 ,OX=D ,UNIV4 ,PRESS1 #a#i#e#a71 P4 #g#d4 

.<#b.> ,9 ,BEHAVIOR ( ,ORGANISMS 7,NEW ,YORK3 ,APPLETON-,C5TURY-,CR(TS1 ,9C41 #a#i#c#h71 ,SK9N] REM>KS ?AT 0AL?\< A CONDITION$ OP]ANT IS ! RESULT ( ! CORRELATION ( ! RESPONSE ) A P>TICUL> RE9=CEM5T1 A RELATION BETWE5 IT & A DISCRIM9ATIVE /IMULUS ACT+ PRIOR TO ! RESPONSE IS ! ALMO/ UNIV]SAL RULE0 7#a#g#h-#g#i74 ,EV5 EMITT$ BEHAVIOR IS HELD TO BE PRODUC$ BY SOME SORT ( 0ORIG9AT+ =CE0 7#e#a7 :I*1 9 ! CASE ( OP]ANT BEHAVIOR IS NOT UND] EXP]IM5TAL CONTROL4 ,! DI/9CTION BETWE5 ELICIT+ /IMULI1 DISCRIM9AT$ /IMULI1 & 0ORIG9AT+ =CES0 HAS NEV] BE5 ADEQUATELY CL>IFI$ & BECOMES EV5 MORE CONFUS+ :5 PRIVATE 9T]NAL EV5TS >E CONSID]$ TO BE DISCRIM9AT$ /IMULI 7SEE BEL[74 

.<#c.> ,9 A FAM\S EXP]IM5T1 *IMPANZEES W]E TAU<T TO P]=M COMPLEX TASKS TO RECEIVE TOK5S :I* HAD BECOME SECOND>Y RE9=C]S BECAUSE ( ASSOCIATION ) FOOD4 ,! IDEA ?AT MONEY1 APPROVAL1 PRE/IGE1 ETC4 ACTUALLY ACQUIRE !IR MOTIVAT+ EFFECTS ON HUMAN BEHAVIOR ACCORD+ TO ?IS P>ADIGM IS UNPROV$1 & NOT P>TICUL>LY PLAUSIBLE4 ,MANY PSY*OLOGI/S )9 ! BEHAVIORI/ MOVEM5T >E QUITE SKEPTICAL AB\T ?IS 7CF4 #b#cN74 ,AS 9 ! CASE ( MO/ ASPECTS ( HUMAN BEHAVIOR1 ! EVID5CE AB\T SECOND>Y RE9=CEM5T IS SO FRAGM5T>Y1 CONFLICT+1 & COMPLEX ?AT ALMO/ ANY VIEW CAN F9D SOME SUPPORT4 

.<#d.> ,SK9N]'S REM>K QUOT$ ABOVE AB\T ! G5]ALITY ( HIS BASIC RESULTS MU/ BE UND]/OOD 9 ! LI<T ( ! EXP]IM5TAL LIMITATIONS HE HAS IMPOS$4 ,IF IT W]E TRUE 9 ANY DEEP S5SE ?AT ! BASIC PROCESSES 9 LANGUAGE >E WELL UND]/OOD & FREE ( SPECIES RE/RICTION1 IT W\LD BE EXTREMELY ODD ?AT LANGUAGE IS LIMIT$ TO MAN4 ,) ! EXCEPTION ( A FEW SCATT]$ OBS]VATIONS 7CF4 HIS >TICLE1 0,A ,CASE ,HI/ORY 9 ,SCI5TIFIC ,ME?OD10 ,! ,AM]ICAN ,PSY*OLOGI/1 #aa .<#a#i#e#f.> #b#b#a-#c#c71 ,SK9N] IS APP>5TLY BAS+ ?IS CLAIM ON ! FACT ?AT QUALITATIVELY SIMIL> RESULTS >E OBTA9$ ) B> PRESS+ ( RATS & PECK+ ( PIGEONS UND] SPECIAL CONDITIONS ( DEPRIVATION & V>I\S S*$ULES ( RE9=CEM5T4 ,ONE IMM$IATELY QUE/IONS H[ MU* CAN BE BAS$ ON !SE FACTS1 :I* >E 9 P>T AT LEA/ AN >TIFACT TRACEABLE TO EXP]IM5TAL DESIGN & ! DEF9ITION ( /IMULUS & RESPONSE 9 T]MS ( SMOO? DYNAMIC CURVES 7SEE BEL[74 ,! DANG]S 9H]5T 9 ANY ATTEMPT TO EXTRAPOLATE TO COMPLEX BEHAVIOR FROM ! /UDY ( SU* SIMPLE RESPONSES AS B> PRESS+ %\LD BE OBVI\S & HAVE (T5 BE5 COMM5T$ ON 7CF41 E4G41 ,H>L[1 OP4 CIT474 ,! G5]ALITY ( EV5 ! SIMPLE/ RESULTS IS OP5 TO S]I\S QUE/ION4 ,CF4 9 ?IS CONNECTION ,M4 ,E4 ,BITT]MAN1 ,J4 ,WOD9SKY1 & ,D4 ,K4 ,C&L&1 0,SOME ,COMP>ATIVE ,PSY*OLOGY10 ,AM4 ,JOR4 ( ,PSY*41 #ga 7#a#i#e#h71 #i#d-#a#a1 :]E IT IS %[N ?AT !RE >E IMPORTANT QUALITATIVE DIFF]5CES 9 SOLUTION ( COMP>ABLE ELEM5T>Y PROBLEMS BY RATS & FI%4 

.<#e.> ,AN ANALOG\S >GUM5T1 9 CONNECTION ) A DIFF]5T ASPECT ( ,SK9N]'S ?9K+1 IS GIV5 BY ,M4 ,SCRIV5 9 0,A ,/UDY ( ,RADICAL ,BEHAVIORISM10 ,UNIV4 ( ,M9N4 ,/UDIES 9 ,PHILOSOPHY ( ,SCI5CE1 ,I4 ,CF4 ,V]PLANCK'S CONTRIBUTION TO ,MOD]N ,LE>N+ ,!ORY1 OP4 CIT4 PP4 #b#h#c-#h#h1 = MORE G5]AL DISCUSSION ( ! DIFFICULTIES 9 =MULAT+ AN ADEQUATE DEF9ITION ( /IMULUS & RESPONSE4 ,HE CONCLUDES1 QUITE CORRECTLY1 ?AT 9 ,SK9N]'S S5SE ( ! WORD1 /IMULI >E NOT OBJECTIVELY ID5TIFIABLE 9DEP5D5TLY ( ! RESULT+ BEHAVIOR1 NOR >E !Y MANIPULABLE4 ,V]PLANCK PRES5TS A CLE> DISCUSSION ( MANY O!R ASPECTS ( ,SK9N]'S SY/EM1 COMM5T+ ON ! UNTE/ABILITY ( MANY ( ! SO-CALL$ 0LAWS ( BEHAVIOR0 & ! LIMIT$ SCOPE ( MANY ( ! O!RS1 & ! >BITR>Y & OBSCURE *>ACT] ( ,SK9N]'S NOTION ( LAWFUL RELATION2 &1 AT ! SAME TIME1 NOT+ ! IMPORTANCE ( ! EXP]IM5TAL DATA ?AT ,SK9N] HAS ACCUMULAT$4 

.<#f.> ,9 ,BEHAVIOR ( ,ORGANISMS1 ,SK9N] APP>5TLY WAS WILL+ TO ACCEPT ?IS CONSEQU5CE4 ,HE 9SI/S 7#d#a-#d#b7 ?AT ! T]MS ( CASUAL DESCRIPTION 9 ! POPUL> VOCABUL>Y >E NOT VALIDLY DESCRIPTIVE UNTIL ! DEF9+ PROP]TIES ( /IMULUS & RESPONSE >E SPECIFI$1 ! CORRELATION IS DEMON/RAT$ EXP]IM5TALLY1 & ! DYNAMIC *ANGES 9 IT >E %[N TO BE LAWFUL4 ,?US1 9 DESCRIB+ A *ILD AS HID+ FROM A DOG1 0IT WILL NOT BE 5\< TO DIGNIFY ! POPUL> VOCABUL>Y BY APPEAL+ TO ESS5TIAL PROP]TIES ( DOGNESS OR HID+NESS & TO SUPPOSE !M 9TUITIVELY KN[N40 ,BUT ?IS IS EXACTLY :AT ,SK9N] DOES 9 ! BOOK UND] REVIEW1 AS WE WILL SEE DIRECTLY4 

.<#g.> #b#e#cF4 & ELSE:]E1 REPEAT$LY4 ,AS AN EXAMPLE ( H[ WELL WE CAN CONTROL BEHAVIOR US+ ! NOTIONS DEVELOP$ 9 ?IS BOOK1 ,SK9N] %[S H]E H[ HE W\LD GO AB\T EVOK+ ! RESPONSE P5CIL4 ,! MO/ EFFECTIVE WAY1 HE SUGGE/S1 IS TO SAY TO ! SUBJECT1 0,PLEASE SAY P5CIL0 7\R *ANCES W\LD1 PRESUMABLY1 BE EV5 FUR!R IMPROV$ BY USE ( 0AV]SIVE /IMULATION10 E4G41 HOLD+ A GUN TO HIS HEAD74 ,WE CAN ALSO 0MAKE SURE ?AT NO P5CIL OR WRIT+ 9/RUM5T IS AVAILABLE1 !N H& \R SUBJECT A PAD ( PAP] APPROPRIATE TO P5CIL SKET*+1 & (F] HIM A H&SOME REW>D = A RECOGNIZABLE PICTURE ( A CAT40 ,IT W\LD ALSO BE USEFUL TO HAVE VOICES SAY+ P5CIL OR P5 & 444 9 ! BACKGR\ND2 SIGNS READ+ P5CIL OR P5 & 4442 OR TO PLACE A 0L>GE & UNUSUAL P5CIL 9 AN UNUSUAL PLACE CLE>LY 9 SI<T40 0,UND] SU* CIRCUM/ANCES1 IT IS HI<LY PROBABLE ?AT \R SUBJECT WILL SAY P5CIL40 0,! AVAILABLE TE*NIQUES >E ALL ILLU/RAT$ 9 ?IS SAMPLE40 ,!SE CONTRIBUTIONS ( BEHAVIOR !ORY TO ! PRACTICAL CONTROL ( HUMAN BEHAVIOR >E AMPLY ILLU/RAT$ ELSE:]E 9 ! BOOK1 AS :5 ,SK9N] %[S 7#a#a#c-#a#d7 H[ WE CAN EVOKE ! RESPONSE R$ 7! DEVICE SUGGE/$ IS TO HOLD A R$ OBJECT BE=E ! SUBJECT & SAY1 0,TELL ME :AT COLOR ?IS IS074 

,9 FAIRNESS1 IT MU/ BE M5TION$ ?AT !RE >E C]TA9 NONTRIVIAL APPLICATIONS ( OP]ANT CONDITION+ TO ! CONTROL ( HUMAN BEHAVIOR4 ,A WIDE V>IETY ( EXP]IM5TS HAVE %[N ?AT ! NUMB] ( PLURAL N\NS 7= EXAMPLE7 PRODUC$ BY A SUBJECT WILL 9CREASE IF ! EXP]IM5T] SAYS 0RI<T0 OR 0GOOD0 :5 ONE IS PRODUC$ 7SIMIL>LY1 POSITIVE ATTITUDES ON A C]TA9 ISSUE1 /ORIES ) P>TICUL> CONT5T1 ETC42 CF4 ,L4 ,KRASN]1 0,/UDIES ( ! ,CONDITION+ ( ,V]BAL ,BEHAVIOR10 ,PSY*4 ,BULL41 #ee .<#a#i#e#h.>1 = A SURVEY ( SEV]AL DOZ5 EXP]IM5TS ( ?IS K9D1 MO/LY ) POSITIVE RESULTS74 ,IT IS ( SOME 9T]E/ ?AT ! SUBJECT IS USUALLY UNAW>E ( ! PROCESS4 ,JU/ :AT 9SI<T ?IS GIVES 9TO NORMAL V]BAL BEHAVIOR IS NOT OBVI\S4 ,NEV]!LESS1 IT IS AN EXAMPLE ( POSITIVE & NOT TOTALLY EXPECT$ RESULTS US+ ! ,SK9N]IAN P>ADIGM4 

.<#h.> 0,>E ,!ORIES ( ,LE>N+ ,NECESS>Y801 ,PSY*4 ,REV41 #eg 7#a#i#e71 #a#i#c-#b#a#f4 

.<#i.> ,& ELSE:]E4 ,9 HIS PAP] 0,>E ,!ORIES ( ,LE>N+ ,NECESS>Y80 ,SK9N] CONSID]S ! PROBLEM H[ TO EXT5D HIS ANALYSIS ( BEHAVIOR TO EXP]IM5TAL SITUATIONS 9 :I* IT IS IMPOSSIBLE TO OBS]VE FREQU5CIES1 RATE ( RESPONSE BE+ ! ONLY VALID DATUM4 ,HIS ANSW] IS ?AT 0! NOTION ( PROBABILITY IS USUALLY EXTRAPOLAT$ TO CASES 9 :I* A FREQU5CY ANALYSIS CANNOT BE C>RI$ \T4 ,9 ! FIELD ( BEHAVIOR WE >RANGE A SITUATION 9 :I* FREQU5CIES >E AVAILABLE AS DATA1 BUT WE USE ! NOTION ( PROBABILITY 9 ANALYZ+ OR =MULAT+ 9/ANCES ( EV5 TYPES ( BEHAVIOR :I* >E NOT SUSCEPTIBLE TO ?IS ANALYSIS0 7#a#i#i74 ,!RE >E1 ( C\RSE1 CONCEPTIONS ( PROBABILITY NOT BAS$ DIRECTLY ON FREQU5CY1 BUT ,I DO NOT SEE H[ ANY ( !SE APPLY TO ! CASES ?AT ,SK9N] HAS 9 M9D4 ,I SEE NO WAY ( 9T]PRET+ ! QUOT$ PASSAGE O!R ?AN AS SIGNIFY+ AN 9T5TION TO USE ! WORD PROBABILITY 9 DESCRIB+ BEHAVIOR QUITE 9DEP5D5TLY ( :E!R ! NOTION ( PROBABILITY IS AT ALL RELEVANT4 

.<#a.> ,=TUNATELY1 0,9 ,5GLI% ?IS PRES5TS NO GREAT DIFFICULTY0 S9CE1 = EXAMPLE1 0RELATIVE PIT* LEVELS 444 >E NOT 444 IMPORTANT0 7#b#e74 ,NO REF]5CE IS MADE TO ! NUM]\S /UDIES ( ! FUNCTION ( RELATIVE PIT* LEVELS & O!R 9TONATIONAL FEATURES 9 ,5GLI%4 

.<#a#a.> ,! VAGU5ESS ( ! WORD T5D5CY1 AS OPPOS$ TO FREQU5CY1 SAVES ! LATT] QUOTATION FROM ! OBVI\S 9CORRECTNESS ( ! =M]4 ,NEV]!LESS1 A GOOD DEAL ( /RET*+ IS NECESS>Y4 ,IF T5D5CY HAS ANY?+ LIKE ITS ORD9>Y MEAN+1 ! REM>K IS CLE>LY FALSE4 ,ONE MAY BELIEVE /RONGLY ! ASS]TION ?AT ,JUPIT] HAS F\R MOONS1 ?AT MANY ( ,SOPHOCLES' PLAYS HAVE BE5 IRRETRIEVABLY LO/1 ?AT ! E>? WILL BURN TO A CRISP 9 T5 MILLION YE>S1 & SO ON1 )\T EXP]I5C+ ! SLI<TE/ T5D5CY TO ACT UPON !SE V]BAL /IMULI4 ,WE MAY1 ( C\RSE1 TURN ,SK9N]'S ASS]TION 9TO A V]Y UNILLUM9AT+ TRU? BY DEF9+ 0T5D5CY TO ACT0 TO 9CLUDE T5D5CIES TO ANSW] QUE/IONS 9 C]TA9 WAYS1 UND] MOTIVATION TO SAY :AT ONE BELIEVES IS TRUE4 

.<#a#b.> ,ONE %\LD ADD1 H[EV]1 ?AT IT IS 9 G5]AL NOT ! /IMULUS AS SU* ?AT IS RE9=C+1 BUT ! /IMULUS 9 A P>TICUL> SITUATIONAL CONTEXT4 ,DEP5D+ ON EXP]IM5TAL >RANGEM5T1 A P>TICUL> PHYSICAL EV5T OR OBJECT MAY BE RE9=C+1 PUNI%+1 OR UNNOTIC$4 ,BECAUSE ,SK9N] LIMITS HIMSELF TO A P>TICUL>1 V]Y SIMPLE EXP]IM5TAL >RANGEM5T1 IT IS NOT NECESS>Y = HIM TO ADD ?IS QUALIFICATION1 :I* W\LD NOT BE AT ALL EASY TO =MULATE PRECISELY4 ,BUT IT IS ( C\RSE NECESS>Y IF HE EXPECTS TO EXT5D HIS DESCRIPTIVE SY/EM TO BEHAVIOR 9 G5]AL4 

.<#a#c.> ,?IS HAS BE5 FREQU5TLY NOT$4 

.<#a#d.> ,SEE1 = EXAMPLE1 0,>E ,!ORIES ( ,LE>N+ ,NECESS>Y801 OP4 CIT41 P4 #a#i#i4 ,ELSE:]E1 HE SUGGE/S ?AT ! T]M LE>N+ BE RE/RICT$ TO COMPLEX SITUATIONS1 BUT !SE >E NOT *>ACT]IZ$4 

.<#a#e.> 0,A *ILD ACQUIRES V]BAL BEHAVIOR :5 RELATIVELY UNPATT]N$ VOCALIZATIONS1 SELECTIVELY RE9=C$1 GRADUALLY ASSUME =MS :I* PRODUCE APPROPRIATE CONSEQU5CES 9 A GIV5 V]BAL COMMUNITY0 7#c#a74 0,DIFF]5TIAL RE9=CEM5T %APES UP ALL V]BAL =MS1 & :5 A PRIOR /IMULUS 5T]S 9TO ! CONT+5CY1 RE9=CEM5T IS RESPONSIBLE = ITS RESULT+ CONTROL4444 ,! AVAILABILITY ( BEHAVIOR1 ITS PROBABILITY OR /R5G?1 DEP5DS ON :E!R RE9=CEM5TS CONT9UE 9 EFFECT & ACCORD+ TO :AT S*$ULES0 7#b#c-#d72 ELSE:]E1 FREQU5TLY4 

.<#a#f.> ,TALK ( S*$ULES ( RE9=CEM5T H]E IS 5TIRELY PO9TLESS4 ,H[ >E WE TO DECIDE1 = EXAMPLE1 ACCORD+ TO :AT S*$ULES COV]T RE9=CEM5T IS >RANG$1 AS 9 ?9K+ OR V]BAL FANTASY1 OR :AT ! S*$UL+ IS ( SU* FACTORS AS SIL5CE1 SPEE*1 & APPROPRIATE FUTURE REACTIONS TO COMMUNICAT$ 9=MATION8 

.<#a#g.> ,SEE1 = EXAMPLE1 ,N4 ,E4 ,MILL] & ,J4 ,DOLL>D1 ,SOCIAL ,LE>N+ & ,IMITATION 7,NEW ,YORK1 #a#i#d#a71 PP4 #h#b-#h#c1 = A DISCUSSION ( ! 0METICUL\S TRA9+0 ?AT !Y SEEM TO CONSID] NECESS>Y = A *ILD TO LE>N ! MEAN+S ( WORDS & SYNTACTIC PATT]NS4 ,! SAME NOTION IS IMPLICIT 9 ,O4 ,H4 ,M[R]'S SPECULATIVE ACC\NT ( H[ LANGUAGE MI<T BE ACQUIR$1 9 ,LE>N+ ,!ORY & ,P]SONALITY ,DYNAMICS1 7,NEW ,YORK3 ,! ,RONALD ,PRESS1 ,9C41 #a#i#e71 ,*AP4 #b#c4 ,ACTUALLY1 ! VIEW APPE>S TO BE QUITE G5]AL4 

.<#a#h.> ,= A G5]AL REVIEW & ANALYSIS ( ?IS LIT]ATURE1 SEE ,D4 ,L4 ,?I/LE?WAITE1 0,A ,CRITICAL ,REVIEW ( ,LAT5T ,LE>N+ & ,RELAT$ ,EXP]IM5TS10 ,PSY*4 ,BULL41 #dh 7#a#i#e#a71 #i#g-#a#b#i4 ,K4 ,MAC,CORQUODALE & ,P4 ,E4 ,MEEHL1 9 !IR CONTRIBUTION TO ,MOD]N ,LE>N+ ,!ORY OP4 CIT41 C>RY \T A S]I\S & CONSID]$ ATTEMPT TO H&LE ! LAT5T LE>N+ MAT]IAL FROM ! /&PO9T ( DRIVE-R$UCTION !ORY1 ) 7AS !Y PO9T \T7 NOT 5TIRELY SATISFACTORY RESULTS4 ,W4 ,H4 ,?ORPE REVIEWS ! LIT]ATURE FROM ! /&PO9T ( ! E?OLOGI/1 ADD+ ALSO MAT]IAL ON HOM+ & TOPOGRAPHICAL ORI5TATION 7,LE>N+ & ,9/9CT 9 ,ANIMALS .<,CAMBRIDGE1 #a#i#e#f.>74 

.<#a#i.> ,!ORIES ( ,LE>N+1 #bad 7#a#i#e#f74 

.<#b.> ,O4 ,E4 ,B]LYNE1 0,NOVELTY & ,CURIOSITY AS ,DET]M9ANTS ( ,EXPLORATORY ,BEHAVIOR10 ,BRIT4 ,JOR4 ( ,PSY*41 #da 7#a#i#e71 #f#h-#h2 ID41 0,P]CEPTUAL ,CURIOSITY 9 ! ,RAT10 ,JOR4 ( ,COMP4 ,PHYSIOL4 ,PSY*41 #dh 7#a#i#e#e71 #b#c#h-#d#f2 ,W4 ,R4 ,?OMPSON & ,L4 ,M4 ,SOLOMON1 0,SPONTANE\S ,PATT]N ,DISCRIM9ATION 9 ! ,RAT10 IBID41 #dg 7#a#i#e#d71 #a#d-#g4 

.<#b#a.> ,K4 ,C4 ,MONTGOM]Y1 0,! ,ROLE ( ! ,EXPLORATORY ,DRIVE 9 ,LE>N+10 IBID4 PP4 #f-#f#c4 ,MANY O!R PAP]S 9 ! SAME J\RNAL >E DESIGN$ TO %[ ?AT EXPLORATORY BEHAVIOR IS A RELATIVELY 9DEP5D5T PRIM>Y 0DRIVE0 >\S$ BY NOVEL EXT]NAL /IMULATION4 

.<#b#b.> ,R4 ,A4 ,BUTL]1 0,DISCRIM9ATION ,LE>N+ BY ,RHESUS ,MONKEYS TO ,VISUAL-,EXPLORATION ,MOTIVATION10 IBID41 #df 7#a#i#e#c71 #i#e-#i#h4 ,LAT] EXP]IM5TS %[$ ?AT ?IS 0DRIVE0 IS HI<LY P]SI/5T1 AS OPPOS$ TO D]IV$ DRIVES :I* RAPIDLY EXT+UI%4 

.<#b#c.> ,H4 ,F4 ,H>L[1 ,M4 ,K4 ,H>L[1 & ,D4 ,R4 ,MEY]1 0,LE>N+ ,MOTIVAT$ BY A ,MANIPULATION ,DRIVE10 ,JOR4 ,EXP4 ,PSY*41 #d 7#a#i#e71 #b#b#h-#c#d1 & LAT] 9VE/IGATIONS 9ITIAT$ BY ,H>L[4 ,H>L[ HAS BE5 P>TICUL>LY 9SI/5T ON MA9TA9+ ! 9ADEQUACY ( PHYSIOLOGICALLY BAS$ DRIVES & HOMEO/ATIC NE$ /ATES = EXPLA9+ ! P]SI/5CE ( MOTIVATION & RAPIDITY ( LE>N+ 9 PRIMATES4 ,HE PO9TS \T1 9 MANY PAP]S1 ?AT CURIOSITY1 PLAY1 EXPLORATION1 & MANIPULATION >E1 = PRIMATES1 (T5 MORE POT5T DRIVES ?AN HUNG] & ! LIKE1 & ?AT !Y %[ NONE ( ! *>ACT]I/ICS ( ACQUIR$ DRIVES4 ,HEBB ALSO PRES5TS BEHAVIORAL & SUPPORT+ NEUROLOGICAL EVID5CE 9 SUPPORT ( ! VIEW ?AT 9 HI<] ANIMALS !RE IS A POSITIVE ATTRACTION 9 WORK1 RISK1 PUZZLE1 9TELLECTUAL ACTIVITY1 MILD FE> & FRU/RATION1 & SO ON4 0,DRIVES & ! ,C,N,S10 ,PSY*4 ,REV41 #fb .<#a#i#e#e.>1 #b#d#c-#e#d47 ,HE CONCLUDES ?AT 0WE NE$ NOT WORK \T TORTU\S & IMPROBABLE WAYS TO EXPLA9 :Y M5 WORK = MONEY1 :Y *ILDR5 LE>N )\T PA91 :Y PEOPLE DISLIKE DO+ NO?+40 ,9 A BRIEF NOTE 0,E>LY ,RECOGNITION ( ! ,MANIPULATIVE ,DRIVE 9 ,MONKEYS10 ,BRITI% ,J\RNAL ( ,ANIMAL ,BEHAVIOR1 #c .<#a#i#e#e.>1 #g#a-#g#b71 ,W4 ,D5NIS CALLS ATT5TION TO ! FACT ?AT E>LY 9VE/IGATORS 7,G4 ,J4 ,ROMANES1 #a#h#h#b2 ,E4 ,L4 ,?ORNDIKE1 #a#i#a71 :OSE 0P]CEPTION WAS RELATIVELY UNAFFECT$ BY LE>N+ !ORY1 DID NOTE ! 9TR9SICALLY MOTIVAT$ BEHAVIOR ( MONKEYS10 AL?\<1 HE ASS]TS1 NO SIMIL> OBS]VATIONS ON MONKEYS HAVE BE5 MADE UNTIL ,H>L['S EXP]IM5TS4 ,HE QUOTES ,ROMANES 7,ANIMAL ,9TELLIG5CE .<#a#h#h#b.>7 AS SAY+ ?AT 0MU* ! MO/ /RIK+ FEATURE 9 ! PSY*OLOGY ( ?IS ANIMAL1 & ! ONE :I* IS LEA/ LIKE ANY?+ MET ) 9 O!R ANIMALS1 WAS ! TIRELESS SPIRIT ( 9VE/IGATION40 ,ANALOG\S DEVELOPM5TS1 9 :I* G5U9E DISCOV]IES HAVE BL9D$ SY/EMATIC 9VE/IGATORS TO ! IMPORTANT 9SI<TS ( E>LI] WORK1 >E EASILY F\ND )9 REC5T /RUCTURAL L+UI/ICS AS WELL4 

.<#b#d.> ,?US1 ,J4 ,S4 ,BR[N1 9 COMM5T+ ON A PAP] ( ,H>L['S 9 ,CURR5T ,!ORY & ,RESE>* 9 ,MOTIVATION 7,L9COLN3 ,UNIV4 ( ,NEBRASKA ,PRESS1 #a#i#e#c71 >GUES ?AT 09 PROBABLY EV]Y 9/ANCE .<( ! EXP]IM5TS CIT$ BY ,H>L[.> AN +5I\S DRIVE-R$UCTION !ORI/ C\LD F9D SOME FRAGM5T ( FE>1 9SECURITY1 FRU/RATION1 OR :ATEV]1 ?AT HE C\LD 9SI/ WAS R$UC$ & H5CE WAS RE9=C+0 7#e#c74 ,! SAME SORT ( ?+ C\LD BE SAID = ! +5I\S PHLOGI/ON OR E!R !ORI/4 

.<#b#e.> ,CF4 ,H4 ,G4 ,BIR* & ,M4 ,E4 ,BITT]MAN1 0,RE9=CEM5T & ,LE>N+3 ,! PROCESS ( ,S5SORY ,9TEGRATION10 ,PSY*4 ,REV41 #ef 7#a#i#d#i71 #b#i#b-#c#h4 

.<#b#f.> ,SEE1 = EXAMPLE1 HIS PAP] 0,A ,PHYSIOLOGICAL ,/UDY ( ,REW>D0 9 ,D4 ,C4 ,MC,CLELL&1 $41 ,/UDIES 9 ,MOTIVATION 7,NEW ,YORK3 ,APPLETON-,C5TURY-,CRAFTS1 ,9C41 #a#i#e#e71 PP4 #a#c#d-#d#c4 

.<#b#g.> ,SEE ,?ORPE1 OP4 CIT41 P>TICUL>LY PP4 #a#a#e-#a#h & #c#c#g-#g#f1 = AN EXCELL5T DISCUSSION ( ?IS PH5OM5ON1 :I* HAS BE5 BR\<T TO PROM95CE P>TICUL>LY BY ! WORK ( ,K4 ,LOR5Z 7CF4 0,D] ,KUMPAN 9 D] ,UMWELT DES ,VOGELS10 P>TS ( :I* >E REPR9T$ 9 ,5GLI% TRANSLATION 9 ,C4 ,M4 ,S*ILL]1 $41 ,9/9CTIVE ,BEHAVIOR .<,NEW ,YORK3 ,9T]NATIONAL ,UNIV]SITIES ,PRESS1 #a#i#e#g.>1 PP4 #h#c-#a#b#h74 

.<#b#h.> ,OP4 CIT41 P4 #c#g#b4 

.<#b#i.> ,SEE1 E4G41 ,J4 ,JAYNES1 0,IMPR9T+3 ,9T]ACTION ( ,LE>N$ & ,9NATE ,BEHAVIOR10 ,JOR4 ( ,COMP4 ,PHYSIOL4 ,PSY*41 #di 7#a#i#e#f71 #b#a-#f1 :]E ! CONCLUSION IS REA*$ ?AT 0! EXP]IM5TS PROVE ?AT )\T ANY OBS]VABLE REW>D1 Y\NG BIRDS ( ?IS SPECIES FOLL[ A MOV+ /IMULUS OBJECT & V]Y RAPIDLY COME TO PREF] ?AT OBJECT TO O!RS40 

.<#c.> ,( C\RSE1 IT IS P]FECTLY POSSIBLE TO 9CORPORATE ?IS FACT )9 ! ,SK9N]IAN FRAMEWORK4 ,IF1 = EXAMPLE1 A *ILD WAT*ES AN ADULT US+ A COMB & !N1 ) NO 9/RUCTION1 TRIES TO COMB HIS [N HAIR1 WE CAN EXPLA9 ?IS ACT BY SAY+ ?AT HE P]=MS IT BECAUSE HE F9DS IT RE9=C+ TO DO SO1 OR BECAUSE ( ! RE9=CEM5T PROVID$ BY BEHAV+ LIKE A P]SON :O IS 0RE9=C+0 7CF4 #a#f#d74 ,SIMIL>LY1 AN AUTOMATIC EXPLANATION IS AVAILABLE = ANY O!R BEHAVIOR4 ,IT SEEMS /RANGE AT FIR/ ?AT ,SK9N] PAYS SO LITTLE ATT5TION TO ! LIT]ATURE ON LAT5T LE>N+ & RELAT$ TOPICS1 CONSID]+ ! TREM5D\S RELIANCE ?AT HE PLACES ON ! NOTION ( RE9=CEM5T2 ,I HAVE SE5 NO REF]5CE TO IT 9 HIS WRIT+S4 ,SIMIL>LY1 ,F4 ,S4 ,KELL] & ,W4 ,N4 ,S*O5FELD1 9 :AT APPE>S TO BE ! ONLY TEXT WRITT5 UND] PR$OM9ANTLY ,SK9N]IAN 9FLU5CE1 ,PR9CIPLES ( ,PSY*OLOGY 7,NEW ,YORK3 ,APPLETON-,C5TURY-,CR(TS1 ,9C41 #a#i#e71 DISMISS ! LAT5T LE>N+ LIT]ATURE 9 ONE S5T5CE AS 0BESIDE ! PO9T10 S]V+ ONLY 0TO OBSCURE1 RA!R ?AN CL>IFY1 A FUNDAM5TAL PR9CIPLE0 7! LAW ( EFFECT1 #d#a74 ,H[EV]1 ?IS NEGLECT IS P]FECTLY APPROPRIATE 9 ,SK9N]'S CASE4 ,TO ! DRIVE-R$UCTIONI/1 OR ANYONE ELSE = :OM ! NOTION RE9=CEM5T HAS SOME SUB/ANTIVE MEAN+1 !SE EXP]IM5TS & OBS]VATIONS >E IMPORTANT 7& (T5 EMB>RASS+74 ,BUT 9 ! ,SK9N]IAN S5SE ( ! WORD1 NEI!R !SE RESULTS NOR ANY CONCEIVABLE O!RS CAN CA/ ANY D\BT ON ! CLAIM ?AT RE9=CEM5T IS ESS5TIAL = ! ACQUISITION & MA9T5ANCE ( BEHAVIOR4 ,BEHAVIOR C]TA9LY HAS SOME CONCOMITANT CIRCUM/ANCES1 & :ATEV] !Y >E1 WE CAN CALL !M RE9=CEM5T4 

.<#c#a.> ,T9B]G51 OP4CIT41 ,*AP4 ,V,I1 REVIEWS SOME ASPECTS ( ?IS PROBLEM1 DISCUSS+ ! PRIM>Y ROLE ( MATURATION 9 ! DEVELOPM5T ( MANY COMPLEX MOTOR PATT]NS 7E4G41 FLY+1 SWIMM+7 9 L[] ORGANISMS1 & ! EFFECT ( AN 09NATE DISPOSITION TO LE>N0 9 C]TA9 SPECIFIC WAYS & AT C]TA9 SPECIFIC TIMES4 ,CF4 ALSO ,P4 ,S*ILL]1 0,9NATE ,MOTOR ,ACTION AS A ,BASIS = ,LE>N+10 9 ,C4 ,H4 ,S*ILL]1 $41 ,9/9CTIVE ,BEHAVIOR 7,NEW ,YORK3 ,9T]NATIONAL ,UNIV]SITIES ,PRESS1 #a#i#e#g71 PP4 #b#f#e-#h#h1 = A DISCUSSION ( ! ROLE ( MATUR+ MOTOR PATT]NS 9 APP>5TLY 9SI<TFUL BEHAVIOR 9 ! *IMPANZEE4 

,L5NEB]G 70,! ,CAPACITY = ,LANGUAGE ,ACQUISITION01 9 ,J4 ,A4 ,FODOR1 $41 ,! ,/RUCTURE ( ,LANGUAGE .<,PR5TICE-,HALL1 ,9C41 #a#i#f#d.>7 PRES5TS A V]Y 9T]E/+ DISCUSSION ( ! P>T ?AT BIOLOGICAL /RUCTURE MAY PLAY 9 ! ACQUISITION ( LANGUAGE1 & ! DANG]S 9 NEGLECT+ ?IS POSSIBILITY4 

.<#c#b.> ,FROM AMONG MANY CIT$ BY ,T9B]G51 OP4 CIT41 P4 #h#e4 

.<#c#c.> ,CF4 ,K4 ,S4 ,LA%LEY1 0,9 ,SE>* ( ! ,5GRAM10 ,SYMPOSIUM ( ! ,SOCIETY = ,EXP]IM5TAL ,BIOLOGY1 #d 7#a#i#e71 #d#e#d-#h#b4 ,R4 ,SP]RY1 0,ON ! ,NEURAL ,BASIS ( ! ,CONDITION$ ,RESPONSE10 ,BRITI% ,J\RNAL ( ,ANIMAL ,BEHAVIOR1 #c 7#a#i#e#e71 #d#a-#d#d1 >GUES ?AT TO ACC\NT = ! EXP]IM5TAL RESULTS ( ,LA%LEY & O!RS1 & = O!R FACTS ?AT HE CITES1 IT IS NECESS>Y TO ASSUME ?AT HI<-LEVEL C]EBRAL ACTIVITY ( ! TYPE ( 9SI<T1 EXPECTANCY1 & SO ON IS 9VOLV$ EV5 9 SIMPLE CONDITION+4 ,HE /ATES ?AT 0WE /ILL LACK TODAY A SATISFACTORY PICTURE ( ! UND]LY+ NEURAL ME*ANISM0 ( ! CONDITION$ RESPONSE4 

.<#c#d.> ,FUR!RMORE1 ! MOTIVATION ( ! SPEAK] DOES NOT1 EXCEPT 9 ! SIMPLE/ CASES1 CORRESPOND 9 9T5SITY TO ! DURATION ( DEPRIVATION4 ,AN OBVI\S C\NT]-EXAMPLE IS :AT ,HEBB HAS CALL$ ! 0SALT$-NUT PH5OM5ON0 7,ORGANIZATION ( ,BEHAVIOR .<,NEW ,YORK1 #a#i#d#i.>1 P4 #a#i#i74 ,! DIFFICULTY IS ( C\RSE EV5 MORE S]I\S :5 WE CONSID] DEPRIVATIONS NOT RELAT$ TO PHYSIOLOGICAL DRIVES4 

.<#c#e.> ,JU/ AS HE MAY HAVE ! APPROPRIATE REACTION1 BO? EMOTIONAL & BEHAVIORAL1 TO SU* UTT]ANCES AS ! VOLCANO IS ]UPT+ OR !RE'S A HOMICIDAL MANIAC 9 ! NEXT ROOM )\T ANY PREVI\S PAIR+ ( ! V]BAL & ! PHYSICAL /IMULUS4 ,SK9N]'S DISCUSSION ( ,PAVLOVIAN CONDITION+ 9 LANGUAGE 7#a#e#d7 IS SIMIL>LY UNCONV9C+4 

.<#c#f.> ,J4 ,S4 ,MILL1 ,A ,SY/EM ( ,LOGIC 7#a#h#d#c74 ,R4 ,C>NAP GIVES A REC5T RE=MULATION 9 0,MEAN+ & ,SYNONYMY 9 ,NATURAL ,LANGUAGES10 ,PHIL4 ,/UDIES1 #f 7#a#i#e#e71 #c#c-#d#g1 DEF9+ ! MEAN+ 79T5SION7 ( A PR$ICATE ,Q = A SPEAK] ,X AS 0! G5]AL CONDITION :I* AN OBJECT Y MU/ FULFILL 9 ORD] = ,X TO BE WILL+ TO ASCRIBE ! PR$ICATE ,Q TO Y40 ,! CONNOTATION ( AN EXPRESSION IS (T5 SAID TO CON/ITUTE ITS 0COGNITIVE MEAN+0 AS OPPOS$ TO ITS 0EMOTIVE MEAN+10 :I* IS1 ESS5TIALLY1 ! EMOTIONAL REACTION TO ! EXPRESSION4 

,:E!R OR NOT ?IS IS ! BE/ WAY TO APPROA* MEAN+1 IT IS CLE> ?AT D5OTATION1 COGNITIVE MEAN+1 & EMOTIVE MEAN+ >E QUITE DIFF]5T ?+S4 ,! DIFF]5CES >E (T5 OBSCUR$ 9 EMPIRICAL /UDIES ( MEAN+1 ) MU* CONSEQU5T CONFUSION4 ,?US1 ,OSGOOD HAS SET HIMSELF ! TASK ( ACC\NT+ = ! FACT ?AT A /IMULUS COMES TO BE A SIGN = ANO!R /IMULUS 7A BUZZ] BECOMES A SIGN = FOOD1 A WORD = A ?+1 ETC474 ,?IS IS CLE>LY 7= L+UI/IC SIGNS7 A PROBLEM ( D5OTATION4 ,! ME?OD ?AT HE ACTUALLY DEVELOPS = QUANTIFY+ & MEASUR+ MEAN+ 7CF4 ,C4 ,E4 ,OSGOOD1 ,G4 ,SUCI1 ,P4 ,TANN5BAUM1 ,! ,MEASUREM5T ( ,MEAN+ .<,URBANA3 ,UNIV4 ( ,ILL9OIS ,PRESS1 #a#i#e#g.>7 APPLIES1 H[EV]1 ONLY TO EMOTIVE MEAN+4 ,SUPPOSE1 = EXAMPLE1 ?AT ,A HATES BO? ,HITL] & SCI5CE 9T5SELY1 & CONSID]S BO? HI<LY POT5T & 0ACTIVE10 :ILE ,B1 AGREE+ ) ,A AB\T ,HITL]1 LIKES SCI5CE V]Y MU*1 AL?\< HE CONSID]S IT RA!R 9EFFECTIVE & NOT TOO IMPORTANT4 ,!N1 ,A MAY ASSIGN TO 0,HITL]0 & 0SCI5CE0 ! SAME POSITION ON ! SEMANTIC DIFF]5TIAL1 :ILE ,B WILL ASSIGN 0,HITL]0 ! SAME POSITION AS ,A DID1 BUT 0SCI5CE0 A TOTALLY DIFF]5T POSITION4 ,YET1 ,A DOES NOT ?9K ?AT 0,HITL]0 & 0SCI5CE0 >E SYNONYM\S OR ?AT !Y HAVE ! SAME REF]5CE1 & ,A & ,B MAY AGREE PRECISELY ON ! COGNITIVE MEAN+ ( 0SCI5CE40 ,CLE>LY1 IT IS ! ATTITUDE T[>D ! ?+S 7! EMOTIVE MEAN+ ( ! WORDS7 ?AT IS BE+ MEASUR$ H]E4 ,!RE IS A GRADUAL %IFT 9 ,OSGOOD'S ACC\NT FROM D5OTATION TO COGNITIVE MEAN+ TO EMOTIVE MEAN+4 ,! CONFUSION IS CAUS$1 NO D\BT1 BY ! FACT ?AT ! T]M MEAN+ IS US$ 9 ALL ?REE S5SES 7& O!RS74 .<,SEE ,J4 ,C>ROLL'S REVIEW ( ! BOOK BY ,OSGOOD1 ,SUCI1 & ,TANN5BAUM 9 ,LANGUAGE1 #c#e1 ,NO4 #a 7#a#i#e#i74.> 

.<#c#g.> ,MO/ CLE>LY BY ,QU9E4 ,SEE ,FROM A ,LOGICAL ,PO9T ( ,VIEW 7,CAMBRIDGE1 #a#i#e#c71 ESPECIALLY ,*APS4 #b1 #c1 & #g4 

.<#c#h.> ,A ME?OD = *>ACT]IZ+ SYNONYMY 9 T]MS ( REF]5CE IS SUGGE/$ BY ,GOODMAN1 0,ON ,LIK5ESS ( ,MEAN+10 ,ANALYSIS1 #a 7#a#i#d#i71 #a-#g4 ,DIFFICULTIES >E DISCUSS$ BY ,GOODMAN1 0,ON ,SOME ,DIFF]5CES AB\T ,MEAN+10 IBID41 #ac 7#a#i#e#c7 #i-#i#f4 ,C>NAP1 OP4 CIT41 PRES5TS A V]Y SIMIL> IDEA 7,SECTION #f71 BUT SOME:AT MISLEAD+LY PHRAS$1 S9CE HE DOES NOT BR+ \T ! FACT ?AT ONLY EXT5SIONAL 7REF]5TIAL7 NOTIONS >E BE+ US$4 

.<#c#i.> ,9 G5]AL1 ! EXAMPLES DISCUSS$ H]E >E BADLY H&L$1 & ! SUCCESS ( ! PROPOS$ ANALYZES IS OV]/AT$4 ,9 EA* CASE1 IT IS EASY TO SEE ?AT ! PROPOS$ ANALYSIS1 :I* USUALLY HAS AN AIR ( OBJECTIVITY1 IS NOT EQUIVAL5T TO ! ANALYZ$ EXPRESSION4 ,TO TAKE JU/ ONE EXAMPLE1 ! RESPONSE ,I AM LOOK+ = MY GLASSES IS C]TA9LY NOT EQUIVAL5T TO ! PROPOS$ P>APHRASES3 0,:5 ,I HAVE BEHAV$ 9 ?IS WAY 9 ! PA/1 ,I HAVE F\ND MY GLASSES & HAVE !N /OPP$ BEHAV+ 9 ?IS WAY10 OR 0,CIRCUM/ANCES HAVE >IS5 9 :I* ,I AM 9CL9$ TO EMIT ANY BEHAVIOR :I* 9 ! PA/ HAS L$ TO ! DISCOV]Y ( MY GLASSES2 SU* BEHAVIOR 9CLUDES ! BEHAVIOR ( LOOK+ 9 :I* ,I AM N[ 5GAG$40 ,ONE MAY LOOK = ONE'S GLASSES = ! FIR/ TIME2 OR ONE MAY EMIT ! SAME BEHAVIOR 9 LOOK+ = ONE'S GLASSES AS 9 LOOK+ = ONE'S WAT*1 9 :I* CASE ,I AM LOOK+ = MY GLASSES & ,I AM LOOK+ = MY WAT* >E EQUIVAL5T1 UND] ! ,SK9N]IAN P>APHRASE4 ,! DIFFICULT QUE/IONS ( PURPOSIV5ESS CANNOT BE H&L$ 9 ?IS SUP]FICIAL MANN]4 

.<#d.> ,SK9N] TAKES GREAT PA9S1 H[EV]1 TO D5Y ! EXI/5CE 9 HUMAN BE+S 7OR P>ROTS7 ( ANY 9NATE FACULTY OR T5D5CY TO IMITATE4 ,HIS ONLY >GUM5T IS ?AT NO ONE W\LD SUGGE/ AN 9NATE T5D5CY TO READ1 YET READ+ & E*OIC BEHAVIOR HAVE SIMIL> 0DYNAMIC PROP]TIES40 ,?IS SIMIL>ITY1 H[EV]1 SIMPLY 9DICATES ! GROSSNESS ( HIS DESCRIPTIVE CATEGORIES4 ,9 ! CASE ( P>ROTS1 ,SK9N] CLAIMS ?AT !Y HAVE NO 9/9CTIVE CAPACITY TO IMITATE1 BUT ONLY TO BE RE9=C$ BY SUCCESSFUL IMITATION 7#e#i74 ,GIV5 ,SK9N]'S USE ( ! WORD RE9=CEM5T1 IT IS DIFFICULT TO P]CEIVE ANY DI/9CTION H]E1 S9CE EXACTLY ! SAME ?+ C\LD BE SAID ( ANY O!R 9/9CTIVE BEHAVIOR4 ,= EXAMPLE1 :]E ANO!R SCI5TI/ W\LD SAY ?AT A C]TA9 BIRD 9/9CTIVELY BUILDS A NE/ 9 A C]TA9 WAY1 WE C\LD SAY 9 ,SK9N]'S T]M9OLOGY 7EQUIVAL5TLY7 ?AT ! BIRD IS 9/9CTIVELY RE9=C$ BY BUILD+ ! NE/ 9 ?IS WAY4 ,ONE IS !RE=E 9CL9$ TO DISMISS ?IS CLAIM AS ANO!R RITUAL 9TRODUCTION ( ! WORD RE9=CE4 ,?\< !RE MAY1 UND] SOME SUITABLE CL>IFICATION1 BE SOME TRU? 9 IT1 IT IS DIFFICULT TO SEE H[ MANY ( ! CASES REPORT$ BY COMPET5T OBS]V]S CAN BE H&L$ IF RE9=CEM5T IS GIV5 SOME SUB/ANTIVE MEAN+4 ,CF4 ,?ORPE1 OP4 CIT4 P4 #c#e#cF42 ,K4 ,LOR5Z1 ,K+ ,SOLOMON'S ,R+ 7,NEW ,YORK1 #a#i#e#b71 PP4 #h#e-#h#h2 EV5 ,M[R]1 :O TRIES TO %[ H[ IMITATION MI<T DEVELOP ?R\< SECOND>Y RE9=CEM5T1 CITES A CASE1 OP4 CIT41 P4 #f#i#d1 :I* HE APP>5TLY BELIEVES1 BUT :]E ?IS C\LD H>DLY BE TRUE4 ,9 Y\NG *ILDR51 IT SEEMS MO/ IMPLAUSIBLE TO EXPLA9 IMITATION 9 T]MS ( SECOND>Y RE9=CEM5T4 

.<#d#a.> ,AL?\< EV5 ?IS POSSIBILITY IS LIMIT$4 ,IF WE W]E TO TAKE !SE P>ADIGM 9/ANCES S]I\SLY1 IT %\LD FOLL[ ?AT A *ILD :O KN[S H[ TO C\NT FROM ONE TO #a C\LD LE>N AN >BITR>Y #a X #a MATRIX ) !SE NUMB]S AS 5TRIES AS READILY AS ! MULTIPLICATION TABLE4 

.<#d#b.> ,SIMIL>LY1 0! UNIV]SALITY ( A LIT]>Y WORK REF]S TO ! NUMB] ( POT5TIAL READ]S 9CL9$ TO SAY ! SAME ?+0 7#b#g#e2 I4E41 ! MO/ 0UNIV]SAL0 WORK IS A DICTION>Y ( CLI*ES & GREET+S7 A SPEAK] IS 0/IMULAT+0 IF HE SAYS :AT WE >E AB\T TO SAY \RSELVES 7#b#g#b7 ETC4 

.<#d#c.> ,SIMIL>LY1 CONSID] ,SK9N]'S CONT5TION 7#c#f#b-#f#e7 ?AT COMMUNICATION ( KN[L$GE OR FACTS IS JU/ ! PROCESS ( MAK+ A NEW RESPONSE AVAILABLE TO ! SPEAK]4 ,H]E ! ANALOGY TO ANIMAL EXP]IM5TS IS P>TICUL>LY WEAK4 ,:5 WE TRA9 A RAT TO C>RY \T SOME PECULI> ACT1 IT MAKES S5SE TO CONSID] ?IS A MATT] ( ADD+ A RESPONSE TO HIS REP]TOIRE4 ,9 ! CASE ( HUMAN COMMUNICATION1 H[EV]1 IT IS V]Y DIFFICULT TO ATTA* ANY MEAN+ TO ?IS T]M9OLOGY4 ,IF ,A IMP>TS TO ,B ! 9=MATION 7NEW TO ,B7 ?AT ! RAILROADS FACE COLLAPSE1 9 :AT S5SE CAN ! RESPONSE ,! RAILROADS FACE COLLAPSE BE SAID TO BE N[1 BUT NOT PREVI\SLY1 AVAILABLE TO ,B8 ,SURELY ,B C\LD HAVE SAID IT BE=E 7NOT KN[+ :E!R IT WAS TRUE71 & KN[N ?AT IT WAS A S5T5CE 7AS OPPOS$ TO ,COLLAPSE FACE RAILROADS !74 ,NOR IS !RE ANY REASON TO ASSUME ?AT ! RESPONSE HAS 9CREAS$ 9 /R5G?1 :ATEV] ?IS MEANS EXACTLY 7E4G41 ,B MAY HAVE NO 9T]E/ 9 ! FACT1 OR HE MAY WANT IT SUPPRESS$74 ,IT IS NOT CLE> H[ WE CAN *>ACT]IZE ?IS NOTION ( 0MAK+ A RESPONSE AVAILABLE0 )\T R$UC+ ,SK9N]'S ACC\NT ( 0IMP>T+ KN[L$GE0 TO A TRIVIALITY4 

.<#d#d.> 7#c#c#b74 ,ON ! NEXT PAGE1 H[EV]1 ! S 9 ! SAME EXAMPLE 9DICATES ?AT 0! OBJECT DESCRIB$ AS ! BOY POSSESSES ! PROP]TY ( RUNN+40 ,! DIFFICULTY ( EV5 MA9TA9+ CONSI/5CY ) A CONCEPTUAL S*EME LIKE ?IS IS EASY TO APPRECIATE4 

.<#d#e.> ,ONE MI<T JU/ AS WELL >GUE ?AT EXACTLY ! OPPOSITE IS TRUE4 ,! /UDY ( HESITATION PAUSES HAS %[N ?AT !SE T5D TO OCCUR BE=E ! L>GE CATEGORIES -- N\N1 V]B1 ADJECTIVE2 ?IS F9D+ IS USUALLY DESCRIB$ BY ! /ATEM5T ?AT ! PAUSES OCCUR :]E !RE IS MAXIMUM UNC]TA9TY OR 9=MATION4 ,9S(> AS HESITATION 9DICATES ON-GO+ COMPOSITION 7IF IT DOES AT ALL71 IT W\LD APPE> ?AT ! 0KEY RESPONSES0 >E *OS5 ONLY AFT] ! 0GRAMMATICAL FRAME40 ,CF4 ,C4 ,E4 ,OSGOOD1 UNPUBLI%$ PAP]2 ,F4 ,GOLDMAN-,EISL]1 0,SPEE* ,ANALYSIS & ,M5TAL ,PROCESSES10 ,LANGUAGE & ,SPEE*1 #a 7#a#i#e#h71 #f#g4 

.<#d#f.> ,E4G41 :AT >E 9 FACT ! ACTUAL UNITS ( V]BAL BEHAVIOR8 ,UND] :AT CONDITIONS WILL A PHYSICAL EV5T CAPTURE ! ATT5TION 7BE A /IMULUS7 OR BE A RE9=C]8 ,H[ DO WE DECIDE :AT /IMULI >E 9 0CONTROL0 9 A SPECIFIC CASE8 ,:5 >E /IMULI 0SIMIL>08 ,& SO ON4 7,IT IS NOT 9T]E/+ TO BE TOLD1 E4G41 ?AT WE SAY ,/OP TO AN AUTOMOBILE OR BILLI>D BALL BECAUSE !Y >E SUFFICI5TLY SIMIL> TO RE9=C+ PEOPLE .<#d#f.>47 ,! USE ( UNANALYZ$ NOTIONS LIKE SIMIL> & G5]ALIZATION IS P>TICUL>LY DI/URB+1 S9CE IT 9DICATES AN APP>5T LACK ( 9T]E/ 9 EV]Y SIGNIFICANT ASPECT ( ! LE>N+ OR ! USE ( LANGUAGE 9 NEW SITUATIONS4 ,NO ONE HAS EV] D\BT$ ?AT 9 SOME S5SE1 LANGUAGE IS LE>N$ BY G5]ALIZATION1 OR ?AT NOVEL UTT]ANCES & SITUATIONS >E 9 SOME WAY SIMIL> TO FAMILI> ONES4 ,! ONLY MATT] ( S]I\S 9T]E/ IS ! SPECIFIC 0SIMIL>ITY40 ,SK9N] HAS1 APP>5TLY1 NO 9T]E/ 9 ?IS4 ,KELL] & ,S*O5FELD1 OP4 CIT41 PROCE$ TO 9CORPORATE !SE NOTIONS 7:I* !Y ID5TIFY7 9TO !IR ,SK9N]IAN 0MOD]N OBJECTIVE PSY*OLOGY0 BY DEF9+ TWO /IMULI TO BE SIMIL> :5 0WE MAKE ! SAME SORT ( RESPONSE TO !M0 7#a#b#d2 BUT :5 >E RESPONSES ( ! 0SAME SORT0874 ,!Y DO NOT SEEM TO NOTICE ?AT ?IS DEF9ITION CONV]TS !IR 0PR9CIPLE ( G5]ALIZATION0 7#a#a#f71 UND] ANY REASONABLE 9T]PRETATION ( ?IS1 9TO A TAUTOLOGY4 ,IT IS OBVI\S ?AT SU* A DEF9ITION WILL NOT BE ( MU* HELP 9 ! /UDY ( LANGUAGE LE>N+ OR CON/RUCTION ( NEW RESPONSES 9 APPROPRIATE SITUATIONS4 

.<#d#g.> 0,! ,PROBLEM ( ,S]IAL ,ORD] 9 ,BEHAVIOR10 9 ,L4 ,A4 ,JEFFRESS1 $41 ,HIXON ,SYMPOSIUM ON ,C]EBRAL ,ME*ANISMS 9 ,BEHAVIOR 7,NEW ,YORK3 ,JOHN ,WILEY @& ,SONS ,9C41 #a#i#e#a74 ,REPR9T$ 9 ,F4 ,A4 ,BEA*1 ,D4 ,O4 ,HEBB1 ,C4 ,T4 ,MORGAN1 ,H4 ,W4 ,NISS51 $S41 ,! ,NEUROPSY*OLOGY ( ,LA%LEY 7,NEW ,YORK3 ,MC,GRAW-,HILL ,BOOK ,COMPANY1 #a#i#f74 ,PAGE REF]5CES >E TO ! LATT]4 

.<#d#h.> ,!RE IS NO?+ ESS5TIALLY MY/]I\S AB\T ?IS4 ,COMPLEX 9NATE BEHAVIOR PATT]NS & 9NATE 0T5D5CIES TO LE>N 9 SPECIFIC WAYS0 HAVE BE5 C>EFULLY /UDI$ 9 L[] ORGANISMS4 ,MANY PSY*OLOGI/S HAVE BE5 9CL9$ TO BELIEVE ?AT SU* BIOLOGICAL /RUCTURE WILL NOT HAVE AN IMPORTANT EFFECT ON ACQUISITION ( COMPLEX BEHAVIOR 9 HI<] ORGANISMS1 BUT ,I HAVE NOT BE5 ABLE TO F9D ANY S]I\S JU/IFICATION = ?IS ATTITUDE4 ,SOME REC5T /UDIES HAVE /RESS$ ! NECESSITY = C>EFULLY ANALYZ+ ! /RATEGIES AVAILABLE TO ! ORGANISM1 REG>D$ AS A COMPLEX 09=MATION-PROCESS+ SY/EM0 7CF4 ,J4 ,S4 ,BRUN]1 ,J4 ,J4 ,GOODN[1 & ,G4 ,A4 ,AU/91 ,A ,/UDY ( ,?9K+ .<,NEW ,YORK1 #a#i#e#f.>2 ,A4 ,NEWELL1 ,J4 ,C4 ,%AW1 & ,H4 ,A4 ,SIMON1 0,ELEM5TS ( A ,!ORY ( ,HUMAN ,PROBLEM ,SOLV+10 ,PSY*4 ,REV41 #f#e1 .<#a#i#e#h.>1 #a#e#a-#f#f71 IF ANY?+ SIGNIFICANT IS TO BE SAID AB\T ! *>ACT] ( HUMAN LE>N+4 ,!SE MAY BE L>GELY 9NATE1 OR DEVELOP$ BY E>LY LE>N+ PROCESSES AB\T :I* V]Y LITTLE IS YET KN[N4 7,BUT SEE ,H>L[1 0,! ,=MATION ( ,LE>N+ ,SETS10 ,PSY*4 ,REV41 #ef 7#a#i#d#i71 #e#a-#f#e1 & MANY LAT] PAP]S1 :]E /RIK+ %IFTS 9 ! *>ACT] ( LE>N+ >E %[N AS A RESULT ( E>LY TRA9+2 ALSO ,D4 ,O4 ,HEBB1 ,ORGANIZATION ( ,BEHAVIOR1 #ai FF474 ,!Y >E UND\BT$LY QUITE COMPLEX4 ,CF4 ,L5NEB]G1 OP4 CIT41 & ,R4 ,B4 ,LEES1 REVIEW ( ,N4 ,*OMSKY'S ,SYNTACTIC ,/RUCTURES 9 ,LANGUAGE1 #cc 7#a#i#e#g71 #d#fF1 = DISCUSSION ( ! TOPICS M5TION$ 9 ?IS SECTION4 

,FROM 3 ,!,AN>*I/,LIBR>Y4ORG4 

,*RONOLOGY 3 
,JANU>Y #c1 #bba 3 ,A ,REVIEW ( ,B4 ,F4 ,SK9N]'S ,V]BAL ,BEHAVIOR -- ,ADD$4 
,JANU>Y #d1 #bbb 3 ,A ,REVIEW ( ,B4 ,F4 ,SK9N]'S ,V]BAL ,BEHAVIOR -- ,UPDAT$4 

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